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id="toc-Verb_to_noun_transforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_to_noun_transforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Verb to noun transforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_to_noun_transforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plurals_and_obviative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plurals_and_obviative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Plurals and obviative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plurals_and_obviative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diminutives_and_contemptives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diminutives_and_contemptives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Diminutives and contemptives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diminutives_and_contemptives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locatives,_possessives_and_obviation_possessor_theme" class="vector-toc-list-item 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href="#Modifications_of_sound"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Modifications of sound </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modifications_of_sound-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modifications of sound subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modifications_of_sound-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initial_consonant_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_consonant_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Initial consonant change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_consonant_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_vowel_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_vowel_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Initial vowel change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_vowel_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_syllable_reduplication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_syllable_reduplication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Initial syllable reduplication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_syllable_reduplication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Syntax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Notes 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Grammar of the Ojibwe language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations. (November 2009) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe language</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">North American indigenous language</a> spoken throughout the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> region and westward onto the northern plains. It is one of the largest indigenous language north of Mexico in terms of number of speakers, and exhibits a large number of divergent dialects. For the most part, this article describes the Minnesota variety of the Southwestern dialect. The orthography used is the <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language#Writing_system" title="Ojibwe language">Fiero Double-Vowel System</a>. Like many North American languages, Ojibwe is <a href="/wiki/Polysynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysynthetic">polysynthetic</a>, meaning it exhibits a great deal of <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthesis</a> and a very high <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a>-to-word ratio (e.g., the single word for "they are Chinese" is aniibiishaabookewininiiwiwag, which contains six morphemes: leaf-liquid-make-man-be-PLURAL, or approximately "they are leaf-drink [i.e., tea] makers"). It is <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinating</a>, and thus builds up words by stringing morpheme after morpheme together, rather than having several affixes which carry numerous different pieces of information. Like most Algonquian languages, Ojibwe distinguishes two different kinds of third person, a proximate and an obviative. The proximate is a traditional third person, while the obviative (also frequently called "fourth person") marks a less important third person if more than one third person is taking part in an action. In other words, Ojibwe uses the obviative to avoid the confusion that could be created by English sentences such as "John and Bill were good friends, ever since the day he first saw him" (who saw whom?). In Ojibwe, one of the two participants would be marked as proximate (whichever one was deemed more important), and the other marked as obviative. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender">Gender</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Gender">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a> distinction in Ojibwe is not a masculine/feminine contrast, but is rather between <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">inanimate</a>. Animate nouns are generally living things, and inanimate ones generally nonliving things, although that is not a simple rule because of the cultural understanding as to whether a noun possesses a "spirit" or not (generally, if it can move, it possesses a "spirit"). Objects with great spiritual importance for the Ojibwe, such as rocks, are very often animate rather than inanimate, for example. Some words are distinguished purely by their <a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">noun class</a>; for example, mitig, if it is animate (plural mitigoog), means "tree;" if it is inanimate (plural mitigoon), it means "stick." <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Number">Number</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Number">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Number</a> in Ojibwe is a simple singular/plural contrast. Nouns and pronouns can be either singular or plural, and verbs inflect for the number of their subject and object, although some nouns and verbs lack singular forms. Plural forms differ from word to word depending on the word's gender, root, and historical stress. By examining the plural form of the word, one can generally determine the word's gender and root. Animate plurals end in -g, while inanimate plural nouns (and obviative nouns) end in -n. The <a href="/wiki/Underlying_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Underlying form">underlying form</a> of a root determines the "linking vowel" — the vowel that appears before the plural suffix (-g or -n) but after the root itself. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Person">Person</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Person">edit</a>]</div> There are seven Ojibwe inflectional categories expressing <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>/gender combinations for each of the two numbers (singular and plural).<a href="#cite_note-NRG122-1">[1]</a> However, the singular and plural categories do not always exactly correspond. The total number of 14 "persons" arises from taking into consideration all the contrasts of animate/inanimate, proximate/obviative, and singular/plural. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3">Animate gender (singular) <ul><li>X — unspecified actor<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>1 — first person singular<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>2 — second person singular<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>3 — third person, animate<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>3’ — animate obviative,<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a> or fourth person, animate<a href="#cite_note-NRG219-6">[6]</a> <ul><li>3’’ — third person animate, possessed by obviative<a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3">Animate gender (plural) <ul><li>1p — first person plural, exclusive<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>21 — first person plural, inclusive<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>2p — second person plural<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>3p — third person plural, animate<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>3’p — third person plural, animate obviative,<a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> or animate fourth person proximate plural[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3">Inanimate gender <ul><li>0 — third person singular, inanimate<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>0’ — third person singular, inanimate obviative<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>0p — third person plural, inanimate<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li> <li>0’p — third person plural, inanimate obviative<a href="#cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ON-MOE-5">[5]</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> Characteristics of the resulting 14 persons are built into Ojibwe nouns and pronouns, thus dictating which verb forms would be used in speech. In nouns and verbs, all 14 forms of persons may or may not present themselves, as words are divided as either animate or inanimate genders and very few words exist as both, but all 14 forms of persons generally do appear with pronouns. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pronouns">edit</a>]</div> Ojibwe pronouns, along with distinguishing singular and plural number and first, second, third, and fourth (obviative) persons, also carry a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first person plural. Pronouns may present themselves either as independent words or as series of prefixes and suffixes. An inclusive first person plural indicates that the pronoun includes the addressee, i.e., "we including you" (giinawind). An exclusive first person plural indicates that the addressee is not included, i.e., "we excluding you" (niinawind). The other personal pronouns are the first singular niin, second singular giin, third singular wiin, second plural giinawaa, and third plural wiinawaa. Like the independent words, Ojibwe pronominal prefixes indicate first person with n-, second person with g- and third person with w-. However, the associated suffixes for these persons will be different depending on if the word is a verb or a noun.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Word begins with... </th> <th>1 or "n-" </th> <th>2 or "g-" </th> <th>3 or "w-" </th></tr> <tr> <th>o </th> <td>((n)i)ndo- </td> <td>gido- </td> <td>odo- </td></tr> <tr> <th>a aa e i </th> <td>((n)i)nd- </td> <td>gid- </td> <td>od- </td></tr> <tr> <th>aa (by some Red Lake speakers) </th> <td>niy- </td> <td>giy- </td> <td>ow-\oy- </td></tr> <tr> <th>oo </th> <td>n- </td> <td>g- </td> <td>od- </td></tr> <tr> <th>ii </th> <td>n- </td> <td>g- </td> <td>w- </td></tr> <tr> <th>b </th> <td>(n)im- </td> <td>gi- </td> <td>(o)- </td></tr> <tr> <th>d g ' j z zh </th> <td>(n)in- </td> <td>gi- </td> <td>(o)- </td></tr> <tr> <th>p t k h ch m n s sh w y </th> <td>ni- </td> <td>gi- </td> <td>(o)- </td></tr></tbody></table> In many Ojibwe-speaking communities, the first person prefix is used without the initial n. Due to vowel syncope in some communities, those prefixes are further reduced without the initial i. However, among Saulteaux communities, the first person prefix nim- and nin- are instead reduced to ni-, nind- to nid- and nindo- to nido-. Ojibwe also has a set of <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative pronouns</a>, distinguishing animate/inanimate, here/there/yonder/over here, singular/plural, and proximate/obviative. The demonstratives differ in their phonetic forms very significantly across Ojibwe dialects and communities, so this table, based on the Minnesota dialect of Southwestern Ojibwe, will not be entirely correct for many speakers: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </th> <th colspan="3" align="center">Animate </th> <th colspan="2" align="center">Inanimate </th></tr> <tr> <th align="center">Singular </th> <th align="center">Plural </th> <th align="center">Obviative </th> <th align="center">Singular </th> <th align="center">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4" align="center">Demonstrative </th> <th>Proximal (Nearest) </th> <th>Here </th> <td align="center">(wa')aw </td> <td align="center">o(n)gow </td> <td align="center">onow </td> <td align="center">(o')ow </td> <td align="center">onow </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mesioproximal </th> <th>Over here </th> <td align="center">(wa')awedi </td> <td align="center">o(n)gowedi(g) </td> <td align="center">onowedi(n) </td> <td align="center">o'owedi </td> <td align="center">onowedi(n) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mesiodistal </th> <th>There </th> <td align="center">(a')aw </td> <td align="center">i(n)giw </td> <td align="center">iniw </td> <td align="center">(i')iw </td> <td align="center">iniw </td></tr> <tr> <th>Distal (Farthest) </th> <th>Over there/Yonder </th> <td align="center">(a')awedi </td> <td align="center">i(n)giwedi(g) </td> <td align="center">iniwedi(n) </td> <td align="center">(i')iwedi </td> <td align="center">iniwedi(n) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" align="center">Dubitative </th> <td align="center">awegwen </td> <td align="center">awegwenag </td> <td align="center">awegwenan </td> <td align="center">wegodogwen </td> <td align="center">wegodogwenan </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" align="center">Interrogative </th> <td align="center">awenen </td> <td align="center">awenenag </td> <td align="center">awenenan </td> <td align="center">awegonen </td> <td align="center">awegonenan </td></tr></tbody></table> Ojibwe also has a set of "indefinite" pronouns (awiiya, "someone", gegoo, "something," both of which can be preceded by gaawiin or akina to mean "no one, nothing" and "everyone, everything," respectively). In contrast to the Southwestern Ojibwe's demonstrative pronouns, Central Ojibwe, Northwestern Ojibwe and Western Ojibwe—which includes a larger set of obviatives—have a larger set of demonstratives: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </th> <th colspan="4" align="center">Animate </th> <th colspan="4" align="center">Inanimate </th></tr> <tr> <th align="center">Singular </th> <th align="center">Plural </th> <th align="center">Singular Obviative </th> <th align="center">Plural Obviative </th> <th align="center">Singular </th> <th align="center">Plural </th> <th align="center">Singular Obviative </th> <th align="center">Plural Obviative </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4" align="center">Demonstrative </th> <th rowspan="4" align="center">Nearest . . . . . Farthest </th> <th>Here </th> <td align="center">wa'a(we) </td> <td align="center">ogo(we)/ ogoweniwag </td> <td align="center">ono(we)/ onoweniwan </td> <td align="center">ono(we)/ onoweniwa' </td> <td align="center">o'o(we)/ owe </td> <td align="center">ono(we)/ onoweniwan </td> <td align="center">o'oweni </td> <td align="center">ono(we)/ onoweniwan </td></tr> <tr> <th>Over here </th> <td align="center">wa'a(we)di </td> <td align="center">ogo(we)di(g)/ ogowediniwag </td> <td align="center">ono(we)di(n)/ onowediniwan </td> <td align="center">ono(we)di(')/ onowediniwa' </td> <td align="center">o'o(we)di/ owedi </td> <td align="center">ono(we)di(n)/ onowediniwan </td> <td align="center">o'owedini </td> <td align="center">ono(we)din/ onowediniwan </td></tr> <tr> <th>There </th> <td align="center">a'a(we)/ awe </td> <td align="center">igi(we)/ igiweniwag </td> <td align="center">ini(we)/ iniweniwan </td> <td align="center">ini(we)/ iniweniwa' </td> <td align="center">i'i(we)/ iwe </td> <td align="center">ini(we)/ iniweniwan </td> <td align="center">i'iweni </td> <td align="center">ini(we)/ iniweniwan </td></tr> <tr> <th>Over there/Yonder </th> <td align="center">a'a(we)di/ awedi </td> <td align="center">igi(we)di(g)/ igiwediniwag </td> <td align="center">ini(we)di(n)/ iniwediniwan </td> <td align="center">ini(we)di(')/ iniwediniwa' </td> <td align="center">i'i(we)di/ iwedi </td> <td align="center">ini(we)di(n)/ iniwediniwan </td> <td align="center">i'iwedini </td> <td align="center">ini(we)din/ iniwediniwan </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verbs">Verbs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Verbs">edit</a>]</div> Ojibwe verbs mark information not only on the subject (their animacy, person, and plurality) but also on the object. There are several different classes of verbs in the language, which differ based on whether they are <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive</a> and whether they take animate or inanimate subjects. These are the main classes: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Function</th> <th>Subject</th> <th>Type</th> <th>Object</th> <th>Theme</th> <th>Abbreviated </th></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>inanimate</td> <td>intransitive</td> <td>none</td> <td></td> <td>VII<a href="#cite_note-Kegg141-143-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-N&N-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rhodes-11">[11]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>inanimate</td> <td>intransitive</td> <td>none</td> <td>inherently plural</td> <td>VIIp<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes-11">[11]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>animate</td> <td>intransitive</td> <td>none</td> <td></td> <td>VAI<a href="#cite_note-Kegg141-143-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-N&N-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rhodes-11">[11]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>animate</td> <td>intransitive</td> <td>none</td> <td>pseudo-VAI</td> <td>VAI2<a href="#cite_note-Kegg141-143-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-N&N-10">[10]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>animate</td> <td>intransitive</td> <td>none</td> <td>optional object</td> <td>VAIo<a href="#cite_note-Kegg141-143-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-N&N-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rhodes-11">[11]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>animate</td> <td>intransitive</td> <td>none</td> <td>inherently plural</td> <td>VAIp<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes-11">[11]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>animate</td> <td>transitive</td> <td>inanimate</td> <td>-am stem</td> <td>VTI<a href="#cite_note-Kegg141-143-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-N&N-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rhodes-11">[11]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>animate</td> <td>transitive</td> <td>inanimate</td> <td>-oo stem</td> <td>VTI2<a href="#cite_note-Kegg141-143-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-N&N-10">[10]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>animate</td> <td>transitive</td> <td>inanimate</td> <td>-i stem</td> <td>VTI3<a href="#cite_note-Kegg141-143-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-N&N-10">[10]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>animate</td> <td>transitive</td> <td>inanimate</td> <td>-aam stem</td> <td>VTI4<a href="#cite_note-Kegg141-143-9">[9]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>animate</td> <td>transitive</td> <td>animate</td> <td></td> <td>VTA<a href="#cite_note-Kegg141-143-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-N&N-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rhodes-11">[11]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>verb</td> <td>animate</td> <td>transitive</td> <td>animate</td> <td>inverse only</td> <td>VTAi<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes-11">[11]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Verbs mark tenses with prefixes (a'-, aorist past, gii'-, simple past, ga(d)- and da-, future, and wii'-, desiderative future), but also can take a myriad of affixes known as "<a href="#Preverbs">preverbs</a>", which convey a great amount of additional information about an action. For example, the preverb izhi- means "in such a way," and so its addition to the verb root -ayaa-, "to be," makes the verb izhi-ayaa, "to be a certain way." The preverb bimi-, "along," combines with the verb root -batoo-, "to run," to form bimibatoo, "to run along, run by." The preferred order of these prefixes are personal prefix, tense prefix, directional prefix, relative prefix, any number of preverbs, and finally the verb.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In addition, the initial syllable may be modified <a href="#Modifications_of_sound">by an initial vowel change or by an initial syllable reduplication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRG155-156-15">[15]</a> Furthermore, there are three so-called "orders" of Ojibwe verbs. The basic one is called Independent Order, and is simply the <a href="/wiki/Indicative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative mood">indicative mood</a>. There is also a Conjunct Order, which is most often used with verbs in <a href="/wiki/Subordinate_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinate clause">subordinate clauses</a>, in questions (other than simple yes–no questions), and with participles (participles in Ojibwe are verbal nouns, whose meaning is roughly equivalent to "someone who is (VERB), does (VERB)," for example, the word for "traveler," bebaamaadizid, is the third singular conjunct of babaamaadizi, "to travel about," and literally means "someone who travels about"). The final order is the Imperative Order, used with commands and corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative mood</a>. Negatives are generally introduced by the leading word gaawiin, which is usually translated as "no," before introducing the actual words in their negative form. Negatives are generally formed by adding sii (or zii) for independent order and si (or zi) for conjunct order, both adding the negative element immediately after the root but before other suffixes. The sii/si are found after vowels while the zii/zi are found after n. In some words, the final consonant is dropped and the sii/si are added to the remaining vowel, in other words the final m is converted to n before adding zii/zi, yet in other words a linking vowel i (or aa) is added after the final consonant and then the sii/si added. Imperatives do not follow the sii (zii)/si (zi) pattern. There are three imperatives in Ojibwe: the immediate imperative, used to indicate that the action must be completely right away (nibaan!, "Sleep (right now)!"), the delayed imperative, used to indicate that the action should be completely eventually, but not immediately (nibaakan!, "Sleep (in a little bit)!"), and the prohibitive imperative, used to indicate that the action is prohibited ((gego) nibaaken!, "Don't sleep!"). Like the negatives, the "k" in -k, -ken, -keg and -kegon take on the lenis form and become "g" after n. Also like the negatives, the general the connector vowel between the imperative suffix and the terminal consonant here is i; however, for k/g, the connector vowel instead is o. All verbs can also be marked for four "modes:" indicative (neutral), <a href="/wiki/Dubitative_mood" title="Dubitative mood">dubitative</a> (the speaker is unsure about the validity of what they are saying, for example: bakade, "he is hungry," but bakadedog, "he must be hungry; he could be hungry"), preterit (which emphasizes that the action occurred in the past, and is also used to refer to attempted or intended but uncompleted actions, for example: imaa ninamadab, "I'm sitting there," but imaa ninamadabiban, "I was sitting there; I meant to sit there"), or preterit-dubitative (which expresses doubt about a past action: imaa namadabigoban, "she must have sat there; she could have sat there"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intransitives">Intransitives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Intransitives">edit</a>]</div> As an example of some of the Ojibwe verbal distinctions at work, consider the conjugation of positive and negative indicative long-vowel-final VAI verbs (using the example nibaa, "to sleep"): <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">Subject </th> <th colspan="10">Independent </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5">Positive </th> <th colspan="5">Negative1 </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th>Giin (2s) </th> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>ginibaa</td> <td>"You sleep" </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>sii(n)2</td> <td>ginibaasiin</td> <td>"You don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawaa (2p) </th> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>m3</td> <td>ginibaam</td> <td>"You guys sleep" </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>siim3</td> <td>ginibaasiim</td> <td>"You guys don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawind (21) </th> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>mi(n)2</td> <td>ginibaamin</td> <td>"We (inclusive) sleep" </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>siimi(n)2</td> <td>ginibaasiimin</td> <td>"We (inclusive) don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Niinawind (1p) </th> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>mi(n)2</td> <td>ninibaamin</td> <td>"We (exclusive) sleep" </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>siimi(n)2</td> <td>ninibaasiimin</td> <td>"We (exclusive) don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Niin (1s) </th> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>ninibaa</td> <td>"I sleep" </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>sii(n)2</td> <td>ninibaasiin</td> <td>"I don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Indefinite (X) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>m</td> <td>nibaam</td> <td>"Someone sleeps" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siim</td> <td>nibaasiim</td> <td>"Someone doesn't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Wiin (3s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>nibaa</td> <td>"S/he/it sleeps" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sii(n)2</td> <td>nibaasiin</td> <td>"S/he/it doesn't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Wiinawaa (3p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>wag</td> <td>nibaawag</td> <td>"They sleep" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siiwag</td> <td>nibaasiiwag</td> <td>"They don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Obviative (3') </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>wan</td> <td>nibaawan</td> <td>"S/he/it (obviate) sleeps" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siiwan</td> <td>nibaasiiwan</td> <td>"S/he/it (obviate) doesn't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Subject </th> <th colspan="10">Conjunct </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5">Positive </th> <th colspan="5">Negative1 </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th>Giin (2s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>yan4</td> <td>nibaayan</td> <td>"That you sleep" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siwan</td> <td>nibaasiwan</td> <td>"That you don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawaa (2p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>yeg</td> <td>nibaayeg</td> <td>"That you guys sleep" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siweg</td> <td>nibaasiweg</td> <td>"That you guys don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawind (21) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>yang</td> <td>nibaayang</td> <td>"That we (inclusive) sleep" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siwang</td> <td>nibaasiwang</td> <td>"That we (inclusive) don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Niinawind (1p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>yaang</td> <td>nibaayaang</td> <td>"That we (exclusive) sleep" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siwaang</td> <td>nibaasiwaang</td> <td>"That we (exclusive) don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Niin (1s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>yaan</td> <td>nibaayaan</td> <td>"That I sleep" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siwaan(h)5</td> <td>nibaasiwaan</td> <td>"That I don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Indefinite (X) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>ng</td> <td>nibaang</td> <td>"That someone sleeps" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sing</td> <td>nibaasing</td> <td>"That someone don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Wiin (3s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>d</td> <td>nibaad</td> <td>"That s/he/it sleeps" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sig</td> <td>nibaasig</td> <td>"That s/he/it don't sleeps" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Wiinawaa (3p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>waad</td> <td>nibaawaad</td> <td>"That they sleep" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siwaa</td> <td>nibaasiwaa</td> <td>"That they don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Obviative (3') </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>nid</td> <td>nibaanid</td> <td>"That s/he/it (obviate) sleeps" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sinid/sinig</td> <td>nibaasinid nibaasinig</td> <td>"That s/he/it (obviate) don't sleep" </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Subject </th> <th colspan="5">Imperative (Immediate) </th> <th colspan="5">Imperative (Prohibitive) </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th>Giin (2s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>n</td> <td>nibaan</td> <td>"You! Sleep!" (now) </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>ken</td> <td>nibaaken</td> <td>"You! Don't Sleep!" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawaa (2p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>(o)k/(o)g</td> <td>nibaag nibaayok</td> <td>"You guys! Sleep!" (now) </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>kegon</td> <td>nibaakegon</td> <td>"You guys! Don't Sleep!" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawind (21) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>daa6</td> <td>nibaadaa</td> <td>"Let's sleep!" (now) </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siidaa6</td> <td>nibaasiidaa</td> <td>"Let's not sleep!" </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Subject </th> <th colspan="10">Imperative (Delayed) </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5">Positive </th> <th colspan="5">Negative1 </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th>Giin (2s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>(:)kan7</td> <td>nibaakan</td> <td>"You! Sleep!" (soon) </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siikan</td> <td>nibaasiikan</td> <td>"You! Don't sleep!" (soon) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawaa (2p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>(:)keg7</td> <td>nibaakeg</td> <td>"You guys! Sleep!" (soon) </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siikeg</td> <td>nibaasiikeg</td> <td>"You guys! Don't sleep!" (soon) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawind (21) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>(:)kang7</td> <td>nibaakang</td> <td>"Let's sleep!" (soon) </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>siikang</td> <td>nibaasiikang</td> <td>"Let's not sleep!" (soon) </td></tr></tbody></table><div style="font-size:85%;"> <dl><dd>1 s following n becomes a z.</dd> <dd>2 In <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Odaawaa</a>, the final n is absent.</dd> <dd>3 Instead of m, naawaa is used in <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Severn Ojibwe</a>.</dd> <dd>4 In <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Odaawaa</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a>, yin is used instead of yan.</dd> <dd>5 In <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Odaawaa</a>, nh is used instead of n.</dd> <dd>6 Instead of daa, daan is used by some <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a> speakers, daag is used by some <a href="/wiki/Western_Ojibwa_language" title="Western Ojibwa language">Saulteaux</a> speakers, and ga-__min is used by some <a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Severn Ojibwe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Ojibwa_language" title="Western Ojibwa language">Saulteaux</a> speakers.</dd> <dd>7 Short vowels are lengthened before adding the suffix.</dd></dl></div> Also as an example of some of the Ojibwe verbal distinctions at work, consider the conjugation of positive and negative indicative long-vowel-final VII verbs (using the example ozhaawashkwaa, "to blue"). Note that unlike VAI verbs, VII do not have imperatives: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">Subject </th> <th colspan="10">Independent </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5">Positive </th> <th colspan="5">Negative1 </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th>Singular (0s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>(w)2</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaa</td> <td>"It blues" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sinoo(n)3</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaasiinoon</td> <td>"It doesn't blue" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plural (0p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>wan/oon5,6</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaawan</td> <td>"They blue" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sinoon</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaasiinoon</td> <td>"They don't blue" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Singular Obviative (0s') </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>ini(w)2</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaani</td> <td>"It (obviate) blues" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sinini(w)2,4</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaasinini</td> <td>"It (obviate) doesn't blue" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plural Obviative (0p') </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>iniwan</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaaniwan</td> <td>"They (obviate) blue" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sininiwan</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaasininiwan</td> <td>"They (obviate) don't blue" </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Subject </th> <th colspan="10">Conjunct </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5">Positive </th> <th colspan="5">Negative1 </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation </th> <th>Example </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th>Singular (0s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>g</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaag</td> <td>"That it blues" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sinog</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaasinog</td> <td>"That it don't blue" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plural (0p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>g7</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaag</td> <td>"That they blue" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sinog</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaasinog</td> <td>"That they don't blue" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Singular Obviative (0s') </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>inig</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaanig</td> <td>"That it (obviate) blues" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sininig</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaasininig</td> <td>"That it (obviate) don't blue" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plural Obviative (0p') </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>inig</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaanig</td> <td>"That they (obviate) blue" </td> <td>Ø</td> <td>_</td> <td>sininig</td> <td>ozhaawashkwaasininig</td> <td>"That they (obviate) don't blue" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="font-size:85%;"> <dl><dd>1 s following n becomes a z.</dd> <dd>2 In some words, a final w is present.</dd> <dd>3 In <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Odaawaa</a>, the final n is absent.</dd> <dd>4 In <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Odaawaa</a>, sinooni instead of sinini(w).</dd> <dd>5 wan for vowel finals; oon for consonant finals.</dd> <dd>6 In <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Odaawaa</a>, vowel finals can take either wan or noon; in some <a href="/wiki/North_of_Superior_Ojibwe_dialect" title="North of Superior Ojibwe dialect">North of Superior Ojibwe</a>, wanoon is used.</dd> <dd>7 In <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Odaawaa</a>, gin instead of g.</dd></dl></div> Passives in intransitives can be expressed by using the INVERSE marker igw, which may undergo a minor structural modification. Some examples of verb final containing the INVERSE marker igw are: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">active</th> <th colspan="3">passive </th></tr> <tr> <th>VAI</th> <th>VII</th> <th>gloss</th> <th>VAI</th> <th>VII</th> <th>gloss </th></tr> <tr> <td>endam</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>thinks X</td> <td>endaagozi</td> <td>endaagwad</td> <td>thought of X </td></tr> <tr> <td>imaaso</td> <td>imaate</td> <td>smells X</td> <td>imaagozi</td> <td>imaagwad</td> <td>smelled of X </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transitives">Transitives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Transitives">edit</a>]</div> Ojibwe, as with other Algonquian languages, also exhibits a <a href="/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct–inverse language">direct–inverse system</a>, in which transitive verbs are marked for whether or not the direction of the action follows a "topicality hierarchy" of the language. The topicality hierarchy in Ojibwe is 2 > 1 > X > 3 > 3’ > 0, determined by 1) person, 2) gender, and 3) obviation.<a href="#cite_note-NRG266-265-16">[16]</a> Ojibwe has no <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a> distinctions among agent, patient and experiencer <a href="/wiki/Theta_roles" class="mw-redirect" title="Theta roles">theta roles</a>, so in a transitive verb with two participants, the only way to distinguish subject from object is through direct/inverse/goal suffixes. Note: C, N, nN, S and Y are used in some of the tables below to indicate a generic <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a>, n\zh varying consonant, n\nzh varying consonant, s\sh varying consonant, and Ø\i varying palatializer, respectively. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Direction Type </th> <th>ACTOR </th> <th>DIRECTION </th> <th>GOAL </th> <th>Theme </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">local </td> <td>1-GOAL </td> <td>(2) </td> <td>→ </td> <td>1 </td> <td>-Y- </td></tr> <tr> <td>2-GOAL </td> <td>2 </td> <td>← </td> <td>(1) </td> <td>-iN- </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">non-local </td> <td>DIRECT </td> <td> </td> <td>→ </td> <td>3 </td> <td>-aa- </td></tr> <tr> <td>INVERSE </td> <td> </td> <td>← </td> <td>3 </td> <td>-igw- </td></tr></tbody></table> The local goals, non-local goals and reflective cause the stem to undergo minor adjustments: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>VT Stem</th> <th>1-GOAL Y</th> <th>1-GOAL iN-Y1</th> <th>2-GOAL iN</th> <th>DIRECT aa</th> <th>INVERSE igw</th> <th>RECIPROCATIVE idw</th> <th>REFLECTIVE idw-izw</th> <th>POSSESSIVE im </th></tr> <tr> <th>-C </th> <td>-C-</td> <td>-Cizh-</td> <td>-Cin-</td> <td>-Caa-</td> <td>-Cigw-</td> <td>-Cidiw-</td> <td>-Cidizw-</td> <td>-Cim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-d </th> <td>-j-</td> <td>-dizh-</td> <td>-din-</td> <td>-daa-</td> <td>-jigw-</td> <td>-jidiw-</td> <td>-jidizw-</td> <td>-dim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-t </th> <td>-ch-</td> <td>-tizh-</td> <td>-tin-</td> <td>-taa-</td> <td>-chigw-</td> <td>-chidiw-</td> <td>-chidizw-</td> <td>-tim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-m </th> <td>-m-</td> <td>-mizh-</td> <td>-min-</td> <td>-maa-</td> <td>-ngw-</td> <td>-ndiw-</td> <td>-ndizw-</td> <td>-mim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-m1 </th> <td>-m-</td> <td>-mizh-</td> <td>-min-</td> <td>-maa-</td> <td>-migw-</td> <td>-midiw-</td> <td>-midizw-</td> <td>-mim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-n </th> <td>-n-</td> <td>-nizh-</td> <td>-nin-</td> <td>-naa-</td> <td>-ngw-</td> <td>-ndiw-</td> <td>-ndizw-</td> <td>-nim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-N </th> <td>-zh-</td> <td>-nizh-</td> <td>-nin-</td> <td>-naa-</td> <td>-nigw-</td> <td>-nidiw-</td> <td>-nidizw-</td> <td>-nim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-nN </th> <td>-nzh-</td> <td>-nizh-</td> <td>-nin-</td> <td>-naa-</td> <td>-nigw-</td> <td>-nidiw-</td> <td>-nidizw-</td> <td>-nim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-S </th> <td>-sh-</td> <td>-sizh-</td> <td>-sin-</td> <td>-saa-</td> <td>-sigw-</td> <td>-sidiw-</td> <td>-sidizw-</td> <td>-sim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-Cw </th> <td>-C-</td> <td>-Cozh-</td> <td>-Con-</td> <td>-Cwaa-</td> <td>-Cogw-</td> <td>-Codiw-</td> <td>-Codizw-</td> <td>-Com- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-CVw </th> <td>-CVw-</td> <td>-CVVzh-</td> <td>-CVVn-</td> <td>-CVwaa-</td> <td>-CVVgw-</td> <td>-CVVdiw-</td> <td>-CVVdizw-</td> <td>-CVwim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-Caw </th> <td>-Caw-</td> <td>-Coozh-</td> <td>-Coon-</td> <td>-Cawaa-</td> <td>-Caagw-</td> <td>-Caadiw-</td> <td>-Caadizw-</td> <td>-Cawim- </td></tr> <tr> <th>-CVVw </th> <td>-CVVw-</td> <td>-CVVzh-</td> <td>-CVVn-</td> <td>-CVVwaa-</td> <td>-CVVgw-</td> <td>-CVVdiw-</td> <td>-CVVdizw-</td> <td>-CVVm- </td></tr></tbody></table> 1. In <a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Oji-Cree (Severn Ojibwe) language</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin language</a>, and in some <a href="/wiki/Central_Ojibwa_language" title="Central Ojibwa language">Central Ojibwa language</a> (especially in <a href="/wiki/North_of_Superior_Ojibwe_dialect" title="North of Superior Ojibwe dialect">North of Superior Ojibwe</a>) Transitive verbs can become VAI class of verbs by adding the actor-focused DETRANSITIVE marker ige, which modifies the stem in a similar fashion as the INVERSE marker igw. However, due to differences in dialects, how the actor-focused DETRANSITIVE marker ige may show up differently. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Dialect</th> <th>VTA</th> <th>VAI (RECIPROCATIVE with plural ending)</th> <th>VAI (REFLEXIVE)</th> <th>VAI</th> <th>VTI</th> <th>VAI (actor-focused DETRANSITIVE) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Oji-Cree</td> <td>enim</td> <td>enimidowag</td> <td>enimidizo</td> <td>enindam</td> <td>enindan</td> <td>eninjige </td></tr> <tr> <td>Algonquin</td> <td>enim</td> <td>enindiwag</td> <td>enindizo</td> <td>enindam</td> <td>enindan</td> <td>eninge </td></tr> <tr> <td>Southwestern Ojibwe</td> <td>enim</td> <td>enindiwag</td> <td>endizo</td> <td>endam</td> <td>endan</td> <td>enjige </td></tr> <tr> <td>Odaawaa and Eastern Ojibwe</td> <td>enim</td> <td>endiwag</td> <td>endizo</td> <td>endam</td> <td>endan</td> <td>enge </td></tr> <tr> <td>gloss</td> <td>think X about S.O.</td> <td>think X about each other</td> <td>think X about oneself</td> <td>think X</td> <td>think X about S.T.</td> <td>think X about things </td></tr></tbody></table> For the first person and second person GOALs, their ACTORs are specified if the words are in their Independent Order, and can also be known as local direct (first person GOAL) and local inverse (second person GOAL). A DIRECT suffix indicates that the action is performed by someone higher on the person hierarchy on someone lower on the person hierarchy (e.g., by the addressee on the speaker, or by a proximate third person on an obviative): <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>obizindawaan</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">o-3-</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">bizindawlisten.to</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">-aa-DIRECT</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">-n-3OBVIATIVE</div>o- bizindaw -aa -n3- listen.to -DIRECT -3OBVIATIVE"He listens to the other one."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> An inverse suffix indicates that the action is performed by someone lower on the person hierarchy on someone higher on the person hierarchy (e.g., by the speaker on the addressee, or by an obviative third person on a proximate): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>obizindaagoon</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">o-3-</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">bizindawlisten.to</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">-igoo-INVERSE</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">-n-3OBVIATIVE</div>o- bizindaw -igoo -n3- listen.to -INVERSE -3OBVIATIVE"The other one listens to him."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> As can be seen, the only difference between these two verbs is the direct–inverse opposition, rather than case markers (or word order, when distinct nominals are used). An inverse verb is not equivalent to a <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">passive</a> verb. There is a separate passivity marker, denoted in literature as "indefinite person (X)", ranked in topicality hierarchy below first and second persons, but higher than animate and inanimate third persons: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>bizindawaa</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> X-</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">bizindawlisten.to</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">-aa-DIRECT</div>{} bizindaw -aaX- listen.to -DIRECT"He is listened to."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> To illustrate this, a generic VTA and VTI paradigm table, arranged by person hierarchy, is shown below. Note that the reflexive forms shown in a darker background with the reflexive theme /-idizo/ happen to be VAI. The table depicts only the paradigm for Independent Order, Positive Voice, Neutral Mode. Letters omitted in a particular form are indicated with that letter struck-through. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Subject </th> <th colspan="9">Animate Object</th> <th colspan="2">Inanimate Object1 </th></tr> <tr> <th>2s</th> <th>2p</th> <th>21</th> <th>1p</th> <th>1s</th> <th>X</th> <th>3s</th> <th>3p</th> <th>3'</th> <th>0s</th> <th>0p </th></tr> <tr> <th>2s </th> <td style="background: gainsboro">g__idiz<s>o</s></td> <td align="center">——</td> <td align="center">——</td> <td>g__(Y)in2 g__(Y)imin g__(Y)imi<s>n</s>OTW g__(Y)inaamOJB,OJW g__izhinaam3,ALQ,OJS,PIC g__izhinim3,OJS(4)</td> <td>g__(Y)<s>i</s> g__izh3,PIC g__izhinan3,ALQ,OJS</td> <td>g__aaw<s>i</s>2</td> <td>g__aa</td> <td>g__aag</td> <td>g__aan g__aaOTW g__imaanBLK,CIW,PIC</td> <td>g__(:)n</td> <td>g__(:)nan </td></tr> <tr> <th>2p </th> <td align="center">——</td> <td style="background: gainsboro">g__idizom g__idizonaawaaALQ,OJS</td> <td align="center">——</td> <td>g__(Y)imin g__(Y)imi<s>n</s>OTW g__(Y)inaamOJB,OJW g__izhinaam3,ALQ,OJS,PIC g__izhinim3,OJS(4)</td> <td>g__(Y)im g__izhim3,ALQ,OJS,PIC</td> <td>g__aawim2</td> <td>g__aawaa</td> <td>g__aawaag</td> <td>g__aawaa g__aawaanPOT g__imaawaaCIW,PIC g__imaawaanBLK</td> <td>g__(:)naawaa</td> <td>g__(:)naawaan </td></tr> <tr> <th>21 </th> <td align="center">——</td> <td align="center">——</td> <td style="background: gainsboro">g__idizomin g__idizomi<s>n</s>OTW</td> <td align="center">——</td> <td align="center">——</td> <td>g__aawimin2</td> <td>g__aanaan g__aanaa<s>n</s>OTW g__aaminPAR, POT</td> <td>g__aanaanig g__aaminPAR, POT</td> <td>g__aanaan g__aanaa<s>n</s>OTW g__aaminPAR, POT g__imaanaanBLK,CIW,PIC</td> <td>g__(:)naan g__(:)naa<s>n</s>OTW g__(:)minCIW, PAR</td> <td>g__(:)naanin g__(:)minCIW,PAR </td></tr> <tr> <th>1p </th> <td>g__inin2 g__inimALQ g__iniminWAL, POT g__inimi<s>n</s>OTW g__igoo</td> <td>g__iniminWAL, POT, 2 g__inimi<s>n</s>OTW g__igoom</td> <td align="center">——</td> <td style="background: gainsboro">n__idizomin n__idizomi<s>n</s>OTW</td> <td align="center">——</td> <td>n__aawimin2</td> <td>n__aanaan n__aanaa<s>n</s>OTW n__aaminPAR, POT</td> <td>n__aanaanig n__aaminPAR, POT</td> <td>n__aanaan n__aanaa<s>n</s>OTW n__aaminPAR, POT n__imaanaanBLK,CIW,PIC</td> <td>n__(:)naan n__(:)naa<s>n</s>OTW n__(:)minCIW,PAR</td> <td>n__(:)naanin n__(:)minCIW,PAR </td></tr> <tr> <th>1s </th> <td>g__in</td> <td>g__inim g__ininimBLK,CIW, PIC</td> <td align="center">——</td> <td align="center">——</td> <td style="background: gainsboro">n__idiz<s>o</s></td> <td>n__aaw<s>i</s>2</td> <td>n__aa</td> <td>n__aag</td> <td>n__aan n__aa<s>n</s>OTW n__imaanBLK,CIW,PIC</td> <td>n__(:)n</td> <td>n__(:)nan </td></tr> <tr> <th>X </th> <td>g__igoo g__igow<s>i</s>2</td> <td>g__igoom g__igowim2</td> <td>g__igoomin g__igoomi<s>n</s>OTW g__igowimin2</td> <td>n__igoomin n__igoomi<s>n</s>OTW n__igowimin2</td> <td>n__igoo n__igow<s>i</s>2</td> <td style="background: gainsboro">Ø__idizom</td> <td>Ø__aa Ø__aaganiiALQ Ø__aaw2</td> <td>Ø__aawag Ø__aaganiiwagALQ</td> <td>Ø__aawan Ø__aaganiiwanALQ Ø__imaawanBLK,CIW,PIC</td> <td>Ø__(:)m</td> <td>Ø__(:)m </td></tr> <tr> <th>3s </th> <td>g__ig<s>o</s></td> <td>g__igowaa</td> <td>g__igonaan g__igonaa<s>n</s>OTW g__igominPAR</td> <td>n__igonaan n__igonaa<s>n</s>OTW n__igominPAR</td> <td>n__ig<s>o</s></td> <td>Ø__igo Ø__igow2</td> <td style="background: gainsboro">Ø__idizo w__aanALQ,BLK</td> <td>      —— w__aanALQ,BLK</td> <td>w__aan</td> <td>w__(:)n</td> <td>w__(:)nan </td></tr> <tr> <th>3p </th> <td>g__igoog</td> <td>g__igowaag</td> <td>g__igonaanig g__igominPAR</td> <td>n__igonaanig n__igominPAR</td> <td>n__igoog</td> <td>Ø__igowag</td> <td>      —— w__aawaanALQ,BLK</td> <td style="background: gainsboro">Ø__idizowag w__aawaanALQ,BLK,OJC</td> <td>w__aawaan</td> <td>w__(:)naawaa</td> <td>w__(:)naawaan </td></tr> <tr> <th>3' </th> <td>g__igoon2 g__ig<s>o</s></td> <td>g__igowaan2 g__igowaa</td> <td>g__igonaanin2 g__igonaan g__igonaa<s>n</s>OTW g__igominPAR</td> <td>n__igonaanin2 n__igonaan n__igonaa<s>n</s>OTW n__igominPAR</td> <td>n__igoon2 n__ig<s>o</s></td> <td>Ø__igowan</td> <td>w__igoon</td> <td>w__igowaan w__igoonALQ</td> <td style="background: gainsboro">Ø__idizowan w__igoonALQ</td> <td>w__(:)nini w__iniOJG,OTW</td> <td>w__(:)nini w__iniOJG,OTW </td></tr> <tr> <th>0s </th> <td>g__igon</td> <td>g__igonaawaa</td> <td>g__igonaan g__igonaaOTW g__igominPAR,PIC</td> <td>n__igonaan n__igonaa<s>n</s>OTW n__igominPAR,PIC</td> <td>n__igon</td> <td>Ø__igom2 w__igoniniCIW</td> <td>w__igon</td> <td>w__igonaawaa</td> <td>w__igonini w__igonOJG,OTW</td> <td style="background: gainsboro" align="center">——</td> <td align="center">—— </td></tr> <tr> <th>0p </th> <td>g__igonan</td> <td>g__igonaawaan</td> <td>g__igonaanin g__igominPAR,PIC</td> <td>n__igonaanin n__igominPAR,PIC</td> <td>n__igonan</td> <td>Ø__igom2 w__igoniniCIW</td> <td>w__igonan</td> <td>w__igonaawaan</td> <td>w__igonini w__igonanOJG,OTW</td> <td align="center">——</td> <td style="background: gainsboro" align="center">—— </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="font-size:85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-5"> 1. VTI1 -am + (:)m or (:)n → -aam or -aan.     VTI2 -oo + (:)m or (:)n → -oom or -oon.     VTI3 -i + (:)m or (:)n → -im or -in.     VTI4 -aam + (:)m or (:)n → -aam or -aan. </td> <td class="col-break col-break-5"> 2. In theory. 3. iN-Y form instead of Y form. 4. In some <a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Severn Ojibwe</a>. </td> <td class="col-break col-break-5"> ALQ : <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a> CIW : <a href="/wiki/Chippewa_language" title="Chippewa language">Southwestern Ojibwe</a> OJB : <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Ojibwa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern Ojibwa language">Northwestern Ojibwe</a> OJC : Central Ojibwe </td> <td class="col-break col-break-5"> OJG : <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ojibwa_language" title="Eastern Ojibwa language">Eastern Ojibwe</a> OJS : <a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Severn Ojibwe</a> OJW : <a href="/wiki/Western_Ojibwa_language" title="Western Ojibwa language">Saulteaux</a> OTW : <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Odaawaa</a> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-5"> BLK : <a href="/wiki/Border_Lakes_Ojibwe_dialect" title="Border Lakes Ojibwe dialect">Border Lake Ojibwe</a> PAR : Parry Island Eastern Ojibwe PIC : <a href="/wiki/North_of_Superior_Ojibwe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="North of Superior Ojibwe language">Pic River Central Ojibwe</a> WAL : Walpole Island Eastern Ojibwe POT : <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi language</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preverbs">Preverbs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Preverbs">edit</a>]</div> Ojibwe language is rich in its use of <a href="/wiki/Preverb" title="Preverb">preverbs</a>, which is a prefix that comes before verbs, nouns, and particles, to provide an additional layer of meaning. In Ojibwe, there are four classes of preverbs ranked in importance by six degrees: <ul><li>class 1—tense, aspect, mode, or syntactic prefix appearing on verbs <ul><li>mode-subordinator: <ul><li>subordinator: e-, gaa-, waa-</li> <li>modal: ga[d]-, da-, daa-, ji-, ge[d]-.</li></ul></li> <li>tense-negativity <ul><li>tense: a'- [e'-], gii'- [gaa'-], wii'- [waa'-].</li> <li>negativity: aano-, bwaa-.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>class 2—directional prefix occurring on verbs</li> <li>class 3—relational prefix occurring on verbs (and on some nouns and particles): ako- [eko-], onji- [wenji-], izhi- [ezhi-], apiichi- [epiichi-], dazhi- [endazhi-], daso- [endaso-].</li> <li>class 4—lexical prefix occurring on verbs, nouns, or particles. <ul><li>aspectual</li> <li>manner, degree, quality/evaluative, quantitative/numeric</li></ul></li></ul> Preverbs, when they occur before a noun, are called a <a href="/wiki/Prenoun" title="Prenoun">prenoun</a>. Preverb class units when written are separated with a hyphen, with the exception of the class 4 preverb indicating manner, degree, quality/evaluative, or quantitative/numeric, which can also serve as functional part of a word stem as an initial. If several preverbs of the same class occur, they are written as a single block in order of rank of importance, with the most important preverb located closest to the word. Pronominal prefixes are written directly onto the head of the word group, so it may be found attached directly to the preverb if a preverb is present. When constructed, an Ojibwe word (in the example below, a verb) may have some or all of the pieces in the following form: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="5">prefix</th> <th colspan="4">word stem</th> <th colspan="3">suffix </th></tr> <tr> <td>pronominal prefix</td> <td>preverb- (class 1)</td> <td>preverb- (class 2)</td> <td>preverb- (class 3)</td> <td>preverb- (class 4)</td> <td>verb (initial)</td> <td>verb (medial)</td> <td>verb (concrete final)</td> <td>verb (abstract final)</td> <td>negativity</td> <td>pronominal suffix</td> <td>mode </td></tr></tbody></table> Example, using nibaa, "to sleep" <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Ojibwe </th> <th>English </th> <th>Comment </th></tr> <tr> <td>nibaa </td> <td>he/she sleeps </td> <td>has no preverb </td></tr> <tr> <td>ninibaamin </td> <td>we sleep </td> <td>likewise, with pronominal prefix and pronominal suffix </td></tr> <tr> <td>gii'-nibaa </td> <td>he/she slept </td> <td>has past tense preverb (class 1) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ningii'-nibaamin </td> <td>we slept </td> <td>likewise, with pronominal affixes </td></tr> <tr> <td>gii'-maajii-nibaa </td> <td>he/she started to sleep </td> <td>has past tense preverb (class 1), and a lexical preverb (class 4) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ningii'-maajii-nibaamin </td> <td>we started to sleep </td> <td>likewise, with pronominal affixes </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nouns">Nouns</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nouns">edit</a>]</div> Nouns distinguish plurality, animacy, obviation, and case with suffixes. Animacy is only overtly marked on plural nouns. There are no core cases to distinguish categories such as "subject" or "object", but rather various <a href="/wiki/Oblique_case" title="Oblique case">oblique cases</a>, including a <a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a> (e.g., wiisiniwigamig, "restaurant", wiisiniwigamigong, "in the restaurant") and a <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative plural</a> (e.g., Ojibwedog, "(you) Ojibwes!"). Other suffixes are: pejorative (e.g., jiimaan, "canoe", jiimaanish, "worthless canoe"), diminutive (e.g., zhooniyaa, "money", zhooniyaans, "coin"), contemptive (e.g., odaabaan, "car", odaabaanenh, "just some old car"), preterit (which marks a deceased or no-longer existent person or object, e.g. nookomis, "my grandmother", nookomisiban, "my late grandmother"), and preterit-dubitative (which marks a deceased or no-longer existent person or object which was never known by the speaker, e.g. a'aw mindimooyenh, "that old woman", a'aw mindimooyenyigoban, "that late old woman I never knew"). Some nouns are considered "<a href="/wiki/Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">dependent</a>" and cannot be presented by themselves. Instead, these dependent nouns are presented with pronoun prefixes/suffixes attached to them. An example of a dependent noun is nookomis ("my grandmother") where the dependent root -ookomis- ("grandmother") must be presented with a pronoun affix, which in this case is n-. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_to_noun_transforms">Verb to noun transforms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Verb to noun transforms">edit</a>]</div> Other nouns are derived from verbs by transforming them to their participle form. Of the choices, third person (and thus third person plural) is the most common form. Though each class of verbs may have their own participle-forming patterns, for simplicity, only the VAI neutral mode, positive participles are shown in the example, again, using nibaa ("sleep"). Note: C, V, and VV are used in some of the tables below to indicate a generic <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a>, a generic short <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a>, and a generic long vowel, respectively. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Subject </th> <th colspan="12">VAI (ending in -V or -VV) Neutral Mode, Positive <a href="/wiki/Nomen_agentis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomen agentis">Participles</a></th> <th colspan="12">VAI2 (ending in -am) Neutral Mode, Positive <a href="/wiki/Nomen_agentis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomen agentis">Participles</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Conjugation OTW, CIW</th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation OJB, OJC, OJW</th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation OJS</th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation ALQ</th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation OTW, CIW</th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation OJB, OJC, OJW</th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation OJS</th> <th colspan="3">Conjugation ALQ </th> <th>Example CIW </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th>Giin (2s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yan</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yan</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yan</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yan</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aman</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aman</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aman</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aman </td> <td>nebaayan </td> <td>"Sleeper" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawind (21) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amang </td> <td>nebaayang </td> <td>"Sleepers" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawaa (2p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yeg</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yeg</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yeg</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yeg</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ameg</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ameg</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ameg</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ameg </td> <td>nebaayeg </td> <td>"Sleepers" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Niin (1s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yaan(h)1</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yaan</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yaan</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yaan</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amaan(h)1</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amaan</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amaan</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amaan </td> <td>nebaayaan </td> <td>"Sleeper" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Niinawind (1p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yaang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yaang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yaang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>yaang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amaang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amaang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amaang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amaang </td> <td>nebaayaang </td> <td>"Sleepers" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Indefinite (X) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ng</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ng</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ng</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ng</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aming</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aming</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aming</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aming </td> <td>nebaang </td> <td>"Sleeper" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Wiin (3s) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>d</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>d</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>j</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>j</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ang</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>ang </td> <td>nebaad </td> <td>"Sleeper" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Wiinawaa (3p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>jig</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>waad</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>waaj</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>waaj</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>angig</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amowaad</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amowaaj</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>amowaaj </td> <td>nebaajig </td> <td>"Sleepers" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Obviative singular (3's) </th> <td rowspan="2">Ø</td> <td rowspan="2">*</td> <td rowspan="2">nijin</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>nid</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>nij</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>nj</td> <td rowspan="2">Ø</td> <td rowspan="2">*</td> <td rowspan="2">aminijin</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aminid</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aminij</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aminj </td> <td rowspan="2">nebaanijin </td> <td rowspan="2">"Sleeper(s)" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Obviative plural (3'p) </th> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>nijin</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>nijin</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>njin</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aminijin</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aminijin</td> <td>Ø</td> <td>*</td> <td>aminjin </td></tr> </tbody></table> * For participles, the word experiences <a href="#Initial_vowel_change">initial vowel change</a>. 1 -nh in <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_dialect" title="Ottawa dialect">Odaawaa</a>. Verbs additionally can be transformed into nouns representing concepts by adding -win, or into nouns representing an object by adding -gan or -n, or if a VAI into a gerund by dropping the final vowel or if VAI2 by adding -o. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plurals_and_obviative">Plurals and obviative</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Plurals and obviative">edit</a>]</div> Plurals and obviative suffixes are the easiest to add to Ojibwe words. By examining the plural, one can generally determine the underlying root of the word. Generally, animate plurals end with -g, while inanimate plurals and obviatives end with -n. Often, a linking vowel is required to join the root to one of these endings. Underlying -w or -y or an augment may affect the choice of linking vowels. A few plurals do not follow this rule, for example, mishi, misan "piece(s) of firewood". <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Singular </th> <th>Inanimate Plural </th> <th>Animate Plural </th> <th>Obviative1 </th> <th>Singular Example </th> <th>Plural Example </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Consonant Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Can </td> <td>Cag </td> <td>Can </td> <td>miin </td> <td>miinan </td> <td>"blueberries" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Long-vowel Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>CVV </td> <td>CVVn </td> <td>CVVg </td> <td>CVVn </td> <td>ajidamoo </td> <td>ajidamoog </td> <td>"squirrels" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVV </td> <td>CVVwan </td> <td>CVVwag </td> <td>CVVwan </td> <td>bine </td> <td>binewag </td> <td>"partridges" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVw </td> <td>CVwan </td> <td>CVwag </td> <td>CVwan </td> <td>wadow </td> <td>wadowag </td> <td>"bloodclots" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVVw </td> <td>CVVwan </td> <td>CVVwag </td> <td>CVVwan </td> <td>niwiiw </td> <td>niwiiwag </td> <td>"my wives" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVV </td> <td>CVVyan </td> <td>CVVyag </td> <td>CVVyan </td> <td>nimaamaa </td> <td>nimaamaayag </td> <td>"my mamas" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVVnh </td> <td>CVVnyan2 </td> <td>CVVnyag2 </td> <td>CVVnyan2 </td> <td>giigoonh </td> <td>giigoonyag </td> <td>"fishes" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Short-vowel Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>CV </td> <td>CVwan </td> <td>CVwag </td> <td>CVwan </td> <td>inini </td> <td>ininiwag </td> <td>"men" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVw </td> <td>CVwan </td> <td>CVwag </td> <td>CVwan </td> <td>bigiw </td> <td>bigiwan </td> <td>"gums" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">W Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Coon </td> <td>Coog </td> <td>Coon </td> <td>mitig </td> <td>mitigoon </td> <td>"sticks" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cwan </td> <td>Cwag </td> <td>Cwan </td> <td>nigig </td> <td>nigigwag </td> <td>"otters" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cwa </td> <td>Cwan </td> <td>Cwag </td> <td>Cwan </td> <td>makwa </td> <td>makwag </td> <td>"bears" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cwa </td> <td>Cwan </td> <td>Cwag </td> <td>Cwan </td> <td>ikwa </td> <td>ikwag </td> <td>"lice" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Y Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Ciin </td> <td>Ciig </td> <td>Ciin </td> <td>aniib </td> <td>aniibiig </td> <td>"elms" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ci </td> <td>Ciin </td> <td>Ciig </td> <td>Ciin </td> <td>anwi </td> <td>anwiin </td> <td>"bullets </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cwiin </td> <td>Cwiig </td> <td>Cwiin </td> <td>nining </td> <td>niningwiin </td> <td>"my armpits" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Augment Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Can </td> <td>Cag </td> <td>Can </td> <td>ninow </td> <td>ninowan </td> <td>"my cheeks" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Coon </td> <td>Coog </td> <td>Coon </td> <td>nikatig </td> <td>nikatigoon </td> <td>"my foreheads" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ca </td> <td>Cawan </td> <td>Cawag </td> <td>Cawan </td> <td>oodena </td> <td>oodenawan </td> <td>"towns" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cay </td> <td>Cayan </td> <td>Cayag </td> <td>Cayan </td> <td>omooday </td> <td>omoodayan </td> <td>"bottles" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Can </td> <td>Cag </td> <td>Can </td> <td>nindengway </td> <td>nindengwayan </td> <td>"my faces" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Can </td> <td>Canan </td> <td>Canag </td> <td>Canan </td> <td>ma'iingan </td> <td>ma'iinganag </td> <td>"wolves" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Can </td> <td>Canan </td> <td>Canag </td> <td>Canan </td> <td>nindooskwan </td> <td>nindooskwanan </td> <td>"my elbows" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cana </td> <td>Canan </td> <td>Canag </td> <td>Canan </td> <td>mikana </td> <td>mikanan </td> <td>"roads" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Participle Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cin </td> <td>Cig </td> <td>Cin </td> <td>maaniwang </td> <td>maaniwangin </td> <td>"fruits" </td></tr> <tr> <td>d3 </td> <td>jin </td> <td>jig </td> <td>jin </td> <td>naawogaaded </td> <td>naawogaadejig </td> <td>"quadrupeds" </td></tr> </tbody></table> 1 In <a href="/wiki/Central_Ojibwa_language" title="Central Ojibwa language">Central Ojibwa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Ojibwa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern Ojibwa language">Northwestern Ojibwa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Ojibwa_language" title="Western Ojibwa language">Western Ojibwa</a>, singular obviative ends with " n " while plural obviative ends with " ' ". This distinction in obviative is not made in other Ojibwe language dialects. 2 In <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ojibwe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Ojibwe language">Eastern Ojibwe language</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Ottawa language</a>, <a href="#Diminutives_and_Contemptives">contemptive</a> plurals are CVVnyig and CVVnyin instead of CVVnyag and CVVnyan. 3 In <a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Oji-Cree language</a>, this is a " j " and not a " d ". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diminutives_and_contemptives">Diminutives and contemptives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Diminutives and contemptives">edit</a>]</div> Diminutives in Ojibwe express an idea of something that is smaller or younger version of the noun. All diminutives are treated as a Consonant Stem when made into one of the plural forms or into the obviative form, thus taking on the linking vowel -a-. Contemptives are formed in a similar fashion as diminutives and are used to express negative or depreciative attitude the speaker may have of the noun. Contemptive plurals and obviatives remain as contemptives, but can take on the linking vowel -i- to add a possible pejorative. Many words to express fauna are often in contemptive forms. In the Ojibwemowin spoken in <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> and certain areas of northwestern <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, often contemptives are reduced from -nh/-ny- forms to -ø/-y-; in Algonquin and in most Northwestern Ojibwe, the contemptives instead is reflected by -nzh. In Odaawaa, the frequency of contemptives in fauna are higher than in other Anishinaabemowin dialects. For example, it is from the Daawaamwin word jidmoonh ("red squirrel") where the English word "chipmunk" has its origins, while the same word in Ojibwemowin is ajidamoo. When contemptive suffix is added for terms of endearment, any other d, t, z and s in the word are changed to j, ch, zh and sh respectively. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Singular </th> <th>Diminutive </th> <th>Contemptive </th> <th>Singular Example </th> <th>Diminutive Example </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Consonant Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cens </td> <td>Cenh </td> <td>miin </td> <td>miinens </td> <td>"little blueberry" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Long-vowel Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>CVV </td> <td>CVVns </td> <td>CVVnh </td> <td>ajidamoo </td> <td>ajidamoons </td> <td>"little squirrel" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVV </td> <td>CVVns </td> <td>CVVnh </td> <td>bine </td> <td>binens </td> <td>"little partridge" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVw </td> <td>CVns </td> <td>CVnh </td> <td>wadow </td> <td>wadons </td> <td>"little bloodclot" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVVw </td> <td>CVVns </td> <td>CVVnh </td> <td>niwiiw </td> <td>niwiins </td> <td>"my little wife" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVV </td> <td>CVVns </td> <td>CVVnh </td> <td>nimaamaa </td> <td>nimaamaans </td> <td>"my little mama" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVVnh </td> <td>CVVns </td> <td>CVVnh </td> <td>giigoonh </td> <td>giigoons </td> <td>"little fish" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Short-vowel Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>CV </td> <td>CVVns </td> <td>CVVnh </td> <td>inini </td> <td>ininiins </td> <td>"little man" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVw </td> <td>CVVns </td> <td>CVVnh </td> <td>bigiw </td> <td>bigiins </td> <td>"little gum" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">W Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Coons </td> <td>Coonh </td> <td>mitig </td> <td>mitigoons </td> <td>"twig" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Coons </td> <td>Coonh </td> <td>nigig </td> <td>nigigoons </td> <td>"little otter" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cwa </td> <td>Coons </td> <td>Coonh </td> <td>makwa </td> <td>makoons </td> <td>"bear cub" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cwa </td> <td>Coons </td> <td>Coonh </td> <td>ikwa </td> <td>ikoons </td> <td>"little louse" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Y Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Ciins </td> <td>Ciinh </td> <td>aniib </td> <td>aniibiins </td> <td>"young elm" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ci </td> <td>Ciins </td> <td>Ciinh </td> <td>anwi </td> <td>anwiins </td> <td>"little bullet" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cwiins </td> <td>Cwiinh </td> <td>nining </td> <td>niningwiins </td> <td>"my little armpit" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Augment Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cens </td> <td>Cenh </td> <td>ninow </td> <td>ninowens </td> <td>"my little cheek" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cwens </td> <td>Cwenh </td> <td>nikatig </td> <td>nikatigwens </td> <td>"my little forehead" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ca </td> <td>Cawens </td> <td>Cawenh </td> <td>oodena </td> <td>oodenawens </td> <td>"hamlet" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cay </td> <td>Cayens </td> <td>Cayenh </td> <td>omooday </td> <td>omoodayens </td> <td>"vial" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Caans </td> <td>Caanh </td> <td>nindengway </td> <td>nindengwayaans </td> <td>"my little face" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Can </td> <td>Caans </td> <td>Caanh </td> <td>ma'iingan </td> <td>ma'iingaans </td> <td>"little wolf" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Can </td> <td>Caans </td> <td>Caanh </td> <td>nindooskwan </td> <td>nindooskwaans </td> <td>"my little elbow" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cana </td> <td>Caans </td> <td>Caanh </td> <td>mikana </td> <td>mikaans </td> <td>"trail" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Participle Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Coons </td> <td>Coonh </td> <td>maaniwang </td> <td>maaniwangoons </td> <td>"little fruit" </td></tr> <tr> <td>d </td> <td>doons </td> <td>doonh </td> <td>naawogaaded </td> <td>naawogaadedoons </td> <td>"little quadruped" </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Locatives,_possessives_and_obviation_possessor_theme">Locatives, possessives and obviation possessor theme</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Locatives, possessives and obviation possessor theme">edit</a>]</div> Locatives indicate a location, and are indicated with -ng. Locatives do not take on any plurals or obviative suffixes, but obviation possessor or the number can be added before the locative suffix. Another set of affixes in the Anishinaabe language is indicated by the possessive theme -m or the obviative possessor theme -ni. Generally, dependent nouns and nouns ending with either -m or -n do not take the possessive theme -m. A small group of nouns also do not ever take the possessive theme suffix. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Singular </th> <th>Locative </th> <th>Possessive Theme </th> <th>Obviative Possessor Theme </th> <th>Singular Example </th> <th>Locative Example </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Consonant Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cing </td> <td>Cim </td> <td>Cini </td> <td>miin </td> <td>miining </td> <td>"by/on the blueberry" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Long-vowel Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>CVV </td> <td>CVVng </td> <td>CVVm </td> <td>CVVni / CVVnini </td> <td>ajidamoo </td> <td>ajidamoong </td> <td>"by/on the squirrel" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVV </td> <td>CVVng </td> <td>CVVm </td> <td>CVVni / CVVwini </td> <td>bine </td> <td>bineng </td> <td>"by/on the partridge" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVw </td> <td>CVng </td> <td>CVm </td> <td>CVni / CVVnini </td> <td>wadow </td> <td>wadong </td> <td>"by/on the bloodclot" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVVw </td> <td>CVVng </td> <td>CVVm </td> <td>CVVni / CVVwini </td> <td>niwiiw </td> <td>niwiing </td> <td>"by/on my wife" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVV </td> <td>CVVying </td> <td>CVVm </td> <td>CVVyini </td> <td>nimaamaa </td> <td>nimaamaaying </td> <td>"by/on my mama" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVVnh </td> <td>CVVnying </td> <td>CVVm </td> <td>CVVnyini </td> <td>giigoonh </td> <td>giigoonying </td> <td>"by/on the fish" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Short-vowel Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>CV </td> <td>CVVng </td> <td>CVVm </td> <td>CVVni / CVVnini </td> <td>inini </td> <td>ininiing </td> <td>"by/on the man" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVw </td> <td>CVVng </td> <td>CVVm </td> <td>CVVni / CVVnini </td> <td>bigiw </td> <td>bigiing </td> <td>"by/on the gum" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">W Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cong </td> <td>Com </td> <td>Coni / Coonini </td> <td>mitig </td> <td>mitigong </td> <td>"by/on the tree" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cong </td> <td>Com </td> <td>Coni / Coonini </td> <td>nigig </td> <td>nigigong </td> <td>"by/on the otter" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cwa </td> <td>Coong </td> <td>Coom </td> <td>Cooni / Coonini </td> <td>makwa </td> <td>makoong </td> <td>"by/on the bear" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cwa </td> <td>Cong </td> <td>Com </td> <td>Coni / Coonini </td> <td>ikwa </td> <td>ikong </td> <td>"by/on the louse" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Y Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Ciing </td> <td>Ciim </td> <td>Ciini / Ciinini </td> <td>aniib </td> <td>aniibiing </td> <td>"by/on the elm" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ci </td> <td>Ciing </td> <td>Ciim </td> <td>Ciini / Ciinini </td> <td>anwi </td> <td>anwiing </td> <td>"by/on the bullet" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cwiing </td> <td>Cwiim </td> <td>Cwiini / Cwiinini </td> <td>nining </td> <td>niningwiing </td> <td>"by/on my armpit" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Augment Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Caang </td> <td>Caam </td> <td>Caani </td> <td>ninow </td> <td>ninowaang </td> <td>"by/on my cheek" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cwaang </td> <td>Cwaam </td> <td>Cwaani </td> <td>nikatig </td> <td>nikatigwaang </td> <td>"by/on my forehead" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ca </td> <td>Caang </td> <td>Caam </td> <td>Caani </td> <td>oodena </td> <td>oodenawaang </td> <td>"by the village" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cay </td> <td>Caang </td> <td>Caam </td> <td>Caani </td> <td>omooday </td> <td>omoodaang </td> <td>"by/on the bottle" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Caang </td> <td>Caam </td> <td>Caani </td> <td>nindengway </td> <td>nindengwayaang </td> <td>"by/on my face" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Can </td> <td>Caning </td> <td>Canim </td> <td>Canini </td> <td>ma'iingan </td> <td>ma'iinganing </td> <td>"by/on the wolf" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Can </td> <td>Canaang </td> <td>Canaam </td> <td>Canaani </td> <td>nindooskwan </td> <td>nindooskwanaang </td> <td>"by/on my elbow" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cana </td> <td>Canaang </td> <td>Canaam </td> <td>Canaani </td> <td>mikana </td> <td>mikanaang </td> <td>"by/on the road" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Participle Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C </td> <td>Cong </td> <td>Com </td> <td>Coni/Coyani </td> <td>maaniwang </td> <td>maaniwangong </td> <td>"by/on the fruit" </td></tr> <tr> <td>d </td> <td>dong </td> <td>dom </td> <td>doni/doyani </td> <td>naawogaaded </td> <td>naawogaadedong </td> <td>"by/on the quadruped" </td></tr> </tbody></table> Rarely do either the possessive theme -m or the obviative possessor theme -ni stand by themselves. The above examples for the possessive theme -m were for the first person singular. For other persons or number, again using the possessive theme -m as an example, the word is conjugated as following: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">Subject </th> <th colspan="23">Possessive </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="21">Conjugation </th> <th rowspan="2">3s Example </th> <th rowspan="2">Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">3s Possessum </th> <th colspan="3">3p Possessum </th> <th colspan="3">3' Possessum </th> <th colspan="3">3" Possessum4 </th> <th colspan="3">0s Possessum </th> <th colspan="3">0p Possessum </th> <th colspan="3">Locative Possessum </th></tr> <tr> <th>Giin (2s) </th> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>m </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>mag </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>man </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>manan </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>m </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>man </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>ming </td> <td>gizhiishiibim </td> <td>"your (sg.) duck" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawaa (2p) </th> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaa </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaag </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaan </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaanan </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaa </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaa(n)2 </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaang </td> <td>gizhiishiibimiwaa </td> <td>"your (pl.) duck" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Giinawind (21) </th> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaan </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaanig1 </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaanin </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaaninan </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaan </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaanin1 </td> <td>g</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaaning </td> <td>gizhiishiibiminaan </td> <td>"our (inclusive) duck" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Niinawind (1p) </th> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaan </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaanig1 </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaanin </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaaninan </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaan </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaanin1 </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>minaaning </td> <td>nizhiishiibiminaan </td> <td>"our (exclusive) duck" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Niin (1s) </th> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>m </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>mag </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>man </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>manan </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>m </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>man </td> <td>n</td> <td>_</td> <td>ming </td> <td>nizhiishiibim </td> <td>"my duck" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Wiin (3s) </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>man </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>manan </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>m </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>man </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>ming </td> <td>ozhiishiibiman </td> <td>"his/her/its duck" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Wiinawaa (3p) </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaan </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaanan </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaa(n)2,3 </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaa(n)2 </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>miwaang </td> <td>ozhiishiibimiwaan </td> <td>"their duck" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Obviative (3'(s/p)) </th> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>mini(in)5 </td> <td colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>mini(in)5,6 </td> <td>w</td> <td>_</td> <td>miniwan7 </td> <td colspan="3"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> </tbody></table> 1 In the <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a>, the plural suffix remains as -an/-ag, rather than becoming -in/-ig. 2 Terminal -n is not found in Algonquin language. 3 Terminal -n is not found in <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ojibwe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Ojibwe language">Eastern Ojibwe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Ottawa languages</a>. 4 In the <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi language</a> 5 -in is used in Algonquin and <a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Oji-Cree (Severn Ojibwe)</a> languages 6 Only in Algonquin and in OjiCree is the inanimate possessed by an obviate marked. 7 Historically <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pejoratives_and_vocative_plurals">Pejoratives and vocative plurals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Pejoratives and vocative plurals">edit</a>]</div> Pejoratives, marked with the -sh suffix, generally indicates a stronger negative feelings a speaker may have than that of the contemptive. However, pejorative may also indicate a term of affection. Some words take on different meaning in the pejorative, such as aniibiish, which means "no good elm" but also means "leaf". In some dialects, some words are always shown in their pejorative forms, such as animosh for "dog". Vocative plurals mimic pejorative conjugation patterns. It is identified with the -dog suffix, which in the Ottawa dialect shows up instead as -dig suffix. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Singular </th> <th>Affective </th> <th>Pejorative </th> <th>Vocative Plural </th> <th>Singular Example </th> <th>Pejorative Example </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Consonant Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>Cis</td> <td>Cish</td> <td>Cidog </td> <td>miin </td> <td>miinish </td> <td>"no good blueberry" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Long-vowel Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>CVV</td> <td>CVVs</td> <td>CVVsh</td> <td>CVVdog </td> <td>ajidamoo </td> <td>ajidamoosh </td> <td>"no good squirrel" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVV</td> <td>CVVs</td> <td>CVVsh</td> <td>CVVdog </td> <td>bine </td> <td>binesh </td> <td>"no good partridge" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVw</td> <td>CVs</td> <td>CVsh</td> <td>CVdog </td> <td>wadow </td> <td>wadosh </td> <td>"no good bloodclot" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVVw</td> <td>CVVs</td> <td>CVVsh</td> <td>CVVdog </td> <td>niwiiw </td> <td>niwiish </td> <td>"my no good wife" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVV</td> <td>CVVs</td> <td>CVVsh</td> <td>CVVdog </td> <td>nimaamaa </td> <td>nimaamaash </td> <td>"my no good mama" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVVnh</td> <td>CVVs</td> <td>CVVsh</td> <td>CVVdog </td> <td>giigoonh </td> <td>giigoosh </td> <td>"no good fish" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Short-vowel Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>CV</td> <td>CVwis</td> <td>CVwish</td> <td>CVwidog </td> <td>inini </td> <td>ininiwish </td> <td>"no good man" </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVw</td> <td>CVwis</td> <td>CVwish</td> <td>CVwidog </td> <td>bigiw </td> <td>bigiwish </td> <td>"no good gum" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">W Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>Cos</td> <td>Cosh</td> <td>Codog </td> <td>mitig </td> <td>mitigosh </td> <td>"no good tree" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>Cos</td> <td>Cosh</td> <td>Codog </td> <td>nigig </td> <td>nigigosh </td> <td>"no good otter" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cwa</td> <td>Coos</td> <td>Coosh</td> <td>Coodog </td> <td>makwa </td> <td>makoosh </td> <td>"no good bear" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cwa</td> <td>Cos</td> <td>Cosh</td> <td>Codog </td> <td>ikwa </td> <td>ikosh </td> <td>"no good louse" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Y Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>Ciis</td> <td>Ciish</td> <td>Ciidog </td> <td>aniib </td> <td>aniibiish </td> <td>"no good elm" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ci</td> <td>Ciis</td> <td>Ciish</td> <td>Ciidog </td> <td>anwi </td> <td>anwiish </td> <td>"no good bullet" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>Cwiis</td> <td>Cwiish</td> <td>Cwiidog </td> <td>nining </td> <td>niningwiish </td> <td>"my lousy armpit" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Augment Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>Caas</td> <td>Caash</td> <td>Caadog </td> <td>ninow </td> <td>ninowaash </td> <td>"my no good cheek" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>Cwaas</td> <td>Cwaash</td> <td>Cwaadog </td> <td>nikatig </td> <td>nikatigwaash </td> <td>"my no good forehead" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ca</td> <td>Caas</td> <td>Caash</td> <td>Caadog </td> <td>oodena </td> <td>oodenawaash </td> <td>"damn village" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cay</td> <td>Caas</td> <td>Caash</td> <td>Caadog </td> <td>omooday </td> <td>omoodaash </td> <td>"no good bottle" </td></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>Caas</td> <td>Caash</td> <td>Caadog </td> <td>nindengway </td> <td>nindengwayaash </td> <td>"my no good face" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Can</td> <td>Canis</td> <td>Canish</td> <td>Canidog </td> <td>ma'iingan </td> <td>ma'iinganish </td> <td>"no good wolf" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Can</td> <td>Canaas</td> <td>Canaash</td> <td>Canaadog </td> <td>nindooskwan </td> <td>nindooskwanaash </td> <td>"my no good elbow" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cana</td> <td>Canaas</td> <td>Canaash</td> <td>Canaadog </td> <td>mikana </td> <td>mikanaash </td> <td>"no good road" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Participle Stem </th></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>Cos</td> <td>Cosh</td> <td>Cidog </td> <td>maaniwang </td> <td>maaniwangosh </td> <td>"no good fruit" </td></tr> <tr> <td>d</td> <td>dos</td> <td>dosh</td> <td>jidog </td> <td>naawogaaded </td> <td>naawogaadedosh </td> <td>"no good quadruped" </td></tr> </tbody></table> When the diminutive suffix ens or the affective suffix is, is followed by the other, the s becomes z, as in izens or enzis. When the pejorative suffix ish is added to the diminutive suffix ens, combination yields enzhish, while adding the diminutive suffix ens to the pejorative suffix ish, just as with any other Consonant Stem patterns, yields ishens. In Northwestern Ojibwe dialect when the pejorative suffix ish is added, any other d, t, z and s in the word are changed to j, ch, zh and sh respectively. Singular vocatives do not follow a systematic pattern like plural vocatives do, with various strategies in achieving the vocative case: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>nominative </th> <th>vocative </th> <th>gloss </th> <th>mechanism for vocative </th></tr> <tr> <td>noos</td> <td>noose!</td> <td>my father</td> <td>adding a vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td>Aanji-binesi</td> <td>Aanji-bines!</td> <td>Changing Bird</td> <td>dropping the final vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td>Noodinookwe</td> <td>Noodinook!</td> <td>Wind-woman</td> <td>dropping the final vowel and medial w </td></tr> <tr> <td>ningashi</td> <td>ninga!</td> <td>my mother</td> <td>dropping the final vowel and affective suffix </td></tr> <tr> <td>ningwizis</td> <td>ningwis!</td> <td>my son</td> <td>dropping of affective suffix </td></tr> <tr> <td>nookomis</td> <td>nooko!</td> <td>my grandmother</td> <td>dropping of affective suffix and the possessive theme m </td></tr> <tr> <td>noozhishenh</td> <td>noozis!</td> <td>my grandchild</td> <td>dropping of contemptive suffix and de-palatalize effected affective suffix consonants </td></tr></tbody></table> However, many irregular forms of achieving the vocative case also exist, including in some dialects unchanged forms such as noozhishenh! (my grandchild) used as a vocative, and vocative beyond the regular changed forms such as ninge! (my mother). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Adjectives">edit</a>]</div> Ojibwe has no adjectives per se but verbs that function as adjectives. Thus, instead of saying "the flower is blue," Ojibwe says something like to "the flower blues" (ozhaawashkwaa waabigwan) or "be a blueing flower" (waabigwan-ozhaawashkwaa). Ojibwe has a <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a>, in some situations, which has a verb (several, in fact) that can be translated as "to be" and used in situations to equate one thing with another. However, a copula is not always used in Ojibwe, such as if <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative pronouns</a> are used (jiimaan o'ow, "this is a canoe"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adverbs">Adverbs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Adverbs">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particles">Particles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Particles">edit</a>]</div> Ojibwe language with its <a href="/wiki/Iamb_(poetry)" title="Iamb (poetry)">iambic</a> accent system and relatively atonal word stresses, has any nuance of expressing word emphasis, stress, mood, etc., being expressed by particles like these: <ul><li>mii — discourse sequencer, topical focuser</li> <li>(i)dash — topical shift indicator; may even appear as -sh</li> <li>(i)go — emphasises heightened assertiveness</li> <li>(i)sa — emphasises novelty</li> <li>(i)sha — emphasises contradiction</li> <li>(i)maa — emphasises cooperation (either actual or desired)</li> <li>(i)naa — emphasises evaluative information</li> <li>wii — unexpectedness indicator</li></ul> The short initial 'i' is omitted typically when following a word or particle ending in a vowel or ending in 'n'. Other particles may be <a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">interjections</a> like these: <ul><li>ambe — "come on..."</li> <li>(a)tayaa — "indeed"</li> <li>(a)was — "go away"</li> <li>boozhoo — "hello"</li> <li>enh — "yes"</li> <li>gaawiin — "no"</li> <li>(i)kawe — "hold on..."</li> <li>miigwech — "thank you"</li></ul> The short initial vowel may be omitted typically in excited speech. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Counting">Counting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Counting">edit</a>]</div> Ojibwe numbers are classified as a <a href="/wiki/Biquinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Biquinary">biquinary</a> <a href="/wiki/Base-10" class="mw-redirect" title="Base-10">base-10</a> system. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">Ones</th> <th colspan="4">Hundreds </th></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>bezhig [(n)ingod1,3,8]</td> <td>6</td> <td>(n)ingodwaaswi3,7</td> <td>100</td> <td>midaasimidana7 / (n)ingodwaak3</td> <td>600</td> <td>(n)ingodwaaswaak3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>niizh</td> <td>7</td> <td>niizhwaaswi7</td> <td>200</td> <td>niizhwaak</td> <td>700</td> <td>niizhwaaswaak </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>niswi</td> <td>8</td> <td>(n)ishwaaswi3,7</td> <td>300</td> <td>niswaak</td> <td>800</td> <td>(n)ishwaaswaak3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td>niiwin4</td> <td>9</td> <td>zhaangaswi6,7</td> <td>400</td> <td>niiwaak</td> <td>900</td> <td>zhaangaswaak </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td>naanan</td> <td>10</td> <td>midaaswi7</td> <td>500</td> <td>naanwaak</td> <td>1,000</td> <td>midaaswaak </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">Tens</th> <th colspan="4">Thousands </th></tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td>midaaswi7 [(n)ingodana1]</td> <td>60</td> <td>(n)ingodwaasimidana3,5,7</td> <td>1,000</td> <td>midaaswaak [(n)ingodanaak1,3]</td> <td>6,000</td> <td>(n)ingodwaasimidanaak3,5,7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>20</td> <td>niishtana [niizh((m)i)dana2]</td> <td>70</td> <td>niizhwaasimidana5,7</td> <td>2,000</td> <td>niishtanaak</td> <td>7,000</td> <td>niizhwaasimidanaak5,7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>30</td> <td>nisimidana5</td> <td>80</td> <td>(n)ishwaasimidana3,5,7</td> <td>3,000</td> <td>nisimidanaak5</td> <td>8,000</td> <td>(n)ishwaasimidanaak3,5,7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>40</td> <td>niimidana4</td> <td>90</td> <td>zhaangasimidana5,7</td> <td>4,000</td> <td>niimidanaak</td> <td>9,000</td> <td>zhaangasimidanaak5,7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>50</td> <td>naanimidana5</td> <td>100</td> <td>midaasimidana5,7</td> <td>5,000</td> <td>naanimidanaak5</td> <td>10,000</td> <td>midaasimidanaak5,7 </td></tr></tbody></table> 1 In theory 2 Historically, either niizh midana or niizhidana. 3 Many speakers omit the initial n (shown in parentheses). 4 In Algonquin and Algonquin-influenced communities, new and newin midana are used instead of niiwin and niimidana, respectively. 5 In <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Ojibwa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern Ojibwa language">Northwestern Ojibwe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Oji-cree</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a>, o is used instead of i as the connector vowel for the suffixes -midana and -midanaak. 6 In some dialects, such as in parts of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ojibwa_language" title="Eastern Ojibwa language">Eastern Ojibwe</a>, zhaang is used instead of zhaangaswi; the shorter form was historically recorded as being the more pervasive form, but it now is rarely used. 7 Richard Rhodes reports that some Algonquin speakers use a connector, -di, before -swi, -somidana, and -somidanaak. 8 (n)ingod is "one" in <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a> but "something" in Ojibwe. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modifications_of_sound">Modifications of sound</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Modifications of sound">edit</a>]</div> Ojibwe initials of words may experience morphological changes under three modification strategies: initial consonant change, initial vowel change and initial syllable reduplication. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_consonant_change">Initial consonant change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Initial consonant change">edit</a>]</div> Ojibwe consonants are divided into lenis and fortis values: <ul><li>lenis-fortis pairs: ′ – h (if distinguished), b – p, d – t, g – k, j – ch, z – s, zh – sh</li> <li>unpaired fortis: h (if not distinguished), m, n, w, y</li></ul> When either the past tense preverb gii'- or the desiritive future tense wii'- is added to a verb, if the verb begins with a lenis consonant, it may change to its fortis counterpart; it is common for many writers to omit the writing of the glottal stop, so they graphically indicate this consonant shift by writing the fortis consonant counterpart. In some dialects, such as with the Red Lake Ojibwe in Minnesota, this rule is suspended if the consonant in the verb's second syllable already contains a fortis consonant. In some dialects as in Odaawaa, this rule is not applied. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Ojibwe (without gii-) </th> <th>English </th> <th>Ojibwe (with gii-) </th> <th>English </th> <th>Comment </th></tr> <tr> <td>ayekozi </td> <td>he/she is tired </td> <td>gii-ayekozi </td> <td>he/she was tired </td> <td>not applicable, as this word begins with a vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td>nibaa </td> <td>he/she sleeps </td> <td>gii-nibaa </td> <td>he/she slept </td> <td>initial consonant is already a fortis </td></tr> <tr> <td>jiibaakwe </td> <td>he/she cooks </td> <td>gii-chiibaakwe </td> <td>he/she cooked </td> <td>initial consonant changes to its fortis counterpart </td></tr> <tr> <td>jaka'ige </td> <td>he/she pokes </td> <td>gii-jaka'ige </td> <td>he/she poked </td> <td>Red Lake: initial consonant is not changed due to a fortis consonant (in this case, k) in the second syllable </td></tr> <tr> <td>zhaabobide </td> <td>he/she drives through </td> <td>gii-zhaabobide </td> <td>he/she drove through </td> <td>Odaawaa: this dialect does not implement the initial consonant change </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_vowel_change">Initial vowel change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Initial vowel change">edit</a>]</div> In general, verbs in Conjunct and Participial orders and nouns of Subjunctive order change the vowel quality of the first syllable in the manner shown in the table below. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>unchanged </th> <th>changed </th></tr> <tr> <td>-a- </td> <td>-e- </td></tr> <tr> <td>-aa- </td> <td>-ayaa- </td></tr> <tr> <td>-e- </td> <td>-aye- </td></tr> <tr> <td>-i- </td> <td>-e- </td></tr> <tr> <td>-ii- </td> <td>-aa- </td></tr> <tr> <td>-o- </td> <td>-we- </td></tr> <tr> <td>-oo- </td> <td>-waa- </td></tr></tbody></table> However, in some words beginning in dan-, dazh-, das-, dash- or daa- instead take on the prefix en- to form endan-, endazh-, endas-, endash- or endaa-. The directional prefix bi-, meaning "over here," instead becomes ba-. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_syllable_reduplication">Initial syllable reduplication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Initial syllable reduplication">edit</a>]</div> Words typically conveying repetitive actions have their very first syllable experience reduplication. Reduplication may be found in both verbs and in nouns. Vowel syncope process Eastern Ojibwe and Odaawaa experiences happen after the word has gone through reduplication. The most general reduplication pattern for the initial syllable is C1V1 → C1V2C2V1 but the table below shows the most common reduplication strategies. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>unchanged </th> <th>reduplicated </th> <th>unchanged </th> <th>reduplicated </th></tr> <tr> <td>a- </td> <td>aya- </td> <td>Ca- </td> <td>CaCa- </td></tr> <tr> <td>aa- </td> <td>aayaa- </td> <td>Caa- </td> <td>CaaCaa- </td></tr> <tr> <td>e- </td> <td>eye- </td> <td>Ce- </td> <td>CeCe- </td></tr> <tr> <td>i- </td> <td>ayi- </td> <td>Ci- </td> <td>CaCi- or CeCi- </td></tr> <tr> <td>ii- </td> <td>aayii- </td> <td>Cii- </td> <td>CaaCii- or CeCii- or CiiCii- </td></tr> <tr> <td>o- (reduced from *wa) </td> <td>wawe- or waye- </td> <td>Co- </td> <td>CaCe- </td></tr> <tr> <td>o- (reduced from *wi) </td> <td>wawo-1 or wawi- </td> <td>Co- </td> <td>CaCo- </td></tr> <tr> <td>oo- </td> <td>oo'oo- </td> <td>Coo- </td> <td>CaaCoo- or CeCoo- or CooCoo- </td></tr></tbody></table> 1 ayo- in <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a>. In some words, the reduplicated consonant shifts from their lenis value to their fortis value. Yet in some stems, initial Cw- retains the -w- while others do not. Those words experiencing the prefix en- may change to in- before experiencing reduplication. Other prefixes such as gino- (long) does not follow the typical C1V1 → C1V2C2V1 pattern, and instead becomes gagaano-. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Syntax">edit</a>]</div> As Ojibwe is highly synthetic, word order and sentence structure is relatively free, since a great deal of information is already encoded onto the verb. The subject can go before or after the verb, as can the object; however, the subject and the object together cannot go before the verb. In general, whichever participant is deemed more important or in-focus by the speaker is placed first, before the verb, and the less important participant follows the verb. Ojibwe tends to prefer a VS order (verb–subject) when subjects are specified with separate nominals or pronouns (e.g., bakade a'aw asabikeshiinh, be.hungry that.there.ANIMATE net.make.PEJORATIVE.CONTEMPTIVE, "that spider is hungry"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anishinaabe language">Anishinaabe language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NRG122-1"><a href="#cite_ref-NRG122_1-0">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFValentine2001">Valentine 2001</a>, p. 122) </li> <li id="cite_note-Kegg143-144-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg143-144_2-12">m</a> Kegg, 1990, pp. 143–144 </li> <li id="cite_note-NRGxxxv-xxxvii-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRGxxxv-xxxvii_3-13">n</a> (<a href="#CITEREFValentine2001">Valentine 2001</a>, pp. xxxv–xxxvii) </li> <li id="cite_note-OjTAn219-292-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OjTAn219-292_4-12">m</a> Nichols, 1998, pp. 291–292 </li> <li id="cite_note-ON-MOE-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ON-MOE_5-13">n</a> Ontario Ministry of Education, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/curricul/ojibwe.pdf">Native Languages: A Support Document for the Teaching of Language Patters—Ojibwe and Cree</a>, p. 97 </li> <li id="cite_note-NRG219-6"><a href="#cite_ref-NRG219_6-0">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFValentine2001">Valentine 2001</a>, p. 219) </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Valentine, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~jrvalent/old_nlip/NLIP_Year_4_bu/attachments/TheftOfFire.pdf">Theft of Fire</a>, as 3pObv </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Kegg, 1990, p. 136 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kegg141-143-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg141-143_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg141-143_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg141-143_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg141-143_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg141-143_9-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg141-143_9-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg141-143_9-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg141-143_9-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kegg141-143_9-8">i</a> Kegg, 1990, pp. 141–143 </li> <li id="cite_note-N&N-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-N&N_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-N&N_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-N&N_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-N&N_10-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-N&N_10-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-N&N_10-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-N&N_10-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-N&N_10-7">h</a> Nichols & Nyholm, 1995, pp. xii–xiii </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhodes-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_11-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_11-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_11-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_11-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_11-7">h</a> Rhodes, 1985, pp.xiv–xv </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Kegg, 1990, p. 135 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Kegg, 1990, p. 137 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Nichols and Nyholm, 1995, p. xv </li> <li id="cite_note-NRG155-156-15"><a href="#cite_ref-NRG155-156_15-0">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFValentine2001">Valentine 2001</a>, pp. 155–156, 508–510, 913–915) </li> <li id="cite_note-NRG266-265-16"><a href="#cite_ref-NRG266-265_16-0">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFValentine2001">Valentine 2001</a>, pp. 266–265) </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFArtuso1998" class="citation thesis cs1">Artuso, Christian (1998). Noogom gaa-izhi-anishinaabemonaaniwag: Generational Difference in Algonquin (MA thesis). University of Manitoba.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Noogom+gaa-izhi-anishinaabemonaaniwag%3A+Generational+Difference+in+Algonquin&rft.degree=MA&rft.inst=University+of+Manitoba&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Artuso&rft.aufirst=Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOjibwe+grammar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKegg1990" class="citation book cs1">Kegg, Maude (1990). Nookomis Gaa-inaajimotawid: What my grandmother Told Me. Bemidji, MN: Indian Studies Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nookomis+Gaa-inaajimotawid%3A+What+my+grandmother+Told+Me&rft.place=Bemidji%2C+MN&rft.pub=Indian+Studies+Publications&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Kegg&rft.aufirst=Maude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOjibwe+grammar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMithun1999" class="citation book cs1">Mithun, Marianne (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+Native+North+America&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Mithun&rft.aufirst=Marianne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOjibwe+grammar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichols1988" class="citation book cs1">Nichols, John D., ed. (1988). An Ojibwe Text Anthology. London, ON: Centre for Research and Teaching of Canadian Native Languages.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Ojibwe+Text+Anthology&rft.place=London%2C+ON&rft.pub=Centre+for+Research+and+Teaching+of+Canadian+Native+Languages&rft.date=1988&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOjibwe+grammar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholsNyholm1995" class="citation book cs1">Nichols, John D.; Nyholm, Earl (1995). A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Dictionary+of+Minnesota+Ojibwe&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft.au=Nyholm%2C+Earl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOjibwe+grammar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPicard1984" class="citation journal cs1">Picard, Marc (1984). "On the Naturalness of Algonquian ɬ". International Journal of American Linguistics. 50 (4): 424–437. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F465851">10.1086/465851</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=On+the+Naturalness+of+Algonquian+%C9%AC&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E424-%3C%2Fspan%3E437&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F465851&rft.aulast=Picard&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOjibwe+grammar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1985" class="citation book cs1">Rhodes, Richard A. (1985). Eastern Ojibwa-Chippewa-Ottawa Dictionary. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Ojibwa-Chippewa-Ottawa+Dictionary&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOjibwe+grammar" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValentine2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-location-test">Valentine, J. Randolph (2001). Written at The Ojibway Heritage Center, Walpole Island. Nishnaabemwin Reference Grammar. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-4870-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8020-4870-6"><bdi>0-8020-4870-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nishnaabemwin+Reference+Grammar&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8020-4870-6&rft.aulast=Valentine&rft.aufirst=J.+Randolph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOjibwe+grammar" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ojibwemowin.com/">Ojibwe Language Society</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121205042429/http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ojibwelanguagesocietymiinawaa/">OLS Miinawaa</a> — Yahoo Group extension of the Ojibwe Language Society</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~jrvalent/AIS/index.html">Rand Valentine's introduction to Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211222133508/http://weshki.atwebpages.com/index.html">Grammar, lessons, and dictionaries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nishnaabemwin.atlas-ling.ca/">Odawa & Eastern Ojibwe Language resources</a> at Algonquian Linguistic Atlas</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu">Ojibwe People's Dictionary</a> ― on-line dictionary courtesy of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html">Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary</a> — Freeware off-line dictionary, updated with additional entries periodically.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051230141427/http://www.sicc.sk.ca/heritage/sils/ourlanguages/saulteaux/saulteaux.html">Our Languages: Nakawē</a> (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre) <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sicc.sk.ca/saulteaux">SICC | Saulteaux</a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/curricul/ojibwe.pdf">Native Languages: A Support Document for the Teaching of Language Patterns, Ojibwe and Cree</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li>Grammars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_grammar" title="Afrikaans grammar">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_grammar" title="Danish grammar">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_grammar" title="Faroese grammar">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_grammar" title="Icelandic grammar">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language#Grammar" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_grammar" title="Colognian grammar">Ripuarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_grammar" title="Swedish grammar">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_grammar" title="West Frisian grammar">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_grammar" title="Yiddish grammar">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_grammar" title="Breton grammar">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_grammar" title="Cornish grammar">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_grammar" title="Irish grammar">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar" title="Old Irish grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_grammar" title="Manx grammar">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar" title="Scottish Gaelic grammar">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_grammar" title="Welsh grammar">Welsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloquial_Welsh_morphology" title="Colloquial Welsh morphology">colloquial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Welsh_morphology" title="Literary Welsh morphology">literary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_grammar" title="Catalan grammar">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_grammar" title="Dalmatian grammar">Dalmatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_grammar" title="French grammar">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_grammar" title="Istro-Romanian grammar">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_grammar" title="Italian grammar">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin</a></li> <li>Lombard <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lombard_grammar" title="Eastern Lombard grammar">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Lombard_grammar" title="Western Lombard grammar">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_grammar" title="Portuguese grammar">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_grammar" title="Romanian grammar">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_grammar" title="Spanish grammar">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_grammar" title="Venetian grammar">Venetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_grammar" title="Latvian grammar">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_grammar" title="Lithuanian grammar">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_grammar" title="Belarusian grammar">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_grammar" title="Bulgarian grammar">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language#Grammar" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_grammar" title="Macedonian grammar">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_grammar" title="Old Church Slavonic grammar">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_grammar" title="Russian grammar">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_grammar" title="Silesian grammar">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_grammar" title="Serbo-Croatian grammar">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language#Morphology" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_grammar" title="Slovene grammar">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_grammar" title="Slovincian grammar">Slovincian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar" title="Ukrainian grammar">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_grammar" title="Kurdish grammar">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sorani_grammar" title="Sorani grammar">Sorani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_grammar" title="Pashto grammar">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_grammar" title="Persian grammar">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_grammar" title="Tajik grammar">Tajik</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_grammar" title="Bengali grammar">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_grammar" title="Bhojpuri grammar">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_grammar" title="Gujarati grammar">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_grammar" title="Maithili grammar">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_grammar" title="Marathi grammar">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_grammar" title="Nepali grammar">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_grammar" title="Odia grammar">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_grammar" title="Punjabi grammar">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Sanskrit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language#Grammar" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_grammar" title="Modern Greek grammar">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_grammar" title="Koine Greek grammar">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_grammar" title="Hittite grammar">Hittite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_grammar" title="Estonian grammar">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_grammar" title="Finnish grammar">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_grammar" title="Hungarian grammar">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_grammar" title="Ingrian grammar">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_grammar" title="Komi grammar">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_grammar" title="Livonian grammar">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%C3%A4nkieli_grammar" title="Meänkieli grammar">Meänkieli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_grammar" title="Udmurt grammar">Udmurt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language#Grammar" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_grammar" title="Turkish grammar">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_grammar" title="Turkmen grammar">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_grammar" title="Uyghur grammar">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language#Grammar" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_language#Grammar" title="Yakut language">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language#Grammar" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_grammar" title="Adyghe grammar">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_grammar" title="Basque grammar">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_grammar" title="Georgian grammar">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_grammar" title="Kabardian grammar">Kabardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_grammar" title="Laz grammar">Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_grammar" title="Mingrelian grammar">Mingrelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_grammar" title="Ubykh grammar">Ubykh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Levantine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight_grammar" title="Central Atlas Tamazight grammar">Central Atlas Tamazight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hebrew_grammar" title="History of Hebrew grammar">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_grammar" title="Kabyle grammar">Kabyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_grammar" title="Somali grammar">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_grammar" title="Tigrinya grammar">Tigrinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_grammar" title="Ugaritic grammar">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_language#Morphology" title="Fula language">Fula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pular_grammar" title="Pular grammar">Pular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otjiherero_grammar" title="Otjiherero grammar">Herero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_grammar" title="Sesotho grammar">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_grammar" title="Swahili grammar">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_grammar" title="Zulu grammar">Zulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_grammar" title="Kannada grammar">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_grammar" title="Telugu grammar">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_grammar" title="Japanese grammar">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Japanese_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Japanese grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language#Grammar" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_grammar" title="Hachijō grammar">Hachijō</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_grammar" title="Burmese grammar">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzongkha grammar">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok_grammar" title="Kokborok grammar">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Mandarin Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_grammar" title="Mizo grammar">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Tibetan_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Standard Tibetan grammar">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_grammar" title="Khmer grammar">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Has_Hlai_grammar" title="Has Hlai grammar">Has Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_grammar" title="Lao grammar">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language#Grammar" title="Thai language">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_grammar" title="Evenki grammar">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar" title="Korean grammar">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language#Grammar" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_grammar" title="Cebuano grammar">Cebuano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_grammar" title="Hawaiian grammar">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_grammar" title="Ilocano grammar">Ilocano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_grammar" title="Malay grammar">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_grammar" title="Tagalog grammar">Tagalog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_grammar" title="Massachusett grammar">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_grammar" title="Munsee grammar">Munsee</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl_grammar" title="Classical Nahuatl grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawat_grammar" title="Nawat grammar">Nawat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language#Grammar" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_grammar" title="Inuit grammar">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskito_grammar" title="Miskito grammar">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_grammar" title="Navajo grammar">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomi_grammar" title="Otomi grammar">Otomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar" title="American Sign Language grammar">American</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artistic_language" title="Artistic language">artistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_grammar" title="Klingon grammar">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%CA%BCvi_grammar" title="Naʼvi grammar">Naʼvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenya_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenya grammar">Quenya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">auxiliary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_grammar" title="Esperanto grammar">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingua_grammar" title="Interlingua grammar">Interlingua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingue_grammar" title="Interlingue grammar">Interlingue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar" title="Lingua Franca Nova grammar">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Constructed_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed languages">constructed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lojban_grammar" title="Lojban grammar">Lojban</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&oldid=1224228972">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ojibwe_grammar&oldid=1224228972</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_grammars" title="Category:Native American grammars">Native American grammars</a></li><li><a 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