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Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_and_Eastern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German-speaking_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German-speaking_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>German-speaking countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German-speaking_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nordic_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nordic_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Nordic countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nordic_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Philippines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>South Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikularismus" title="Partikularismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Partikularismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="انصرافية سياسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="انصرافية سياسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikulyarizm" title="Partikulyarizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Partikulyarizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particularisme" title="Particularisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Particularisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikularisme" title="Partikularisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Partikularisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikularismus" title="Partikularismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Partikularismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particularismo" title="Particularismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Particularismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particolarismo_politico" title="Particolarismo politico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Particolarismo politico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="პარტიკულარიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პარტიკულარიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Партикуляризм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Партикуляризм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Партикуляризм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Партикуляризм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikuliarizmas" title="Partikuliarizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Partikuliarizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particularisme" title="Particularisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Particularisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikularisme" title="Partikularisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Partikularisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partykularyzm" title="Partykularyzm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Partykularyzm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particularismo" title="Particularismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Particularismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particularism" title="Particularism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Particularism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Партикуляризм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Партикуляризм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Партикуларизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Партикуларизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikularizam" title="Partikularizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Partikularizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partikularism" title="Partikularism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Partikularism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partik%C3%BClarizm" title="Partikülarizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Partikülarizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Партикуляризм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Партикуляризм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particu%C5%82arismo" title="Particułarismo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Particułarismo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1695797#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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style="border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideas</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">Consensus decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive rights">Positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">Social capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">Social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">Workplace democracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Barber" title="Benjamin Barber">Barber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gad_Barzilai" title="Gad Barzilai">Barzilai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Bellah" title="Robert N. Bellah">Bellah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyla_Benhabib" title="Seyla Benhabib">Seyla Benhabib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillip_Blond" title="Phillip Blond">Blond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amitai_Etzioni" title="Amitai Etzioni">Etzioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Galston" title="William Galston">Galston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Hauerwas" title="Stanley Hauerwas">Hauerwas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bethke_Elshtain" title="Jean Bethke Elshtain">Jean Bethke Elshtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Kuczewski" title="Mark Kuczewski">Kuczewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Marglin" title="Stephen Marglin">Marglin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_P%C3%A9rez_Ad%C3%A1n" title="José Pérez Adán">Adán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costanzo_Preve" title="Costanzo Preve">Preve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Putnam" title="Robert D. Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Reich" title="Robert Reich">Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="text-align: center;"> <span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communitarianism_sidebar" title="Template:Communitarianism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communitarianism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Communitarianism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communitarianism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communitarianism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <b>political particularism</b> is the ability of policymakers to further their careers by catering to narrow interests rather than to broader national platforms.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_science">Political science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Political science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political system</a> governed by particularism, sooner or later, the decisive factor of politics becomes <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_identity" title="Religious identity">religious identity</a> and the interests of the communities defined by these bonds. This stands in contrast with the ideas and values of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">political pluralism</a>, with its emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">universal</a> rights, <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of religion and the government</a>, and an ethic of ethnic and <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parliamentary_practice">Parliamentary practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Parliamentary practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When an elected assembly, which is supposed to express collective interests, directs funds to a specific recipient (with <a href="/wiki/Local_and_personal_Acts_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Local and personal Acts of Parliament (United Kingdom)">local and personal Acts</a> in United Kingdom, or <a href="/wiki/Earmark_(politics)" title="Earmark (politics)">earmarks</a> in United States, for example), the parliamentary system is bent to political particularism. The way to legislate it is often characterized by its opponents as the politics of <a href="/wiki/Group_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Group identity">group identity</a> that trumps <a href="/wiki/Universal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal rights">universal rights</a> and therefore the rights of <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minorities</a> or any other kind of "<a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">other</a>". </p><p>It is in direct opposition to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Universal_law" title="Universal law">universality of the law</a> and to the <a href="/wiki/Trustee_model_of_representation" title="Trustee model of representation">trustee model of representation</a>. The practice in the following countries is often called <i><a href="/wiki/Pork_barrel" title="Pork barrel">pork barrel</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Earmark_(politics)" title="Earmark (politics)">earmark</a></i> or <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a>, but those words do not always imply corrupt or undesirable conduct. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Pork barrel" is frequently used in reference to <a href="/wiki/Australian_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian politics">Australian politics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in circumstances where <a href="/wiki/Marginal_seat" title="Marginal seat">marginal seats</a> might be seen as receiving more funding than <a href="/wiki/Safe_seat" title="Safe seat">safe seats</a> or when funding for projects is heavily directed toward the party-held seats, with the opposition receiving little to no such funding. The term's widespread appearance in news media has led to it being commonly used in <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a> as a verb, such as in "pork barrelling".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sports_rorts_affair_(2020)" title="Sports rorts affair (2020)">sports rorts affair (2020)</a> perpetrated by Senator <a href="/wiki/Bridget_McKenzie" title="Bridget McKenzie">Bridget McKenzie</a> is a classic example of pork barrelling in Australian politics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_and_Eastern_Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Central and Eastern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Romanians speak of <i><span title="Romanian-language text"><i lang="ro">pomeni electorale</i></span></i> (literally, "electoral alms"), while the Polish <i><span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl">kiełbasa wyborcza</i></span></i> means literally "election sausage". In Serbian, <i><span title="Serbian-language text"><i lang="sr">podela kolača</i></span></i> ("cutting the cake") refers to post-electoral distribution of state-funded positions for the loyal members of the winning party. The Czech <i><span title="Czech-language text"><i lang="cs">předvolební guláš</i></span></i> ("pre-election <a href="/wiki/Goulash" title="Goulash">goulash</a>") has a similar meaning, referring to free dishes of <a href="/wiki/Goulash" title="Goulash">goulash</a> served to potential voters during election campaign meetings targeted at lower social classes; metaphorically, it stands for any populistic political decisions that are taken before the elections with the aim of obtaining more votes. The process of diverting budget funds in favor of a project in a particular constituency is called <i><span title="Czech-language text"><i lang="cs">porcování medvěda</i></span></i> ("portioning of the bear") in Czech usage.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German-speaking_countries">German-speaking countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: German-speaking countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The German language differentiates between campaign goodies (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Wahlgeschenke</i></span>, literally "election gifts") to occur around election dates, and parish-pump politics (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Kirchturmpolitik</i></span>, literally "steeple politics") for concentrating funding and reliefs to the home constituency of a politician. While the former is a technical term (almost neutral or only slightly derogatory) the latter is always derogatory and its beneficial scope is not wider than the area within which the politician's village church steeple can be seen. In Switzerland the wording of provincial thinking (<span title="Alemannic German-language text"><i lang="gsw">Kantönligeist</i></span>, literally "<a href="/wiki/Cantons_of_Switzerland" title="Cantons of Switzerland">cantonal</a> mind") may cover these actions as well and it is understood as a synonym in Germany and Austria. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In India, the term "pork barrel politics" has been employed to depict the pattern of distribution of discretionary grants by the national government (see for example Biswas et al. 2010;<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rodden and Wilkinson 2004).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>parish pump politics</i> is more commonly used in Ireland although Independent TD <a href="/wiki/Shane_Ross" title="Shane Ross">Shane Ross</a> referred to pork barrel politics at a press conference for the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Alliance_(Ireland)" title="Independent Alliance (Ireland)">Independent Alliance</a> in the run up to the <a href="/wiki/2016_Irish_general_election" title="2016 Irish general election">2016 general election</a>, saying that the Alliance was "not interested in pork barrel politics".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite being appointed <a href="/wiki/Minister_for_Transport,_Tourism_and_Sport" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister for Transport, Tourism and Sport">Minister for Transport, Tourism and Sport</a> in the <a href="/wiki/32nd_D%C3%A1il" title="32nd Dáil">32nd Dáil</a> in 2016, he prioritised the reopening of a police station in his own constituency, which was eventually delivered on the eve of the election of new Taoiseach <a href="/wiki/Leo_Varadkar" title="Leo Varadkar">Leo Varadkar</a> in June 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Apart from the law not respecting the duty of generality (<span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">legge provvedimento</i></span>), political particularism in Italy is expressed properly in so-called <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">legge mancia</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Enacted in 2004 with the purpose of financing small public works of local authorities, it creates a public fund whose use is subject to previous <i>advice</i> from Appropriation Committees of the Chamber and Senate. Soon this system revealed a very different nature: the money from the "tip law" went to finance practically everything (from sports clubs to cultural associations to parishes). In 2008, after the failed suppression, the law resurfaced when parliamentarians of the Budget Commission of the Chamber presented a resolution that "commits the government" to distribute 103 million euros to 588 initiatives by decree;<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i>advice</i> was given by two parliamentary Committees up to 2010, in order to distribute public money from the fund for "urgent interventions aimed at socio-economic rebalancing and the development of the territory and the promotion of sporting, cultural and social activities".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Afterwards, the fund was closed, even if periodically anti-parliamentarian polemics cry about its restoration under other guise.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 2016, Minister <a href="/wiki/Pier_Carlo_Padoan" title="Pier Carlo Padoan">Pier Carlo Padoan</a>, presenting a budgetary reform bill, "emphasized the brake on the bad habit of inserting micro-sector or local regulations. The stop, explained the minister, is aimed at 'avoiding' that parliamentary work 'concentrates exclusively on particularistic norms', which respond to needs linked to individual situations and individuals."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nordic_countries">Nordic countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nordic countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Similar expressions, meaning "election meat", are used in <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> (<span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da">valgflæsk</i></span>), <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> (<span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">valfläsk</i></span>) and <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> (<span title="Norwegian-language text"><i lang="no">valgflesk</i></span>), where they mean promises made <i>before</i> an election, often by a politician who has little intention of fulfilling them.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a> political jargon uses <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">siltarumpupolitiikka</i></span> ("<a href="/wiki/Culvert" title="Culvert">culvert</a> politics") in reference to national politicians concentrating on small local matters, such as construction of roads and other public works at politician's home municipality. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, the term <span title="Icelandic-language text"><i lang="is">kjördæmapot</i></span> refers to the practice of funneling public funds to key voting demographics in marginal constituencies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philippines">Philippines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Philippines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Priority_Development_Assistance_Fund" title="Priority Development Assistance Fund">Priority Development Assistance Fund</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Million_People_March_in_Luneta_against_Pork_Barrel_24.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Million_People_March_in_Luneta_against_Pork_Barrel_24.JPG/220px-Million_People_March_in_Luneta_against_Pork_Barrel_24.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Million_People_March_in_Luneta_against_Pork_Barrel_24.JPG/330px-Million_People_March_in_Luneta_against_Pork_Barrel_24.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Million_People_March_in_Luneta_against_Pork_Barrel_24.JPG/440px-Million_People_March_in_Luneta_against_Pork_Barrel_24.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Protest against pork barrel politics at the 2013 <a href="/wiki/Million_People_March" title="Million People March">Million People March</a> in <a href="/wiki/Luneta" class="mw-redirect" title="Luneta">Luneta</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, the term "pork barrel" is used to mean funds allocated to the members of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_the_Philippines" title="House of Representatives of the Philippines">Philippine House of Representatives</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Philippines" title="Senate of the Philippines">Philippine Senate</a> to spend as they see fit without going through the normal budgetary process or through the executive branch. It can be used for both "hard" projects, such as buildings and roads, and "soft" projects, such as scholarships and medical expenses. The first pork barrel fund was introduced in 1922 with the passage of the first Public Works Act (Act No 3044). This pork barrel system was technically stopped by President <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Ferdinand Marcos">Ferdinand Marcos</a> during his dictatorship by abolishing Congress. It was reintroduced to the system after the restoration of the Congress in 1987. The program has had different names over the years, including the Countryside Development Fund, Congressional Initiative Fund, and currently the Priority Development Assistance Fund.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Since 2006, the PDAF was <a href="/wiki/Philippine_peso" title="Philippine peso">₱</a>70.0 M for each Representative and ₱200.0 M for each Senator. </p><p>During the presidency of <a href="/wiki/Gloria_Macapagal_Arroyo" title="Gloria Macapagal Arroyo">Gloria Macapagal Arroyo</a>, PDAF became the biggest source of corruption among the legislators.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kickback_(bribery)" title="Kickback (bribery)">Kickbacks</a> were common and became syndicated—using pre-identified project implementers including government agencies, contractors and bogus <a href="/wiki/Non-profit_corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit corporation">non-profit corporations</a> as well as the government's <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Audit_(Philippines)" class="mw-redirect" title="Commission on Audit (Philippines)">Commission on Audit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 2013, outrage over the ₱10 billion <a href="/wiki/Priority_Development_Assistance_Fund_scam" class="mw-redirect" title="Priority Development Assistance Fund scam">Priority Development Assistance Fund scam</a>, involving <a href="/wiki/Janet_Lim-Napoles" title="Janet Lim-Napoles">Janet Lim-Napoles</a> and numerous senators and representatives, led to widespread calls for abolition of the PDAF system.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The so-called <a href="/wiki/Million_People_March" title="Million People March">Million People March</a> which occurred on August 26, 2013, National <a href="/wiki/Heroes%27_Day" title="Heroes' Day">Heroes' Day</a> in the Philippines, called for the end of "pork barrel" and was joined by simultaneous protests nationwide and by the <a href="/wiki/Filipino_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Filipino diaspora">Filipino diaspora</a> around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Petitioners have challenged the constitutionality of the PDAF before the high court following reports of its widespread and systematic misuse by some members of Congress in cahoots with private individuals. Three incumbent senators and several former members of the House of Representatives have been named respondents in a plunder complaint filed with the Office of the Ombudsman in connection with the alleged ₱10 billion pork barrel scam. Public outrage over the anomaly has resulted in the largest protest gathering under the three-year-old Aquino administration.<sup id="cite_ref-Merueñas_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merueñas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On November 19, 2013, the Supreme Court declared the controversial Priority Development Assistance Fund (PDAF), or more commonly known as the pork barrel, as unconstitutional. In a briefing, the high court declared the PDAF Article in 2013 General Approriations Act and all similar provisions on the pork barrel system as illegal because it "allowed legislators to wield, in varying gradiations, non-oversight, post-enactment authority in vital areas of budget executions (thus violating) the principle of separation of powers".<sup id="cite_ref-Merueñas_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merueñas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Madrid%E2%80%93Seville_high-speed_rail_line" title="Madrid–Seville high-speed rail line">Madrid–Seville high-speed rail line</a> was a noted example of pork barrel politics in Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pasqual_Maragall" title="Pasqual Maragall">Pasqual Maragall</a> revealed details of an unwritten agreement between him and <a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez" title="Felipe González">Felipe González</a>, the prime minister at the time who was from <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>. The agreement was that Barcelona would receive the <a href="/wiki/1992_Summer_Olympics" title="1992 Summer Olympics">1992 Summer Olympics</a> and Seville would receive the high-speed railway line (which opened in 1992).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was in spite of the position of the <a href="/wiki/Madrid%E2%80%93Barcelona_high-speed_rail_line" title="Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line">Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line</a> as Spain's most profitable high-speed line.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2010, the National Treasury of the Republic of South Africa explored earmarking,<sup id="cite_ref-SA_2010_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SA_2010-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with recycling and tax shifting, as ways of using <a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">carbon tax</a> revenues. While the Treasury did "not support full earmarking of revenues generated from environmental taxes" they were considering "partial 'on-budget' earmarking"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Missing closing quotation mark. Verify extent of the quotation (March 2022)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> of some revenue. At that time concerns were raised that special interest groups could constrain government and control public resources through earmarking.<sup id="cite_ref-SA_2010_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SA_2010-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8">: 8 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "pork barrel" is rarely used in <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a>, although similar terms exist: <b>election sweetener</b>, <b>tax sweetener</b>, or just <b>sweetener</b>, which refers to the practice of a Chancellor of the Exchequer leaving room in their fiscal programme to announce a big tax cut or spending boost in the budget immediately prior to an election, usually targeting a key voting demographic (such as the elderly) or benefitting marginal constituencies.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "pork barrel" was, however, used in August 2013 by the <a href="/wiki/Campaign_for_Better_Transport_(United_Kingdom)" title="Campaign for Better Transport (United Kingdom)">Campaign for Better Transport</a> in their criticism of <a href="/wiki/Danny_Alexander" title="Danny Alexander">Danny Alexander</a> MP's involvement in securing funding for the A6 Manchester Airport Relief Road which passed through a marginal Liberal Democrat constituency.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also used by <a href="/wiki/Pete_Wishart" title="Pete Wishart">Pete Wishart</a> in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> on 26 June 2017 in reference to <a href="/wiki/Conservative%E2%80%93DUP_agreement" title="Conservative–DUP agreement">the deal</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Unionist_Party" title="Democratic Unionist Party">Democratic Unionist Party</a> to keep the former in power.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Deprecated Daily Express source removed (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In February 2019 it was used by shadow chancellor John McDonnell to criticise Theresa May's rumoured attempts to persuade Labour MPs to vote for her Brexit deal.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 2021 opposition Labour leader Sir Keir Starmer accused ministers of "pork barrel politics" over how they had categorised local authorities under the new £4.8bn Levelling Up Fund, which the <i>Financial Times</i> reported favoured some prosperous Tory voting areas.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Good_Law_Project" title="Good Law Project">Good Law Project</a> has warned the Government of legal proceedings over the matter.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the runup to the <a href="/wiki/2021_Hartlepool_by-election" title="2021 Hartlepool by-election">Hartlepool by-election of 2021</a>, Tees Valley mayor <a href="/wiki/Ben_Houchen" title="Ben Houchen">Ben Houchen</a> was accused of pork barrel politics in the <i>Financial Times</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Earmark_(politics)" title="Earmark (politics)">Earmark (politics)</a></div> <p>In the United States, the term <i>earmark</i> is used in relation with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">congressional</a> allocation process.<sup id="cite_ref-Rule_Congress_2015_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rule_Congress_2015-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 36">: 36 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OMB_2010_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OMB_2010-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FY_2013_Budget_Concepts_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FY_2013_Budget_Concepts-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Discretionary spending, which is set by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Appropriations" title="United States House Committee on Appropriations">House</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Appropriations" title="United States Senate Committee on Appropriations">Senate Appropriations Committees</a> and their various <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congressional_subcommittee" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congressional subcommittee">subcommittees</a>, usually through <a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">appropriation acts</a>, is an optional part of <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a> which differs from <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_spending" title="Mandatory spending">mandatory spending</a> for <a href="/wiki/Entitlement_program" title="Entitlement program">entitlement programs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Expenditures_in_the_United_States_federal_budget" title="Expenditures in the United States federal budget">federal budget</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mandal2007_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mandal2007-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pork-barrel projects, which differ from <i>earmarks</i>, are added to the federal budget mainly by members of the appropriation committees of United States Congress. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trustee_model_of_representation" title="Trustee model of representation">Trustee model of representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delegative_democracy" title="Delegative democracy">Delegative democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperative_mandate" title="Imperative mandate">Imperative mandate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_according_to_higher_law" title="Rule according to higher law">Rule according to higher law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAlejandro_GaviriaUgo_PanizzaErnesto_SteinJessica_Seddon2000" class="citation journal cs1">Alejandro Gaviria; Ugo Panizza; Ernesto Stein; Jessica Seddon (March 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.iadb.org/publications/english/document/Political-Institutions-and-Growth-Collapses.pdf">"Political Institutions and Growth Collapses"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.220452">10.2139/ssrn.220452</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16673221">16673221</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=220452">220452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Political+Institutions+and+Growth+Collapses&rft.date=2000-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16673221%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D220452%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.220452&rft.au=Alejandro+Gaviria&rft.au=Ugo+Panizza&rft.au=Ernesto+Stein&rft.au=Jessica+Seddon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublications.iadb.org%2Fpublications%2Fenglish%2Fdocument%2FPolitical-Institutions-and-Growth-Collapses.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+particularism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2008" class="citation news cs1">Taylor, Lenore (3 June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080605193323/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0%2C25197%2C23801061-5013946%2C00.html">"The Australian: PM rolls out his own pork barrel"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Australian" title="The Australian">The Australian</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/News_Corp_Australia" title="News Corp Australia">News Corp Australia</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,23801061-5013946,00.html">the original</a> on 5 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Australian&rft.atitle=Leaders+won%27t+admit+they+have+a+pork+barrelling+problem&rft.date=2021-07-01&rft.aulast=Van+Onselen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fcommentary%2Fleaders-wont-admit-they-have-a-pork-barrelling-problem%2Fnews-story%2F517d2d05be33faad43b1288b96ffadd7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+particularism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211228083434/https://www.euro.cz/detail.jsp?id=11172">"Porcování medvěda zvítězilo nad ideály"</a>. Euro.cz. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euro.cz/detail.jsp?id=11172">the original</a> on 28 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Porcov%C3%A1n%C3%AD+medv%C4%9Bda+zv%C3%ADt%C4%9Bzilo+nad+ide%C3%A1ly&rft.pub=Euro.cz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euro.cz%2Fdetail.jsp%3Fid%3D11172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+particularism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiswasMarjitMarimoutou2010" class="citation journal cs1">Biswas, Rongili; Marjit, Sugata; Marimoutou, Velayoudom (2010). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bettertransport.org.uk&rft.atitle=Treasury+minister%27s+role+in+road+funding+%27in+danger+of+looking+like+pork+barrel+politics%27+%28blog%29&rft.date=2013-08-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bettertransport.org.uk%2Fblogs%2Froads%2F120813_manchester_airport_link&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+particularism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonnell2019" class="citation news cs1">McDonnell, John (2 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/feb/02/mcdonnell-accuses-pm-of-pork-barrel-politics-with-brexit-bribery">"McDonnell accuses PM of 'pork-barrel' politics with Brexit 'bribery'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=McDonnell+accuses+PM+of+%27pork-barrel%27+politics+with+Brexit+%27bribery%27&rft.date=2019-02-02&rft.aulast=McDonnell&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fpolitics%2F2019%2Ffeb%2F02%2Fmcdonnell-accuses-pm-of-pork-barrel-politics-with-brexit-bribery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+particularism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoundsSmith2021" class="citation news cs1">Bounds, Andy; Smith, Alan (5 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/d485da2a-5778-45ae-9fa8-ca024bc8bbcf">"Levelling up Fund bias in favour of Tory seats 'pretty blatant'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Levelling+up+Fund+bias+in+favour+of+Tory+seats+%27pretty+blatant%27&rft.date=2021-03-05&rft.aulast=Bounds&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft.au=Smith%2C+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2Fd485da2a-5778-45ae-9fa8-ca024bc8bbcf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+particularism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crowdjustice.com/case/pork-barrel-politics/">"Pork Barrel Politics"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pork+Barrel+Politics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crowdjustice.com%2Fcase%2Fpork-barrel-politics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+particularism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne2021" class="citation news cs1">Payne, Sebastian (3 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/e8fb3676-b4df-499c-a289-168dc580891c">"Tories' red wall shows no signs of crumbling on Teesside"</a>. <i>Financial Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Tories%27+red+wall+shows+no+signs+of+crumbling+on+Teesside&rft.date=2021-05-03&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2Fe8fb3676-b4df-499c-a289-168dc580891c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+particularism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rule_Congress_2015-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rule_Congress_2015_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaren_L._Haas2015" class="citation cs2">Karen L. 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Vol. Analytical Perspectives. p. 137 – via <a href="/wiki/NARA" class="mw-redirect" title="NARA">National Archives</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Budget+Concepts&rft.btitle=FY+2013+Budget+of+the+United+States+Government&rft.pages=137&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fobamawhitehouse.archives.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fomb%2Fbudget%2Ffy2013%2Fassets%2Fconcepts.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+particularism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mandal2007-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mandal2007_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMandal2007" class="citation book cs1">Mandal, U.C. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Hs0xJORVIHwC"><i>Dictionary of Public Administration</i></a>. Sarup & Sons. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Hs0xJORVIHwC/page/n146">140</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7625-784-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7625-784-8"><bdi>978-81-7625-784-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Public+Administration&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=Sarup+%26+Sons&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-7625-784-8&rft.aulast=Mandal&rft.aufirst=U.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_Hs0xJORVIHwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+particularism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Burke, Edmund. <b>1774</b> (1906). <i>Speech to the electors of Bristol</i> in <i>The Works of the Right Honorable Edmund Burke</i>. Vol. II. New York: Oxford University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_particularism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/jsm/rep_gov.htm">'Representative Government' by J.S. Mill</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output 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