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tag-indium-phosphide tag-transistors tag-silicon tag-2d-semiconductors tag-cmos tag-terahertz tag-silicon-carbide tag-moore-s-law tag-the-transistor-at-75 post-section--topic/semiconductors" data-category="Semiconductors"><article elid="2658706570" data-frozen-sections="[]" class="clearfix page-article sm-mb-1 quality-HD post-2658706570" data-category="Semiconductors"><div class="row px10"><div class="rm-col-center col sm-mb-1" style="width:100.0%;"><div class="widget__body clearfix sm-mt-1"><div class="all-related-sections"><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/topic/semiconductors/">Semiconductors</a><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/magazine/2022/december/">December 2022</a><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/magazine/">Magazine</a><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/special-reports/the-transistor-at-75/">The Transistor at 75</a><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/type/feature/">Feature</a><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/special-reports/">Special Reports</a></div><h1 class="widget__headline h1"><span class="widget__headline-text custom-post-headline" data-type="text"> The State of the Transistor in 3 Charts </span></h1><div class="widget__subheadline"><h2 class="widget__subheadline-text h2" data-type="text"><p>In 75 years, it’s become tiny, mighty, ubiquitous, and just plain weird</p></h2></div><div class="social-author clearfix"><div class="social-author__avatar image"><div class="cover-all image" style="background-image: url("https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNzMxMjYxNi9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTc1NTQwNTgwNX0.yatZN96AZvBT2mrwe30xAdHNBEgEQUx-MrcY7PEC-e0/image.png?width=210")"></div></div><a class="social-author__name" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/u/samuel-k-moore" data-type="text">Samuel K. Moore</a><div class="social-author__avatar image"><div class="cover-all image" style="background-image: url("https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNjY0NTkxNC9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTc1NDM4NzE3M30.MTQySQ4SkKwqBh31wur--gqjA9a52wpqPBFrbbae81E/image.png?width=210")"></div></div><a class="social-author__name" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/u/david-schneider" data-type="text">David Schneider</a></div><div class="social-date"><span class="social-date__text">26 Nov 2022</span></div><div class="time-to-read">4 min read</div><div class="like-button" data-post-likes="36"></div><div class="widget__shares share-panel"><a href="mailto:?subject=The%20State%20of%20the%20Transistor%20in%203%20Charts&body=https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density" target="_blank" data-track-share="Email" class="share share-popup share-email" rel="noopener noreferrer" aria-label="Share via Email"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icons-share em fa fa-envelope"></i></a><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density" data-clipboard-text="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density" class="share share-copy-link" title="Copy this link to clipboard"><i class="icons-share" style="width: 60%"><svg aria-hidden="true" data-prefix="far" data-icon="copy" class="svg-inline--fa fa-copy fa-w-14" role="img" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewbox="0 0 448 512"><path fill="currentColor" d="M433.941 65.941l-51.882-51.882A48 48 0 0 0 348.118 0H176c-26.51 0-48 21.49-48 48v48H48c-26.51 0-48 21.49-48 48v320c0 26.51 21.49 48 48 48h224c26.51 0 48-21.49 48-48v-48h80c26.51 0 48-21.49 48-48V99.882a48 48 0 0 0-14.059-33.941zM266 464H54a6 6 0 0 1-6-6V150a6 6 0 0 1 6-6h74v224c0 26.51 21.49 48 48 48h96v42a6 6 0 0 1-6 6zm128-96H182a6 6 0 0 1-6-6V54a6 6 0 0 1 6-6h106v88c0 13.255 10.745 24 24 24h88v202a6 6 0 0 1-6 6zm6-256h-64V48h9.632c1.591 0 3.117.632 4.243 1.757l48.368 48.368a6 6 0 0 1 1.757 4.243V112z"></path></svg></i></a><a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density&text=The%20State%20of%20the%20Transistor%20in%203%20Charts&" target="_blank" data-track-share="Twitter" class="share share-popup share-tw" rel="noopener noreferrer" aria-label="Share on Twitter"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icons-share tw fa fa-twitter"></i></a><a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Ftransistor-density%3Fxrs%3DRebelMouse_fb%26ts%3D1680129579" target="_blank" data-track-share="Facebook" class="share share-popup share-fb" rel="noopener noreferrer" aria-label="Share on Facebook"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icons-share fb fa fa-facebook"></i></a><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=false&url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density&" target="_blank" class="share share-popup share-linkedin" data-track-share="Linkedin" rel="noopener noreferrer" aria-label="Share on Linkedin"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icons-share fa fa-linkedin"></i></a></div></div><div class="widget__head"><picture><source srcset="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/a-photo-of-3-different-transistors.png?id=32153247&width=3600&height=2534 3x, https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/a-photo-of-3-different-transistors.png?id=32153247&width=2400&height=1689 2x, https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/a-photo-of-3-different-transistors.png?id=32153247&width=1200&height=844 1x"/><img fetchpriority="high" role="img" alt="A photo of 3 different transistors." aria-label="A photo of 3 different transistors." src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/a-photo-of-3-different-transistors.png?id=32153247&width=1200&height=844" style="object-fit: cover;" class="rm-lazyloadable-image rm-hero-media" width="1510" height="1063"/></picture></div><div class="widget__body clearfix sm-mt-1"><div class="photo-credit"> iStockphoto </div><div class="custom-field-FeaturePostColor">LightGreen</div><span class="js-scroll-trigger" data-target="body" data-triggers="render-rebelbar" data-toggle-class="with-floating-shares"></span><div id="utm_campaign"></div><div class="body js-expandable clearfix js-listicle-body css-listicle-body-2658706570" data-headline="The State of the Transistor in 3 Charts"><div class="body-description"><p> The most obvious change in <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/transistor">transistor</a> technology in the last 75 years has been just how many we can make. Reducing the size of the device has been a titanic effort and a fantastically successful one, as these charts show. But size isn’t the only feature engineers have been improving. </p><div class="ieee-sidebar-small"><p> This article is part of our special report on the <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/special-reports/the-transistor-at-75/" target="_blank">75th anniversary of the invention of the transistor</a>. </p></div><p><div class="rebellt-item col1" id="rebelltitem1" data-id="1" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="False" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-1" data-basename="particle-1" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669122913" data-use-pagination="False"><div class="flourish-embed flourish-chart" data-src="visualisation/11455136?602891"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div><p class="caption">In 1947, there was only one transistor. According to TechInsight’s forecast, the semiconductor industry is on track to produce almost 2 billion trillion (1021) devices this year. That’s more transistors than were cumulatively made in all the years prior to 2017. Behind that barely conceivable number is the continued reduction in the price of a transistor, as engineers have learned to integrate more and more of them into the same area of silicon.</p></div><div class="rebellt-item col1" id="rebelltitem2" data-id="2" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="False" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-2" data-basename="particle-2" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669123420" data-use-pagination="False"><div class="flourish-embed flourish-chart" data-src="visualisation/11525717?602891"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div><p class="caption">Scaling down transistors in the 2D space of the plane of the silicon has been a smashing success: Transistor density in logic circuits has increased more than 600,000-fold since 1971. Reducing transistor size requires using shorter wavelengths of light, such as extreme ultraviolet, and other lithography tricks to shrink the space between transistor gates and between metal interconnects. Going forward, it’s the third dimension, where transistors will be built atop one another, that counts. This trend is more than a decade old in flash memory, but it’s still in the future for logic (see “<a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/3d-cmos" target="_self">Taking Moore’s Law to New Heights.</a>”) </p></div><div class="rebellt-item col1" id="rebelltitem3" data-id="3" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="False" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-3" data-basename="particle-3" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669123420" data-use-pagination="False"><div class="flourish-embed flourish-scatter" data-src="visualisation/11501089?602891"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div><p class="caption">Perhaps the crowning achievement of all this effort is the ability to integrate millions, even billions, of transistors into some of the most complex systems on the planet: CPUs. Here’s a look at some of the high points along the way.</p></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth col1" id="rebelltitem4" data-id="4" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="False" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/what-transistors-have-become" data-basename="what-transistors-have-become" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669123420" data-use-pagination="False"><h3 data-role="headline"> What Transistors Have Become </h3><p><strong>Besides making them tiny and numerous, engineers have devoted their efforts to enhancing the device’s other qualities. Here is a small sampling of what transistors have become in the last 75 years: </strong></p></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth-columns col2" id="rebelltitem5" data-id="5" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="True" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-5" data-basename="particle-5" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><img id="80b7c" data-rm-shortcode-id="55fe1df233f32015db489ddab7f0c6fd" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image " lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2080%2080'%3E%3C/svg%3E" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/icon-of-a-series-of-circles.png?id=32172461&width=980" width="80" height="80" alt="Icon of a series of circles."/><h3>Ephemeral:</h3><p>Researchers in Illinois developed <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1226325" target="_blank">circuits that dissolve in the body</a> using a combination of ultrathin silicon membranes, magnesium conductors, and magnesium oxide insulators. Five minutes in water was enough to turn the first generation to mush. But recently researchers used a more durable version to make <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/dissolvable-pacemaker" target="_self">temporary cardiac pacemakers</a> that release an anti-inflammatory drug as they disappear.</p></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth-columns col2" id="rebelltitem6" data-id="6" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="True" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-6" data-basename="particle-6" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><img id="3e753" data-rm-shortcode-id="256697d249d0867edd92c348413c02cf" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image " lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2084%2084'%3E%3C/svg%3E" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/an-icon-of-lightning-bolt-over-a-circle.png?id=32174527&width=980" width="84" height="84" alt="An icon of lightning bolt over a circle."/><h3>Fast:</h3><p>The first transistor was made for radio frequencies, but there are now devices that operate at about a billion times those frequencies. Engineers in South Korea and Japan reported the invention of an indium gallium arsenide high-electron mobility transistor, or HEMT, that reached a maximum frequency of 738 gigahertz. Seeking raw speed, engineers at Northrop Grumman made a <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7838502" target="_blank">HEMT that passed 1 terahertz</a>. </p></div><div class="rebellt-item col1" id="rebelltitem9" data-id="9" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="False" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-9" data-basename="particle-9" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><div class="horizontal-rule"></div></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth-columns col2" id="rebelltitem7" data-id="7" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="True" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-7" data-basename="particle-7" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><img id="14b1e" data-rm-shortcode-id="6b48f09fdc7779ad045949b7c65881be" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image " lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2084%2084'%3E%3C/svg%3E" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/an-icon-of-an-iron-with-a-line-underneath.png?id=32174364&width=980" width="84" height="84" alt="An icon of an iron with a line underneath."/><h3>Flat:</h3><p>Today’s (and yesterday’s) transistors depend on the semiconducting properties of bulk (3D) materials. Tomorrow’s devices might rely on <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/2d-semiconductors">2D semiconductors</a>, such as <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/2d-semiconductors-and-moores-law" target="_self">molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide</a>. These transistors might be built in the interconnect layers above a processor’s silicon, researchers say. So 2D <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/topic/semiconductors/">semiconductors</a> could help lead to 3D processors. </p></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth-columns col2" id="rebelltitem8" data-id="8" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="True" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-8" data-basename="particle-8" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><img id="b9e86" data-rm-shortcode-id="2103d033dc7fc5bb9c55b20bf52d1680" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image " lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2084%2084'%3E%3C/svg%3E" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/an-icon-of-a-circle-with-a-series-of-lines-on-it.png?id=32174166&width=980" width="84" height="84" alt="An icon of a circle with a series of lines on it"/><h3>Flexible:</h3><p>The world is not flat, and neither are the places transistors need to operate. Using indium gallium arsenide, engineers in South Korea recently made <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9766143" target="_blank">high-performance logic transistors</a> on plastic that hardly suffered when bent around a radius of just 4 millimeters. And engineers in Illinois and England have made microcontrollers that are both <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/plastic-microprocessor/why-not-silicon" target="_self">affordable and bendable</a>. </p></div><div class="rebellt-item col1" id="rebelltitem10" data-id="10" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="False" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-10" data-basename="particle-10" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><div class="horizontal-rule"></div></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth-columns col2" id="rebelltitem11" data-id="11" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="True" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-11" data-basename="particle-11" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><img id="242c2" data-rm-shortcode-id="84b9f5facca1bf469d0105b242f48b06" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image " lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2084%2084'%3E%3C/svg%3E" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/icon-of-a-eye-with-a-question-mark-in-the-center.png?id=32174011&width=980" width="84" height="84" alt="Icon of a eye with a question mark in the center."/><h3>Invisible:</h3><p>When you need to hide your computing in plain sight, turn to transparent transistors. Researchers in Fuzhou, China, recently made a <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9745942" target="_blank">see-through analogue of flash memory</a> using organic semiconductor thin-film transistors. And researchers in Japan and Malaysia produced <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9775721" target="_blank">transparent diamond devices</a> capable of handling more than 1,000 volts. </p></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth-columns col2" id="rebelltitem12" data-id="12" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="True" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-12" data-basename="particle-12" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><img id="32476" data-rm-shortcode-id="95e8835135b42b92fcc31659a3c8a51c" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image " lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2084%2084'%3E%3C/svg%3E" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/icon-of-a-brain-made-out-of-square-icons.png?id=32175355&width=980" width="84" height="84" alt="Icon of a brain made out of square icons"/><h3>Mnemonic:</h3><p>NAND flash memory cells can store multiple bits in a single device. Those on the market today store either 3 or 4 bits each. Researchers at Kioxia Corp. built a modified NAND flash cell and dunked it in 77-kelvin liquid nitrogen. A single superchilled transistor could store up to <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9779301" target="_blank">7 bits of data</a>, or 128 different values. </p></div><div class="rebellt-item col1" id="rebelltitem13" data-id="13" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="False" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-13" data-basename="particle-13" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><div class="horizontal-rule"></div></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth-columns col2" id="rebelltitem14" data-id="14" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="True" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-14" data-basename="particle-14" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><img id="db560" data-rm-shortcode-id="fae6ad7623b3f85089a5ada7ee032ce9" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image " lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2084%2084'%3E%3C/svg%3E" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/icon-of-a-circle-with-a-star-inside.png?id=32173738&width=980" width="84" height="84" alt="Icon of a circle with a star inside."/><h3>Talented:</h3><p>In 2018, engineers in Canada used an algorithm to generate all the possible unique and functional elementary circuits that can be made using just two metal-oxide field-effect transistors. The number of circuits totaled an astounding <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8506644" target="_blank">582</a>. Increasing the scope to three transistors netted 56,280 circuits, including several amplifiers previously unknown to engineering. </p></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth-columns col2" id="rebelltitem15" data-id="15" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="True" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-15" data-basename="particle-15" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669136084" data-use-pagination="False"><img id="d61e0" data-rm-shortcode-id="e8b3ef3f7b9cfecfce64d0e263a59f18" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image " lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%2084%2084'%3E%3C/svg%3E" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/icon-of-a-shield.png?id=32173600&width=980" width="84" height="84" alt="Icon of a shield"/><h3>Tough:</h3><p>Some transistors can take otherworldly punishment. <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/nasa">NASA</a> Glenn Research Center built <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8571187" target="_blank">200-transistor silicon carbide ICs</a> and operated them for 60 days in a chamber that simulates the environment on the surface of Venus—460 °C heat, a planetary-probe-crushing 9.3 megapascals of pressure, and the hellish planet’s corrosive atmosphere. </p></div><div class="rebellt-item col1" id="rebelltitem16" data-id="16" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="False" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-16" data-basename="particle-16" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669924544" data-use-pagination="False"><p><em>This article appears in the December 2022 print issue as “The State of the Transistor.”</em></p></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth col1" id="rebelltitem17" data-id="17" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="True" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-17" data-basename="particle-17" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669924544" data-use-pagination="False"><img id="8ac9d" data-rm-shortcode-id="ce4903ecf622349c3c140e5107912340" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" class="rm-shortcode rm-lazyloadable-image " lazy-loadable="true" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'%20viewBox='0%200%204408%203306'%3E%3C/svg%3E" data-runner-src="https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/image.jpg?id=32243332&width=980" width="4408" height="3306" alt=""/></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth-columns col2" id="rebelltitem18" data-id="18" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="False" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/the-transistor-at-75" data-basename="the-transistor-at-75" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669924544" data-use-pagination="False"><h3 data-role="headline"> The Transistor at 75 </h3><p><strong><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/invention-of-the-transistor" target="_self">The Transistor at 75</a></strong></p><p>The past, present, and future of the modern world’s most important invention</p><p><strong><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-history" target="_self">How the First Transistor Worked</a></strong></p><p>Even its inventors didn’t fully understand the point-contact transistor</p><p><strong><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-timeline" target="_self">The Ultimate Transistor Timeline</a></strong></p><p>The transistor’s amazing evolution from point contacts to quantum tunnels</p><p><strong><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density" target="_self">The State of the Transistor in 3 Charts</a></strong></p><p>In 75 years, it’s become tiny, mighty, ubiquitous, and just plain weird</p></div><div class="rebellt-item ieee-sidebar-fullwidth-columns col2" id="rebelltitem19" data-id="19" data-reload-ads="false" data-is-image="False" data-href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density/particle-19" data-basename="particle-19" data-post-id="2658706570" data-published-at="1669924544" data-use-pagination="False"><p><strong><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/3d-cmos" target="_self">3D-Stacked CMOS Takes Moore’s Law to New Heights</a></strong></p><p>When transistors can’t get any smaller, the only direction is up</p><a rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"></a><p><strong><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-transistor-of-2047-expert-predictions" target="_self">The Transistor of 2047: Expert Predictions</a></strong></p><p>What will the device be like on its 100th anniversary?</p><p><strong><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-future-of-transistors" target="_self">The Future of the Transistor Is Our Future</a></strong></p><p>Nothing but better devices can tackle humanity’s growing challenges</p><a rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"></a><p><strong><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-music-box" target="_self">John Bardeen’s Terrific Transistorized Music Box</a></strong></p><p>This simple gadget showed off the magic of the first transistor</p></div></p><div class="post-pager js-listicle-pager" data-listicle-style="" data-async_load_parameters="settings=%7B%22use_pagination%22%3A+false%2C+%22pagination_order%22%3A+%5B%5D%2C+%22use_ads%22%3A+false%2C+%22ads_order%22%3A+%5B%5D%2C+%22use_numeration%22%3A+false%2C+%22numeration_sort%22%3A+-1%2C+%22items_as_posts%22%3A+false%2C+%22body_text_above%22%3A+false%2C+%22layout_type%22%3A+1%2C+%22show_columns_on_mobile%22%3A+false%2C+%22allow_url_update%22%3A+true%2C+%22is_guest_voting_allowed%22%3A+true%2C+%22cooldown_in_seconds%22%3A+null%2C+%22multiple_answers%22%3A+false%2C+%22up_down_voting%22%3A+false%2C+%22reorder_voting%22%3A+false%2C+%22no_redirect%22%3A+false%2C+%22no_post_section%22%3A+false%2C+%22enter_url%22%3A+false%2C+%22next_post_url%22%3A+null%2C+%22voting_extra_fields%22%3A+%7B%7D%2C+%22_deprecated_allow_url_change%22%3A+true%2C+%22_deprecated_turn_into_posts%22%3A+false%2C+%22source%22%3A+%22post_listicle_settings%22%2C+%22list_breaks%22%3A+null%2C+%22ads_breaks%22%3A+null%2C+%22prevent_last_break_repetition%22%3A+false%7D&display_ads=1&platform=desktop"></div><div class="around-the-web"><div class="from-your-site__headline">From Your Site Articles</div><ul class="around-the-web__list"><li class="from-your-site__item"><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/micron-dram" class="from-your-site__link" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">DRAM’s Moore’s Law Is Still Going Strong ›</a></li><li class="from-your-site__item"><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/intel-now-packs-100-million-transistors-in-each-square-millimeter" class="from-your-site__link" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Intel Now Packs 100 Million Transistors in Each Square Millimeter ›</a></li><li class="from-your-site__item"><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-nanosheet-transistor-is-the-next-and-maybe-last-step-in-moores-law" class="from-your-site__link" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Nanosheet Transistor Is the Next (and Maybe Last) Step in Moore’s Law  ›</a></li><li class="from-your-site__item"><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/invention-of-the-transistor" class="from-your-site__link" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Transistor at 75 - IEEE Spectrum ›</a></li></ul><div class="around-the-web__headline">Related Articles Around the Web</div><ul class="around-the-web__list"><li class="around-the-web__item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_count" class="around-the-web__link" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Transistor count - Wikipedia ›</a></li><li class="around-the-web__item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s_law" class="around-the-web__link" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Moore's law - Wikipedia ›</a></li></ul></div></div></div><span class="" data-elid="2658706570" data-post-url="https://spectrum.ieee.org/transistor-density" data-authors="Samuel K. Moore, David Schneider" data-headline="The State of the Transistor in 3 Charts" data-page-title="The State of the Transistor in 3 Charts - IEEE Spectrum"></span><div class="tags"><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/flexible-electronics">flexible electronics</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/lithography">lithography</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/indium-phosphide">indium phosphide</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/transistors">transistors</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/silicon">silicon</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/2d-semiconductors">2d semiconductors</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/cmos">cmos</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/terahertz">terahertz</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/silicon-carbide">silicon carbide</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/moore-s-law">moore's law</a><a class="tags__item" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tag/the-transistor-at-75">the transistor at 75</a></div><div class="custom-field-lightbox-img-shortcode-ids">{"imageShortcodeIds":[]}</div></div></div></div><script type="application/json" id="post-context-2658706570" class="post-context post-context-2658706570"> {"customDimensions": {"5":"Samuel K. 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An IEEE member, he has a bachelor's degree in biomedical engineering from Brown University and a master's degree in journalism from New York University.</p></div><div class="social-author__avatar image"><div class="cover-all image" style="background-image: url("https://spectrum.ieee.org/media-library/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNjY0NTkxNC9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTc1NDM4NzE3M30.MTQySQ4SkKwqBh31wur--gqjA9a52wpqPBFrbbae81E/image.png?width=210")"></div></div><a class="social-author__name" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/u/david-schneider" data-type="text">David Schneider</a><div class="social-author__bio"><p><a href="https://mobile.twitter.com/spectrumdave">David Schneider</a> is a former editor at <em>IEEE Spectrum</em>, and continues to contribute Hands On articles. 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