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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Homo rudolfensis</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81" title="إنسان بحيرة رودولف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إنسان بحيرة رودولف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="رودولف اینسانی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رودولف اینسانی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81%DB%8C" title="انسان رودولفی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انسان رودولفی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%B8%EB%AA%A8_%EB%A3%A8%EB%8F%8C%ED%8E%9C%EC%8B%9C%EC%8A%A4" title="호모 루돌펜시스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="호모 루돌펜시스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A4%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A1" title="הומו רודולפנסיס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הומו רודולפנסיס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9B%E3%83%A2%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AB%E3%83%89%E3%83%AB%E3%83%95%E3%82%A8%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B7%E3%82%B9" title="ホモ・ルドルフエンシス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ホモ・ルドルフエンシス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%89%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%B3" title="هومو روډلفينسس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هومو روډلفينسس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Человек рудольфский – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Человек рудольфский" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Clovek_turkansk%C3%BD" title="Človek turkanský – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Človek turkanský" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolfm%C3%A4nniska" title="Rudolfmänniska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rudolfmänniska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%8E%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Людина рудольфійська – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Людина рудольфійська" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Homo rudolfensis" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%A7%E5%A4%9A%E7%88%BE%E5%A4%AB%E4%BA%BA" title="盧多爾夫人 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="盧多爾夫人" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=H._rudolfensis&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="H. rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Extinct hominin from the Early Pleistocene of East Africa</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><i>Homo rudolfensis</i><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>, <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">2.5/1.9–1.85/1.55 <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:17.583076923077px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.22px; width:14.807692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:70.027692307692px; width:7.9470769230769px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:77.974769230769px; width:20.564923076923px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.539692307692px; width:20.294153846154px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.732307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:171.56615384615px; width:26.095384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.540307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20184615385px; width:6.9249230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"> <div style="position:absolute; left:219.55465587045px; font-size:50%"><div style="position:relative; left:-0.42em">↓</div></div> </div> </div></span></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:KNM_ER_1470_(H._rudolfensis).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Reconstruction of the KNM-ER 1470 skull" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/KNM_ER_1470_%28H._rudolfensis%29.png/220px-KNM_ER_1470_%28H._rudolfensis%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/KNM_ER_1470_%28H._rudolfensis%29.png/330px-KNM_ER_1470_%28H._rudolfensis%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/KNM_ER_1470_%28H._rudolfensis%29.png/440px-KNM_ER_1470_%28H._rudolfensis%29.png 2x" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="439" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Reconstruction of the KNM-ER 1470 skull </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Homo/%3F" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Class: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Suborder: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">Haplorhini</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Infraorder: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Simian" title="Simian">Simiiformes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Family: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Hominidae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Subfamily: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Homininae" title="Homininae">Homininae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tribe: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominini</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genus: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo"><i>Homo <span style="font-style:normal;">(?)</span></i></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Species: </td> <td><div style="display:inline" class="species">†<i><b>H. rudolfensis</b></i></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><b><span class="binomial"><span style="font-weight:normal;">†</span><i>Homo rudolfensis</i></span></b><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Valery_Alekseyev_(anthropologist)" title="Valery Alekseyev (anthropologist)">Alekseyev</a>, 1986)</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pithecanthropus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pithecanthropus">Pithecanthropus</a> rudolfensis</i> <small><a href="/wiki/Valery_Alekseyev_(anthropologist)" title="Valery Alekseyev (anthropologist)">Alekseyev</a>, 1986</small></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a> rudolfensis</i> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Valery_Alekseyev_(anthropologist)" title="Valery Alekseyev (anthropologist)">Alekseyev</a>, 1986)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a> rudolfensis</i> <small>(<a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Cameron_(anthropologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Cameron (anthropologist) (page does not exist)">Cameron</a>, 2003)</small></li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p><i><b>Homo rudolfensis</b></i> is an extinct species of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic human">archaic human</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Early_Pleistocene" title="Early Pleistocene">Early Pleistocene</a> of East Africa about 2 million years ago (mya). Because <i>H. rudolfensis</i> coexisted with several other <a href="/wiki/Hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominin">hominins</a>, it is debated what specimens can be confidently assigned to this species beyond the <a href="/wiki/Lectotype" class="mw-redirect" title="Lectotype">lectotype</a> skull KNM-ER 1470 and other partial skull aspects. No bodily remains are definitively assigned to <i>H. rudolfensis</i>. Consequently, both its <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">generic</a> classification and validity are debated without any wide consensus, with some recommending the species to actually belong to the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i> as <i><b>A. rudolfensis</b></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a></i> as <i><b>K. rudolfensis</b></i>, or that it is <a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">synonymous</a> with the contemporaneous and anatomically similar <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i>. </p><p><i>H. rudolfensis</i> is distinguished from <i>H. habilis</i> by larger size, but it is also argued that this species actually consists of male <i>H. habilis</i> specimens, assuming that <i>H. habilis</i> was <a href="/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually dimorphic">sexually dimorphic</a> and males were much larger than females. Because no bodily remains are definitely identified, body size estimates are largely based on the stature of <i>H. habilis</i>. Using this, male <i>H. rudolfensis</i> may have averaged about 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) in height and 60 kg (130 lb) in weight, and females 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) and 51 kg (112 lb). KNM-ER 1470 had a brain volume of about 750 cc (46 cu in). Like other early <i>Homo</i>, <i>H. rudolfensis</i> had large <a href="/wiki/Cheek_teeth" title="Cheek teeth">cheek teeth</a> and thick <a href="/wiki/Tooth_enamel" title="Tooth enamel">enamel</a>. </p><p>Early <i>Homo</i> species exhibit marked brain growth compared to <i>Australopithecus</i> predecessors, which is typically explained as a change in diet with a calorie-rich food source, namely meat. Though not associated with tools, dental anatomy suggests some processing of plant or meat fiber before consumption, though the mouth could still effectively chew through mechanically challenging food, indicating tool use did not greatly affect diet. </p> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.760em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Hominin timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_timeline" title="Template talk:Human timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:50.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−10 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:47.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−9 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:40.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−8 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−7 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:32.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−6 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−5 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:-0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#FFE4F1"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.665em;height:23.335em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.667em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1231500821">@supports(writing-mode:vertical-lr){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-text{letter-spacing:-0.12em;line-height:1em;text-orientation:upright;writing-mode:vertical-lr;width:1em}}</style><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Miocene</span></a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:12.900em;height:13.765em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.883em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.058em;height:12.841em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.421em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.000em;height:36.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-6.7em;left:-0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-18.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominini</a></b></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:48.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:46.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Samburupithecus" title="Samburupithecus">Samburupithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus" title="Ouranopithecus">Ouranopithecus</a></span></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_turkae" title="Ouranopithecus turkae">Ou. turkae</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_macedoniensis" title="Ouranopithecus macedoniensis">Ou. macedoniensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0.4em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Chororapithecus" title="Chororapithecus">Chororapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:35.000em;height:10.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.75em;left:-0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Oreopithecus" title="Oreopithecus">Oreopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.75em;left:-0.4em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sivapithecus" title="Sivapithecus">Sivapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Graecopithecus" title="Graecopithecus">Graecopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-1.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2.5em;left:0.15em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. praegens</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. tugenensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.000em;height:6.850em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-3.75em;left:-0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.425em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.700em;height:1.150em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.575em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Ar. kadabba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:21.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">Ar. ramidus</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:16.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:3em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Au. africanus</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">Au. afarensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Au. anamensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#DCEEFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:8.250em;height:5.750em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.9em;left:-0.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.875em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a class="mw-selflink selflink">H. rudolfensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">Au. garhi</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.570em;height:9.430em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.5em;left:-1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.715em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">Au. sediba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:-0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.500em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.7em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.750em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern human">Homo sapiens</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.200em;left:1.300em;width:3.900em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.100em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:1.050em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.8em;left:2.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.525em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.4em;left:2.8em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:8.500em;left:11.700em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:10.860em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution#Hominidae" title="Timeline of human evolution">Earlier apes</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:45.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Earliest bipedal</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:29.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Earliest sign of <i>Ardipithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Earliest sign of <i>Australopithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age#Beginning_of_the_Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Earliest stone tools</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/LD_350-1" title="LD 350-1">Earliest sign of<br /> <i>Homo</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:10.600em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa" title="Early expansions of hominins out of Africa">Dispersal beyond Africa</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.550em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Earliest language</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Earliest fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cooking#History" title="Cooking">cooking</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.6em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Rock_art#East_Asia" title="Rock art">Earliest rock art</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.625em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Clothing#Origin_and_history" title="Clothing">Earliest clothes</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.250em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Modern humans</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:21.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:0.25em;left:-5em;width:7em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:110%"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">H o m i n i d s</a></span></b></span></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:3.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:3.25em;left:-5em;width:7em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:85%;"><b><span style="font-size:85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">P a r a n t h r o p u s</a></span></span></b></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.000em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_history">Research history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Homo_rudolfensis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Research history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="border: 1px solid #ccc; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px; margin:0.2em 1em 0.2em 0; float:left; clear:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding: 5px"> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1261294616">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto;display:table}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf p{padding-right:5px;padding-left:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade" style="font-size:85%;line-height:75%;width:300px;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><b>H. rudolfensis</b></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">H. neanderthalensis</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">H. sapiens</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; font-size: 88%; border: 0; padding: 0;"><i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> family tree showing <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i> at the base as offshoots of the human line<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Homo_rudolfensis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Homo_rudolfensis.png/220px-Homo_rudolfensis.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Homo_rudolfensis.png/330px-Homo_rudolfensis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Homo_rudolfensis.png/440px-Homo_rudolfensis.png 2x" data-file-width="1735" data-file-height="1683" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of <i>H. rudolfensis</i> by <a href="/wiki/Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n" title="Mauricio Antón">Mauricio Antón</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first fossils were discovered in 1972 along <a href="/wiki/Lake_Turkana" title="Lake Turkana">Lake Turkana</a> (at the time called Lake Rudolf) in Kenya, and were detailed by Kenyan palaeoanthropologist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Leakey" title="Richard Leakey">Richard Leakey</a> the following year. The specimens were: a large and nearly complete skull (KNM-ER 1470, the <a href="/wiki/Lectotype" class="mw-redirect" title="Lectotype">lectotype</a>) discovered by Bernard Ngeneo, a local; a right <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a> (KNM-ER 1472) discovered by J. Harris; an upper femur (proximal) fragment (KNM-ER 1475) discovered by fossil collector <a href="/wiki/Kamoya_Kimeu" title="Kamoya Kimeu">Kamoya Kimeu</a>; and a complete left femur (KNM-ER 1481) discovered by Harris. However, it is unclear if the femora belong to the same species as the skull. Leakey classified them under the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> because he had reconstructed the skull fragments so that it had a large brain volume and a flat face, but did not assign them to a species. Because the <a href="/wiki/Horizon_(geology)" title="Horizon (geology)">horizon</a> they were discovered in was, at the time, dated to 2.9–2.6 million years ago (mya), Leakey thought these specimens were a very early human ancestor.<sup id="cite_ref-Leakey1973_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leakey1973-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This challenged the major model of human evolution at the time where <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Australopithecus africanus</a></i> gave rise to <i>Homo</i> about 2.5 mya, but if <i>Homo</i> had already existed at this time, it would call for serious revisions.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the area was redated to about 2 mya in 1977 (the same time period as <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a></i>/<i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and more precisely to 2.1–1.95 mya in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were first assigned to the species <i>habilis</i> in 1975 by anthropologists <a href="/wiki/Colin_Groves" title="Colin Groves">Colin Groves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vratislav_Maz%C3%A1k" title="Vratislav Mazák">Vratislav Mazák</a>. In 1978, in a joint paper with Leakey and English anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Alan_Walker_(anthropologist)" title="Alan Walker (anthropologist)">Alan Walker</a>, Walker suggested the remains belong in <i>Australopithecus</i> (and that the skull was incorrectly reconstructed), but Leakey still believed they belonged to <i>Homo</i>, though they both agreed that the remains could belong to <i>habilis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>KNM-ER 1470 was much larger than the Olduvai remains, so the terms <i>H. habilis <a href="/wiki/Sensu_lato" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu lato">sensu lato</a></i> ("in the broad sense") and <i>H. habilis <a href="/wiki/Sensu_stricto" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu stricto">sensu stricto</a></i> ("in the strict sense") were used to include or exclude the larger morph, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan2012_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Argue2017_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Argue2017-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1986, English palaeoanthropologist Bernard Wood first suggested these remains represent a different <i>Homo</i> species, which coexisted with <i>H. habilis</i> and <i>H. ergaster</i>/<i>H. erectus</i>. Coexisting <i>Homo</i> species conflicted with the predominant model of human evolution at the time which was that modern humans evolved in a straight line directly from <i>H. ergaster</i>/<i>H. erectus</i> which evolved directly from <i>H. habilis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1986, the remains were placed into a new species, <i>rudolfensis</i>, by Russian anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Valery_Alekseyev_(anthropologist)" title="Valery Alekseyev (anthropologist)">Valery Alekseyev</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (but he used the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Pithecanthropus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pithecanthropus">Pithecanthropus</a></i>, which was changed to <i>Homo</i> three years later by Groves).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1999, Kennedy argued that the name was invalid because Alekseyev had not assigned a <a href="/wiki/Holotype" title="Holotype">holotype</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pointing out that this is in fact not mandatory, Wood the same year nevertheless designated KNM-ER 1470 as the lectotype.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood1999_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the validity of this species has also been debated on material grounds, with some arguing that <i>H. habilis</i> was highly <a href="/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually dimorphic">sexually dimorphic</a> like modern non-human apes, with the larger skulls classified as "<i>H. rudolfensis</i>" actually representing male <i>H. habilis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Argue2017_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Argue2017-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wood1999_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1999, Wood and biological anthropologist Mark Collard recommended moving <i>rudolfensis</i> and <i>habilis</i> to <i>Australopithecus</i> based on the similarity of dental adaptations. However, they conceded that dental anatomy is highly variable among <a href="/wiki/Hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominin">hominins</a> and not always reliable when formulating family trees.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Homo_rudolfensis_KNM-ER_1802_IMG_5634_BMNH.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Homo_rudolfensis_KNM-ER_1802_IMG_5634_BMNH.jpg/220px-Homo_rudolfensis_KNM-ER_1802_IMG_5634_BMNH.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Homo_rudolfensis_KNM-ER_1802_IMG_5634_BMNH.jpg/330px-Homo_rudolfensis_KNM-ER_1802_IMG_5634_BMNH.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Homo_rudolfensis_KNM-ER_1802_IMG_5634_BMNH.jpg/440px-Homo_rudolfensis_KNM-ER_1802_IMG_5634_BMNH.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3331" data-file-height="2392" /></a><figcaption>KNM-ER 1802</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2003, Australian anthropologist David Cameron concluded that the earlier <a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">australopithecine</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus_platyops" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenyanthropus platyops">Kenyanthropus platyops</a></i> was the ancestor of <i>rudolfensis</i>, and reclassified it as <i>K. rudolfensis</i>. He also believed that <i>Kenyanthropus</i> was more closely related to <i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></i> than <i>Homo</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, a re-reconstruction of the skull concluded it was incorrectly restored originally, though agreed with the classification as <i>H. rudolfensis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bromage2008_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bromage2008-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012, British palaeoanthropologist <a href="/wiki/Meave_Leakey" title="Meave Leakey">Meave Leakey</a> described the juvenile partial face KNM-ER 62000 discovered in <a href="/wiki/Koobi_Fora" title="Koobi Fora">Koobi Fora</a>, Kenya; noting it shares several similarities to KNM-ER 1470 and is smaller, she assigned it to <i>H. rudolfensis</i>, and, because prepubescent male and female bones should be indistinguishable, differences between juvenile <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and adult <i>H. habilis</i> specimens support species distinction. She also concluded that the jawbone KNM-ER 1802, an important specimen often used in classifying other specimens as <i>H. rudolfensis</i>, actually belongs to a different (possibly undescribed) species,<sup id="cite_ref-MLeakey2012_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MLeakey2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but American palaeoanthropologist <a href="/wiki/Tim_D._White" title="Tim D. White">Tim D. White</a> believes this to be premature because it is unclear how wide the range of variation is in early hominins.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan2012_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2013 discovery of the 1.8 Ma Georgian <a href="/wiki/Dmanisi_skulls" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmanisi skulls">Dmanisi skulls</a> which exhibit several similarities with early <i>Homo</i> have led to suggestions that all contemporary groups of early <i>Homo</i> in Africa, including <i>H. habilis</i> and <i>H. rudolfensis</i>, are the same species and should be assigned to <i>H. erectus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dmanisi_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dmanisi-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is still no wide consensus on how <i>rudolfensis</i> and <i>habilis</i> relate to <i>H. ergaster</i> and descendent species.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beyond KNM-ER 1470, there is disagreement on which specimens actually belong in <i>H. rudolfensis</i> as it is difficult to assign with accuracy remains that do not preserve the face and jaw.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan2012_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Argue2017_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Argue2017-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No <i>H. rudolfensis</i> bodily elements have been definitively associated with a skull and thus to the species.<sup id="cite_ref-Ungar2006_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ungar2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most proposed <i>H. rudolfensis</i> fossils come from Koobi Fora and date to 1.9–1.85 mya. Remains from the <a href="/wiki/Shungura_Formation" title="Shungura Formation">Shungura Formation</a>, Ethiopia, and Uraha, Malawi, are dated as far back as 2.5–2.4 mya, which would make it the earliest identified species of <i>Homo</i>. The latest potential specimen is KNM-ER 819 dating to 1.65–1.55 mya.<sup id="cite_ref-Ungar2006_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ungar2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 210">: 210 </span></sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and <i>H. habilis</i> generally are recognised members of the genus at the base of the family tree, with arguments for synonymisation or removal from the genus not widely adopted.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though it is now largely agreed upon that <i>Homo</i> evolved from <i>Australopithecus</i>, the timing and placement of this split has been much debated, with many <i>Australopithecus</i> species having been proposed as the ancestor. The discovery of <a href="/wiki/LD_350-1" title="LD 350-1">LD 350-1</a>, the oldest <i>Homo</i> specimen, dating to 2.8 mya, in the <a href="/wiki/Afar_Region" title="Afar Region">Afar Region</a> of Ethiopia may indicate that the genus evolved from <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">A. afarensis</a></i> around this time. The species LD 350-1 belongs to could be the ancestor of <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and <i>H. habilis</i>, but this is unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on 2.1 million year old stone tools from <a href="/wiki/Shangchen" title="Shangchen">Shangchen</a>, China, possibly an ancestral species to <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and <i>H. habilis</i> dispersed across Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatomy">Anatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Homo_rudolfensis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skull">Skull</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Homo_rudolfensis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Skull"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Homo_rudolfensis_(KNM-ER_1470_cast)_and_Homo_habilis_(KNM-ER_1813_cast)_at_G%C3%B6teborgs_Naturhistoriska_Museum_8595.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Homo_rudolfensis_%28KNM-ER_1470_cast%29_and_Homo_habilis_%28KNM-ER_1813_cast%29_at_G%C3%B6teborgs_Naturhistoriska_Museum_8595.jpg/220px-Homo_rudolfensis_%28KNM-ER_1470_cast%29_and_Homo_habilis_%28KNM-ER_1813_cast%29_at_G%C3%B6teborgs_Naturhistoriska_Museum_8595.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Homo_rudolfensis_%28KNM-ER_1470_cast%29_and_Homo_habilis_%28KNM-ER_1813_cast%29_at_G%C3%B6teborgs_Naturhistoriska_Museum_8595.jpg/330px-Homo_rudolfensis_%28KNM-ER_1470_cast%29_and_Homo_habilis_%28KNM-ER_1813_cast%29_at_G%C3%B6teborgs_Naturhistoriska_Museum_8595.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Homo_rudolfensis_%28KNM-ER_1470_cast%29_and_Homo_habilis_%28KNM-ER_1813_cast%29_at_G%C3%B6teborgs_Naturhistoriska_Museum_8595.jpg/440px-Homo_rudolfensis_%28KNM-ER_1470_cast%29_and_Homo_habilis_%28KNM-ER_1813_cast%29_at_G%C3%B6teborgs_Naturhistoriska_Museum_8595.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3821" data-file-height="2697" /></a><figcaption>KNM-ER 1470 <i>H. rudolfensis</i> (left) vs KNM-ER 1813 <i>H. habilis</i> (right)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1973, Richard Leakey had reconstructed the skull KNM-ER 1470 with a flat face and a brain volume of 800 cc (49 cu in).<sup id="cite_ref-Leakey1973_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leakey1973-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1983, American physical anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Holloway" title="Ralph Holloway">Ralph Holloway</a> revised the base of the skull and calculated a brain volume of 752–753 cc (45.9–46.0 cu in).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For comparison, <i>H. habilis</i> specimens average about 600 cc (37 cu in), and <i>H. ergaster</i> 850 cc (52 cu in).<sup id="cite_ref-McHenry2000_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McHenry2000-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropologist Timothy Bromage and colleagues revised the face again at a 5° incline (slightly <a href="/wiki/Prognathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prognathic">prognathic</a>) instead of completely flat, but pushed the <a href="/wiki/Nasal_bone" title="Nasal bone">nasal bone</a> back directly beneath the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_bone" title="Frontal bone">frontal bones</a>. He then said it was possible to predict brain size based on just the face and (disregarding the braincase) calculated 526 cc (32.1 cu in), and chalked up the errors of Leakey's reconstruction to a lack of research of the biological principles of facial anatomy at the time as well as <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>, as a flat-faced reconstruction of the skull aligned with the predominant model of human evolution at the time. This was refuted by American palaeoanthropologist <a href="/wiki/John_D._Hawks" title="John D. Hawks">John D. Hawks</a> because the skull remained more or less unchanged except for the 5° rotation outwards.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bromage and colleagues returned in 2008 with a revised skull reconstruction and brain volume estimate of 700 cc (43 cu in).<sup id="cite_ref-Bromage2008_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bromage2008-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HPCR-UR_501-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/HPCR-UR_501-01.jpg/220px-HPCR-UR_501-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/HPCR-UR_501-01.jpg/330px-HPCR-UR_501-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/HPCR-UR_501-01.jpg/440px-HPCR-UR_501-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>UR 501, the oldest <i>H. rudolfensis</i> specimen<sup id="cite_ref-Wood1993_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood1993-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schrenk1997_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schrenk1997-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Fossils have generally been classified into <i>H. rudolfensis</i> due to large skull size, flatter and broader face, broader <a href="/wiki/Cheek_teeth" title="Cheek teeth">cheek teeth</a>, more complex tooth <a href="/wiki/Tooth_crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Tooth crown">crowns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tooth_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Tooth root">roots</a>, and thicker <a href="/wiki/Tooth_enamel" title="Tooth enamel">enamel</a> compared to <i>H. habilis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood1993_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood1993-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early <i>Homo</i> are characterised by larger teeth compared to later <i>Homo</i>. The cheek teeth of KNM-ER 60000, a jawbone, in terms of size are on the lower end for early <i>Homo</i>, except for the third <a href="/wiki/Molar_(tooth)" title="Molar (tooth)">molar</a> which is within range. The molars increase in size towards the back of the mouth. The tooth rows of KNM-ER 1470, KNM-ER 60000, and KNM-ER 62000 are rectangular, whereas the tooth row of KNM-ER 1802 is U-shaped, which may indicate that these two morphs represent different species,<sup id="cite_ref-MLeakey2012_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MLeakey2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or demonstrate the normal range of variation for <i>H. rudolfensis</i> jaws.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan2012_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In UR 501 from Uraha, Malawi—the oldest <i>H. rudolfensis</i> specimen dating to 2.5–2.3 mya—the <a href="/wiki/Tooth_enamel" title="Tooth enamel">tooth enamel</a> thickness is the same as in other early <i>Homo</i>, but the enamel on the molars is almost as thick as <i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></i> molars (which have some of the thickest enamel of any hominin). Such a wide variation in enamel thickness across the cheek teeth is not exhibited in KNM-ER 1802, which may indicate regional differences among <i>H. rudolfensis</i> populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood1993_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood1993-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schrenk1997_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schrenk1997-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Build">Build</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Homo_rudolfensis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Build"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Body size estimates of <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and <i>H. habilis</i> typically conclude a small size comparable to australopithecines. These largely depend on the <i>H. habilis</i> partial skeleton OH 62 estimated at 100–120 cm (3 ft 3 in – 3 ft 11 in) in height and 20–37 kg (44–82 lb) in weight. <i>H. rudolfensis</i> is thought to be bigger than <i>H. habilis</i>, but it is unclear how big this species was as no bodily elements have been definitively associated with a skull.<sup id="cite_ref-Will2015_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Will2015-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on just the KNM-ER 1470 skull, male <i>H. rudolfensis</i> were estimated to have been 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) in height and 60 kg (130 lb) in weight, and females 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) and 51 kg (112 lb).<sup id="cite_ref-McHenry2000_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McHenry2000-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For specimens that might be <i>H. rudolfensis</i>: the <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a> KNM-ER 1472 which may also be <i>H. habilis</i> or <i>H. ergaster</i> was estimated at 155.9 cm (5 ft 1 in) and 41.8 kg (92 lb), the <a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">humerus</a> KNM-ER 1473 162.9 cm (5 ft 4 in) and 47.1 kg (104 lb), the partial leg KNM-ER 1481 which may also be <i>H. ergaster</i> 156.7 cm (5 ft 2 in) and 41.8 kg (92 lb), the <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvis</a> KNM-ER 3228 which may also be <i>H. ergaster</i> 165.8 cm (5 ft 5 in) and 47.2 kg (104 lb), and the femur KNM-ER 3728 which may be <i>H. habilis</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei">P. boisei</a></i> 153.3 cm (5 ft) and 40.3 kg (89 lb).<sup id="cite_ref-Will2015_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Will2015-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is generally assumed that pre-<i>H. ergaster</i> hominins, including <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and <i>H. habilis</i>, exhibited <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexual dimorphism</a> with males markedly bigger than females. However, relative female body mass is unknown in either species.<sup id="cite_ref-Ungar2006_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ungar2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early hominins, including <i>H. rudolfensis</i>, are thought to have had thick body hair coverage like modern non-human apes because they appear to have inhabited cooler regions and are thought to have had a less active lifestyle than (presumed hairless) post-<i>ergaster</i> species, and so probably required thick body hair to stay warm.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The juvenile specimen KNM-ER 62000, a partial face, has the same age landmarks as a 13 to 14 year old modern human, but more likely died at around 8 years of age due to the presumed faster growth rate among early hominins based on dental development rate.<sup id="cite_ref-MLeakey2012_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MLeakey2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Homo_rudolfensis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KNM-ER_1470_with_jaw.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/KNM-ER_1470_with_jaw.jpg/170px-KNM-ER_1470_with_jaw.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/KNM-ER_1470_with_jaw.jpg/255px-KNM-ER_1470_with_jaw.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/KNM-ER_1470_with_jaw.jpg/340px-KNM-ER_1470_with_jaw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2132" data-file-height="3233" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of KNM-ER 1470 skull and jaw</figcaption></figure> <p>It is typically thought that the diets of early <i>Homo</i> had a greater proportion of meat than <i>Australopithecus</i>, and that this led to brain growth. The main hypotheses regarding this are: meat is energy- and nutrient-rich and put evolutionary pressure on developing enhanced cognitive skills to facilitate strategic scavenging and monopolise fresh carcasses, or meat allowed the large and calorie-expensive ape gut to decrease in size allowing this energy to be diverted to brain growth. Alternatively, it is also suggested that early <i>Homo</i>, in a drying climate with scarcer food options, relied primarily on underground <a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">storage organs</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tubers</a>) and food sharing, which facilitated social bonding among both male and female group members. However, unlike what is presumed for <i>H. ergaster</i> and later <i>Homo</i>, short-statured early <i>Homo</i> were likely incapable of <a href="/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">endurance running</a> and hunting, and the long and <i>Australopithecus</i>-like forearm of <i>H. habilis</i> could indicate early <i>Homo</i> were still <a href="/wiki/Arboreal" class="mw-redirect" title="Arboreal">arboreal</a> to a degree. Also, organised <a href="/wiki/Hunting_and_gathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunting and gathering">hunting and gathering</a> is thought to have emerged in <i>H. ergaster</i>. Nonetheless, the proposed food-gathering models to explain large brain growth necessitate increased daily travel distance.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large <a href="/wiki/Incisor" title="Incisor">incisor</a> size in <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and <i>H. habilis</i> compared to <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i> predecessors implies these two species relied on incisors more. The large, <i>Australopithecus</i>-like molars could indicate more mechanically challenging food compared to later <i>Homo</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Mandible#Body" title="Mandible">bodies of the mandibles</a> of <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and other early <i>Homo</i> are thicker than those of modern humans and all living apes, more comparable to <i>Australopithecus</i>. The mandibular body resists torsion from the <a href="/wiki/Bite_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Bite force">bite force</a> or chewing, meaning their jaws could produce unusually powerful stresses while eating.<sup id="cite_ref-Ungar2006_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ungar2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>H. rudolfensis</i> is not associated with any tools. However, the greater molar <a href="/wiki/Cusp_(anatomy)" title="Cusp (anatomy)">cusp</a> <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> in <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and <i>H. habilis</i> compared to <i>Australopithecus</i> suggests the former two used tools to fracture tough foods (such as pliable plant parts or meat), otherwise the cusps would have been more worn down. Nonetheless, the jaw adaptations for processing mechanically challenging food indicates technological advancement did not greatly affect their diet. Large concentrations of stone tools are known from Koobi Fora. Because these aggregations are coincident with the emergence of <i>H. ergaster</i>, it is probable <i>H. ergaster</i> manufactured them, though it is not possible to definitively attribute the tools to a species because <i>H. rudolfensis</i>, <i>H. habilis</i>, and <i>P. boisei</i> are also well known from the area.<sup id="cite_ref-Ungar2006_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ungar2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest specimen of <i>Homo</i>, <a href="/wiki/LD_350-1" title="LD 350-1">LD 350-1</a>, is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a> stone tool <a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">industry</a>, meaning this tradition had been in use by the genus since near its emergence.<sup id="cite_ref-Braun2019_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Braun2019-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early <i>H. rudolfensis</i> and <i>Paranthropus</i> have exceptionally thick molars for hominins, and the emergence of these two coincides with a cooling and aridity trend in Africa about 2.5 mya. This could mean they evolved due to climate change. Nonetheless, in East Africa, tropical forests and woodlands still persisted through periods of drought.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood1993_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood1993-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>H. rudolfensis</i> coexisted with <i>H. habilis</i>, <i>H. ergaster</i>, and <i>P. boisei</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ungar2006_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ungar2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Homo_rudolfensis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_archaeology" title="African archaeology">African archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus"><i>Australopithecus africanus</i></a> – Extinct hominid from South Africa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba"><i>Australopithecus sediba</i></a> – Two-million-year-old hominin from the Cradle of Humankind</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster"><i>Homo ergaster</i></a> – Extinct species or subspecies of archaic human</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_gautengensis" title="Homo gautengensis"><i>Homo gautengensis</i></a> – Name proposed for an extinct species of hominin from South Africa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis"><i>Homo habilis</i></a> – Archaic human species from 2.8 to 1.65 mya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LD_350-1" title="LD 350-1">LD 350-1</a> – Earliest known specimen of the genus Homo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei"><i>Paranthropus boisei</i></a> – Extinct species of hominin of East Africa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus"><i>Paranthropus robustus</i></a> – Extinct species of hominin of South Africa</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Homo_rudolfensis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStraitGrineFleagle2015" class="citation book cs1">Strait, D.; Grine, F.; <a href="/wiki/John_G._Fleagle" title="John G. Fleagle">Fleagle, J. G.</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200612125818/http://www.academia.edu/download/55535112/Homo_ergaster_Handbook_2_2015.pdf">"Analyzing Hominin Hominin Phylogeny: Cladistic Approach"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Henke, W.; <a href="/wiki/Ian_Tattersall" title="Ian Tattersall">Tattersall, I.</a> (eds.). <i>Handbook of Paleoanthropology</i> (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 2006. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-39979-4_58">10.1007/978-3-642-39979-4_58</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-39979-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-39979-4"><bdi>978-3-642-39979-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/55535112/Homo_ergaster_Handbook_2_2015.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-06-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Earliest+known+Oldowan+artifacts+at+%3E2.58+Ma+from+Ledi-Geraru%2C+Ethiopia%2C+highlight+early+technological+diversity&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11712-%3C%2Fspan%3E11717&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6575601%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31160451&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1820177116&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019PNAS..11611712B&rft.aulast=Braun&rft.aufirst=D.+R.&rft.au=Aldeias%2C+V.&rft.au=Archer%2C+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6575601&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHomo+rudolfensis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110516130124/http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/homorudolfensis.htm">Archived</a> 2011-05-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/1470.html">Talk Origins – Skull KNM-ER 1470</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-rudolfensis">Homo rudolfensis</a> – The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive">Human Timeline (Interactive)</a> – <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="National Museum of Natural History">National Museum of Natural History</a> (August 2016).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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recent common ancestor">Last common ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">Australopithecines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">A. kadabba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">A. ramidus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">A. afarensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">A. africanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">A. anamensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_bahrelghazali" title="Australopithecus bahrelghazali">A. bahrelghazali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_deyiremeda" title="Australopithecus deyiremeda">A. deyiremeda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">A. garhi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">A. sediba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_aethiopicus" title="Paranthropus aethiopicus">P. aethiopicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei">P. boisei</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">P. robustus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Humans and<br />proto-humans<br />(<i>Homo</i>)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Proto-humans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_gautengensis" title="Homo gautengensis">H. gautengensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">H. naledi</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">H. rudolfensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penghu_1" title="Penghu 1">H. tsaichangensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">H. e. erectus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dmanisi_hominins" title="Dmanisi hominins">H. e. georgicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lantian_Man" title="Lantian Man">H. e. lantianensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Man" title="Nanjing Man">H. e. nankinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">H. e. pekinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">H. e. soloensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tautavel_Man" title="Tautavel Man">H. e. tautavelensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuanmou_Man" title="Yuanmou Man">H. e. yuanmouensis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">H. floresiensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_longi" title="Homo longi">H. longi</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">H. luzonensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">H. neanderthalensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rhodesiensis" title="Homo rhodesiensis">H. rhodesiensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Homo_sapiens26" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_human" title="Early modern human"><i>H. s. sapiens</i> (archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herto_Man" title="Herto Man">H. s. idaltu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manot_1" title="Manot 1">Manot people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tam_Pa_Ling_Cave" title="Tam Pa Ling Cave">Tam Pa Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Deer_Cave_people" title="Red Deer Cave people">Red Deer Cave people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> (→ <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">Homo antecessor</a></i>)<sup>?</sup> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i> → <i>archaic Homo sapiens</i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_hypothesis" title="Gathering hypothesis">Gathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">Endurance running</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-domestication#In_humans" title="Self-domestication">Self-domestication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Diet <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans#The_cooking_hypothesis" title="Control of fire by early humans">Cooking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis" title="Expensive tissue hypothesis">Expensive tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis#Diet" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Shore-based</a></li></ul></li> <li>Drugs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drunken_monkey_hypothesis" title="Drunken monkey hypothesis">Drunken monkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_models_of_human_drug_use" title="Evolutionary models of human drug use">Evolutionary models of human drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoned_ape_theory" title="Stoned ape theory">Stoned ape theory</a></li></ul></li> <li>Behavior <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killer_ape_theory" title="Killer ape theory">Killer ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_eye_hypothesis" title="Cooperative eye hypothesis">Cooperative eye</a></li></ul></li> <li>Life history <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grandmother_hypothesis" title="Grandmother hypothesis">Grandmother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarch_hypothesis" title="Patriarch hypothesis">Patriarch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bipedalism_in_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of bipedalism in humans">Bipedalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_evolution_in_humans" title="Muscular evolution in humans">Muscles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of skin color">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans" title="Cold and heat adaptations in humans">Thermoregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour#Hypotheses_for_the_evolutionary_origins_of_SDL" title="Sexual division of labour">Gender roles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of modern humans">Origin of modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">Recent African origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">Multiregional origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interbreeding_between_archaic_and_modern_humans" title="Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans">Archaic admixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">Early migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Human prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline">Human timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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biology">Evolutionary biology Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers1224" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers1224" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Homo rudolfensis</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q107742" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q107742">Q107742</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Homo rudolfensis">Homo rudolfensis</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/4454111">4454111</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/4827581">4827581</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=11089734">11089734</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=3607673">3607673</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=83081">83081</a></span></span></li></ul> 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