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Imprisonment: 1902–1904 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imprisonment:_1902–1904-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Revolution_of_1905:_1905–1907" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Revolution_of_1905:_1905–1907"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 The Revolution of 1905: 1905–1907 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Revolution_of_1905:_1905–1907-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tiflis_robbery:_1907–1909" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tiflis_robbery:_1907–1909"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Tiflis robbery: 1907–1909 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tiflis_robbery:_1907–1909-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Launching_Pravda:_1909–1912" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Launching_Pravda:_1909–1912"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Launching Pravda: 1909–1912 </div> </a> <ul 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href="#Between_the_February_and_October_revolutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 Between the February and October revolutions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Between_the_February_and_October_revolutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Name_and_aliases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Name_and_aliases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Name and aliases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Name_and_aliases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allegations_of_being_an_Okhrana_agent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allegations_of_being_an_Okhrana_agent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Allegations of being an Okhrana agent </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Allegations_of_being_an_Okhrana_agent-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only 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</div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period in the life of Joseph Stalin</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalin_1902-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Stalin_1902-1.jpg/220px-Stalin_1902-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="368" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Stalin_1902-1.jpg/330px-Stalin_1902-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Stalin_1902-1.jpg/440px-Stalin_1902-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1908" /></a><figcaption>Police photo of Stalin, 1902</figcaption></figure> <style 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.sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #f9dd16"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color:#c60000;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Stalin,_1950_(close_cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Joseph_Stalin%2C_1950_%28close_cropped%29.jpg/75px-Joseph_Stalin%2C_1950_%28close_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Joseph_Stalin%2C_1950_%28close_cropped%29.jpg/113px-Joseph_Stalin%2C_1950_%28close_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Joseph_Stalin%2C_1950_%28close_cropped%29.jpg/150px-Joseph_Stalin%2C_1950_%28close_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="989" /></a></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color:#c60000;color:white;"><div>This article is part of a series about</div><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Personal</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stalin%27s_residences" title="List of Stalin's residences">Residences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_and_antisemitism" title="Joseph Stalin and antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">Death and state funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Stalinism_and_the_Soviet_Union#Joseph_Stalin" title="Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Pre-leadership</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tampere_conference_of_1905" title="Tampere conference of 1905">1905 Tampere conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1907_Tiflis_bank_robbery" title="1907 Tiflis bank robbery">1907 Tiflis bank robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Bolshevik_raid_on_the_Tsarevich_Giorgi" title="1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi">1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_during_the_Russian_Revolution,_Civil_War_and_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Role_during_the_Russian_Revolution" title="Stalin during the Russian Revolution, Civil War and Polish–Soviet War">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_during_the_Russian_Revolution,_Civil_War_and_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Role_in_the_Russian_Civil_War,_1917–1919" title="Stalin during the Russian Revolution, Civil War and Polish–Soviet War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_during_the_Russian_Revolution,_Civil_War_and_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Role_in_the_Polish-Soviet_War,_1919–1920" title="Stalin during the Russian Revolution, Civil War and Polish–Soviet War">Polish-Soviet War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin%27s_rise_to_power" title="Joseph Stalin's rise to power">Rise to power</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Leader of the Soviet Union</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">Tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="First five-year plan (Soviet Union)">First five-year plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">1930–1933 famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_dates_of_victims_of_the_Great_Purge" title="Death dates of victims of the Great Purge">Death dates of victims</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946%E2%80%931947" title="Soviet famine of 1946–1947">1946–1947 famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality_in_the_Soviet_Union_under_Joseph_Stalin" title="Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin">Excess mortality in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Political ideology</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Nazism_and_Stalinism" title="Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism">Comparison to Nazism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_atheism" title="Marxist–Leninist atheism">atheism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Works</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poetry_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Poetry of Joseph Stalin">Poetry</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Anarchism_or_Socialism%3F" title="Anarchism or Socialism?">Anarchism or Socialism?</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_the_National_Question" title="Marxism and the National Question">Marxism and the National Question</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Leninism" title="Foundations of Leninism">Foundations of Leninism</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Dizzy_with_Success" title="Dizzy with Success">Dizzy with Success</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_the_Peoples_of_Russia" title="Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia">Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_ten_blows" title="Stalin's ten blows">"Ten Blows" speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_alleged_speech_of_19_August_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's alleged speech of 19 August 1939">Alleged 19 August 1939 speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiers_of_History" title="Falsifiers of History">Falsifiers of History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Note" title="Stalin Note">Stalin Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_(Bolsheviks)" class="mw-redirect" title="The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)">The History of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936 Soviet Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_and_Historical_Materialism" title="Dialectical and Historical Materialism">Dialectical and Historical Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_No._227" title="Order No. 227">Order No. 227</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_No._270" title="Order No. 270">Order No. 270</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_Problems_of_Linguistics" title="Marxism and Problems of Linguistics">Marxism and Problems of Linguistics</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Problems_of_Socialism_in_the_USSR" title="Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR">Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Legacy</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Joseph Stalin's cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_left" title="Anti-Stalinist left">Anti-Stalinist left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honours_bestowed_upon_Joseph_Stalin" title="List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin">Awards and honours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_after_Joseph_Stalin" title="List of places named after Joseph Stalin">Eponymous places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statues_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="List of statues of Joseph Stalin">Statues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Ribbon_Day" title="Black Ribbon Day">Black Ribbon Day</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin's signature"><img alt="Joseph Stalin's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Stalin_Signature.svg/90px-Stalin_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Stalin_Signature.svg/135px-Stalin_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Stalin_Signature.svg/180px-Stalin_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="121" data-file-height="54" /></a></div> <a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Russian_SFSR_(1920%E2%80%931954).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emblem_of_the_Russian_SFSR_%281920%E2%80%931954%29.svg/60px-Emblem_of_the_Russian_SFSR_%281920%E2%80%931954%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emblem_of_the_Russian_SFSR_%281920%E2%80%931954%29.svg/90px-Emblem_of_the_Russian_SFSR_%281920%E2%80%931954%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emblem_of_the_Russian_SFSR_%281920%E2%80%931954%29.svg/120px-Emblem_of_the_Russian_SFSR_%281920%E2%80%931954%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="854" data-file-height="884" /></a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Joseph_Stalin_series" title="Template:Joseph Stalin series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Joseph_Stalin_series" title="Template talk:Joseph Stalin series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Joseph_Stalin_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Joseph Stalin series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The early life of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> covers the period from Stalin's birth, on 18 December 1878 (6 December according to the <a href="/wiki/Old_Style" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Style">Old Style</a>), until the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> on 7 November 1917 (25 October). Born "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili" in <a href="/wiki/Gori,_Georgia" title="Gori, Georgia">Gori, Georgia</a>, to a cobbler and a house cleaner, he grew up in the city and attended school there before moving to <a href="/wiki/Tiflis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiflis">Tiflis</a> (modern-day Tbilisi) to join the <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi_Spiritual_Seminary" class="mw-redirect" title="Tbilisi Spiritual Seminary">Tiflis Seminary</a>. While a student at the seminary he embraced Marxism and became an avid follower of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, and left the seminary to become a revolutionary. After being marked by Russian <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">secret police</a> for his activities, he became a full-time revolutionary and was involved in a various criminal activities as a <a href="/wiki/Robber" class="mw-redirect" title="Robber">robber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gangster" title="Gangster">gangster</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arsonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsonist">arsonist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> He became one of the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a>' chief operatives in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, organizing <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitaries</a>, spreading <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>, raising <a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">money</a> through bank robberies, and kidnappings and <a href="/wiki/Extortion" title="Extortion">extortion</a>. Stalin was captured and <a href="/wiki/Exile" title="Exile">exiled</a> to <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> numerous times, but often escaped. He became one of Lenin's closest associates, which helped him rise to the heights of power after the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution</a>. In 1913 Stalin was exiled to Siberia for the final time, and remained in exile until the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> of 1917 led to the overthrow of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Childhood_and_early_career">Childhood and early career</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Childhood and early career">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood:_1878–1893">Childhood: 1878–1893</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Childhood: 1878–1893">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:139px;max-width:139px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:193px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Vissarion_Jughashvili.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Vissarion_Jughashvili.jpg/137px-Vissarion_Jughashvili.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Vissarion_Jughashvili.jpg/206px-Vissarion_Jughashvili.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Vissarion_Jughashvili.jpg/274px-Vissarion_Jughashvili.jpg 2x" data-file-width="454" data-file-height="640" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Father, Besarion</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:149px;max-width:149px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:193px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Ekaterina_Dzhugashvili.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Ekaterina_Dzhugashvili.jpg/147px-Ekaterina_Dzhugashvili.jpg" decoding="async" width="147" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Ekaterina_Dzhugashvili.jpg/221px-Ekaterina_Dzhugashvili.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Ekaterina_Dzhugashvili.jpg/294px-Ekaterina_Dzhugashvili.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="955" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Mother, Ekaterine</div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalin%27s_house._2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Stalin%27s_house._2017.jpg/220px-Stalin%27s_house._2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Stalin%27s_house._2017.jpg/330px-Stalin%27s_house._2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Stalin%27s_house._2017.jpg/440px-Stalin%27s_house._2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2362" /></a><figcaption>The house Stalin was born in</figcaption></figure> Stalin was born "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili" on 18 December [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 6 December] 1878<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200414Montefiore200723-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a> in the town of <a href="/wiki/Gori,_Georgia" title="Gori, Georgia">Gori</a>, in what is today the country of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>. He was <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptised</a> on 29 December [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 17 December] 1878<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200416-4">[3]</a> and christened Ioseb, and known by the <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a> "Soso".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhlevniuk201511–13-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199111Service200416Montefiore200723-7">[5]</a> His parents were <a href="/wiki/Keke_Geladze" title="Keke Geladze">Ekaterine</a> (Keke) and <a href="/wiki/Besarion_Jughashvili" title="Besarion Jughashvili">Besarion Jughashvili</a> (Beso). He was their third child; the first two, Mikheil and Giorgi, had died in infancy.<a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a> Stalin's father, Besarion, was a shoemaker and owned a workshop that at one point employed as many as ten people,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200724-9">[7]</a> but which slid into ruin as Stalin grew up.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200416Montefiore200732-10">[8]</a> Beso had specialised in producing traditional Georgian footwear and did not produce the European-style shoes that were becoming increasingly fashionable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200416-4">[3]</a> This, combined with the deaths of his previous two infant sons, precipitated his decline into alcoholism. The family found themselves living in poverty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199111Service200419-11">[9]</a> The couple had to leave their home and moved into nine different rented rooms over ten years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200730–31-12">[10]</a> Besarion also became violent towards his family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199110Volkogonov19915Service200417Montefiore200729-13">[11]</a> To escape the <a href="/wiki/Abusive_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Abusive relationship">abusive relationship</a>, Keke took Stalin and moved into the house of a family friend, Father Christopher Charkviani.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Montefiore200731-14">[12]</a> She worked as a house cleaner and launderer for several local families who were sympathetic to her plight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200732-15">[13]</a> Keke was a strict but affectionate mother to Stalin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200419-16">[14]</a> She was a devout Christian,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200417-17">[15]</a> and both she and her son regularly attended church services.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200420-18">[16]</a> In 1884, Stalin contracted <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, which left him with facial pock marks for the rest of his life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Volkogonov19915Service200419Montefiore200731-19">[17]</a> Charkviani's teenaged sons taught Stalin the Russian language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200732-15">[13]</a> Keke was determined to send her son to school, something that none of the family had previously achieved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200731-20">[18]</a> In late 1888, when Stalin was ten, he enrolled at the Gori Church School.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199111Service200420Montefiore200734-21">[19]</a> This was normally reserved for the children of clergy, but Charkviani ensured that Stalin received a place by claiming that the boy was the son of a deacon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200732–33-22">[20]</a> This may be the reason why—in 1934—Stalin claimed to have been the son of a priest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200727-23">[21]</a> There were many local rumours that Beso was not Stalin's real father,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest19913–4Service200417Montefiore200725–26-24">[22]</a> which in later life Stalin himself encouraged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200727-23">[21]</a> Stalin biographer <a href="/wiki/Simon_Sebag_Montefiore" title="Simon Sebag Montefiore">Simon Sebag Montefiore</a> nonetheless thought it likely that Beso was the father, in part due to the strong physical resemblance that they shared.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200727-23">[21]</a> Beso eventually attacked a policeman while drunk which resulted in the authorities ejecting him from Gori.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200733-25">[23]</a> He moved to Tiflis, where he worked at the Adelkhanov shoe factory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Service200417–18Montefiore200733-26">[24]</a> Although Keke was poor, she ensured that her son was well dressed when he went to school, likely through the financial support of family friends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200734–35-27">[25]</a> As a child, Stalin exhibited a number of idiosyncrasies; when happy, he would for instance jump around on one leg while clicking his fingers and yelling aloud.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200735-28">[26]</a> He excelled academically,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Service200430Montefiore200744-29">[27]</a> and also displayed talent in painting and drama classes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200743–44-30">[28]</a> He began <a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's poetry">writing poetry</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200744-31">[29]</a> and was a fan of the work of <a href="/wiki/Georgian_nationalism" title="Georgian nationalism">Georgian nationalist</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Eristavi" title="Raphael Eristavi">Raphael Eristavi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200749-32">[30]</a> He was also a choirboy, singing both in church and at local weddings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199113Service200430Montefiore200743-33">[31]</a> A childhood friend of Stalin's later recalled that he "was the best but also the naughtiest pupil" in the class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200745-34">[32]</a> He and his friends formed a gang,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200426-35">[33]</a> and often fought with other local children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200420Montefiore200736-36">[34]</a> He caused mischief; in one incident, he ignited explosive cartridges in a shop,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200740–41-37">[35]</a> and in another he tied a pan to the tail of a woman's pet cat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200426-35">[33]</a> When Stalin was twelve, he was seriously injured after having been hit by a <a href="/wiki/Phaeton_(carriage)" title="Phaeton (carriage)">phaeton</a>. He was hospitalised in Tiflis for several months, and sustained a lifelong disability to his left arm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Service200425Montefiore200735,_46-38">[36]</a> His father subsequently kidnapped him and enrolled him as an apprentice cobbler in the factory; this would be Stalin's only experience as a worker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200423Montefiore200747-39">[37]</a> According to Stalin's biographer <a href="/wiki/Robert_Service_(historian)" title="Robert Service (historian)">Robert Service</a>, this was Stalin's "first experience with capitalism", and it was "raw, harsh and dispiriting".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200424-40">[38]</a> Several priests from Gori retrieved the boy, after which Beso cut all contact with his wife and son.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200424Montefiore200747-41">[39]</a> In February 1892, Stalin's school teachers took him and the other pupils to witness the public <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hanging</a> of several peasant bandits; Stalin and his friends sympathised with the condemned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199113Service200429Montefiore200750-42">[40]</a> The event left a deep and lasting impression on him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200429-43">[41]</a> Stalin had decided that he wanted to become a local administrator so that he could deal with the problems of poverty that affected the population around Gori.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200749-32">[30]</a> Despite his Christian upbringing, he had become an <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheist</a> after contemplating the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a> and learning about <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> through <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200749-32">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tiflis_Seminary:_1893–1899">Tiflis Seminary: 1893–1899</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Tiflis Seminary: 1893–1899">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:145px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalin_1893-1.1.1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Stalin_1893-1.1.1.jpg/175px-Stalin_1893-1.1.1.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Stalin_1893-1.1.1.jpg/263px-Stalin_1893-1.1.1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Stalin_1893-1.1.1.jpg/350px-Stalin_1893-1.1.1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="993" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:111px;max-width:111px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:145px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalin_1893-1.1.2_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Stalin_1893-1.1.2_detail.jpg/109px-Stalin_1893-1.1.2_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="109" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Stalin_1893-1.1.2_detail.jpg/164px-Stalin_1893-1.1.2_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Stalin_1893-1.1.2_detail.jpg/218px-Stalin_1893-1.1.2_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="816" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">1893 class table of Gori Religious School, includes picture of Stalin. Even though the table was created in 1893, the photographs might be from an earlier date, it’s believed that this photograph of Stalin was taken in 1893.</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Orthodox_Theological_Seminary.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/The_Orthodox_Theological_Seminary.jpg/300px-The_Orthodox_Theological_Seminary.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/The_Orthodox_Theological_Seminary.jpg/450px-The_Orthodox_Theological_Seminary.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/The_Orthodox_Theological_Seminary.jpg/600px-The_Orthodox_Theological_Seminary.jpg 2x" data-file-width="686" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>The Russian Orthodox Theological Seminary from the side of the Soldier's Bazaar, 1870's</figcaption></figure> In July 1893, Stalin passed his exams and his teachers recommended him to the <a href="/wiki/Tiflis_Spiritual_Seminary" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiflis Spiritual Seminary">Tiflis Seminary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200751-44">[42]</a> Due to his impoverished circumstances, the seminary would provide Soso with the best, well-rounded education he could ever hope to achieve. Keke took him to the city, where they rented a room.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200752-45">[43]</a> Stalin applied for a scholarship to enable him to attend the school; they accepted him as a half-boarder, meaning that he was required to pay a reduced fee of 40 roubles a year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200752–53-46">[44]</a> This was still a substantial sum for his mother, and he was likely financially assisted once more by family friends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200752–53-46">[44]</a> He officially enrolled at the school in August 1894.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200753-47">[45]</a> He joined 600 trainee priests, who boarded in dormitories containing between twenty and thirty beds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200754–55-48">[46]</a> Stalin was set apart by being three years older than most of the other first year students,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200435-49">[47]</a> although a number of his fellow students had also attended the Gori Church School.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200432-50">[48]</a> At Tiflis, Stalin was again an academically successful pupil, gaining high grades in his subjects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199119Service200436Montefiore200756-51">[49]</a> Completion of the seminary course required a variety of subjects including Russian literature; secular history; mathematics; Latin; Greek; Church Slavonic singing; Georgian Imeretian singing; and Holy Scripture. As students progressed, they were taught more concentrated theological subjects such as ecclesiastical history; liturgy; homiletics; comparative theology; moral theology; practical pastoral work; didactics; and church singing. To supplement his income, he sang in a choir, <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200756-52">[50]</a> with his father sometimes asking him for his earnings. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200757-53">[51]</a> During the holidays he would return to Gori to spend time with his mother. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200757-53">[51]</a> Tiflis was a multi-ethnic city in which Georgians were a minority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200433-54">[52]</a> The Seminary was controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Orthodox_Church" title="Georgian Orthodox Church">Georgian Orthodox Church</a>, which was part of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a> and subordinate to the ecclesiastical authorities in <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200433-54">[52]</a> The priests employed to work there were largely <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitism">anti-semitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian nationalists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200434-55">[53]</a> They banned the speaking of Georgian by pupils, insisting that Russian be used at all times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199117Service200434-56">[54]</a> Stalin was however proud to be Georgian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200418-57">[55]</a> He continued writing poetry, and took several of his poems to the office of the newspaper Iveria ("Georgia"). There, they were read by <a href="/wiki/Ilia_Chavchavadze" title="Ilia Chavchavadze">Ilia Chavchavadze</a>, who liked them and ensured that five were published in the newspaper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199118Montefiore200757-58">[56]</a> Each was published under the pseudonym of "Soselo".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199118Montefiore200758-59">[57]</a> Thematically, they dealt with topics like nature, land, and patriotism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200438-60">[58]</a> According to Montefiore, they became "minor Georgian classics",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200758-61">[59]</a> and were included in various anthologies of Georgian poetry over the coming years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200758-61">[59]</a> Montefiore was of the view that "their romantic imagery was derivative but their beauty lay in the delicacy and purity of rhythm and language".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200758-61">[59]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Service_(historian)" title="Robert Service (historian)">Robert Service</a> felt that in the original Georgian language these poems had "a linguistic purity recognised by all".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200439-62">[60]</a> Over his years at the Seminary, Stalin lost interest in many of his studies and his grades began to drop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200769-63">[61]</a> He grew his hair long in an act of rebellion against the school's rules.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200769-63">[61]</a> Seminary records contain complaints that he declared himself an atheist, chatted in class, was late for meals, and refused to doff his hat to monks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200770–71-64">[62]</a> He was repeatedly confined to a cell for his rebellious behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199119Montefiore200769-65">[63]</a> He had joined a forbidden book club, the Cheap Library, which was active at the school.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199119Montefiore200762-66">[64]</a> Among the authors whom he read in this period were <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola" title="Émile Zola">Émile Zola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Nekrasov" title="Nikolay Nekrasov">Nikolay Nekrasov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Nikolai Gogol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anton_Chekhov" title="Anton Chekhov">Anton Chekhov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Saltykov-Shchedrin" title="Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin">Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guy_de_Maupassant" title="Guy de Maupassant">Guy de Maupassant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac" title="Honoré de Balzac">Honoré de Balzac</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Makepeace_Thackeray" title="William Makepeace Thackeray">William Makepeace Thackeray</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200763-67">[65]</a> Particularly influential was <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Chernyshevsky" title="Nikolay Chernyshevsky">Nikolay Chernyshevsky</a>'s 1863 pro-revolutionary novel <a href="/wiki/What_Is_To_Be_Done%3F_(novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="What Is To Be Done? (novel)">What Is To Be Done?</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200763-67">[65]</a> Another influential text was <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kazbegi" title="Alexander Kazbegi">Alexander Kazbegi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Patricide" title="The Patricide">The Patricide</a>, with Stalin adopting the nickname "Koba" from that of the book's bandit protagonist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199114Volkogonov19915Service200427–28Montefiore200763-68">[66]</a> These works of fiction were supplemented with the writings of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and books on Russian and French history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200763-67">[65]</a> The pseudonym "Koba" also have been a tribute to his wealthy benefactor, Yakobi "Koba" Egnatashvili, who paid for his schooling at the Tiflis seminary. ("Koba" is the Georgian diminutive of Yakobi, or Jacob, and Stalin later named his first-born son in Egnatashvili's honour.)<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> <a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> He also read <a href="/wiki/Capital:_Critique_of_Political_Economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital: Critique of Political Economy">Capital</a>, the 1867 book by German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, and tried learning <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> so that he could read the works of Marx and his collaborator <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> in the language in which they were originally written.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200764-71">[69]</a> He had soon devoted himself to <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, the socio-political theory that Marx and Engels had developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200769-63">[61]</a> Marxism provided him with a new way of interpreting the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200441-72">[70]</a> The ideology was on the rise in Georgia, one of various forms of <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> then developing in opposition to the governing Tsarist authorities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200440-73">[71]</a> At night, he attended secret meetings of local workers, most of whom were ethnic Russians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200766-74">[72]</a> He was introduced to Silibistro "Silva" Jibladze, the Marxist founder of <a href="/wiki/Mesame_Dasi" title="Mesame Dasi">Mesame Dasi</a> ('Third Group'), a Georgian socialist group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200765-75">[73]</a> One of his poems was published in the group's newspaper, Kvali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200765-75">[73]</a> Stalin found many socialists active in the Russian Empire to be too moderate, but was attracted by the writings of a Marxist who used the pseudonym of "Tulin"; this was <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200775-76">[74]</a> It is also possible that he had pursued romantic and sexual relationships with women in Tiflis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200772-77">[75]</a> Years later, there was some suggestion that he might have fathered a girl named Praskovia "Pasha" Mikhailovskaya around this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200772-77">[75]</a> In April 1899, Stalin left the seminary at the end of term and never returned,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200441Montefiore200771-78">[76]</a> although the school encouraged him to come back.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200773-79">[77]</a> Through his years of attendance, he had effectively received a classical education without ultimately qualifying as a priest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200774-80">[78]</a> In later years, he sought to glamourize his leaving, claiming that he had been expelled from the seminary for his revolutionary activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200773-79">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_revolutionary_activity:_1899–1902">Early revolutionary activity: 1899–1902</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early revolutionary activity: 1899–1902">edit</a>]</div> Stalin next worked as a tutor for middle class children, but earned a meagre living. In October 1899, Stalin began work as a <a href="/wiki/Meteorologist" title="Meteorologist">meteorologist</a> at the Tiflis Meteorological Observatory, where his school-friend Vano Ketskhoveli was already employed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199127Service200443Montefiore200776-81">[79]</a> In this position, he worked during the night for a wage of twenty roubles a month.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200776-82">[80]</a> The position entailed little work, and allowed him to read while on duty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200444-83">[81]</a> According to Robert Service, this was Stalin's "only period of sustained employment until after the October Revolution".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200443-84">[82]</a> In the early weeks of 1900, Stalin was arrested and held in Metekhi Fortress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200776–77-85">[83]</a> The official explanation given was that Beso had not paid his taxes and that Stalin was responsible for ensuring that they were paid,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200777-86">[84]</a> although it may be that this was a "cryptic warning" from the police, who were aware of Stalin's Marxist revolutionary activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200777-86">[84]</a> As soon as she learned of the arrest, Keke came to Tiflis, while some of Stalin's wealthier friends helped to pay the taxes and get him out of prison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200777-86">[84]</a> Stalin had attracted a group of radical young men around him, giving classes in socialist theory in a flat on Sololaki Street.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200779-87">[85]</a> Stalin was involved in organising a secret nocturnal mass meeting for <a href="/wiki/May_Day" title="May Day">May Day</a> 1900, in which around 500 workers met in the hills outside the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199127Montefiore200778-88">[86]</a> There, Stalin gave his first major public speech, in which he called for strike action, something that the Mesame Dasi opposed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200778-89">[87]</a> Following his prompting, the workers at the railway depos and Adelkhanov's show factory went on strike.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200778-89">[87]</a> By this point, the Tsarist secret police—the <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a>—were aware of Stalin's activities within Tiflis' revolutionary milieu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200778-89">[87]</a> On the night of 21–22 March 1901, the Okhrana arrested a number of Marxist leaders in the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200445Montefiore200781-90">[88]</a> Stalin himself escaped arrest; he was traveling toward the observatory aboard a tram when he recognised plain-clothes police around the building. He decided to remain on the tram and get off at a later stop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200445Montefiore200781–82-91">[89]</a> He did not return to the observatory, and henceforth lived off of donations given by political sympathisers and friends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200782-92">[90]</a> Stalin next helped plan a large May Day demonstration for 1901, in which 3000 workers and leftists marched from Soldiers Bazaar to Yerevan Square.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199128Montefiore200782-93">[91]</a> Demonstrators clashed with <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossack</a> troops, resulting in 14 protesters being seriously wounded and 50 arrested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200782-92">[90]</a> After this event, Stalin escaped several further attempts to arrest him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200787-94">[92]</a> To evade detection, he slept in at least six different apartments and used the alias of "David".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200787-94">[92]</a> Soon after, one of Stalin's associates, <a href="/wiki/Stepan_Shaumian" title="Stepan Shaumian">Stepan Shaumian</a>, organised the assassination of the railway boss director who resisted the strikers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200783-95">[93]</a> In November 1901, Stalin attended a meeting of the Tiflis Committee of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Russian Social Democratic Labour Party</a>, where he was elected one of the eight Committee members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200787–88-96">[94]</a> The Committee then sent Stalin to the port city of <a href="/wiki/Batumi" title="Batumi">Batumi</a>, where he arrived in November 1901.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199128Service200448Montefiore200788-97">[95]</a> He identified an Okhrana infiltrator who was trying to gain access to the Batumi Marxist circles, and they were subsequently killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200790-98">[96]</a> According to Montefiore, this was "probably [Stalin's] first murder".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200790-98">[96]</a> In Batumi, Stalin moved around different flats, and it is likely that he had a relationship with Natasha Kirtava, whom he stayed with in Barskhana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200793-99">[97]</a> Stalin's rhetoric proved divisive among the city's Marxists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200791-100">[98]</a> His Batumi supporters became known as "Sosoists" while he was criticised by those regarded as "legals".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200793-99">[97]</a> Some of the "legals" suspected that Stalin might be an <a href="/wiki/Agent_provocateur" title="Agent provocateur">agent provocateur</a> sent by the Tsarist authorities to infiltrate and discredit the movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200795-101">[99]</a> In Batumi, Stalin gained employment at <a href="/wiki/Rothschild" title="Rothschild">Rothschild</a> refinery storehouse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200790-98">[96]</a> On 4 January 1902, the warehouse where he worked was set alight. The company's workers helped to put out the blaze, and insisted that they be paid a bonus for doing so. When the company refused, Stalin called a strike.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200791–92-102">[100]</a> He encouraged revolutionary fervour among workers through a number of leaflets that he had printed in both Georgian and Armenian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200792-103">[101]</a> On 17 February, the Rothschild company agreed to the strikers' demands, which included a 30% pay rise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200792-103">[101]</a> On 23 February, they then dismissed 389 workers whom they regarded as troublemakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200793-99">[97]</a> In response to this latter act, Stalin called for another strike.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200793-99">[97]</a> Many of the strike leaders were arrested by police.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200794-104">[102]</a> Stalin helped to organise a public demonstration outside the prison which was joined by much of the town. The demonstrators stormed the prison in an attempt to free the imprisoned strike leaders, but were fired upon by Cossack troops. 13 protesters were killed and 54 wounded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200449Montefiore200794–95-105">[103]</a> Stalin escaped with a wounded man.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200795-101">[99]</a> This event, known as the Batumi Massacre, gained national attention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200795-101">[99]</a> Stalin then helped to organise a further demonstration for 12 March, the day on which the dead were buried. Around 7000 people took part in the march, which was heavily policed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200797–98-106">[104]</a> By this point, the Okhrana had become aware of Stalin's significant role in the demonstrations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200798-107">[105]</a> On 5 April, they arrested him at the house of one of his fellow revolutionaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200449Montefiore200798-108">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imprisonment:_1902–1904">Imprisonment: 1902–1904</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Imprisonment: 1902–1904">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:250px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalin_1902-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Stalin_1902-1.jpg/150px-Stalin_1902-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Stalin_1902-1.jpg/225px-Stalin_1902-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Stalin_1902-1.jpg/300px-Stalin_1902-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1908" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:156px;max-width:156px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:250px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalin_1902-2.1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Stalin_1902-2.1.jpg/154px-Stalin_1902-2.1.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Stalin_1902-2.1.jpg/231px-Stalin_1902-2.1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Stalin_1902-2.1.jpg/308px-Stalin_1902-2.1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="1275" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Police photographs of Stalin, taken in 1902 when he was 23 years old.</div></div></div></div> Stalin was initially interned in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Batumi_Prison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Batumi Prison (page does not exist)">Batumi Prison</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200452Montefiore2007101-109">[107]</a> He soon established himself as a powerful and respected figure within the prison, and retained contacts with the outside world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007103-110">[108]</a> On two occasions his mother visited him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007102-111">[109]</a> The state prosecutor subsequently ruled that there was insufficient evidence for Stalin being behind the Batumi disturbances, but he was instead indicted for his involvement in revolutionary activities in Tiflis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007105-112">[110]</a> In April 1903, Stalin led a prison protest against the visit of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Exarch_of_the_Georgian_Church&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Exarch of the Georgian Church (page does not exist)">Exarch of the Georgian Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007105-112">[110]</a> As punishment, he was restricted to <a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">solitary confinement</a> before being moved to the stricter <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kutaisi_Prison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kutaisi Prison (page does not exist)">Kutaisi Prison</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200452Montefiore2007105-113">[111]</a> There, he gave lectures and encouraged inmates to read revolutionary literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007106-114">[112]</a> He organised a protest to ensure that many of those imprisoned for political activities were housed together.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007106-114">[112]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Russia_-_Irkutsk_Oblast_(2008-03).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Map_of_Russia_-_Irkutsk_Oblast_%282008-03%29.svg/220px-Map_of_Russia_-_Irkutsk_Oblast_%282008-03%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Map_of_Russia_-_Irkutsk_Oblast_%282008-03%29.svg/330px-Map_of_Russia_-_Irkutsk_Oblast_%282008-03%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Map_of_Russia_-_Irkutsk_Oblast_%282008-03%29.svg/440px-Map_of_Russia_-_Irkutsk_Oblast_%282008-03%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption>Stalin was exiled to Novaya Uda in Irkutsk province, eastern Siberia.</figcaption></figure> On 9 July 1903, the Justice Minister recommended that Stalin be sentenced to three years of exile in eastern Siberia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Montefiore2007107-115">[113]</a> Stalin began his journey east in October, when he boarded a prison steamship at Batumi harbour and travelled via <a href="/wiki/Novorossiysk" title="Novorossiysk">Novorossiysk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rostov,_Yaroslavl_Oblast" title="Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast">Rostov</a> to <a href="/wiki/Irkutsk" title="Irkutsk">Irkutsk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007108,_110-116">[114]</a> He then travelled, by foot and coach, to <a href="/wiki/Novaya_Uda,_Irkutsk_Oblast" title="Novaya Uda, Irkutsk Oblast">Novaya Uda</a>, arriving at the small settlement on 26 November.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200452Montefiore2007108–110-117">[115]</a> In the town, Stalin lived in the two-room house of a local peasant, sleeping in the building's larder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007111-118">[116]</a> There were many other exiled <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">leftist</a> intellectuals in the town but Stalin eschewed them and preferred drinking alcohol with the petty criminals that had been exiled there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007112–113-119">[117]</a> While Stalin was in exile, a split had developed in the RSDLP, between the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> who backed Lenin and the <a href="/wiki/Mensheviks" title="Mensheviks">Mensheviks</a> who backed <a href="/wiki/Julius_Martov" title="Julius Martov">Julius Martov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199133–34Service200453Montefiore2007113-120">[118]</a> Stalin had several attempts to escape Novaya Uda. On the first attempt he made it to <a href="/wiki/Balagansk" title="Balagansk">Balagansk</a>, but suffered from <a href="/wiki/Frostbite" title="Frostbite">frostbite</a> to his face and was forced to return.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200452Montefiore2007114–115-121">[119]</a> On the second attempt, he escaped Siberia and returned to Tiflis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200452Montefiore2007115–116-122">[120]</a> It was while he was in the city that the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> broke out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200455Montefiore2007117-123">[121]</a> In Tiflis, Stalin again lived in the homes of various friends, and also attended a Marxist circle led by <a href="/wiki/Lev_Kamenev" title="Lev Kamenev">Lev Kamenev</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007118-124">[122]</a> A number of local Marxists called for Stalin's expulsion from the RSDLP because of his calls for the establishment of a separate Georgian Marxist movement. They saw this as a betrayal of Marxist internationalism and compared it to the views of the <a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund_in_Lithuania,_Poland_and_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia">Jewish Bundists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200451–52,_54Montefiore2007117-125">[123]</a> Some referred to him as the "Georgian Bundist".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200455-126">[124]</a> Stalin was defended by the first Georgian Marxist to officially declare himself a Bolshevik, <a href="/wiki/Mikha_Tskhakaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikha Tskhakaya">Mikha Tskhakaya</a>, although the latter made the young man publicly renounce his views.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200454Montefiore2007117–118-127">[125]</a> He aligned himself with the Bolsheviks, growing to detest many of the Georgian Mensheviks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200459-128">[126]</a> Menshevism was however the dominant revolutionary force in the Southern Caucuses, leaving the Bolsheviks as a minority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199138Service200459-129">[127]</a> Stalin was able to establish a local Bolshevik stronghold in the mining town of <a href="/wiki/Chiatura" title="Chiatura">Chiatura</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007131-130">[128]</a> At workers' meetings around Georgia, Stalin frequently debated against the Mensheviks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199136Service200459Montefiore2007131-131">[129]</a> He called for an opposition to inter-ethnic violence, an alliance between the proletariat and peasantry, and—in contrast to the Mensheviks—insisted that there could be no compromise with the middle-classes in the struggle to overthrow the Tsar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200459-128">[126]</a> With <a href="/wiki/Philip_Makharadze" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Makharadze">Philip Makharadze</a>, Stalin began editing a Georgian Marxist newspaper, Proletariatis Brdzola ("Proletarian Struggle").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200457Montefiore2007123-132">[130]</a> He spent time in Batumi and Gori,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007123–124-133">[131]</a> before Tskhakaya sent him to Kutaisi to establish a Committee for the province of Imeretia and Mingrelia in July.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007124-134">[132]</a> On <a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Eve" title="New Year's Eve">New Year's Eve</a> 1904, Stalin lead a gang of workers who disrupted a party being held by a bourgeois liberal group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007126-135">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Revolution_of_1905:_1905–1907">The Revolution of 1905: 1905–1907</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The Revolution of 1905: 1905–1907">edit</a>]</div> In January 1905, a massacre of protesters took place in St Petersburg that came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Bloody_Sunday_(1905)" title="Bloody Sunday (1905)">Bloody Sunday</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200456Montefiore2007126-136">[134]</a> Unrest soon spread across the Russian Empire in what came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_1905" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolution of 1905">Revolution of 1905</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200456Montefiore2007126-136">[134]</a> Along with Poland, Georgia was one of the regions particularly affected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200456-137">[135]</a> In February, Stalin was in <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a> when a spate of ethnic violence broke out between Armenians and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azeris</a>; at least 2,000 were killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200458Montefiore2007128–129-138">[136]</a> Stalin founded the Outfit, a criminal gang that were involved with <a href="/wiki/Bank_robbery" title="Bank robbery">armed robberies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racketeering" title="Racketeering">racketeering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assassinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassinations">assassinations</a>, arms procurement and child <a href="/wiki/Courier" title="Courier">couriering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> According to Montefiore, Stalin socialised with hitmen “<a href="/wiki/Kamo_(Bolshevik)" title="Kamo (Bolshevik)">Kamo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kote_Tsintsadze" title="Kote Tsintsadze">Tsintsadze</a>" but issued formal commands to the rest of the Outfit members through his bodyguard.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> Stalin also formed a Bolshevik Battle Squad which he ordered to try and keep the warring ethnic factions apart, also using the unrest to steal printing equipment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007129-141">[139]</a> He proceeded to Tiflis, where he organised a demonstration of ethnic reconciliation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007129-141">[139]</a> Amid the growing violence, Stalin formed his own armed Red Battle Squads, with the Mensheviks doing the same.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007131–132-142">[140]</a> These armed revolutionary groups disarmed local police and troops,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007132-143">[141]</a> and gained further weaponry by raiding government arsenals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007143-144">[142]</a> They raised funds through a <a href="/wiki/Protection_racket" title="Protection racket">protection racket</a> on large local businesses and mines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007132–133-145">[143]</a> Stalin's militia launched attacks on the government's Cossack troops and <a href="/wiki/Black_Hundreds" title="Black Hundreds">Black Hundreds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007135,_144-146">[144]</a> After Cossacks opened fire on a student meeting, killing sixty of those assembled, Stalin retaliated in September by launching nine simultaneous attacks on the Cossacks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007137-147">[145]</a> In October, Stalin's militia agreed to co-operate many of its attacks with the local Menshevik militia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007137-147">[145]</a> On 26 November 1905, the Georgian Bolsheviks elected Stalin and two others as their delegates to a Bolshevik conference due to be held in St. Petersburg.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200460Montefiore2007145-148">[146]</a> Using the alias of "Ivanovitch", Stalin set off by train in early December, and on arrival met with Lenin's wife <a href="/wiki/Nadezhda_Krupskaya" title="Nadezhda Krupskaya">Nadezhda Krupskaya</a>, who informed them that the venue had been moved to <a href="/wiki/Tammerfors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tammerfors">Tammerfors</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007145-149">[147]</a> It was at the conference that Stalin met Lenin for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199137Service200460-150">[148]</a> Although Stalin held Lenin in deep respect, he was vocal in his disagreement with Lenin's view that the Bolsheviks should field candidates for the forthcoming election to the <a href="/wiki/State_Duma_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Duma (Russian Empire)">State Duma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007147-151">[149]</a> In Stalin's absence, General Fyodor Griiazanov had crushed the Tiflis rebels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007148–49-152">[150]</a> Stalin's Battle Squads had to go into hiding and operate from the underground.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007149-153">[151]</a> When Stalin returned to the city, he co-organised the assassination of Griiazanov with local Mensheviks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007149–150-154">[152]</a> Stalin also established a small group which he called the Bolshevik Expropriators Club, although it would more widely be known as the Group or Outfit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007151-155">[153]</a> Containing about ten members, three of whom were women,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007153-156">[154]</a> the group procured arms, facilitated prison escapes, raided banks, and executed traitors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007151-155">[153]</a> They utilised protection rackets to further finance their activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007151–152-157">[155]</a> During 1906, they carried out a series of bank robberies and hold-ups of stage coaches transporting money.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007152-158">[156]</a> The money collected was then divided; much of it was sent to Lenin while the rest was used to finance Proletariatis Brdzola.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007152-158">[156]</a> Stalin had continued to edit this newspaper, and also contributed articles to it using the pseudonyms "Koba" and "Besoshvili".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007155-159">[157]</a> In early April 1906, Stalin left Georgia to attend the <a href="/wiki/4th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="4th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">RSDLP Fourth Congress</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>. He travelled via St Petersburg and the Finnish port of <a href="/wiki/Hang%C3%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="Hangö">Hangö</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199139–40Service200461Montefiore2007156-160">[158]</a> This would be the first time that he had left the Russian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200462-161">[159]</a> The ship on which Stalin travelled, the Oihonna, was shipwrecked; Stalin and the other passengers had to wait to be rescued.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007157-162">[160]</a> At the Congress, Stalin was one of 16 Georgians, but he was the only one who was a Bolshevik.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199138Service200461Montefiore2007157-163">[161]</a> There, the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks disagreed over the so-called "agrarian question". Both agreed that the land should be expropriated from the gentry, but whereas Lenin believed that it should be nationalised under state ownership, the Mensheviks called for it to be municipalised under the ownership of local districts. Stalin disagreed with both, arguing that peasants should be allowed to take control of the land themselves; in his view, this would strengthen the alliance between the peasantry and the proletariat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199139–40Service200463Montefiore2007158-164">[162]</a> At the conference, the RSDLP—then led by its Menshevik majority—agreed that it would not raise funds using armed robbery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199140Service200462-165">[163]</a> Lenin and Stalin disagreed with this decision.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200462-161">[159]</a> Stalin returned to Tiflis via <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, arriving home in June.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007158-166">[164]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ekaterina_Svanidze.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ekaterina_Svanidze.jpg/170px-Ekaterina_Svanidze.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ekaterina_Svanidze.jpg/255px-Ekaterina_Svanidze.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ekaterina_Svanidze.jpg/340px-Ekaterina_Svanidze.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ekaterina_Svanidze" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekaterina Svanidze">Ekaterina "Kato" Svanidze</a>, Jughashvili's first wife</figcaption></figure> For some time, Stalin had been living in a central Tiflis apartment owned by the Alliluyev family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007140-167">[165]</a> He and one of the members of this family, <a href="/wiki/Kato_Svanidze" title="Kato Svanidze">Kato Svanidze</a>, gradually developed a romantic connection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007155-159">[157]</a> They married in July 1906; despite his atheism, he agreed to her wish for a church wedding. The ceremony took place in a church at <a href="/wiki/Tskhakaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Tskhakaya">Tskhakaya</a> on the night of 15–16 July.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200464Montefiore2007159-168">[166]</a> In September, Stalin then attended an RSDLP conference in Tiflis; of the 42 delegates, only 6 were Bolshevik, with Stalin openly expressing his contempt of the Mensheviks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007161-169">[167]</a> On 20 September, his gang boarded the Tsarevich Giorgi steamship as it passed <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cape_Kodori&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cape Kodori (page does not exist)">Cape Kodori</a> and stole the money aboard. Stalin was possibly among those who carried out this operation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007162–163-170">[168]</a> Svanidze was subsequently arrested for her revolutionary connections, and shortly after her release—on 18 March 1907—she gave birth to Stalin's son, <a href="/wiki/Yakov_Dzhugashvili" title="Yakov Dzhugashvili">Yakov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200464Montefiore2007167-171">[169]</a> Stalin nicknamed his new-born son "Patsana".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007167-172">[170]</a> By 1907—according to Robert Service—Stalin had established himself as "Georgia's leading Bolshevik".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200465-173">[171]</a> Stalin travelled to the <a href="/wiki/5th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Fifth RSDLP Congress</a>, held in London in May–June 1907, via St Petersburg, Stockholm, and Copenhagen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199141Montefiore2007168-174">[172]</a> While in Denmark, he made a detour to Berlin for a secret meeting with Lenin to discuss the robberies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007168-175">[173]</a> Stalin arrived in England and <a href="/wiki/Harwich" title="Harwich">Harwich</a> and took the train to London. There, he rented a room in <a href="/wiki/Stepney" title="Stepney">Stepney</a>, part of the city's <a href="/wiki/East_End_of_London" title="East End of London">East End</a> that housed a substantial Jewish émigré community from the Russian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200465Montefiore2007169–170-176">[174]</a> The congress took place at a church in <a href="/wiki/Islington" title="Islington">Islington</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200465Montefiore2007171-177">[175]</a> He remained in London for about three weeks, helping to nurse Tskhahaya after the latter fell ill.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007177-178">[176]</a> He returned to Tiflis via Paris.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007177-178">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tiflis_robbery:_1907–1909">Tiflis robbery: 1907–1909</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tiflis robbery: 1907–1909">edit</a>]</div> After returning to Tiflis, Stalin organized the <a href="/wiki/1907_Tiflis_bank_robbery" title="1907 Tiflis bank robbery">robbing of a large delivery of money to the Imperial Bank</a> on 26 June 1907. His gang ambushed the armed convoy in <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Square,_Tbilisi" title="Freedom Square, Tbilisi">Yerevan Square</a> with gunfire and homemade bombs. Around 40 people were killed, but all of Jughashvili's gang managed to escape alive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199141–42Service200475-179">[177]</a> It is possible that Stalin hired a number of Socialist Revolutionaries to help him in the heist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007178–179-180">[178]</a> Around 250,000 roubles were stolen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007179-181">[179]</a> Service described it as "their greatest coup".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200475-182">[180]</a> After the heist, Stalin took his wife and son away from Tiflis, settling in Baku.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007180-183">[181]</a> There, Mensheviks confronted Stalin about the robbery but he denied any involvement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007184-184">[182]</a> These Mensheviks then voted to expel him from the RSDLP, but Stalin took no notice of them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199143–44Service200476Montefiore2007184-185">[183]</a> In Baku, he moved his family into a seafront house just outside the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007186-186">[184]</a> There, he edited two Bolshevik newspapers, Bakinsky Proletary and Gudok ("Whistle").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007186-186">[184]</a> In August 1907, he travelled to Germany to attend the <a href="/wiki/International_Socialist_Congress,_Stuttgart_1907" title="International Socialist Congress, Stuttgart 1907">Seventh Congress</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Second_International" title="Second International">Second International</a>, which took place in <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007189-187">[185]</a> He had returned to Baku in September, where the city was undergoing another spate of ethnic violence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007189-187">[185]</a> In the city, he helped to secure Bolshevik domination of the local RSDLP branch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007190-188">[186]</a> While devoting himself to revolutionary activity, Stalin had been neglecting his wife and child.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007190-188">[186]</a> Kato fell ill with <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, and so he took her back to Tiflis to be with her family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007191-189">[187]</a> There, she died in his arms on 22 November 1907.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007191-189">[187]</a> Fearing that he would commit suicide, Stalin's friends confiscated his revolver.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007192-190">[188]</a> The funeral took place on 25 November at Kulubanskaya Church before her body was buried at St Nina's Church in Kukia. During the funeral, Stalin threw himself onto the coffin in grief; he then had to escape the churchyard when he saw Okhrana members approaching.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007193-191">[189]</a> He then left his son with his late wife's family in Tiflis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199144Service200471Montefiore2007193-192">[190]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA._%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE-%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D1%81_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img 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the Outfit and began publicly calling for more workers' strikes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007194-193">[191]</a> The Outfit continued to attack Black Hundreds, and raised finances by running protection rackets, counterfeiting currency, and carrying out robberies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200474Montefiore2007196-194">[192]</a> One of the robberies carried out in this period was of a ship, the Nicholas I, as it docked in Baku harbour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007196-195">[193]</a> Not long after, the Outfit carried out a raid on Baku's naval arsenal, during which several guards were killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007197-196">[194]</a> They also kidnapped the children of several wealthy figures in order to extract ransom money.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007197–198-197">[195]</a> He also co-operated with <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Social_Democratic_Party" title="Muslim Social Democratic Party">Hummat</a>, the Muslim Bolshevik group, and was involved in assisting the arming of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Revolution</a> against Shah <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Shah_Qajar" title="Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar">Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007194–195-198">[196]</a> At some point in 1908 he travelled to the Swiss city of <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> to meet with Lenin; he also met the Russian Marxist <a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Georgi Plekhanov</a>, who exasperated him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007195-199">[197]</a> On 25 March 1908, Stalin was arrested in a police raid and interned in Bailov Prison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199144Service200468Montefiore2007203-200">[198]</a> In prison, he studied <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>, then regarding it as the language of the future.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199145Montefiore2007203-201">[199]</a> Leading the Bolsheviks imprisoned there, he organised discussion groups and had those suspected of being police spies killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199145Montefiore2007203–204-202">[200]</a> He planned an escape attempt but it was later cancelled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007205-203">[201]</a> He was eventually sentenced to two years exile in the village of <a href="/wiki/Solvychegodsk" title="Solvychegodsk">Solvychegodsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vologda_Oblast" title="Vologda Oblast">Vologda Province</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199145Service200468Montefiore2007206-204">[202]</a> The journey there took three months, over the course of which he contracted typhus, and spent time in both Moscow's <a href="/wiki/Butyrki_Prison" class="mw-redirect" title="Butyrki Prison">Butyrki Prison</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vologda_Prison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vologda Prison (page does not exist)">Vologda Prison</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007207-205">[203]</a> He finally arrived at the village in February 1909.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007208-206">[204]</a> There he stayed in a communal house with nine fellow exiles<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007210-207">[205]</a> but repeatedly got into trouble with the local police chief; the latter locked Stalin up for reading revolutionary literature aloud and fined him for attending the theatre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007210-207">[205]</a> While in the village, Stalin had an affair with an <a href="/wiki/Odesa" title="Odesa">Odesan</a> noblewoman and teacher, Stefania Petrovskaya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007211-208">[206]</a> In June Stalin escaped the village and made it to <a href="/wiki/Kotlas" title="Kotlas">Kotlas</a> disguised as a woman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199146Montefiore2007212-209">[207]</a> From there, he made it to St Petersburg, where he was hidden by supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007212-210">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Launching_Pravda:_1909–1912">Launching Pravda: 1909–1912</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Launching Pravda: 1909–1912">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Stalin_1911_mug_shot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Joseph_Stalin_1911_mug_shot.jpg/220px-Joseph_Stalin_1911_mug_shot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Joseph_Stalin_1911_mug_shot.jpg/330px-Joseph_Stalin_1911_mug_shot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Joseph_Stalin_1911_mug_shot.jpg/440px-Joseph_Stalin_1911_mug_shot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4339" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>The information card on "I. V. Stalin", from the files of the Imperial police in Saint Petersburg, 1911<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007395-211">[209]</a></figcaption></figure> By July 1909, Stalin was back in Baku.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007213-212">[210]</a> There he began to express the need for the Bolsheviks to help boost their ailing fortunes by re-uniting with the Mensheviks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007214-213">[211]</a> He was increasingly frustrated with Lenin's factionalist attitudes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007214-213">[211]</a> In October 1909, Stalin was arrested alongside several fellow Bolsheviks, but bribed the police officers into letting them escape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007216-214">[212]</a> He was arrested again on 23 March 1910, this time with Petrovskaya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199146Montefiore2007222-215">[213]</a> He was sentenced into internal exile and sent back to Solvychegodsk, being banned from returning to the southern Caucasus for five years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199146Montefiore2007226-216">[214]</a> He had gained permission to marry Petrovskaya in the prison church, but he was deported on the same day—23 September 1910—that he received permission to do so. He would never see her again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007226-217">[215]</a> In Solvychegodsk, he commenced a relationship with a teacher, Serafima Khoroshenina, and before February 1911 had registered as her cohabiting partner; she however was soon exiled to <a href="/wiki/Nikolsk" title="Nikolsk">Nikolsk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007227,_229-218">[216]</a> He then entered into an affair with his landlady, Maria Kuzakova, with whom he fathered a son, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Kuzakov" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine Kuzakov">Konstantin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200479Montefiore2007230–231-219">[217]</a> He also spent time reading and planting pine trees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007227-220">[218]</a> Stalin was given permission to leave Solvychehodsk in June 1911.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007231-221">[219]</a> From there, he was required to stay in Vologda for two months, where he spent much of his time in the local library.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199147Service200480Montefiore2007231,_234-222">[220]</a> There, he also had a relationship with the sixteen-year old Pelageya Onufrieva, who was already in an established relationship with the Bolshevik <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Chizhikov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Chizhikov (page does not exist)">Peter Chizhikov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200479Montefiore2007234-223">[221]</a> He then proceeded to St Petersburg,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007236-224">[222]</a> On 9 September 1911 he was again arrested, and held prisoner by the Okhrana for three weeks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007237-225">[223]</a> He was then exiled to Vologda for three years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007237-225">[223]</a> He was permitted to travel there on his own, but on the way hid from the authorities in St Petersburg for a while.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007238-226">[224]</a> He had hoped to attend a <a href="/wiki/Prague_Conference" title="Prague Conference">Prague Conference</a> that Lenin was organising but did not have the funds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200482Montefiore2007238-227">[225]</a> He then returned to Vologda, living in a house owned by a divorcee; it is likely that he had an affair with her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007238-226">[224]</a> At the Prague Conference, the first Bolshevik Central Committee was established; Lenin and <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Grigory Zinoviev</a> subsequently proposed co-opting the absent Stalin onto the group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199148Service200483Montefiore2007240-228">[226]</a> Lenin believed that Stalin would be useful in helping to secure support for the Bolsheviks from the Empire's minority ethnicities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007240-229">[227]</a> According to Conquest, Lenin recognised Stalin as "a ruthless and dependable enforcer of the Bolsheviks' will".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199148-230">[228]</a> Stalin was then appointed to the Central Committee, and would remain on it for the rest of his life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007240-229">[227]</a> On 29 February, Stalin then took the train to St Petersburg via Moscow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007241-231">[229]</a> There, his assigned task was to convert the Bolshevik weekly newspaper, Zvezda ("Star") into a daily, <a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a> ("Truth").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200484Montefiore2007243-232">[230]</a> The new newspaper was launched in April 1912.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200484Montefiore2007247-233">[231]</a> Stalin served as its editor-in-chief, but did so secretly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200484Montefiore2007247-233">[231]</a> He was assisted in the newspaper's production by <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Scriabin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007247-234">[232]</a> In the city, he stayed in the flat of Tatiana Slavatinskaya, with whom he had an affair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007243-235">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Outfit's_last_heist_and_the_national_question:_1912–1913">The Outfit's last heist and the national question: 1912–1913</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The Outfit's last heist and the national question: 1912–1913">edit</a>]</div> By May 1912, he was back in Tiflis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007244-236">[234]</a> He then returned to St Petersburg via Moscow, and stayed with <a href="/w/index.php?title=N._G._Poletaev&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="N. G. Poletaev (page does not exist)">N. G. Poletaev</a>, the Bolsheviks' Duma deputy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007244-236">[234]</a> During that same month Stalin was arrested again and imprisoned in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shpalerhy_Prison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shpalerhy Prison (page does not exist)">Shpalerhy Prison</a>; in July he was sentenced to three years exile in Siberia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199151Montefiore2007248-237">[235]</a> On 12 July, he arrived in <a href="/wiki/Tomsk" title="Tomsk">Tomsk</a>, from which he took a steamship on the <a href="/wiki/Ob_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ob River">Ob River</a> to <a href="/wiki/Kolpashevo" title="Kolpashevo">Kolpashevo</a>, from which he travelled to <a href="/wiki/Narym" title="Narym">Narym</a>, where he was required to remain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007249-238">[236]</a> There, he shared a room with the fellow Bolshevik <a href="/wiki/Yakov_Sverdlov" title="Yakov Sverdlov">Yakov Sverdlov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200486Montefiore2007250-239">[237]</a> After only two months, Stalin escaped via canoe and made it to Tomsk by September. There he waited for Sverdlov to follow him, and the two proceeded to St Petersburg, where they were hidden by supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199151Service200486–87Montefiore2007250–251-240">[238]</a> Stalin returned to Tiflis,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007252-241">[239]</a> where the Outfit planned their last big action. They attempted to ambush a mail coach, but were unsuccessful; after fleeing, eighteen of their members were apprehended and arrested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007253-242">[240]</a> Stalin returned to St Petersburg, where he continued editing and writing articles for Pravda, moving from apartment to apartment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007255-243">[241]</a> After the Duma elections of October 1912 resulted in six Bolsheviks and six Mensheviks being elected, Stalin began calling for reconciliation between the two Marxist factions in Pravda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007256-244">[242]</a> Lenin criticised him for this opinion, with Stalin declining to publish forty-seven of the articles which Lenin sent to him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007256-244">[242]</a> With <a href="/w/index.php?title=Valentina_Lobova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Valentina Lobova (page does not exist)">Valentina Lobova</a>, he travelled to <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, a culturally Polish part of the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a>, to meet with Lenin. They continued to disagree on the issue of reunification with the Mensheviks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199152Service200487Montefiore2007256–258-245">[243]</a> Stalin left and returned to St Petersburg but at Lenin's request he made a second trip to Kraków in December.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200488Montefiore2007258–259-246">[244]</a> Stalin and Lenin bonded on this latter visit,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007261-247">[245]</a> with the former eventually bowing to Lenin's views on reunification with the Mensheviks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007263-248">[246]</a> On this trip, Stalin also made friends with <a href="/wiki/Roman_Malinovsky" title="Roman Malinovsky">Roman Malinovsky</a>, a Bolshevik who was secretly an informer for the Okhrana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007262-249">[247]</a> In January 1913, Stalin travelled to <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, where he stayed with the wealthy Bolshevik sympathiser <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Troyanovsky" title="Alexander Troyanovsky">Alexander Troyanovsky</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199154Service200489Montefiore2007263-250">[248]</a> He was in the city at the same time as <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito" title="Josip Broz Tito">Josip Broz Tito</a>, although he likely did not meet either of them at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007264-251">[249]</a> There, he devoted himself to examining the 'national question' of how the Bolsheviks should deal with the various national and ethnic minorities living in the Russian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200489Montefiore2007264–265-252">[250]</a> Lenin had wanted to attract these minorities to the Bolshevik cause and to offer them the right of secession from the Russian state; at the same time, he hoped that they would not take up this offer and would want to remain part of a future Bolshevik-governed Russia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007266-253">[251]</a> Stalin had not been able to read German, but had been assisted in studying German texts by writers like <a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Karl Kautsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Bauer" title="Otto Bauer">Otto Bauer</a> by fellow Bolshevik <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" title="Nikolai Bukharin">Nikolai Bukharin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199154Service200489Montefiore2007265-254">[252]</a> He finished the article, which was titled <a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_the_National_Question" title="Marxism and the National Question">Marxism and the National Question</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199153Service200485Montefiore2007266-255">[253]</a> Lenin was very happy with it,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007267-256">[254]</a> and in a private letter to <a href="/wiki/Maxim_Gorky" title="Maxim Gorky">Maxim Gorky</a> he referred to Stalin as the "wonderful Georgian".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199153Service200485Montefiore2007267-257">[255]</a> According to Montefiore, this was "Stalin's most famous work".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007266-253">[251]</a> The article was published in March 1913 under the pseudonym of "K. Stalin",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007267-256">[254]</a> a name he had been using since 1912.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200485-258">[256]</a> This name derived from the Russian language word for <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> (stal),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200485-258">[256]</a> and has been translated as "Man of Steel".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007268-259">[257]</a> It was—according to Service—an "unmistakably Russian name".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200485-258">[256]</a> Montefiore suggested that Stalin stuck with this name for the rest of his life because it had been used on the article which established his reputation within the Bolshevik movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007267–268-260">[258]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_exile:_1913–1917">Final exile: 1913–1917</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Final exile: 1913–1917">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalin_in_exile_1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Stalin_in_exile_1915.jpg/170px-Stalin_in_exile_1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Stalin_in_exile_1915.jpg/255px-Stalin_in_exile_1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Stalin_in_exile_1915.jpg/340px-Stalin_in_exile_1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="952" /></a><figcaption>Stalin in exile, 1915</figcaption></figure> In February 1913, Stalin was back in St. Petersburg. At the time, the Okhrana were cracking down on the Bolsheviks by arresting leading members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007268–269-261">[259]</a> Stalin himself was arrested at a masquerade ball held by the Bolsheviks as a fundraiser at the Kalashnikov Exchange.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007269–270-262">[260]</a> Stalin was subsequently sentenced to four years exile in <a href="/wiki/Turukhansk" title="Turukhansk">Turukhansk</a>, a remote part of Siberia from which escape was particularly difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199154Service2004102–103Montefiore2007270,_273-263">[261]</a> In August, he arrived in the village of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Monastyrskoe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Monastyrskoe (page does not exist)">Monastyrskoe</a>, although after four weeks was relocated to the hamlet of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kostino,_Krasnoyarsk_Krai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kostino, Krasnoyarsk Krai (page does not exist)">Kostino</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007273–274-264">[262]</a> Stalin wrote letters to many people whom he knew, begging for them to send him money, in part to finance his escape attempt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService2004108Montefiore2007274,_275–277-265">[263]</a> The authorities were concerned about any escape attempt and thus moved Stalin, along with Sverdlov, to the hamlet of <a href="/wiki/Kureika_(village)" title="Kureika (village)">Kureika</a>, on the edge of the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Circle" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a>, in March 1914.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199155Service2004105–106Montefiore2007277–278-266">[264]</a> There, the Bolshevik pair lived in the <a href="/wiki/Izba" title="Izba">izba</a> of the Taraseeva family, but frustrated one another as housemates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199155Service2004106Montefiore2007278–279,_280-267">[265]</a> Stalin soon earned a reputation for self-centeredness among the locals when he simply seized the library of a deceased co-exile instead of sharing it in accordance to the "exiles' code".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKotkin2014155-268">[266]</a> According to several of his biographers, including <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kotkin" title="Stephen Kotkin">Stephen Kotkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Grigor_Suny" title="Ronald Grigor Suny">Ronald Grigor Suny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Sebag_Montefiore" title="Simon Sebag Montefiore">Simon Sebag Montefiore</a>, and Oleg V. Khlevniuk, Stalin had a relationship with Lidia Pereprygina at Kureika. At the time, Stalin was aged <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 35, while Pereprygina was about 13 or 14 years old. They had two children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuny2020559Khlevniuk201530Kotkin2014155-269">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a> In regards to the sources for these stories, Kotkin mentioned local villager Anfisa Taraseyeva,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKotkin201767-271">[269]</a> and Lidia Pereprygina herself. Conversely, Kotkin noted that parts of the evidence of the events relied on reports gathered by <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Serov" title="Ivan Serov">Ivan Serov</a> which "contain[ed] obvious errors and reflect[ed] lazy police work".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKotkin2017922,_note_358-272">[270]</a> As per these tellings, Pereprygia gave birth to Stalin's child around December 1914, although the infant died soon after.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007292–293-273">[271]</a> As the incident became locally known, the police reportedly intervened and tried to force Stalin to promise to marry Lidia; he ultimately reneged on the vow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKotkin2014155-268">[266]</a> In 1916, Lidia – now 15 years old – was allegedly pregnant again. She gave birth to a son, named Alexander, in around April 1917,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007298,_300-274">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKotkin2014155-268">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a> though Kotkin argued that Alexander's birth date was probably falsely recorded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKotkin2017922,_note_358-272">[270]</a> Stalin, then absent, later came to know of the child's existence but showed no apparent interest in him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007298,_300-274">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKotkin2014155-268">[266]</a> The child would come to be known as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Davydov_(soldier)" title="Alexander Davydov (soldier)">Alexander Davydov</a>, after Lidia's husband Yakov Davydov, who adopted Alexander.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007314-276">[274]</a> Within Pereprygina's family, stories were handed down about Alexander Davydov's origin, with Lidia herself claiming that Stalin was the latter's father. Decades later, Alexander's son Yury Davydov conducted a <a href="/wiki/DNA_test" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA test">DNA test</a> with a recognized grandson of Stalin, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Burdonsky" title="Alexander Burdonsky">Alexander Burdonsky</a>; the test reportedly confirmed that Yury Davydov was also a descendant of Stalin.<a href="#cite_note-277">[275]</a> In his later remembrances of his exile period, Stalin fondly recalled his dog of the time, but never mentioned Lidia or his alleged illegitimate children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKotkin2014155-268">[266]</a> Near the end of summer 1914, the authorities moved Stalin to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Selivanikha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Selivanikha (page does not exist)">Selivanikha</a>, where he was visited by his close friend <a href="/wiki/Suren_Spandaryan" title="Suren Spandaryan">Suren Spandaryan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007286-278">[276]</a> Here, he lived closely with the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Tunguses" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunguses">Tunguses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ostyak" title="Ostyak">Ostyak</a> communities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007287-279">[277]</a> with whom he went on fishing trips.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199156Service2004110Montefiore2007288–289-280">[278]</a> He spent lengthy periods on <a href="/wiki/Polovinka" title="Polovinka">Polovinka</a> island, where he constructed a one-man shelter and spent much time fishing in the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Yenisei_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yenisei River">Yenisei River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007298-281">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007287-279">[277]</a> While Stalin was in exile, Russia had entered the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, but was faring poorly against the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires. The Russian government began conscripting exiles into the Russian Army. In October 1916, Stalin and other exiled Bolsheviks were conscripted, leaving for Monastyrkoe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199157Service2004113–114Montefiore2007300-282">[280]</a> In December they set forth from there to <a href="/wiki/Krasnoyarsk" title="Krasnoyarsk">Krasnoyarsk</a>, arriving in February 1917.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199157Montefiore2007301–302-283">[281]</a> There, a medical examiner ruled him unfit for military service due to his crippled arm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService2004114Montefiore2007302-284">[282]</a> This was convenient for Stalin as it meant that he would not be sent to fight on the Eastern Front, but also remained a source of embarrassment for him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007302-285">[283]</a> Stalin was required to serve four more months on his exile, and he successfully requested that he be allowed to serve it in nearby <a href="/wiki/Achinsk" title="Achinsk">Achinsk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService2004114Montefiore2007302-284">[282]</a> There, he stayed in the apartment of fellow Bolshevik <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vera_Shveitzer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vera Shveitzer (page does not exist)">Vera Shveitzer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007302-285">[283]</a> According to the transcribed recollections of a former Okhrana officer, Nikolay Vladimirovich Veselago, both <a href="/wiki/Roman_Malinovsky" title="Roman Malinovsky">Roman Malinovsky</a> and Stalin reported on Lenin as well as on each other although Stalin was unaware that Malinovosky was also a penetration agent.<a href="#cite_note-Chekisty:_A_History_of_the_KGB-286">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stalin-287">[285]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Between_the_February_and_October_revolutions">Between the February and October revolutions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Between the February and October revolutions">edit</a>]</div> Stalin was in Achinsk when the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> took place; uprisings broke out in Petrograd—as St Petersburg had been renamed—and the Tsar abdicated, to be replaced by a Provisional Government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199157–58Service2004116–117Montefiore2007302–303-288">[286]</a> In March, Stalin travelled by train to Petrograd with Kamenev.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService2004117Montefiore2007304-289">[287]</a> There, Stalin and Kamenev expressed the view that they were willing to temporarily back the new administration and accept the continuation of Russian involvement in the First World War so long as it was purely defensive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199161Montefiore2007309-290">[288]</a> This was in contrast to the view of Lenin—who was still in a self-imposed exile in Europe—that the Bolsheviks should oppose the Provisional Government and support an end to the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199162Montefiore2007309-291">[289]</a> On 25 March 1917 (12 March, Old Style) Stalin returned from exile in Siberia to Petrograd with L. B. Kamenev, and M. K. Muranov.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiemke20044-292">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEncyclopædia_Britannica2022-293">[291]</a> On 15 March, Stalin and Kamenev assumed control of Pravda, removing <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> from that position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService2004120Montefiore2007310-294">[292]</a> Stalin was also appointed as the Bolshevik representative to the executive committee of the <a href="/wiki/Petrograd_Soviet" title="Petrograd Soviet">Petrograd Soviet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199159–60Montefiore2007310-295">[293]</a> Lenin then returned to Russia, with Stalin meeting him on his arrival at Petrograd's <a href="/wiki/Finland_Station" title="Finland Station">Finland Station</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007312–314-296">[294]</a> In conversation, Lenin convinced Stalin to adopt his view on the Provisional Government and the ongoing war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199163Service2004124Montefiore2007315-297">[295]</a> On 29 April, Stalin came third in the Bolshevik elections for the party's Central Committee; Lenin came first and Zinoviev came second.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199164Service2004131Montefiore2007316-298">[296]</a> This reflected his senior standing in the party at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007316-299">[297]</a> Over the coming months he spent much of his time working on Pravda, at the Petrograd Soviet, or assisting Lenin on the Central Committee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007316-299">[297]</a> He lived with Molotov in an apartment on Shirokaya Street where he and Molotov became friends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService2004133Montefiore2007318-300">[298]</a> Stalin was involved in planning an armed demonstration of the Bolsheviks' supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199165Montefiore2007319-301">[299]</a> Although not explicitly encouraging those armed supporters who carried out the <a href="/wiki/July_Days" title="July Days">July Days</a> uprising, he partially did so by informing its leaders that "you comrades know best".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007320-302">[300]</a> After the armed demonstration was suppressed, the Provisional Government initiated a crackdown on the Bolsheviks, raiding Pravda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200732-15">[13]</a> During this raid, Stalin smuggled Lenin out of the newspaper's office and subsequently took charge of the Bolshevik leader's safety, moving him to five safe houses over the course of three days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007322–323-303">[301]</a> Stalin then oversaw the smuggling of Lenin out of Petrograd to <a href="/wiki/Razliv" class="mw-redirect" title="Razliv">Razliv</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007324-304">[302]</a> He himself left the flat that he shared with Molotov and moved in with the Alliluyeva family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService2004133Montefiore2007325-305">[303]</a> In Lenin's absence, he continued editing Pravda and served as acting leader of the Bolsheviks, overseeing the party's Sixth Congress, which was held covertly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007326-306">[304]</a> At the Congress, Stalin was selected as the chief editor of all Bolshevik press and was appointed a member of the constituent assembly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007326-306">[304]</a> Lenin began calling for the Bolsheviks to seize power by toppling the Provisional Government in a coup. Stalin and Trotsky both endorsed Lenin's plan of action, but it was opposed by Kamenev and other Bolsheviks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199168Service2004138-307">[305]</a> Lenin returned to Petrograd and at a meeting of the Central Committee on 10 October, he secured a majority in favour of a coup.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007332–333,_335-308">[306]</a> Kamenev nevertheless disagreed and wrote a letter warning against insurrection that Stalin agreed to publish in Rabochii Put. Trotsky censured Stalin for publishing it, with the latter responding with offering his resignation, which was not accepted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007336-309">[307]</a> On 24 October, police raided the Bolshevik newspaper offices, smashing machinery and presses; Stalin managed to salvage some of this equipment in order to continue his activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007337–338-310">[308]</a> In the early hours of 25 October, Stalin joined Lenin in a Central Committee meeting in the <a href="/wiki/Smolny_Institute" title="Smolny Institute">Smolny Institute</a>, from where the Bolshevik coup—the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>—was being directed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007341-311">[309]</a> Armed Bolshevik militia had seized Petrograd's electric power station, main post office, state bank, telephone exchange, and several bridges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007341–342-312">[310]</a> A Bolshevik-controlled ship, the Aurora, sailed up to the <a href="/wiki/Winter_Palace" title="Winter Palace">Winter Palace</a>, and opened fire, with the assembled delegates of the Provisional Government surrendering and being arrested by the Bolsheviks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007344–346-313">[311]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name_and_aliases">Name and aliases</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Name and aliases">edit</a>]</div> Stalin's birth-name in Georgian was Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი).<a href="#cite_note-314">[312]</a> An ethnic <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a>, he also was a subject of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, so he also had a Russified version of his name: Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили). Stalin's surname (ჯუღაშვილი) is transliterated as Jughashvili according to the official romanization system of the Georgian government. An alternative transliteration is J̌uḡašvili using ISO standard 9984:1996. His name was Russified to "Джугашвили", which is in turn transliterated into English as Dzhugashvili and Djugashvili. Besarionis dze means "son of Besarion," and was Russified to Vissarionovich ("son of Vissarion", the Russian version of "Besarion"). There are several etymologies of the jugha (ჯუღა) root. In one version, the name derives from the village of Jugaani in <a href="/wiki/Kakhetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kakhetia">Kakhetia</a>, eastern Georgia.<a href="#cite_note-315">[313]</a> In Georgian, the suffix -shvili means "child" or "son". An article in the newspaper <a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a> in 1988 claimed the word derives from the Old Georgian for "<a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>" - which might explain the adoption of the name "Stalin", since Сталин ("Stalin") is derived from combining the Russian <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" class="extiw" title="ru:сталь">сталь</a> ("stal"), "steel", with the possessive suffix -ин ("-in"), a formula used by many other Bolsheviks, including <a href="/wiki/Lenin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenin">Lenin</a>. The surname "Jughashvili" could possibly be of non-Georgian origin, since the various peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus region">Caucasus region</a> had moved around for centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200418-57">[55]</a> Throughout his life, Stalin often heard rumours that his paternal grandfather was ethnically <a href="/wiki/Ossetians" title="Ossetians">Ossetian</a>. Also his father described an <a href="/wiki/Ossetians" title="Ossetians">Ossetian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZubok2007xvii-316">[314]</a> the Y-DNA sample (newly uploaded) uploaded by his grandson is leaving by the <a href="/wiki/Ossetians" title="Ossetians">Ossetian</a> samples from 1100 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-317">[315]</a> However, like many other parts of Stalin's early life, his ancestry is often mixed up with facts and rumours.<a href="#cite_note-318">[316]</a> According to theories advanced by Mihail Vayskopf,<a href="#cite_note-319">[317]</a> it is the <a href="/wiki/Ossetic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ossetic language">Ossetian</a> for "herd of sheep"; the surname "Jugayev" is common among <a href="/wiki/Ossetians" title="Ossetians">Ossetians</a>, and before the revolution names in <a href="/wiki/South_Ossetia" title="South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a> were traditionally written with the Georgian suffix, especially among Christianized Ossetians. Allusions to the hypothesis of Ossetian ethnicity of Stalin are present in the important <a href="/wiki/Stalin_Epigram" title="Stalin Epigram">Stalin Epigram</a> by <a href="/wiki/Osip_Mandelstam" title="Osip Mandelstam">Osip Mandelstam</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> ...When he has an execution it's a special treat, ...And the Ossetian chest swells. (Translation by A. S. Kline)</blockquote> Like many outlaws, Stalin used many aliases throughout his revolutionary career, of which "Stalin" was only the last. During his education in <a href="/wiki/Tiflis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiflis">Tiflis</a>, he picked up the nickname "Koba", after the <a href="/wiki/Robin_Hood" title="Robin Hood">Robin Hood</a>-like protagonist from the 1883 novel <a href="/wiki/The_Patricide" title="The Patricide">The Patricide</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kazbegi" title="Alexander Kazbegi">Alexander Kazbegi</a>. This became his favorite nickname throughout his revolutionary life.<a href="#cite_note-Service28-320">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-Radzinsky37-321">[319]</a> Stalin continued to use "Koba" as his Party name in the underground world of the RSDLP. During conversations, Lenin called Stalin "Koba". Among his friends he was sometimes known by his childhood nickname "Soso" – a Georgian diminutive form of the name "Ioseb". Stalin is also reported to have used at least a dozen other nicknames, pseudonyms and aliases such as "Josef Besoshvili"; "Ivanov"; "A. Ivanovich"; "Soselo" (a youthful nickname - Georgian სოსელო may mean "plain"<a href="#cite_note-322">[320]</a>), "K. Kato"; "G. Nizheradze"; "Chizhikov" or "Chizhnikov"; "Petrov"; "Vissarionovich" (his russified <a href="/wiki/Patronymic" title="Patronymic">patronymic</a>); "Vassilyi".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007395-211">[209]</a> Directly following World War II, as the Soviets were negotiating with the Allies, Stalin often sent directions to Molotov as "Druzhkov". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Allegations_of_being_an_Okhrana_agent">Allegations of being an Okhrana agent</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Allegations of being an Okhrana agent">edit</a>]</div> Stalin's apparent ease in escaping from Tsarist persecution and very light sentences led to rumours that he was an <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a> agent. His efforts in 1909 to root out traitors caused much strife within the party; some accused him of doing this deliberately on the orders of the Okhrana. The Menshevik <a href="/wiki/Razhden_Arsenidze" title="Razhden Arsenidze">Razhden Arsenidze</a> accused Stalin of betraying comrades he did not like to the Okhrana. The prominent Bolshevik <a href="/wiki/Stepan_Shaumian" title="Stepan Shaumian">Stepan Shaumian</a> directly accused Stalin of being an Okhrana agent in 1916. According to his personal secretary <a href="/wiki/Olga_Shatunovskaya" title="Olga Shatunovskaya">Olga Shatunovskaya</a>, these opinions were shared by <a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Kosior" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanislav Kosior">Stanislav Kosior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iona_Yakir" title="Iona Yakir">Iona Yakir</a> and other prominent Bolsheviks.<a href="#cite_note-Radzinsky79-81-323">[321]</a> The rumours were reinforced by being published in the Soviet Union memoirs of Domenty Vadachkory, who wrote that Stalin used an Okhrana badge (supposedly stolen by him) to help in his escape from the exile.<a href="#cite_note-ng-324">[322]</a> It also appears suspicious that Stalin played down the number of his escapes from prisons and exiles.<a href="#cite_note-Radzinsky79-81-323">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-kp-325">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-326">[324]</a> Still there was no hard evidence of Stalin's collaboration with the <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a> and a few alleged reports from Stalin to the <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a> published by the media appear to be forgeries.<a href="#cite_note-ng-324">[322]</a> Russian historian <a href="/wiki/Roy_Medvedev" title="Roy Medvedev">Roy Medvedev</a> referenced a written statement from an <a href="/wiki/Old_Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Bolshevik">Old Bolshevik</a>, G. Borisov, alleging that Stalin had been an Okhrana agent: <blockquote>"Stalin knew that if he was exposed and removed from power, he would be shot like <a href="/wiki/Roman_Malinovsky" title="Roman Malinovsky">Malinovsky</a>. But it was precisely in 1935 that certain documents compromising Stalin came into the hands of some prominent Party and NKVD officials.However, Stalin managed to forestall their plans, and they themselves were shot. Everything suggests that Stalin, the former Okhrana agent, remained a monarchist at heart: his autocratic predilections, his brutal contempt for revolutionaries, his ignorance of Marxist and socialist doctrine”.<a href="#cite_note-On_Stalin_and_Stalinism-327">[325]</a></blockquote> Medvedev however remained sceptical and argued that the Bolshevik had not provided any supporting evidence for his claim.<a href="#cite_note-On_Stalin_and_Stalinism-327">[325]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Simon_Sebag_Montefiore" title="Simon Sebag Montefiore">Simon Sebag Montefiore</a> found that in all surviving <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a> records Stalin is described as a revolutionary and never as a spy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007395-211">[209]</a> Montefiore argued that Stalin escaped from his exiles so frequently because the exile system was not secure: an exile only needed money and false papers to escape the village where he was settled, and thousands did.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007395-211">[209]</a> Stalin also had spies of his own in the Okhrana, warning him of their actions. In 1956, the magazine <a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)" title="Life (magazine)">Life</a> published <a href="/wiki/Eremin_letter" title="Eremin letter">the Eremin Letter</a>, supposedly written by Colonel Eremin, head of the Tiflis Okhrana, which stated that Stalin was an agent,<a href="#cite_note-328">[326]</a> but it has since been shown to be a forgery.<a href="#cite_note-329">[327]</a> In his 1967 biography of Stalin, Edward Ellis Smith argued that Stalin was an Okhrana agent by citing his suspicious ability to escape from Okhrana dragnets, travel unimpeded, and rabble-rouse full-time with no apparent source of income. One such example was the raid that occurred on the night of 3 April 1901, when nearly everyone of importance in the Socialist-Democratic movement in <a href="/wiki/Tiflis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiflis">Tiflis</a> was arrested, except for Stalin, who was apparently "enjoying the balmy spring air, and in one of his to-hell-with-the-revolution moods, [which] is too impossible for serious consideration."<a href="#cite_note-330">[328]</a> Montefiore, however, wrote that Stalin spotted Okhrana agents waiting for him outside his place of employment whilst he was riding a tram; he stayed on the tram and immediately went into hiding. Service thought there are "no serious grounds" for deeming Stalin an Okhrana agent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200472-331">[329]</a> Similarly, Robert Conquest was of the view that such claims "must be dismissed".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199139-332">[330]</a> Conversely, historian <a href="/wiki/Harold_Shukman" title="Harold Shukman">Harold Shukman</a> considered the notion that Stalin was an agent of the <a href="/wiki/Tsarist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsarist">Tsarist</a> <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a> as a “controversial and complex question”. Shukman argued that most of the contents of Stalin's Okhrana file were later destroyed which he attributed to “Stalin’s orders" as an attempt to remove compromising material. He also referenced the extreme lengths that Stalin went to falsify his personal details and erase links with an unidentified, coded agent who shared the same birthday.<a href="#cite_note-333">[331]</a> Historian Roman Brackman also shared this view as he described Stalin as having “inundated Soviet archives with fake documents in order to hide the record of his Okhrana service and to glorify his past as a revolutionary”.<a href="#cite_note-334">[332]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hingley" title="Ronald Hingley">Ronald Hingley</a> regarded the issue as an “intriguing problem which may never receive its final solution” and argued this was partly due to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_censorship" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet censorship">rewriting of history</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Stalinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalinist">Stalinist</a> regime. He also cited biographer Edward Ellis Smith who stated that most of the people who knew Stalin during his first thirty-seven years had been executed after being forced to sign falsified accounts. Smith himself considered it likely that Stalin was an Okhrana agent since 1899.<a href="#cite_note-335">[333]</a> According to the transcribed recollections of Nikolay Vladimirovich Veselago, a former Okhrana officer and relative of the director of the Russian police department <a href="/wiki/Stepan_Petrovich_Beletsky" title="Stepan Petrovich Beletsky">Stepan Petrovich Beletsky</a>, both Malinovsky and Stalin reported on Lenin as well as on each other although Stalin was unaware that Malinovosky was also a penetration agent.<a href="#cite_note-Chekisty:_A_History_of_the_KGB-286">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stalin-287">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-336">[334]</a> KGB archivist <a href="/wiki/Vasili_Mitrokhin" title="Vasili Mitrokhin">Vasili Mitrokhin</a> claimed that during a visit to a secret section of the Moscow Main Archives Directorate, he had been shown an Okhrana file on Stalin. He found the contents to have “been entirely removed”. He suspected that “whatever emptied the file, presumably on Stalin’s instructions, was later eliminated to preserve the dark secrets of its missing contents”.<a href="#cite_note-Penguin_Books_Limited-337">[335]</a> Mitrokhin acknowledged that this was not conclusive proof but referenced supporting evidence from a report produced by an Okhrana agent which detailed accusations from Baku Bolsheviks that Stalin had been an agent of the secret police and embezzled party funds.<a href="#cite_note-Penguin_Books_Limited-337">[335]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Official Soviet biographies listed Stalin's birthdate as 21 December 1879. It is not clear why he falsified it. See <a href="#CITEREFKhlevniuk2015">Khlevniuk (2015)</a>, p. 11 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Full Georgian name "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvilli" (იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი); Russified to "Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili" (Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMontefiore2010" class="citation book cs1">Montefiore, Simon Sebag (27 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WnPKRK0zNVcC&q=joseph+stalin+gangster">Young Stalin</a>. Orion. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-86384-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-86384-7"><bdi>978-0-297-86384-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Young+Stalin&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Orion&rft.date=2010-05-27&rft.isbn=978-0-297-86384-7&rft.aulast=Montefiore&rft.aufirst=Simon+Sebag&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWnPKRK0zNVcC%26q%3Djoseph%2Bstalin%2Bgangster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200414Montefiore200723-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200414Montefiore200723_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 14; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200416-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200416_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200416_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhlevniuk201511–13-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhlevniuk201511–13_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKhlevniuk2015">Khlevniuk 2015</a>, pp. 11–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199111Service200416Montefiore200723-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199111Service200416Montefiore200723_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 11; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 16; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> The couple's first child, Mikheil, was born on 14 February 1875, but died two months later. A second son, Giorgi, was born on 24 December 1876 but succumbed to <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> and died in June 1877. See <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service (2004)</a>, p. 16, <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore (2007)</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200724-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200724_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200416Montefiore200732-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200416Montefiore200732_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 16; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199111Service200419-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199111Service200419_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 11; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200730–31-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200730–31_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199110Volkogonov19915Service200417Montefiore200729-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199110Volkogonov19915Service200417Montefiore200729_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 10; <a href="#CITEREFVolkogonov1991">Volkogonov 1991</a>, p. 5; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 17; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Montefiore200731-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Montefiore200731_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200732-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200732_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200732_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200732_15-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200419-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200419_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200417-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200417_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200420-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200420_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Volkogonov19915Service200419Montefiore200731-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Volkogonov19915Service200419Montefiore200731_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFVolkogonov1991">Volkogonov 1991</a>, p. 5; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 19; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200731-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200731_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199111Service200420Montefiore200734-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199111Service200420Montefiore200734_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 11; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 20; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200732–33-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200732–33_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 32–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200727-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200727_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200727_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200727_23-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest19913–4Service200417Montefiore200725–26-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest19913–4Service200417Montefiore200725–26_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, pp. 3–4; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 17; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 25–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200733-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200733_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Service200417–18Montefiore200733-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Service200417–18Montefiore200733_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, pp. 17–18; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200734–35-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200734–35_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 34–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200735-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200735_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Service200430Montefiore200744-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Service200430Montefiore200744_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 30; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200743–44-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200743–44_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 43–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200744-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200744_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200749-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200749_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200749_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200749_32-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199113Service200430Montefiore200743-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199113Service200430Montefiore200743_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 30; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200745-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200745_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200426-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200426_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200426_35-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200420Montefiore200736-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200420Montefiore200736_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 20; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200740–41-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200740–41_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 40–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Service200425Montefiore200735,_46-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199112Service200425Montefiore200735,_46_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 25; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 35, 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200423Montefiore200747-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200423Montefiore200747_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 23; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200424-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200424_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200424Montefiore200747-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200424Montefiore200747_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 24; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199113Service200429Montefiore200750-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199113Service200429Montefiore200750_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 29; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200429-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200429_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200751-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200751_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200752-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200752_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200752–53-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200752–53_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200752–53_46-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 52–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200753-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200753_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200754–55-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200754–55_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 54–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200435-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200435_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200432-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200432_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199119Service200436Montefiore200756-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199119Service200436Montefiore200756_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 19; 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<a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200773-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200773_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200773_79-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200774-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200774_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199127Service200443Montefiore200776-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199127Service200443Montefiore200776_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 27; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 43; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200776-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200776_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200444-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200444_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200443-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200443_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200776–77-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200776–77_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 76–77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200777-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200777_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200777_86-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200777_86-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200779-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200779_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199127Montefiore200778-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199127Montefiore200778_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 27; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200778-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200778_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200778_89-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200778_89-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200445Montefiore200781-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200445Montefiore200781_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 45; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200445Montefiore200781–82-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200445Montefiore200781–82_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 45; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 81–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200782-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200782_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200782_92-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199128Montefiore200782-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199128Montefiore200782_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 28; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200787-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200787_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200787_94-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200783-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200783_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200787–88-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200787–88_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 87–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199128Service200448Montefiore200788-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199128Service200448Montefiore200788_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 28; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 48; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200790-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200790_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200790_98-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200790_98-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200793-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200793_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200793_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200793_99-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200793_99-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200791-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200791_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200795-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200795_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200795_101-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200795_101-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200791–92-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200791–92_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 91–92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200792-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200792_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200792_103-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200794-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200794_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200449Montefiore200794–95-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200449Montefiore200794–95_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 29; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 49; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 94–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200797–98-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200797–98_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 97–98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200798-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore200798_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200449Montefiore200798-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200449Montefiore200798_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 29; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 49; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200452Montefiore2007101-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200452Montefiore2007101_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 52; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007103-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007103_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007102-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007102_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007105-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007105_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007105_112-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200452Montefiore2007105-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200452Montefiore2007105_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 29; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 52; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007106-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007106_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007106_114-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Montefiore2007107-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Montefiore2007107_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 29; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007108,_110-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007108,_110_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 108, 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200452Montefiore2007108–110-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199129Service200452Montefiore2007108–110_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 29; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 52; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 108–110. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007111-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007111_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007112–113-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007112–113_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 112–113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199133–34Service200453Montefiore2007113-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199133–34Service200453Montefiore2007113_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, pp. 33–34; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 53; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200452Montefiore2007114–115-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200452Montefiore2007114–115_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 52; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 114–115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200452Montefiore2007115–116-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200452Montefiore2007115–116_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 52; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 115–116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200455Montefiore2007117-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200455Montefiore2007117_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 55; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007118-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007118_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200451–52,_54Montefiore2007117-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200451–52,_54Montefiore2007117_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, pp. 51–52, 54; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200455-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200455_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200454Montefiore2007117–118-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200454Montefiore2007117–118_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 54; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 117–118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200459-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200459_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200459_128-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199138Service200459-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199138Service200459_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 38; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007131-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007131_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199136Service200459Montefiore2007131-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199136Service200459Montefiore2007131_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 36; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 59; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200457Montefiore2007123-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200457Montefiore2007123_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 57; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007123–124-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007123–124_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 123–124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007124-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007124_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007126-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007126_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200456Montefiore2007126-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200456Montefiore2007126_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200456Montefiore2007126_136-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 56; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200456-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200456_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200458Montefiore2007128–129-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200458Montefiore2007128–129_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 58; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 128–129. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebag_Montefiore2007" class="citation book cs1">Sebag Montefiore, Simon (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/youngstalin00seba/page/n35/mode/2up?q=outfit">Young Stalin</a>. New York : Alfred A. Knopf. pp. xii, xxix, 10, 151–153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4465-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4465-8"><bdi>978-1-4000-4465-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Young+Stalin&rft.pages=xii%2C+xxix%2C+10%2C+151-153&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-4465-8&rft.aulast=Sebag+Montefiore&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyoungstalin00seba%2Fpage%2Fn35%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Doutfit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebag_Montefiore2007" class="citation book cs1">Sebag Montefiore, Simon (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/youngstalin00seba/page/n35/mode/2up?q=outfit">Young Stalin</a>. New York : Alfred A. Knopf. pp. xxix, 10, 151–153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4465-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4465-8"><bdi>978-1-4000-4465-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Young+Stalin&rft.pages=xxix%2C+10%2C+151-153&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-4465-8&rft.aulast=Sebag+Montefiore&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyoungstalin00seba%2Fpage%2Fn35%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Doutfit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007129-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007129_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007129_141-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007131–132-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007131–132_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 131–132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007132-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007132_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007143-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007143_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007132–133-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007132–133_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 132–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007135,_144-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007135,_144_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 135, 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007137-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007137_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007137_147-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200460Montefiore2007145-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200460Montefiore2007145_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 60; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007145-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007145_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199137Service200460-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199137Service200460_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 37; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007147-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007147_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007148–49-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007148–49_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 148–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007149-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007149_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007149–150-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007149–150_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 149–150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007151-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007151_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007151_155-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007153-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007153_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 153. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007151–152-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007151–152_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 151–152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007152-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007152_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007152_158-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007155-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007155_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007155_159-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 155. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199139–40Service200461Montefiore2007156-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199139–40Service200461Montefiore2007156_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, pp. 39–40; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 61; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200462-161">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200462_161-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200462_161-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007157-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007157_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199138Service200461Montefiore2007157-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199138Service200461Montefiore2007157_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 38; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 61; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199139–40Service200463Montefiore2007158-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199139–40Service200463Montefiore2007158_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, pp. 39–40; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 63; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199140Service200462-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199140Service200462_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 40; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007158-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007158_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007140-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007140_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200464Montefiore2007159-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200464Montefiore2007159_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 64; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007161-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007161_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 161. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007162–163-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007162–163_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 162–163. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200464Montefiore2007167-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200464Montefiore2007167_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 64; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007167-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007167_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200465-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200465_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199141Montefiore2007168-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199141Montefiore2007168_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 41; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007168-175"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007168_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200465Montefiore2007169–170-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200465Montefiore2007169–170_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 65; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 169–170. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200465Montefiore2007171-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200465Montefiore2007171_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 65; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 171. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007177-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007177_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007177_178-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199141–42Service200475-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199141–42Service200475_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, pp. 41–42; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007178–179-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007178–179_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 178–179. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007179-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007179_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 179. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200475-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200475_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007180-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007180_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007184-184"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007184_184-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 184. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199143–44Service200476Montefiore2007184-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199143–44Service200476Montefiore2007184_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, pp. 43–44; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 76; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 184. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007186-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007186_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007186_186-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007189-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007189_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007189_187-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007190-188">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007190_188-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007190_188-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007191-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007191_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007191_189-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007192-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007192_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 192. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007193-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007193_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199144Service200471Montefiore2007193-192"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199144Service200471Montefiore2007193_192-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 44; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 71; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007194-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007194_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200474Montefiore2007196-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200474Montefiore2007196_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 74; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007196-195"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007196_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007197-196"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007197_196-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007197–198-197"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007197–198_197-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 197–198. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007194–195-198"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007194–195_198-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 194–195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007195-199"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007195_199-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199144Service200468Montefiore2007203-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199144Service200468Montefiore2007203_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 44; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 68; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199145Montefiore2007203-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199145Montefiore2007203_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 45; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199145Montefiore2007203–204-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199145Montefiore2007203–204_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 45; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 203–204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007205-203"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007205_203-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199145Service200468Montefiore2007206-204"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199145Service200468Montefiore2007206_204-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 45; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 68; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007207-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007207_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007208-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007208_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007210-207">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007210_207-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007210_207-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007211-208"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007211_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199146Montefiore2007212-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199146Montefiore2007212_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 46; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 212. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007212-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007212_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 212. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007395-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007395_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007395_211-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007395_211-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007395_211-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 395. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007213-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007213_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 213. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007214-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007214_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007214_213-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 214. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007216-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007216_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199146Montefiore2007222-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199146Montefiore2007222_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 46; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199146Montefiore2007226-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199146Montefiore2007226_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 46; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007226-217"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007226_217-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007227,_229-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007227,_229_218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 227, 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200479Montefiore2007230–231-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200479Montefiore2007230–231_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 79; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 230–231. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007227-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007227_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 227. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007231-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007231_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199147Service200480Montefiore2007231,_234-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199147Service200480Montefiore2007231,_234_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 47; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 80; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 231, 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200479Montefiore2007234-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200479Montefiore2007234_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 79; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007236-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007236_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007237-225">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007237_225-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007237_225-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 237. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007238-226">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007238_226-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007238_226-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200482Montefiore2007238-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200482Montefiore2007238_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 82; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199148Service200483Montefiore2007240-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199148Service200483Montefiore2007240_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 48; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 83; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 240. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007240-229">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007240_229-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007240_229-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 240. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199148-230"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199148_230-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007241-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007241_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 241. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200484Montefiore2007243-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200484Montefiore2007243_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 84; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200484Montefiore2007247-233">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200484Montefiore2007247_233-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200484Montefiore2007247_233-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 84; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 247. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007247-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007247_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 247. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007243-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007243_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007244-236">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007244_236-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007244_236-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199151Montefiore2007248-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199151Montefiore2007248_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 51; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007249-238"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007249_238-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 249. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200486Montefiore2007250-239"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200486Montefiore2007250_239-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 86; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199151Service200486–87Montefiore2007250–251-240"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199151Service200486–87Montefiore2007250–251_240-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 51; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, pp. 86–87; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 250–251. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007252-241"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007252_241-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 252. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007253-242"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007253_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 253. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007255-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007255_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 255. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007256-244">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007256_244-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007256_244-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 256. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199152Service200487Montefiore2007256–258-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199152Service200487Montefiore2007256–258_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 52; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 87; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 256–258. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200488Montefiore2007258–259-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200488Montefiore2007258–259_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 88; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 258–259. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007261-247"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007261_247-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007263-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007263_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 263. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007262-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007262_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 262. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199154Service200489Montefiore2007263-250"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199154Service200489Montefiore2007263_250-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 54; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 89; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 263. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007264-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007264_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 264. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200489Montefiore2007264–265-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200489Montefiore2007264–265_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 89; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 264–265. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007266-253">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007266_253-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007266_253-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 266. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199154Service200489Montefiore2007265-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199154Service200489Montefiore2007265_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 54; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 89; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 265. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199153Service200485Montefiore2007266-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199153Service200485Montefiore2007266_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 53; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 85; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 266. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007267-256">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007267_256-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007267_256-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 267. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199153Service200485Montefiore2007267-257"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199153Service200485Montefiore2007267_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 53; <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 85; <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 267. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200485-258">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200485_258-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200485_258-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200485_258-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007268-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007268_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 268. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007267–268-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007267–268_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 267–268. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007268–269-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007268–269_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 268–269. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007269–270-262"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontefiore2007269–270_262-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, pp. 269–270. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199154Service2004102–103Montefiore2007270,_273-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199154Service2004102–103Montefiore2007270,_273_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 54; 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"Koba: The Riddle of Riddles" </li> <li id="cite_note-ng-324">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ng_324-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ng_324-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ng.ru/ideas/2002-07-03/11_agent.html">Агент Охранки или провокатор по призванию?</a> by Sergey Zemlyanoy <a href="/wiki/Nezavisimaya_Gazeta" title="Nezavisimaya Gazeta">Nezavisimaya Gazeta</a> 3 July 2002 (in Russian) </li> <li id="cite_note-kp-325"><a href="#cite_ref-kp_325-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kp.ru/daily/24197.3/402756/print/">Тайные грабежи Сталина крышевал Ленин</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090223071402/http://www.kp.ru/daily/24197.3/402756/print/">Archived</a> 2009-02-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Komsomolskaya_Pravda" title="Komsomolskaya Pravda">Komsomolskaya Pravda</a> 13 November 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nounivers.narod.ru/bibl/ostr.htm">СТАЛИН - АГЕНТ ОХРАНКИ: ЗА И ПРОТИВ</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081013005718/http://nounivers.narod.ru/bibl/ostr.htm">Archived</a> 2008-10-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by A. Ostrovsky (in Russian) </li> <li id="cite_note-On_Stalin_and_Stalinism-327">^ <a href="#cite_ref-On_Stalin_and_Stalinism_327-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-On_Stalin_and_Stalinism_327-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedvedev1979" class="citation book cs1">Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onstalinstalinis0000medv/page/16/mode/1up?q=Okhrana+">On Stalin and Stalinism</a>. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-215842-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-215842-0"><bdi>978-0-19-215842-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Stalin+and+Stalinism&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Oxford+%3B+New+York%3A+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-19-215842-0&rft.aulast=Medvedev&rft.aufirst=Roy+Aleksandrovich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonstalinstalinis0000medv%2Fpage%2F16%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fq%3DOkhrana%2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoman_Brackman2001" class="citation book cs1">Roman Brackman (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC">The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life</a>. Frank Cass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-5050-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-5050-0"><bdi>978-0-7146-5050-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+File+of+Joseph+Stalin%3A+A+Hidden+Life&rft.pub=Frank+Cass&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-5050-0&rft.au=Roman+Brackman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzQL8POkFGIQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2007">Montefiore 2007</a>, p. 188, ch. 25 </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> Smith, Edward Ellis.The Young Stalin. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1967. pg 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200472-331"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200472_331-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2004">Service 2004</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest199139-332"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest199139_332-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1991">Conquest 1991</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-333"><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShukman2004" class="citation book cs1">Shukman, Harold (23 November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j-7K1YFPrccC&q=redefinining+stalinism">Redefining Stalinism</a>. Routledge. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-76084-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-76084-7"><bdi>978-1-135-76084-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Redefining+Stalinism&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004-11-23&rft.isbn=978-1-135-76084-7&rft.aulast=Shukman&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj-7K1YFPrccC%26q%3Dredefinining%2Bstalinism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrackman2004" class="citation book cs1">Brackman, Roman (23 November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PY2RAgAAQBAJ&dq=only+one,+early,+biography+mentions+in+passing+that+stalin+was+an+agent+of+the+tsarist+secret+police,+the+okhrana.&pg=PP15">The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life</a>. Routledge. pp. Preface (1–10). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-75840-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-75840-0"><bdi>978-1-135-75840-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+File+of+Joseph+Stalin%3A+A+Hidden+Life&rft.pages=Preface+%281-10%29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004-11-23&rft.isbn=978-1-135-75840-0&rft.aulast=Brackman&rft.aufirst=Roman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPY2RAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Donly%2Bone%2C%2Bearly%2C%2Bbiography%2Bmentions%2Bin%2Bpassing%2Bthat%2Bstalin%2Bwas%2Ban%2Bagent%2Bof%2Bthe%2Btsarist%2Bsecret%2Bpolice%2C%2Bthe%2Bokhrana.%26pg%3DPP15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHingley2021" class="citation book cs1">Hingley, Ronald (30 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ARgoEAAAQBAJ">The Russian Secret Police: Muscovite, Imperial Russian and Soviet Political Security Operations 1565–1970</a>. Routledge. pp. 50–322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-37135-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-37135-2"><bdi>978-1-000-37135-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Secret+Police%3A+Muscovite%2C+Imperial+Russian+and+Soviet+Political+Security+Operations+1565%E2%80%931970&rft.pages=50-322&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021-05-30&rft.isbn=978-1-000-37135-2&rft.aulast=Hingley&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DARgoEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-336"><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrackman2004" class="citation book cs1">Brackman, Roman (23 November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PY2RAgAAQBAJ&dq=Nikolay+Veselago+stalin&pg=PA369">The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life</a>. Routledge. p. 369. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-75840-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-75840-0"><bdi>978-1-135-75840-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+File+of+Joseph+Stalin%3A+A+Hidden+Life&rft.pages=369&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004-11-23&rft.isbn=978-1-135-75840-0&rft.aulast=Brackman&rft.aufirst=Roman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPY2RAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3DNikolay%2BVeselago%2Bstalin%26pg%3DPA369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Penguin_Books_Limited-337">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Penguin_Books_Limited_337-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Penguin_Books_Limited_337-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin2015" class="citation book cs1">Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (6 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tiNqCAAAQBAJ&dq=The+Mitrokhin+Archive:+The+KGB+in+Europe+and+the+West+stalin+okhrana&pg=PT59">The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West</a>. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 1–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-196646-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-196646-5"><bdi>978-0-14-196646-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mitrokhin+Archive%3A+The+KGB+in+Europe+and+the+West&rft.pages=1-60&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=2015-08-06&rft.isbn=978-0-14-196646-5&rft.aulast=Andrew&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Mitrokhin%2C+Vasili&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtiNqCAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DThe%2BMitrokhin%2BArchive%3A%2BThe%2BKGB%2Bin%2BEurope%2Band%2Bthe%2BWest%2Bstalin%2Bokhrana%26pg%3DPT59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConquest1991" class="citation cs2">Conquest, Robert (1991), Stalin: Breaker of Nations, New York and London: Penguin, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140169539" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140169539"><bdi>978-0140169539</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+Breaker+of+Nations&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0140169539&rft.aulast=Conquest&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopædia_Britannica2022" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Stalin">"Joseph Stalin: premier of Soviet Union"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Retrieved March 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joseph+Stalin%3A+premier+of+Soviet+Union&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2022&rft.au=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FJoseph-Stalin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhlevniuk2015" class="citation book cs1">Khlevniuk, Oleg V. (2015). Stalin: New Biography of a Dictator. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16388-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16388-9"><bdi>978-0-300-16388-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+New+Biography+of+a+Dictator&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-300-16388-9&rft.aulast=Khlevniuk&rft.aufirst=Oleg+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKotkin2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kotkin" title="Stephen Kotkin">Kotkin, Stephen</a> (2014). <a href="/wiki/Stalin:_Paradoxes_of_Power,_1878-1928" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878-1928">Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878-1928</a>. New York: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1594203794" title="Special:BookSources/978-1594203794"><bdi>978-1594203794</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+Paradoxes+of+Power%2C+1878-1928&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1594203794&rft.aulast=Kotkin&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKotkin2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kotkin" title="Stephen Kotkin">Kotkin, Stephen</a> (2017). <a href="/wiki/Stalin:_Waiting_for_Hitler,_1929%E2%80%931941" title="Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941">Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941</a>. New York: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-141-02795-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-141-02795-1"><bdi>978-0-141-02795-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+Waiting+for+Hitler%2C+1929%E2%80%931941&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-141-02795-1&rft.aulast=Kotkin&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontefiore2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Sebag_Montefiore" title="Simon Sebag Montefiore">Montefiore, Simon Sebag</a> (2007). Young Stalin. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-85068-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-85068-7"><bdi>978-0-297-85068-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Young+Stalin&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-297-85068-7&rft.aulast=Montefiore&rft.aufirst=Simon+Sebag&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadzinsky1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Radzinsky" title="Edvard Radzinsky">Radzinsky, Edvard</a> (1997), <a href="/wiki/Stalin:_The_First_In-depth_Biography_Based_on_Explosive_New_Documents_from_Russia%27s_Secret_Archives" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin: The First In-depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives">Stalin: The First In-depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives</a>, Anchor, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-47954-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-47954-7"><bdi>978-0-385-47954-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+The+First+In-depth+Biography+Based+on+Explosive+New+Documents+from+Russia%27s+Secret+Archives&rft.pub=Anchor&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-385-47954-7&rft.aulast=Radzinsky&rft.aufirst=Edvard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFService2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Service_(historian)" title="Robert Service (historian)">Service, Robert</a> (2004), <a href="/wiki/Stalin:_A_Biography" title="Stalin: A Biography">Stalin: A Biography</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+A+Biography&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Service&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuny2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Grigor_Suny" title="Ronald Grigor Suny">Suny, Ronald Grigor</a> (2020). Stalin: Passage to Revolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+Passage+to+Revolution&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press.&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Suny&rft.aufirst=Ronald+Grigor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolkogonov1991" class="citation book cs1">Volkogonov, Dimitri (1991). Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy. Translated by Harold Shukman. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297810803" title="Special:BookSources/978-0297810803"><bdi>978-0297810803</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+Triumph+and+Tragedy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+and+Nicolson&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0297810803&rft.aulast=Volkogonov&rft.aufirst=Dimitri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiemke2004" class="citation book cs1">Ziemke, Earl F (2004). The Red Army, 1918-1941: From Vanguard of World Revolution to America's Ally. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135769185" title="Special:BookSources/9781135769185"><bdi>9781135769185</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Red+Army%2C+1918-1941%3A+From+Vanguard+of+World+Revolution+to+America%27s+Ally&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781135769185&rft.aulast=Ziemke&rft.aufirst=Earl+F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZubok2007" class="citation book cs1">Zubok, Vladislav M. (2007). A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-9905-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-9905-2"><bdi>978-0-8078-9905-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Failed+Empire%3A+The+Soviet+Union+in+the+Cold+War+from+Stalin+to+Gorbachev&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-9905-2&rft.aulast=Zubok&rft.aufirst=Vladislav+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+life+of+Joseph+Stalin" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Joseph_Stalin" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Joseph_Stalin" title="Template:Joseph Stalin"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Joseph_Stalin" title="Template talk:Joseph Stalin"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Joseph_Stalin" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Joseph Stalin"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Joseph_Stalin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (1922–1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union">Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union</a> (1946–1953)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_during_the_Russian_Revolution,_Civil_War,_and_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Stalin during the Russian Revolution, Civil War, and the Polish–Soviet War">Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Joseph Stalin">Rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">Rule as Soviet leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Political views of Joseph Stalin">Political views</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Joseph Stalin's cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">Death and state funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality_in_the_Soviet_Union_under_Joseph_Stalin" title="Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin">Death toll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">Anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)</a>/<a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">(1928–1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolkhoz" title="Kolkhoz">Kolkhoz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovkhoz" title="Sovkhoz">Sovkhoz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="First five-year plan (Soviet Union)">First five-year plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">16th</a> / <a href="/wiki/17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">17th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1931_Menshevik_Trial" title="1931 Menshevik Trial">1931 Menshevik Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_rebellion_in_Xinjiang_(1937)" title="Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)">1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1937_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1937 Soviet Union legislative election">1937 legislative election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">18th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Peace_Treaty" title="Moscow Peace Treaty">Moscow Peace Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Axis_talks" title="German–Soviet Axis talks">German–Soviet Axis talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project" title="Soviet atomic bomb project">Soviet atomic bomb project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Rebellion" title="Ili Rebellion">Ili Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1946 Soviet Union legislative election">1946 legislative election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">1946 Iran crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship,_Alliance_and_Mutual_Assistance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance">Sino-Soviet Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1950 Soviet Union legislative election">1950 legislative election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenizatsiya">Korenizatsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_One_Country" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialism in One Country">Socialism in One Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Break_(USSR)" title="Great Break (USSR)">Great Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">Socialist realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggravation_of_class_struggle_under_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Aggravation of class struggle under socialism">Aggravation of class struggle under socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Construction_Projects_of_Communism" title="Great Construction Projects of Communism">Great Construction Projects of Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineers_of_the_human_soul" title="Engineers of the human soul">Engineers of the human soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936 Soviet Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Soviet_man" title="New Soviet man">New Soviet man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stakhanovite" class="mw-redirect" title="Stakhanovite">Stakhanovite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_plan_for_the_transformation_of_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's plan for the transformation of nature">Transformation of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backwardness_brings_on_beatings_by_others" title="Backwardness brings on beatings by others">Backwardness brings on beatings by others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crimes, repressions, and controversies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1906_Bolshevik_raid_on_the_Tsarevich_Giorgi" title="1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi">1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1907_Tiflis_bank_robbery" title="1907 Tiflis bank robbery">1907 Tiflis bank robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian Affair">Georgian Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decossackization" class="mw-redirect" title="Decossackization">Decossackization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">Dekulakization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wittorf_affair" title="Wittorf affair">Wittorf affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Break_(USSR)" title="Great Break (USSR)">Great Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Christ_the_Saviour" title="Cathedral of Christ the Saviour">Demolition of Cathedral of Christ the Saviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–33">Soviet famine of 1932–33</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Kirov" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Kirov">Murder of Sergey Kirov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_of_Trotskyist_Anti-Soviet_Military_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization">Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres" title="NKVD prisoner massacres">NKVD prisoner massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Berezhany" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Berezhany">Berezhany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berezwecz-Taklinovo_Death_Road" title="Berezwecz-Taklinovo Death Road">Berezwecz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Dubno" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Dubno">Dubno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_of_Chortkiv_Prison" title="Evacuation of Chortkiv Prison">Chortkiv </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurapaty" title="Kurapaty">Kurapaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy%C5%84_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyń massacre">Katyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Lutsk" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Lutsk">Lutsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres_in_Lviv" title="NKVD prisoner massacres in Lviv">Lviv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medvedev_Forest_massacre" title="Medvedev Forest massacre">Medvedev Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Sambir" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Sambir">Sambir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valozhyn-Tarasovo_Death_Road" title="Valozhyn-Tarasovo Death Road">Valozhyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vileyka-Barysaw_Death_Road" title="Vileyka-Barysaw Death Road">Vileyka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinnytsia_massacre" title="Vinnytsia massacre">Vinnytsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Zolochiv" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Zolochiv">Zolochiv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Trials">Moscow Trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotel_Lux" title="Hotel Lux">Hotel Lux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_repressions_in_Azerbaijan" title="Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan">Repressions in Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ideological repression in science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavists_case" title="Slavists case">Slavists case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Census_(1937)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Census (1937)">1937 Soviet Census</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge_of_the_Red_Army_in_1941" class="mw-redirect" title="Purge of the Red Army in 1941">1941 Red Army purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler_Youth_Conspiracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler Youth Conspiracy">Hitler Youth Conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_and_antisemitism" title="Joseph Stalin and antisemitism">Allegations of antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a> (<a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_population_transfers" title="German–Soviet population transfers">German–Soviet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet deportations">Deportations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Chechens_and_Ingush" class="mw-redirect" title="Deportation of Chechens and Ingush">Operation "Lentil"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations_from_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet deportations from Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Koreans_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union">Koreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_North" title="Operation North">Operation "North"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation "Priboi"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazino_affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazino affair">Nazino affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">Forced settlement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_on_trees" title="Tax on trees">Tax on trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946%E2%80%9347" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1946–47">1946–1947 Soviet famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leningrad_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad Affair">Leningrad Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Mingrelian Affair">Mingrelian Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cosmopolitan" title="Rootless cosmopolitan">Rootless cosmopolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Murdered_Poets" title="Night of the Murdered Poets">Night of the Murdered Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_plot" title="Doctors' plot">Doctors' plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Anarchism_or_Socialism%3F" title="Anarchism or Socialism?">Anarchism or Socialism?</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_the_National_Question" title="Marxism and the National Question">Marxism and the National Question</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Leninism" title="Foundations of Leninism">Foundations of Leninism</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Dizzy_with_Success" title="Dizzy with Success">Dizzy with Success</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_the_Peoples_of_Russia" title="Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia">Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_ten_blows" title="Stalin's ten blows">"Ten Blows" speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_alleged_speech_of_19_August_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's alleged speech of 19 August 1939">Alleged 19 August 1939 speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiers_of_History" title="Falsifiers of History">Falsifiers of History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Note" title="Stalin Note">Stalin Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_(Bolsheviks)" class="mw-redirect" title="The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)">The History of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936 Soviet Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's poetry">Stalin's poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_and_Historical_Materialism" title="Dialectical and Historical Materialism">Dialectical and Historical Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_No._227" title="Order No. 227">Order No. 227</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_No._270" title="Order No. 270">Order No. 270</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_Problems_of_Linguistics" title="Marxism and Problems of Linguistics">Marxism and Problems of Linguistics</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Problems_of_Socialism_in_the_USSR" title="Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR">Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">20th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pospelov_Commission" title="Pospelov Commission">Pospelov Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Gomulka thaw (Polish October)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Nonconformist_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Nonconformist Art">Soviet Nonconformist Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvernik_Commission" title="Shvernik Commission">Shvernik Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Criticism and opposition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Epigram" title="Stalin Epigram">Stalin Epigram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenin%27s_Testament" title="Lenin's Testament">Lenin's Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryutin_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryutin Affair">Ryutin Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_left" title="Anti-Stalinist left">Anti-Stalinist left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kremlin_Plot" title="Kremlin Plot">Kremlin Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True_Communists" title="True Communists">True Communists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkness_at_Noon" title="Darkness at Noon">Darkness at Noon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Farm" title="Animal Farm">Animal Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Nazism_and_Stalinism" title="Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism">Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Soviet_Story" title="The Soviet Story">The Soviet Story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_and_antisemitism" title="Joseph Stalin and antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Remembrance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IS_tank_family" title="IS tank family">Iosif Stalin tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_locomotive_class_IS" title="Soviet locomotive class IS">Iosif Stalin locomotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalissimo_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Generalissimo of the Soviet Union">Generalissimo of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statues_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="List of statues of Joseph Stalin">Stalin statues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Moscow" title="Pantheon, Moscow">Pantheon, Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1956 Georgian demonstrations">1956 Georgian demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honours_bestowed_upon_Joseph_Stalin" title="List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin">List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Joseph_Stalin,_Berlin" title="Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin">Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Monument_(Budapest)" title="Stalin Monument (Budapest)">Stalin Monument in Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Monument_(Prague)" title="Stalin Monument (Prague)">Stalin Monument in Prague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_Museum,_Gori" title="Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori">Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batumi_Stalin_Museum" title="Batumi Stalin Museum">Batumi Stalin Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_after_Joseph_Stalin" title="List of places named after Joseph Stalin">Places named after Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Stalin_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="State Stalin Prize">State Stalin Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin Peace Prize">Stalin Peace Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Society" title="Stalin Society">Stalin Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Bloc_%E2%80%93_For_the_USSR" title="Stalin Bloc – For the USSR">Stalin Bloc – For the USSR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural depictions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse:_Stalin" title="Apocalypse: Stalin">Apocalypse: Stalin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Besarion_Jughashvili" title="Besarion Jughashvili">Besarion Jughashvili</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keke_Geladze" title="Keke Geladze">Keke Geladze</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kato_Svanidze" title="Kato Svanidze">Kato Svanidze</a> (first wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Dzhugashvili" title="Yakov Dzhugashvili">Yakov Dzhugashvili</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Kuzakov" title="Konstantin Kuzakov">Konstantin Kuzakov</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artyom_Sergeyev" title="Artyom Sergeyev">Artyom Sergeyev</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadezhda_Alliluyeva" title="Nadezhda Alliluyeva">Nadezhda Alliluyeva</a> (second wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Stalin" title="Vasily Stalin">Vasily Stalin</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Alliluyeva" title="Svetlana Alliluyeva">Svetlana Alliluyeva</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Dzhugashvili" title="Yevgeny Dzhugashvili">Yevgeny Dzhugashvili</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galina_Dzhugashvili" title="Galina Dzhugashvili">Galina Dzhugashvili</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Alliluyev" title="Joseph Alliluyev">Joseph Alliluyev</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Alliluyev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei Alliluyev">Sergei Alliluyev</a> (second father-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Svanidze" title="Alexander Svanidze">Alexander Svanidze</a> (brother-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Zhdanov" title="Yuri Zhdanov">Yuri Zhdanov</a> (son-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wesley_Peters" title="William Wesley Peters">William Wesley Peters</a> (son-in-law)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_residences" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's residences">Stalin's residences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_house,_Gori" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's house, Gori">Stalin's house, Gori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tbilisi_Theological_Seminary" title="Tbilisi Theological Seminary">Tiflis Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kureika_(village)" title="Kureika (village)">Kureika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Kremlin">Room at Kremlin</a></li> <li>Dachas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuntsevo_Dacha" title="Kuntsevo Dacha">Kuntsevo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sochi_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sochi Dacha (page does not exist)">Sochi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uspenskoye_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uspenskoye Dacha (page does not exist)">Uspenskoye</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semyonovskoye_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Semyonovskoye Dacha (page does not exist)">Semyonovskoye</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Athos_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Athos Dacha (page does not exist)">New Athos</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kholodnaya_Rechka_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kholodnaya Rechka Dacha (page does not exist)">Kholodnaya Rechka</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_Ritsa_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lake Ritsa Dacha (page does not exist)">Lake Ritsa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sukhumi_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sukhumi Dacha (page does not exist)">Sukhumi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_bunker,_Samara" title="Stalin's bunker, Samara">Stalin's bunker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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