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href="#Metabolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Metabolism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_and_reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_and_reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Growth and reproduction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_and_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Behaviour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behaviour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Behaviour </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Behaviour-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Behaviour subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Behaviour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_and_identification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_and_identification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Classification and identification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_and_identification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phyla" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phyla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Phyla </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phyla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactions_with_other_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions_with_other_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Interactions with other organisms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interactions_with_other_organisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Interactions with other organisms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Interactions_with_other_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commensals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commensals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Commensals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commensals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Predators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutualists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutualists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Mutualists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutualists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.4 Pathogens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Significance_in_technology_and_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance_in_technology_and_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Significance in technology and industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Significance_in_technology_and_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_bacteriology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_bacteriology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 History of bacteriology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_bacteriology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Bacteria</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 170 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-170" aria-hidden="true" > 170 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteri" title="Bakteri – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Bakteri" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterie" title="Bakterie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bakterie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterien" title="Bakterien – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Bakterien" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A3%E1%8A%AD%E1%89%B4%E1%88%AA%E1%8B%AB" title="ባክቴሪያ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ባክቴሪያ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="जीवाणु – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="जीवाणु" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="بكتيريا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بكتيريا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eubacteria" title="Eubacteria – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Eubacteria" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%92%DC%A9%DC%9B%DC%9D%DC%AA%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܒܩܛܝܪܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܒܩܛܝܪܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="বেক্টেৰিয়া – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বেক্টেৰিয়া" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokoka%27i" title="Pokoka'i – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Pokoka'i" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jisk%27a_laq%27u" title="Jisk'a laq'u – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Jisk'a laq'u" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteriyalar" title="Bakteriyalar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bakteriyalar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="باکتری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="باکتری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="ব্যাকটেরিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ব্যাকটেরিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8-kh%C3%BAn" title="Sè-khún – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sè-khún" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Бактериялар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Бактериялар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%96" title="Бактэрыі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бактэрыі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%96" title="Бактэрыі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бактэрыі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterya" title="Bakterya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Bakterya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Бактерии – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бактерии" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterija" title="Bakterija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Bakterija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteri" title="Bakteri – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Bakteri" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Бактери – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Бактери" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteris" title="Bacteris – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bacteris" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Бактери – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Бактери" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterya" title="Bakterya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Bakterya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterie" title="Bakterie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Bakterie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterier" title="Bakterier – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bakterier" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="باكتيرية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="باكتيرية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterien" title="Bakterien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bakterien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%AC%DE%86%DE%B0%DE%93%DE%A9%DE%83%DE%A8%DE%94%DE%A7" title="ބެކްޓީރިޔާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ބެކްޓީރިޔާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterid" title="Bakterid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bakterid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Βακτήριο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βακτήριο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterioj" title="Bakterioj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Bakterioj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria" title="Bateria – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Bateria" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bakterio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="باکتری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باکتری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteria" title="Bakteria – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Bakteria" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bact%C3%A9rie" title="Bactérie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bactérie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baktearje" title="Baktearje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Baktearje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baict%C3%A9ir" title="Baictéir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Baictéir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterias" title="Bacterias – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bacterias" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%88" title="НӀанкӀигаш – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="НӀанкӀигаш" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se-khi%C3%BBn" title="Se-khiûn – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Se-khiûn" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B8%EA%B7%A0" title="세균 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="세균" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwayar_cutar_Bakteriya" title="Kwayar cutar Bakteriya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kwayar cutar Bakteriya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Բակտերիաներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բակտերիաներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="जीवाणु – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जीवाणु" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterije" title="Bakterije – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Bakterije" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterije" title="Bakterije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bakterije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Bakterio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteria" title="Bakteria – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Bakteria" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteri" title="Bakteri – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bakteri" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterio" title="Bacterio – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Bacterio" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izinungwana" title="Izinungwana – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Izinungwana" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerlar" title="Gerlar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gerlar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%9D" title="חיידקים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חיידקים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakt%C3%A8ri" title="Baktèri – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Baktèri" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF" title="ಬ್ಯಾಕ್ಟೀರಿಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬ್ಯಾಕ್ಟೀರಿಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ბაქტერიები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბაქტერიები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Бактериялар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бактериялар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteria" title="Bakteria – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Bakteria" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagiteri" title="Bagiteri – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Bagiteri" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijasumu" title="Vijasumu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Vijasumu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteri" title="Bakteri – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Bakteri" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakt%C3%A9ri" title="Baktéri – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Baktéri" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakter%C3%AE" title="Bakterî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Bakterî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Бактерия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бактерия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batere" title="Batere – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Batere" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B7%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%AD%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B5%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%A3%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%8D" title="ເຊື້ອແບັກທີເຣັຍ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ເຊື້ອແບັກທີເຣັຍ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakt%C4%93rijas" title="Baktērijas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Baktērijas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteerien" title="Bakteerien – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Bakteerien" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%80" title="Бактерияр – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Бактерияр" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterijos" title="Bakterijos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Bakterijos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteri%C3%AB" title="Bacterië – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Bacterië" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria" title="Bateria – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Bateria" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakitiiriya" title="Bakitiiriya – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Bakitiiriya" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakt%C3%A9riumok" title="Baktériumok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Baktériumok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Бактерии – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бактерии" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteria" title="Bakteria – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Bakteria" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF" title="ബാക്റ്റീരിയ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബാക്റ്റീരിയ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%82" title="जीवाणू – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जीवाणू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ბაქტერიეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბაქტერიეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="بكتيريا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بكتيريا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="باکتری – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="باکتری" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteria" title="Bakteria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bakteria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteri" title="Bakteri – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Bakteri" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1%CC%A4-k%E1%B9%B3%CC%84ng" title="Sá̤-kṳ̄ng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sá̤-kṳ̄ng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8F%D0%BD" title="Нян – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Нян" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ဘက်တီးရီးယား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘက်တီးရီးယား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteri%C3%ABn" title="Bacteriën – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bacteriën" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="जीवाणु – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जीवाणु" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="ब्याक्टेरिया – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="ब्याक्टेरिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%8F%8C" title="細菌 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="細菌" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteerien" title="Bakteerien – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Bakteerien" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterier" title="Bakterier – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bakterier" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteriar" title="Bakteriar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Bakteriar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bact%C3%A9thie" title="Bactéthie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Bactéthie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bact%C3%A8ri" title="Bactèri – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Bactèri" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%80%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A3%E0%AD%81" title="ବୀଜାଣୁ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବୀଜାଣୁ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baakteeriyaa(Bacteria)" title="Baakteeriyaa(Bacteria) – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Baakteeriyaa(Bacteria)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteriyalar" title="Bakteriyalar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bakteriyalar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86" title="ਬੈਕਟੀਰੀਆ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੈਕਟੀਰੀਆ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="بیکٹیریا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بیکٹیریا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteria" title="Bakteria – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Bakteria" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%BC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="باکټريا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="باکټريا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baktiiria" title="Baktiiria – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Baktiiria" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterien" title="Bakterien – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Bakterien" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterie" title="Bakterie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bakterie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bact%C3%A9ria" title="Bactéria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bactéria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteriya" title="Bakteriya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Bakteriya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterie" title="Bacterie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bacterie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%B1aki" title="Añaki – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Añaki" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%97" title="Бактерії – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Бактерії" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Бактерии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бактерии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Бактериялар – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Бактериялар" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%83" title="जीवाणुः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जीवाणुः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteri" title="Bakteri – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Bakteri" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batteriu" title="Batteriu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Batteriu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F" title="බැක්ටීරියා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බැක්ටීරියා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A6%DA%AA%D9%BD%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="بئڪٽيريا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بئڪٽيريا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakt%C3%A9rie" title="Baktérie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Baktérie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterije" title="Bakterije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bakterije" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteriya" title="Bakteriya – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Bakteriya" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="بەکتریا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بەکتریا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Бактерије – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бактерије" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterija" title="Bakterija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bakterija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakt%C3%A9ri" title="Baktéri – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Baktéri" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteerit" title="Bakteerit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bakteerit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterier" title="Bakterier – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bakterier" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterya" title="Bakterya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Bakterya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="பாக்டீரியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பாக்டீரியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Бактерияләр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Бактерияләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE" title="బాక్టీరియా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బాక్టీరియా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="แบคทีเรีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แบคทีเรีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%B3%D0%BE" title="Бактерияҳо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бактерияҳо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A5%E1%8F%B3%E1%8E%A9_%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%B1%E1%8F%99%E1%8E%AF" title="ᎥᏳᎩ ᏗᏱᏙᎯ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎥᏳᎩ ᏗᏱᏙᎯ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteri" title="Bakteri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bakteri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%97" title="Бактерії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бактерії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="بیکٹیریا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بیکٹیریا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigin" title="Sigin – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Sigin" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Bacteria" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakterijad" title="Bakterijad – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Bakterijad" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi_khu%E1%BA%A9n" title="Vi khuẩn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vi khuẩn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakter" title="Bakter – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Bakter" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Domain of microorganisms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the microorganisms. For the genus, see <a href="/wiki/Bacterium_(genus)" title="Bacterium (genus)">Bacterium (genus)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Bacteria_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Bacteria (disambiguation)">Bacteria (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)">Bacteria <div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> – <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Present</a> 3500–0 Ma <div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:250px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; font-size:small; position:relative; z-index:0;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(153,192,141); left:220.50773980251px; width:15.703916975018px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,197,202); left:236.21165677753px; width:10.175705559083px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(242,249,29); left:246.38736233661px; width:3.6126376633897px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(154,217,221); left:220.50773980251px; width:29.492260197491px;"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Pha.</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,67,112); left:113.15766426554px; width:49.263240864406px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,180,98); left:162.42090512995px; width:32.84216057627px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,179,66); left:195.26306570622px; width:25.244674096293px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,53,99); left:113.15766426554px; width:107.35007553697px;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(218,3,127); left:29.355417861756px; width:23.591618680621px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(244,68,159); left:52.947036542377px; width:21.894773717514px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,104,169); left:74.841810259891px; width:21.894773717514px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(249,155,193); left:96.736583977405px; width:16.421080288135px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,4,127); left:29.355417861756px; width:83.802246403783px;"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(174,2,126); left:0px; width:29.355417861756px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(174,2,126); left:0px; width:29.355417861756px;"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Had.</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:249px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:250px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:58.420729971756px; width:191.57927002824px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:58.420729971756px; width:191.57927002824px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:59.420729971756px; width:189.57927002824px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:E._coli_Bacteria_(7316101966).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg/220px-E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg/330px-E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg/440px-E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1766" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%"><a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">Scanning electron micrograph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_(shape)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus (shape)">rods</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Bacteria" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bacteria</a> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Woese</a> et al. 1990 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)">Phyla </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> See <a href="#Phyla">§ Phyla</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li>"Bacteria" (<a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Cohn" title="Ferdinand Cohn">Cohn</a> 1872) <a href="/wiki/Cavalier-Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavalier-Smith">Cavalier-Smith</a> 1983</li> <li>"Bacteria" <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Haeckel</a> 1894</li> <li>"Bacteria" Cavalier-Smith 2002</li> <li>"Bacteriaceae" Cohn 1872a</li> <li>"Bacteriobionta" Möhn 1984</li> <li>"Bacteriophyta" Schussnig 1925</li> <li>"Eubacteria" Woese and Fox 1977</li> <li>"Neobacteria" Möhn 1984</li> <li>"Schizomycetaceae" de Toni and Trevisan 1889</li> <li>"Schizomycetes" Nägeli 1857</li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> Bacteria (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/bækˈtɪəriə/</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d9\/En-us-bacteria.ogg\/En-us-bacteria.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-bacteria.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d9/En-us-bacteria.ogg/En-us-bacteria.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-bacteria.ogg" title="File:En-us-bacteria.ogg">ⓘ</a>; <abbr title="singular form">sg.</abbr>: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">biological cell</a>. They constitute a large <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domain</a> of <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>. Typically a few <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometres</a> in length, bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, and are present in most of its <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a>. Bacteria inhabit the air, soil, water, <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">acidic hot springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Deep_biosphere" title="Deep biosphere">deep biosphere</a> of <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a>. Bacteria play a vital role in many stages of the <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient cycle</a> by recycling nutrients and the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">fixation of nitrogen</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a>. The nutrient cycle includes the <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cadaver" title="Cadaver">dead bodies</a>; bacteria are responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Putrefaction" title="Putrefaction">putrefaction</a> stage in this process. In the biological communities surrounding <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophile</a> bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds, such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulphide" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen sulphide">hydrogen sulphide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, to energy. Bacteria also live in <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commensal" class="mw-redirect" title="Commensal">commensal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a> relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised and there are many species that cannot be <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">grown</a> in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as <a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">bacteriology</a>, a branch of <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a>. Like all animals, humans carry vast numbers (approximately 1013 to 1014) of bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Most are in the <a href="/wiki/Gut_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut flora">gut</a>, though there are many on the skin. Most of the bacteria in and on the body are harmless or rendered so by the protective effects of the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>, and many are <a href="/wiki/Probiotic" title="Probiotic">beneficial</a>,<a href="#cite_note-McCutcheon-3">[3]</a> particularly the ones in the gut. However, several species of bacteria are <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">pathogenic</a> and cause <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious diseases</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>. The most common fatal bacterial diseases are <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory infection">respiratory infections</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotics</a> are used to treat <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">bacterial infections</a> and are also used in farming, making <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a> a growing problem. Bacteria are important in <a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">sewage treatment</a> and the breakdown of <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">oil spills</a>, the production of <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">cheese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yogurt" title="Yogurt">yogurt</a> through <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">fermentation</a>, the recovery of gold, <a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">palladium</a>, copper and other metals in the mining sector (<a href="/wiki/Biomining" title="Biomining">biomining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioleaching" title="Bioleaching">bioleaching</a>), as well as in <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, and the manufacture of antibiotics and other chemicals. Once regarded as <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> constituting the class Schizomycetes ("fission fungi"), bacteria are now classified as <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>. Unlike cells of animals and other <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, bacterial cells do not contain a <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a> and rarely harbour <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">membrane</a>-bound <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a>. Although the term bacteria traditionally included all prokaryotes, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific classification">scientific classification</a> changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> from an <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">ancient common ancestor</a>. These <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">evolutionary domains</a> are called Bacteria and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2008145-4">[4]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bacillus_subtilis_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Bacillus_subtilis_2.jpg/220px-Bacillus_subtilis_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Bacillus_subtilis_2.jpg/330px-Bacillus_subtilis_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Bacillus_subtilis_2.jpg/440px-Bacillus_subtilis_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2834" data-file-height="1791" /></a><figcaption>Rod-shaped <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">Bacillus subtilis</a></figcaption></figure> The word bacteria is the plural of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bacterium#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:bacterium">bacterium</a>, which is the <a href="/wiki/Latinisation_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinisation (literature)">Latinisation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:βακτήριον">βακτήριον</a> (baktḗrion),<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a> of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:βακτηρία">βακτηρία</a> (baktēría), meaning "staff, cane",<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> because the first ones to be discovered were <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_(shape)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus (shape)">rod-shaped</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrasner201474-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_early_evolution">Origin and early evolution</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Evolution of bacteria</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">Evolutionary history of life</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">Timeline of evolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phylogenetic_tree_of_life_LUCA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Phylogenetic_tree_of_life_LUCA.svg/220px-Phylogenetic_tree_of_life_LUCA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Phylogenetic_tree_of_life_LUCA.svg/330px-Phylogenetic_tree_of_life_LUCA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Phylogenetic_tree_of_life_LUCA.svg/440px-Phylogenetic_tree_of_life_LUCA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1860" data-file-height="1010" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogenetic tree</a> of Bacteria, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">last universal common ancestor</a> (LUCA) at the root.<a href="#cite_note-pmid2112744-9">[9]</a></figcaption></figure> The ancestors of bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">first forms of life</a> to appear on Earth, about 4 billion years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall200884-10">[10]</a> For about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31475212-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Although bacterial <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> exist, such as <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">stromatolites</a>, their lack of distinctive <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> prevents them from being used to examine the history of bacterial evolution, or to date the time of origin of a particular bacterial species. However, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogeny</a>, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">most recent common ancestor</a> (MRCA) of bacteria and archaea was probably a <a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">hyperthermophile</a> that lived about 2.5 billion–3.2 billion years ago.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29894297-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The earliest life on land may have been bacteria some 3.22 billion years ago.<a href="#cite_note-NG-20180723-18">[18]</a> Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea and eukaryotes.<a href="#cite_note-Gabaldón-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Callier-20">[20]</a> Here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiotic</a> associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dyall-22">[22]</a> This involved the engulfment by proto-eukaryotic cells of <a href="/wiki/Alphaproteobacteria" title="Alphaproteobacteria">alphaproteobacterial</a> <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbionts</a> to form either <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenosome" title="Hydrogenosome">hydrogenosomes</a>, which are still found in all known Eukarya (sometimes in highly <a href="/wiki/Reduced_form" title="Reduced form">reduced form</a>, e.g. in ancient "amitochondrial" protozoa). Later, some eukaryotes that already contained mitochondria also engulfed <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>-like organisms, leading to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> in algae and plants. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Primary_endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary endosymbiosis">primary endosymbiosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34018613-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Habitat">Habitat</h2></div> Bacteria are ubiquitous, living in every possible habitat on the planet including soil, underwater, deep in Earth's crust and even such extreme environments as acidic hot springs and radioactive waste.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17331729-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid33114255-25">[25]</a> There are thought to be approximately 2×1030 bacteria on Earth,<a href="#cite_note-pmid30760902-26">[26]</a> forming a <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> that is only exceeded by plants.<a href="#cite_note-Bar-On-27">[27]</a> They are abundant in lakes and oceans, in arctic ice, and <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_springs" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal springs">geothermal springs</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis2008362-28">[28]</a> where they provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds, such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulphide" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen sulphide">hydrogen sulphide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, to energy.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34203823-29">[29]</a> They live on and in plants and animals. Most do not cause diseases, are beneficial to their environments, and are essential for life.<a href="#cite_note-McCutcheon-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis20086-30">[30]</a> The soil is a rich source of bacteria and a few grams contain around a thousand million of them. They are all essential to soil ecology, breaking down toxic waste and recycling nutrients. They are even found in the atmosphere and one cubic metre of air holds around one hundred million bacterial cells. The oceans and seas harbour around 3 x 1026 bacteria which provide up to 50% of the oxygen humans breathe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville20143–6-31">[31]</a> Only around 2% of bacterial species have been fully studied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrasner201438-32">[32]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right:auto"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">Extremophile</a> bacteria </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Habitat</th> <th>Species</th> <th>Reference </th></tr> <tr> <td>Cold (minus 15 °C Antarctica)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cryptoendoliths" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptoendoliths">Cryptoendoliths</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014134-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hot (70–100 °C <a href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">geysers</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thermus_aquaticus" title="Thermus aquaticus">Thermus aquaticus</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrasner201438-32">[32]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Radiation, 5M<a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">Rad</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deinococcus_radiodurans" title="Deinococcus radiodurans">Deinococcus radiodurans</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014134-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Saline, 47% salt (<a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake" title="Great Salt Lake">Great Salt Lake</a>)</td> <td>several species</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrasner201438-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014134-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Acid <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> 3</td> <td>several species</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-pmid17331729-24">[24]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Alkaline pH 12.8</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Betaproteobacteria" title="Betaproteobacteria">betaproteobacteria</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014134-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Space (6 years on a <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> satellite)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">Bacillus subtilis</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014134-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3.2 km underground</td> <td>several species</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014134-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>High pressure (<a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a> – 1200 <a href="/wiki/Standard_atmosphere_(unit)" title="Standard atmosphere (unit)">atm</a>)</td> <td>Moritella, <a href="/wiki/Shewanella" title="Shewanella">Shewanella</a> and others</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014134-33">[33]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure#Cell_morphology" title="Bacterial cell structure">Bacterial cell structure § Cell morphology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cellular_morphologies" title="Bacterial cellular morphologies">Bacterial cellular morphologies</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bacterial_morphology_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a diagram showing bacteria morphology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Bacterial_morphology_diagram.svg/310px-Bacterial_morphology_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Bacterial_morphology_diagram.svg/465px-Bacterial_morphology_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Bacterial_morphology_diagram.svg/620px-Bacterial_morphology_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Bacteria display many cell <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphologies</a> and arrangements<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrasner201474-8">[8]</a></figcaption></figure> Size. Bacteria display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes. Bacterial cells are about one-tenth the size of eukaryotic cells and are typically 0.5–5.0 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometres</a> in length. However, a few species are visible to the unaided eye—for example, <a href="/wiki/Thiomargarita_namibiensis" title="Thiomargarita namibiensis">Thiomargarita namibiensis</a> is up to half a millimetre long,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Epulopiscium_fishelsoni" class="mw-redirect" title="Epulopiscium fishelsoni">Epulopiscium fishelsoni</a> reaches 0.7 mm,<a href="#cite_note-Williams2011-35">[35]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thiomargarita_magnifica" title="Thiomargarita magnifica">Thiomargarita magnifica</a> can reach even 2 cm in length, which is 50 times larger than other known bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Among the smallest bacteria are members of the genus <a href="/wiki/Mycoplasma" title="Mycoplasma">Mycoplasma</a>, which measure only 0.3 micrometres, as small as the largest <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Some bacteria may be even smaller, but these <a href="/wiki/Ultramicrobacteria" title="Ultramicrobacteria">ultramicrobacteria</a> are not well-studied.<a href="#cite_note-Velimirov2001-39">[39]</a> Shape. Most bacterial species are either spherical, called <a href="/wiki/Coccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccus">cocci</a> (singular coccus, from Greek kókkos, grain, seed), or rod-shaped, called <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_(shape)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus (shape)">bacilli</a> (sing. bacillus, from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> baculus, stick).<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Some bacteria, called <a href="/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">vibrio</a>, are shaped like slightly curved rods or comma-shaped; others can be spiral-shaped, called <a href="/wiki/Spirillum" title="Spirillum">spirilla</a>, or tightly coiled, called <a href="/wiki/Spirochaete" title="Spirochaete">spirochaetes</a>. A small number of other unusual shapes have been described, such as star-shaped bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> This wide variety of shapes is determined by the bacterial <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a> and is important because it can influence the ability of bacteria to acquire nutrients, attach to surfaces, swim through liquids and escape <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relative_scale.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Relative_scale.svg/220px-Relative_scale.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Relative_scale.svg/330px-Relative_scale.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Relative_scale.svg/440px-Relative_scale.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>The range of sizes shown by <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> (Bacteria), relative to those of other organisms and <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecules</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawford2007xi-44">[44]</a></figcaption></figure> Multicellularity. Most bacterial species exist as single cells; others associate in characteristic patterns: <a href="/wiki/Neisseria" title="Neisseria">Neisseria</a> forms diploids (pairs), <a href="/wiki/Streptococcus" title="Streptococcus">streptococci</a> form chains, and <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">staphylococci</a> group together in "bunch of grapes" clusters. Bacteria can also group to form larger multicellular structures, such as the elongated <a href="/wiki/Filamentous_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Filamentous bacteria">filaments</a> of <a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a> species, the aggregates of <a href="/wiki/Myxobacteria" title="Myxobacteria">Myxobacteria</a> species, and the complex hyphae of <a href="/wiki/Streptomyces" title="Streptomyces">Streptomyces</a> species.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> These multicellular structures are often only seen in certain conditions. For example, when starved of amino acids, myxobacteria detect surrounding cells in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">quorum sensing</a>, migrate towards each other, and aggregate to form fruiting bodies up to 500 micrometres long and containing approximately 100,000 bacterial cells.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In these fruiting bodies, the bacteria perform separate tasks; for example, about one in ten cells migrate to the top of a fruiting body and differentiate into a specialised dormant state called a myxospore, which is more resistant to drying and other adverse environmental conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Kaiser-47">[47]</a> Biofilms. Bacteria often attach to surfaces and form dense aggregations called <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilms</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis200875-48">[48]</a> and larger formations known as <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">microbial mats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34153859-49">[49]</a> These biofilms and mats can range from a few micrometres in thickness to up to half a metre in depth, and may contain multiple species of bacteria, <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> and archaea. Bacteria living in biofilms display a complex arrangement of cells and extracellular components, forming secondary structures, such as <a href="/wiki/Microcolony" title="Microcolony">microcolonies</a>, through which there are networks of channels to enable better diffusion of nutrients.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> In natural environments, such as soil or the surfaces of plants, the majority of bacteria are bound to surfaces in biofilms.<a href="#cite_note-Davey-52">[52]</a> Biofilms are also important in medicine, as these structures are often present during chronic bacterial infections or in infections of <a href="/wiki/Implant_(medicine)" title="Implant (medicine)">implanted</a> <a href="/wiki/Medical_device" title="Medical device">medical devices</a>, and bacteria protected within biofilms are much harder to kill than individual isolated bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cellular_structure">Cellular structure</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">Bacterial cell structure</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prokaryote_cell.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Prokaryote cell with structure and parts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prokaryote_cell.svg/220px-Prokaryote_cell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prokaryote_cell.svg/330px-Prokaryote_cell.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prokaryote_cell.svg/440px-Prokaryote_cell.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption>Structure and contents of a typical <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-positive">Gram-positive</a> bacterial cell (seen by the fact that only one cell membrane is present).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intracellular_structures">Intracellular structures</h3></div> The bacterial cell is surrounded by a <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a>, which is made primarily of <a href="/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipids</a>. This membrane encloses the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients, <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> and other essential components of the <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> within the cell.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Unlike <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic cells</a>, bacteria usually lack large membrane-bound structures in their cytoplasm such as a <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> and the other organelles present in eukaryotic cells.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28664324-55">[55]</a> However, some bacteria have protein-bound organelles in the cytoplasm which compartmentalise aspects of bacterial metabolism,<a href="#cite_note-Bobik2006-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Carboxysome" title="Carboxysome">carboxysome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Additionally, bacteria have a multi-component <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotic_cytoskeleton" title="Prokaryotic cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a> to control the localisation of proteins and nucleic acids within the cell, and to manage the process of <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gitai_Z_2005_577–86-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Many important <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemical</a> reactions, such as energy generation, occur due to <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">concentration gradients</a> across membranes, creating a <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_potential" title="Electrochemical potential">potential</a> difference analogous to a battery. The general lack of internal membranes in bacteria means these reactions, such as <a href="/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport</a>, occur across the cell membrane between the cytoplasm and the outside of the cell or <a href="/wiki/Periplasm" title="Periplasm">periplasm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014120–121-62">[62]</a> However, in many photosynthetic bacteria, the plasma membrane is highly folded and fills most of the cell with layers of light-gathering membrane.<a href="#cite_note-bryantfrigaard-63">[63]</a> These light-gathering complexes may even form lipid-enclosed structures called <a href="/wiki/Chlorosome" title="Chlorosome">chlorosomes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">green sulfur bacteria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carboxysomes_EM_ptA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carboxysomes_EM_ptA.jpg/220px-Carboxysomes_EM_ptA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carboxysomes_EM_ptA.jpg/330px-Carboxysomes_EM_ptA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carboxysomes_EM_ptA.jpg/440px-Carboxysomes_EM_ptA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="911" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron micrograph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Halothiobacillus_neapolitanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Halothiobacillus neapolitanus">Halothiobacillus neapolitanus</a> cells with <a href="/wiki/Carboxysome" title="Carboxysome">carboxysomes</a> inside, with arrows highlighting visible carboxysomes. Scale bars indicate 100 nm.</figcaption></figure> Bacteria do not have a membrane-bound nucleus, and their <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genetic</a> material is typically a single <a href="/wiki/Circular_bacterial_chromosome" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular bacterial chromosome">circular bacterial chromosome</a> of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> located in the cytoplasm in an irregularly shaped body called the <a href="/wiki/Nucleoid" title="Nucleoid">nucleoid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The nucleoid contains the <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> with its associated proteins and <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>. Like all other <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>, bacteria contain <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomes</a> for the production of proteins, but the structure of the bacterial ribosome is different from that of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> and archaea.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Some bacteria produce intracellular nutrient storage granules, such as <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>,<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polyphosphate" title="Polyphosphate">polyphosphate</a>,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polyhydroxyalkanoates" title="Polyhydroxyalkanoates">polyhydroxyalkanoates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Bacteria such as the <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, produce internal <a href="/wiki/Gas_vesicle" title="Gas vesicle">gas vacuoles</a>, which they use to regulate their buoyancy, allowing them to move up or down into water layers with different light intensities and nutrient levels.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extracellular_structures">Extracellular structures</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cell_envelope" title="Cell envelope">Cell envelope</a></div> Around the outside of the cell membrane is the <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a>. Bacterial cell walls are made of <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> (also called murein), which is made from <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharide</a> chains cross-linked by <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a> containing D-<a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, which are made of <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Koch-73">[73]</a> The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of achaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria, and the antibiotic <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> (produced by a fungus called <a href="/wiki/Penicillium" title="Penicillium">Penicillium</a>) is able to kill bacteria by inhibiting a step in the synthesis of peptidoglycan.<a href="#cite_note-Koch-73">[73]</a> There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria, that classify bacteria into <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">Gram-positive bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">Gram-negative bacteria</a>. The names originate from the reaction of cells to the <a href="/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a>, a long-standing test for the classification of bacterial species.<a href="#cite_note-Gram-74">[74]</a> Gram-positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and <a href="/wiki/Teichoic_acid" title="Teichoic acid">teichoic acids</a>. In contrast, Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second <a href="/wiki/Lipid_bilayer" title="Lipid bilayer">lipid membrane</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide" title="Lipopolysaccharide">lipopolysaccharides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lipoprotein" title="Lipoprotein">lipoproteins</a>. Most bacteria have the Gram-negative cell wall, and only members of the <a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a> group and <a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">actinomycetota</a> (previously known as the low G+C and high G+C Gram-positive bacteria, respectively) have the alternative Gram-positive arrangement.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> These differences in structure can produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility; for instance, <a href="/wiki/Vancomycin" title="Vancomycin">vancomycin</a> can kill only Gram-positive bacteria and is ineffective against Gram-negative <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_aeruginosa" title="Pseudomonas aeruginosa">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Some bacteria have cell wall structures that are neither classically Gram-positive or Gram-negative. This includes clinically important bacteria such as <a href="/wiki/Mycobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycobacteria">mycobacteria</a> which have a thick peptidoglycan cell wall like a Gram-positive bacterium, but also a second outer layer of lipids.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In many bacteria, an <a href="/wiki/S-layer" title="S-layer">S-layer</a> of rigidly arrayed protein molecules covers the outside of the cell.<a href="#cite_note-pmid24509785-78">[78]</a> This layer provides chemical and physical protection for the cell surface and can act as a <a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">macromolecular</a> <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_barrier" title="Diffusion barrier">diffusion barrier</a>. S-layers have diverse functions and are known to act as virulence factors in <a href="/wiki/Campylobacter" title="Campylobacter">Campylobacter</a> species and contain surface <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_stearothermophilus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus stearothermophilus">Bacillus stearothermophilus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16013216-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EMpylori.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Helicobacter pylori electron micrograph, showing multiple flagella on the cell surface" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/EMpylori.jpg/220px-EMpylori.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/EMpylori.jpg/330px-EMpylori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/EMpylori.jpg/440px-EMpylori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a> electron micrograph, showing multiple flagella on the cell surface</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">Flagella</a> are rigid protein structures, about 20 nanometres in diameter and up to 20 micrometres in length, that are used for <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motility</a>. Flagella are driven by the energy released by the transfer of <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> down an <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_gradient" title="Electrochemical gradient">electrochemical gradient</a> across the cell membrane.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fimbria_(bacteriology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria (bacteriology)">Fimbriae</a> (sometimes called "<a href="/wiki/Pilus#Fimbriae" title="Pilus">attachment pili</a>") are fine filaments of protein, usually 2–10 nanometres in diameter and up to several micrometres in length. They are distributed over the surface of the cell, and resemble fine hairs when seen under the <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis200876-82">[82]</a> Fimbriae are believed to be involved in attachment to solid surfaces or to other cells, and are essential for the virulence of some bacterial pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-pmid33614531-83">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pilus" title="Pilus">Pili</a> (sing. pilus) are cellular appendages, slightly larger than fimbriae, that can transfer <a href="/wiki/Genetic_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic material">genetic material</a> between bacterial cells in a process called <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation" title="Bacterial conjugation">conjugation</a> where they are called <a href="/wiki/Pilus#Conjugative_pili" title="Pilus">conjugation pili</a> or sex pili (see bacterial genetics, below).<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> They can also generate movement where they are called <a href="/wiki/Pilus#Type_IV_pili" title="Pilus">type IV pili</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Glycocalyx#Glycocalyx_in_Bacteria_and_Nature" title="Glycocalyx">Glycocalyx</a> is produced by many bacteria to surround their cells,<a href="#cite_note-pmid34130219-86">[86]</a> and varies in structural complexity: ranging from a disorganised <a href="/wiki/Slime_layer" title="Slime layer">slime layer</a> of <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_polymeric_substance" title="Extracellular polymeric substance">extracellular polymeric substances</a> to a highly structured <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_capsule" title="Bacterial capsule">capsule</a>. These structures can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells such as <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a> (part of the human <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>).<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> They can also act as <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigens</a> and be involved in cell recognition, as well as aiding attachment to surfaces and the formation of biofilms.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31320388-88">[88]</a> The assembly of these extracellular structures is dependent on <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_secretion_system" title="Bacterial secretion system">bacterial secretion systems</a>. These transfer proteins from the cytoplasm into the periplasm or into the environment around the cell. Many types of secretion systems are known and these structures are often essential for the <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a> of pathogens, so are intensively studied.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31320388-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Endospores">Endospores</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Endospore" title="Endospore">Endospore</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Anthrax stained purple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg/220px-Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg/330px-Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg/440px-Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis" title="Bacillus anthracis">Bacillus anthracis</a> (stained purple) growing in <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid11747719-89">[89]</a></figcaption></figure> Some <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a> of Gram-positive bacteria, such as <a href="/wiki/Bacillus" title="Bacillus">Bacillus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clostridium" title="Clostridium">Clostridium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sporohalobacter" title="Sporohalobacter">Sporohalobacter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anaerobacter" title="Anaerobacter">Anaerobacter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heliobacteria" title="Heliobacteria">Heliobacterium</a>, can form highly resistant, dormant structures called <a href="/wiki/Endospore" title="Endospore">endospores</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Endospores develop within the cytoplasm of the cell; generally, a single endospore develops in each cell.<a href="#cite_note-McKenney-91">[91]</a> Each endospore contains a core of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomes</a> surrounded by a cortex layer and protected by a multilayer rigid coat composed of peptidoglycan and a variety of proteins.<a href="#cite_note-McKenney-91">[91]</a> Endospores show no detectable <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> and can survive extreme physical and chemical stresses, such as high levels of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">UV light</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detergent" title="Detergent">detergents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">disinfectants</a>, heat, freezing, pressure, and <a href="/wiki/Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> In this dormant state, these organisms may remain viable for millions of years.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Endospores even allow bacteria to survive exposure to the <a href="/wiki/Hard_vacuum" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard vacuum">vacuum</a> and radiation of <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>, leading to the possibility that bacteria could be distributed throughout the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a> by <a href="/wiki/Space_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Space dust">space dust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">meteoroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroids">asteroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comets" class="mw-redirect" title="Comets">comets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Small_Solar_System_body" title="Small Solar System body">planetoids</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Directed_panspermia" title="Directed panspermia">directed panspermia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Endospore-forming bacteria can cause disease; for example, <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> can be contracted by the inhalation of <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis" title="Bacillus anthracis">Bacillus anthracis</a> endospores, and contamination of deep puncture wounds with <a href="/wiki/Clostridium_tetani" title="Clostridium tetani">Clostridium tetani</a> endospores causes <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a>, which, like <a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">botulism</a>, is caused by a toxin released by the bacteria that grow from the spores.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31111816-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_infection" title="Clostridioides difficile infection">Clostridioides difficile infection</a>, a common problem in healthcare settings, is caused by spore-forming bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34245901-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metabolism">Metabolism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></div> Bacteria exhibit an extremely wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolic</a> types.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The distribution of metabolic traits within a group of bacteria has traditionally been used to define their <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>, but these traits often do not correspond with modern genetic classifications.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Bacterial metabolism is classified into <a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">nutritional groups</a> on the basis of three major criteria: the source of <a href="/wiki/Energy_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy (biology)">energy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Electron_donor" title="Electron donor">electron donors</a> used, and the source of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> used for growth.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phototrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phototrophy">Phototrophic</a> bacteria derive energy from light using <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Chemotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemotrophy">chemotrophic</a> bacteria breaking down chemical compounds through <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-MicroMetab-103">[103]</a> driving metabolism by transferring electrons from a given <a href="/wiki/Electron_donor" title="Electron donor">electron donor</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Terminal_electron_acceptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal electron acceptor">terminal electron acceptor</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox reaction</a>. Chemotrophs are further divided by the types of compounds they use to transfer electrons. Bacteria that derive electrons from inorganic compounds such as hydrogen, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> are called <a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">lithotrophs</a>, while those that use organic compounds are called <a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">organotrophs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MicroMetab-103">[103]</a> Still, more specifically, <a href="/wiki/Aerobic_organism" title="Aerobic organism">aerobic organisms</a> use <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> as the terminal electron acceptor, while <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">anaerobic organisms</a> use other compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfate</a>, or carbon dioxide.<a href="#cite_note-MicroMetab-103">[103]</a> Many bacteria, called <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophs</a>, derive their carbon from other <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic carbon</a>. Others, such as <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Purple_bacteria" title="Purple bacteria">purple bacteria</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophic</a>, meaning they obtain cellular carbon by <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">fixing</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In unusual circumstances, the gas <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> can be used by <a href="/wiki/Methanotroph" title="Methanotroph">methanotrophic</a> bacteria as both a source of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and a substrate for carbon <a href="/wiki/Anabolism" title="Anabolism">anabolism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto"> <caption>Nutritional types in bacterial metabolism </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Nutritional type </th> <th>Source of energy </th> <th>Source of carbon </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td> <a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a>  </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Sunlight </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> Organic compounds (photoheterotrophs) or carbon fixation (photoautotrophs) </td> <td> <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Green sulfur bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Purple_bacteria" title="Purple bacteria">Purple bacteria</a>  </td></tr> <tr> <td> <a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophs</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Inorganic compounds </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> Organic compounds (lithoheterotrophs) or carbon fixation (lithoautotrophs) </td> <td> <a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenophilaceae" title="Hydrogenophilaceae">Hydrogenophilaceae</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a>  </td></tr> <tr> <td> <a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Organic compounds </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> Organic compounds (chemoheterotrophs) or carbon fixation (chemoautotrophs) </td> <td> <a href="/wiki/Bacillus" title="Bacillus">Bacillus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clostridium" title="Clostridium">Clostridium</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Enterobacteriaceae" title="Enterobacteriaceae">Enterobacteriaceae</a>  </td></tr></tbody></table> In many ways, bacterial metabolism provides traits that are useful for <a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">ecological stability</a> and for human society. For example, <a href="/wiki/Diazotroph" title="Diazotroph">diazotrophs</a> have the ability to <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">fix nitrogen</a> gas using the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Nitrogenase" title="Nitrogenase">nitrogenase</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34108945-106">[106]</a> This trait, which can be found in bacteria of most metabolic types listed above,<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> leads to the ecologically important processes of <a href="/wiki/Denitrification" title="Denitrification">denitrification</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate_reduction&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulfate reduction (page does not exist)">sulfate reduction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acetogenesis" title="Acetogenesis">acetogenesis</a>, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32559887-108">[108]</a> Bacterial metabolic processes are important drivers in biological responses to <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>; for example, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate-reducing bacteria">sulfate-reducing bacteria</a> are largely responsible for the production of the highly toxic forms of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> (<a href="/wiki/Methylmercury" title="Methylmercury">methyl-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dimethylmercury" title="Dimethylmercury">dimethylmercury</a>) in the environment.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Nonrespiratory anaerobes use <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">fermentation</a> to generate energy and reducing power, secreting metabolic by-products (such as <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> in brewing) as waste. <a href="/wiki/Facultative_anaerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Facultative anaerobe">Facultative anaerobes</a> can switch between fermentation and different <a href="/wiki/Terminal_electron_acceptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal electron acceptor">terminal electron acceptors</a> depending on the environmental conditions in which they find themselves.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30862543-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Growth_and_reproduction">Growth and reproduction</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_growth" title="Bacterial growth">Bacterial growth</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_cell_growth_types.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="drawing of showing the processes of binary fission, mitosis, and meiosis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Three_cell_growth_types.svg/220px-Three_cell_growth_types.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Three_cell_growth_types.svg/330px-Three_cell_growth_types.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Three_cell_growth_types.svg/440px-Three_cell_growth_types.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Many bacteria reproduce through <a href="/wiki/Binary_fission" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary fission">binary fission</a>, which is compared to <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> in this image.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salmonella_growing_on_XLD_agar.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Salmonella_growing_on_XLD_agar.JPG/220px-Salmonella_growing_on_XLD_agar.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Salmonella_growing_on_XLD_agar.JPG/330px-Salmonella_growing_on_XLD_agar.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Salmonella_growing_on_XLD_agar.JPG/440px-Salmonella_growing_on_XLD_agar.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1483" data-file-height="1345" /></a><figcaption>A culture of <a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:E.-coli-growth.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="E. coli colony" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/E.-coli-growth.gif" decoding="async" width="99" height="109" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="99" data-file-height="109" /></a><figcaption>A colony of <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></figcaption></figure> Unlike in multicellular organisms, increases in cell size (<a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">cell growth</a>) and reproduction by <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a> are tightly linked in unicellular organisms. Bacteria grow to a fixed size and then reproduce through <a href="/wiki/Binary_fission" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary fission">binary fission</a>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Under optimal conditions, bacteria can grow and divide extremely rapidly, and some bacterial populations can double as quickly as every 17 minutes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014138-113">[113]</a> In cell division, two identical <a href="/wiki/Clone_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clone (genetics)">clone</a> daughter cells are produced. Some bacteria, while still reproducing asexually, form more complex reproductive structures that help disperse the newly formed daughter cells. Examples include fruiting body formation by <a href="/wiki/Myxobacteria" title="Myxobacteria">myxobacteria</a> and aerial <a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a> formation by <a href="/wiki/Streptomyces" title="Streptomyces">Streptomyces</a> species, or budding. Budding involves a cell forming a protrusion that breaks away and produces a daughter cell.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014557-114">[114]</a> In the laboratory, bacteria are usually grown using solid or liquid media.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis200842-115">[115]</a> Solid <a href="/wiki/Growth_medium" title="Growth medium">growth media</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Agar_plate" title="Agar plate">agar plates</a>, are used to <a href="/wiki/Isolation_(microbiology)" title="Isolation (microbiology)">isolate</a> pure cultures of a bacterial strain. However, liquid growth media are used when the measurement of growth or large volumes of cells are required. Growth in stirred liquid media occurs as an even cell suspension, making the cultures easy to divide and transfer, although isolating single bacteria from liquid media is difficult. The use of selective media (media with specific nutrients added or deficient, or with antibiotics added) can help identify specific organisms.<a href="#cite_note-Thomson-116">[116]</a> Most laboratory techniques for growing bacteria use high levels of nutrients to produce large amounts of cells cheaply and quickly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis200842-115">[115]</a> However, in natural environments, nutrients are limited, meaning that bacteria cannot continue to reproduce indefinitely. This nutrient limitation has led the evolution of different growth strategies (see <a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</a>). Some organisms can grow extremely rapidly when nutrients become available, such as the formation of <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanobacterial">cyanobacterial</a> blooms that often occur in lakes during the summer.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Other organisms have adaptations to harsh environments, such as the production of multiple <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a> by Streptomyces that inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> In nature, many organisms live in communities (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilms</a>) that may allow for increased supply of nutrients and protection from environmental stresses.<a href="#cite_note-Davey-52">[52]</a> These relationships can be essential for growth of a particular organism or group of organisms (<a href="/wiki/Syntrophy" title="Syntrophy">syntrophy</a>).<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_growth" title="Bacterial growth">Bacterial growth</a> follows four phases. When a population of bacteria first enter a high-nutrient environment that allows growth, the cells need to adapt to their new environment. The first phase of growth is the <a href="/wiki/Stationary_phase_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stationary phase (biology)">lag phase</a>, a period of slow growth when the cells are adapting to the high-nutrient environment and preparing for fast growth. The lag phase has high biosynthesis rates, as proteins necessary for rapid growth are produced.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The second phase of growth is the <a href="/wiki/Stationary_phase_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stationary phase (biology)">logarithmic phase</a>, also known as the exponential phase. The log phase is marked by rapid <a href="/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">exponential growth</a>. The rate at which cells grow during this phase is known as the growth rate (k), and the time it takes the cells to double is known as the generation time (g). During log phase, nutrients are metabolised at maximum speed until one of the nutrients is depleted and starts limiting growth. The third phase of growth is the <a href="/wiki/Stationary_phase_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stationary phase (biology)">stationary phase</a> and is caused by depleted nutrients. The cells reduce their metabolic activity and consume non-essential cellular proteins. The stationary phase is a transition from rapid growth to a stress response state and there is increased <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression of genes</a> involved in <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant metabolism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Active_transport" title="Active transport">nutrient transport</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The final phase is the <a href="/wiki/Stationary_phase_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stationary phase (biology)">death phase</a> where the bacteria run out of nutrients and die.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_genetics" title="Bacterial genetics">Bacterial genetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Escherichia_coli_with_phages.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Escherichia_coli_with_phages.jpg/220px-Escherichia_coli_with_phages.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Escherichia_coli_with_phages.jpg/330px-Escherichia_coli_with_phages.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Escherichia_coli_with_phages.jpg/440px-Escherichia_coli_with_phages.jpg 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="1196" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Scanning_helium_ion_microscope" title="Scanning helium ion microscope">Helium ion microscopy</a> image showing <a href="/wiki/T4_phage" class="mw-redirect" title="T4 phage">T4 phage</a> infecting E. coli. Some of the attached phage have contracted tails indicating that they have injected their DNA into the host. The bacterial cells are ~ 0.5 μm wide.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></figcaption></figure> Most bacteria have a single circular <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> that can range in size from only 160,000 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiotic</a> bacteria <a href="/wiki/Candidatus_Carsonella_ruddii" title="Candidatus Carsonella ruddii">Carsonella ruddii</a>,<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> to 12,200,000 base pairs (12.2 Mbp) in the soil-dwelling bacteria <a href="/wiki/Sorangium_cellulosum" title="Sorangium cellulosum">Sorangium cellulosum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> There are many exceptions to this; for example, some <a href="/wiki/Streptomyces" title="Streptomyces">Streptomyces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borrelia" title="Borrelia">Borrelia</a> species contain a single linear chromosome,<a href="#cite_note-:0-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> while some <a href="/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">Vibrio</a> species contain more than one chromosome.<a href="#cite_note-:1-129">[129]</a> Some bacteria contain <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmids</a>, small extra-chromosomal molecules of DNA that may contain genes for various useful functions such as <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a>, metabolic capabilities, or various <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence factors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26104369-130">[130]</a> Bacteria genomes usually encode a few hundred to a few thousand genes. The genes in bacterial genomes are usually a single continuous stretch of DNA. Although several different types of <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">introns</a> do exist in bacteria, these are much rarer than in eukaryotes.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Bacteria, as asexual organisms, inherit an identical copy of the parent's genome and are <a href="/wiki/Clonal_colony" title="Clonal colony">clonal</a>. However, all bacteria can evolve by selection on changes to their genetic material <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>. Mutations arise from errors made during the replication of DNA or from exposure to <a href="/wiki/Mutagen" title="Mutagen">mutagens</a>. Mutation rates vary widely among different species of bacteria and even among different clones of a single species of bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Genetic changes in bacterial genomes emerge from either random mutation during replication or "stress-directed mutation", where genes involved in a particular growth-limiting process have an increased mutation rate.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Some bacteria transfer genetic material between cells. This can occur in three main ways. First, bacteria can take up exogenous DNA from their environment in a process called <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Many bacteria can <a href="/wiki/Natural_competence" title="Natural competence">naturally</a> take up DNA from the environment, while others must be chemically altered in order to induce them to take up DNA.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> The development of competence in nature is usually associated with stressful environmental conditions and seems to be an adaptation for facilitating repair of DNA damage in recipient cells.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Second, <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a> can integrate into the bacterial chromosome, introducing foreign DNA in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Transduction_(genetics)" title="Transduction (genetics)">transduction</a>. Many types of bacteriophage exist; some infect and <a href="/wiki/Lytic_cycle" title="Lytic cycle">lyse</a> their <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a> bacteria, while others insert into the bacterial chromosome.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Bacteria resist phage infection through <a href="/wiki/Restriction_modification_system" title="Restriction modification system">restriction modification systems</a> that degrade foreign DNA<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> and a system that uses <a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a> sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block virus replication through a form of <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA interference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Third, bacteria can transfer genetic material through direct cell contact via <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation" title="Bacterial conjugation">conjugation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid25154632-141">[141]</a> In ordinary circumstances, transduction, conjugation, and transformation involve transfer of DNA between individual bacteria of the same species, but occasionally transfer may occur between individuals of different bacterial species, and this may have significant consequences, such as the transfer of antibiotic resistance.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> In such cases, gene acquisition from other bacteria or the environment is called <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a> and may be common under natural conditions.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Behaviour">Behaviour</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Movement">Movement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_motility" title="Bacterial motility">Bacterial motility</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dvulgaris_micrograph.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Dvulgaris_micrograph.JPG/220px-Dvulgaris_micrograph.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Dvulgaris_micrograph.JPG/330px-Dvulgaris_micrograph.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Dvulgaris_micrograph.JPG/440px-Dvulgaris_micrograph.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1276" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption>Transmission electron micrograph of <a href="/wiki/Desulfovibrio_vulgaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Desulfovibrio vulgaris">Desulfovibrio vulgaris</a> showing a single flagellum at one end of the cell. Scale bar is 0.5 micrometres long.</figcaption></figure> Many bacteria are <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motile</a> (able to move themselves) and do so using a variety of mechanisms. The best studied of these are <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagella</a>, long filaments that are turned by a motor at the base to generate propeller-like movement.<a href="#cite_note-Bardy-145">[145]</a> The bacterial flagellum is made of about 20 proteins, with approximately another 30 proteins required for its regulation and assembly.<a href="#cite_note-Bardy-145">[145]</a> The flagellum is a rotating structure driven by a reversible motor at the base that uses the <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_gradient" title="Electrochemical gradient">electrochemical gradient</a> across the membrane for power.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flagella.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flagella.svg/220px-Flagella.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flagella.svg/330px-Flagella.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flagella.svg/440px-Flagella.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption>The different arrangements of bacterial flagella: A-Monotrichous; B-Lophotrichous; C-Amphitrichous; D-Peritrichous</figcaption></figure> Bacteria can use flagella in different ways to generate different kinds of movement. Many bacteria (such as <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a>) have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to <a href="/wiki/Reorient" title="Reorient">reorient</a> and makes their movement a three-<a href="/wiki/Dimension" title="Dimension">dimensional</a> <a href="/wiki/Random_walk" title="Random walk">random walk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface; some have a single <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagellum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Flagellum#Flagellar_arrangement_schemes" title="Flagellum">monotrichous</a>), a flagellum at each end (<a href="/wiki/Flagellum#Flagellar_arrangement_schemes" title="Flagellum">amphitrichous</a>), clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell (<a href="/wiki/Flagellum#Flagellar_arrangement_schemes" title="Flagellum">lophotrichous</a>), while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell (<a href="/wiki/Flagellum#Flagellar_arrangement_schemes" title="Flagellum">peritrichous</a>). The flagella of a group of bacteria, the <a href="/wiki/Spirochaete" title="Spirochaete">spirochaetes</a>, are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive <a href="/wiki/Helix" title="Helix">helical</a> body that twists about as it moves.<a href="#cite_note-Bardy-145">[145]</a> Two other types of bacterial motion are called <a href="/wiki/Twitching_motility" title="Twitching motility">twitching motility</a> that relies on a structure called the <a href="/wiki/Pilus#Type_IV_pili" title="Pilus">type IV pilus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_gliding" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial gliding">gliding motility</a>, that uses other mechanisms. In twitching motility, the rod-like pilus extends out from the cell, binds some substrate, and then retracts, pulling the cell forward.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">stimuli</a> in behaviours called <a href="/wiki/Taxis" title="Taxis">taxes</a>: these include <a href="/wiki/Chemotaxis" title="Chemotaxis">chemotaxis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phototaxis" title="Phototaxis">phototaxis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taxis" title="Taxis">energy taxis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magnetotaxis" title="Magnetotaxis">magnetotaxis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> In one peculiar group, the myxobacteria, individual bacteria move together to form waves of cells that then differentiate to form fruiting bodies containing spores.<a href="#cite_note-Kaiser-47">[47]</a> The myxobacteria move only when on solid surfaces, unlike E. coli, which is motile in liquid or solid media.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21910630-153">[153]</a> Several <a href="/wiki/Listeria" title="Listeria">Listeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shigella" title="Shigella">Shigella</a> species move inside host cells by usurping the <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a>, which is normally used to move <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> inside the cell. By promoting <a href="/wiki/Actin" title="Actin">actin</a> <a href="/wiki/Biopolymer" title="Biopolymer">polymerisation</a> at one pole of their cells, they can form a kind of tail that pushes them through the host cell's cytoplasm.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication">Communication</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote#Sociality" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote § Sociality</a></div> A few bacteria have chemical systems that generate light. This <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescence</a> often occurs in bacteria that live in association with fish, and the light probably serves to attract fish or other large animals.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31817999-155">[155]</a> Bacteria often function as multicellular aggregates known as <a href="/wiki/Biofilms" class="mw-redirect" title="Biofilms">biofilms</a>, exchanging a variety of molecular signals for <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">intercell communication</a> and engaging in coordinated multicellular behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-shapiro1-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-costerton1-157">[157]</a> The communal benefits of multicellular cooperation include a cellular <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a>, accessing resources that cannot effectively be used by single cells, collectively defending against antagonists, and optimising population survival by differentiating into distinct cell types.<a href="#cite_note-shapiro1-156">[156]</a> For example, bacteria in biofilms can have more than five hundred times increased resistance to <a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">antibacterial</a> agents than individual "planktonic" bacteria of the same species.<a href="#cite_note-costerton1-157">[157]</a> One type of intercellular communication by a <a href="/wiki/Cell_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell signal">molecular signal</a> is called <a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">quorum sensing</a>, which serves the purpose of determining whether the local population density is sufficient to support investment in processes that are only successful if large numbers of similar organisms behave similarly, such as excreting <a href="/wiki/Digestive_enzyme" title="Digestive enzyme">digestive enzymes</a> or emitting light.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31732932-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid29789364-159">[159]</a> Quorum sensing enables bacteria to coordinate <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> and to produce, release, and detect <a href="/wiki/Autoinducer" title="Autoinducer">autoinducers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pheromones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pheromones">pheromones</a> that accumulate with the growth in cell population.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11544353-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_and_identification">Classification and identification</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_taxonomy" title="Bacterial taxonomy">Bacterial taxonomy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_phyla" title="Bacterial phyla">Bacterial phyla</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Streptococcus_mutans_Gram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="blue stain of Streptococcus mutans" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Streptococcus_mutans_Gram.jpg/220px-Streptococcus_mutans_Gram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Streptococcus_mutans_Gram.jpg/330px-Streptococcus_mutans_Gram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Streptococcus_mutans_Gram.jpg/440px-Streptococcus_mutans_Gram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Streptococcus mutans visualised with a Gram stain.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anillo_de_la_vida.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Anillo_de_la_vida.png/300px-Anillo_de_la_vida.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Anillo_de_la_vida.png/450px-Anillo_de_la_vida.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Anillo_de_la_vida.png/600px-Anillo_de_la_vida.png 2x" data-file-width="1107" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogenetic tree</a> showing the diversity of bacteria, compared to other organisms. Here bacteria are represented by three main supergroups: the <a href="/wiki/CPR_group" class="mw-redirect" title="CPR group">CPR</a> <a href="/wiki/Ultramicrobacteria" title="Ultramicrobacteria">ultramicrobacterias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrabacteria" title="Terrabacteria">Terrabacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gracilicutes" title="Gracilicutes">Gracilicutes</a> according to recent genomic analyses (2019).<a href="#cite_note-Zhu-161">[161]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific classification">Classification</a> seeks to describe the diversity of bacterial species by naming and grouping organisms based on similarities. Bacteria can be classified on the basis of cell structure, <a href="/wiki/Cell_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell metabolism">cellular metabolism</a> or on differences in cell components, such as <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a>, pigments, <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quinone" title="Quinone">quinones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Thomson-116">[116]</a> While these schemes allowed the identification and classification of bacterial strains, it was unclear whether these differences represented variation between distinct species or between strains of the same species. This uncertainty was due to the lack of distinctive structures in most bacteria, as well as <a href="/wiki/Lateral_gene_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral gene transfer">lateral gene transfer</a> between unrelated species.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Due to lateral gene transfer, some closely related bacteria can have very different morphologies and metabolisms. To overcome this uncertainty, modern bacterial classification emphasises <a href="/wiki/Molecular_systematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular systematics">molecular systematics</a>, using genetic techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Guanine" title="Guanine">guanine</a> <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a> <a href="/wiki/GC-content" title="GC-content">ratio</a> determination, genome-genome hybridisation, as well as <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequencing</a> genes that have not undergone extensive lateral gene transfer, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_DNA" title="Ribosomal DNA">rRNA gene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Classification of bacteria is determined by publication in the International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology,<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> and Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_on_Systematic_Bacteriology" class="mw-redirect" title="International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology">International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology</a> (ICSB) maintains international rules for the naming of bacteria and taxonomic categories and for the ranking of them in the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_of_Bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria">International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid25921438-166">[166]</a> Historically, bacteria were considered a part of the <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">Plantae</a>, the Plant kingdom, and were called "Schizomycetes" (fission-fungi).<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> For this reason, collective bacteria and other microorganisms in a host are often called "flora".<a href="#cite_note-pmid33180890-168">[168]</a> The term "bacteria" was traditionally applied to all microscopic, single-cell prokaryotes. However, molecular systematics showed prokaryotic life to consist of two separate <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domains</a>, originally called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, but now called Bacteria and Archaea that evolved independently from an ancient common ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2008145-4">[4]</a> The archaea and eukaryotes are more closely related to each other than either is to the bacteria. These two domains, along with Eukarya, are the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">three-domain system</a>, which is currently the most widely used classification system in microbiology.<a href="#cite_note-Gupta-169">[169]</a> However, due to the relatively recent introduction of molecular systematics and a rapid increase in the number of genome sequences that are available, bacterial classification remains a changing and expanding field.<a href="#cite_note-Rappe-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cavalier-Smith" title="Thomas Cavalier-Smith">Cavalier-Smith</a> argued that the Archaea and Eukaryotes evolved from Gram-positive bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-Cavalier-Smith2002-172">[172]</a> The identification of bacteria in the laboratory is particularly relevant in <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, where the correct treatment is determined by the bacterial species causing an infection. Consequently, the need to identify human pathogens was a major impetus for the development of techniques to identify bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville201415−31-173">[173]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a>, developed in 1884 by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Gram" title="Hans Christian Gram">Hans Christian Gram</a>, characterises bacteria based on the structural characteristics of their cell walls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrasner201477-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gram-74">[74]</a> The thick layers of peptidoglycan in the "Gram-positive" cell wall stain purple, while the thin "Gram-negative" cell wall appears pink.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrasner201477-174">[174]</a> By combining morphology and Gram-staining, most bacteria can be classified as belonging to one of four groups (Gram-positive cocci, Gram-positive bacilli, Gram-negative cocci and Gram-negative bacilli). Some organisms are best identified by stains other than the Gram stain, particularly mycobacteria or Nocardia, which show <a href="/wiki/Acid-fastness" title="Acid-fastness">acid fastness</a> on <a href="/wiki/Ziehl-Neelsen_stain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ziehl-Neelsen stain">Ziehl–Neelsen</a> or similar stains.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Other organisms may need to be identified by their growth in special media, or by other techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/Serology" title="Serology">serology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31354679-176">[176]</a> <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">Culture</a> techniques are designed to promote the growth and identify particular bacteria while restricting the growth of the other bacteria in the sample.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrasner201487–89-177">[177]</a> Often these techniques are designed for specific specimens; for example, a <a href="/wiki/Sputum" title="Sputum">sputum</a> sample will be treated to identify organisms that cause <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">stool</a> specimens are cultured on <a href="/wiki/Selective_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective media">selective media</a> to identify organisms that cause <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a> while preventing growth of non-pathogenic bacteria. Specimens that are normally sterile, such as <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">spinal fluid</a>, are cultured under conditions designed to grow all possible organisms.<a href="#cite_note-Thomson-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Once a pathogenic organism has been isolated, it can be further characterised by its morphology, growth patterns (such as <a href="/wiki/Aerobic_organism" title="Aerobic organism">aerobic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">anaerobic</a> growth), <a href="/wiki/Hemolysis_(microbiology)" title="Hemolysis (microbiology)">patterns of hemolysis</a>, and staining.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30387415-179">[179]</a> As with bacterial classification, identification of bacteria is increasingly using molecular methods,<a href="#cite_note-pmid33809163-180">[180]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">mass spectroscopy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34041492-181">[181]</a> Most bacteria have not been characterised and there are many species that cannot be <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">grown</a> in the laboratory.<a href="#cite_note-Dudek-182">[182]</a> Diagnostics using DNA-based tools, such as <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a>, are increasingly popular due to their specificity and speed, compared to culture-based methods.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> These methods also allow the detection and identification of "<a href="/wiki/Viable_but_nonculturable" title="Viable but nonculturable">viable but nonculturable</a>" cells that are metabolically active but non-dividing.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> However, even using these improved methods, the total number of bacterial species is not known and cannot even be estimated with any certainty. Following present classification, there are a little less than 9,300 known species of prokaryotes, which includes bacteria and archaea;<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> but attempts to estimate the true number of bacterial diversity have ranged from 107 to 109 total species—and even these diverse estimates may be off by many orders of magnitude.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phyla">Phyla</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_phyla" title="Bacterial phyla">Bacterial phyla</a></div> The following phyla have been validly published according to the <a href="/wiki/Bacteriological_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriological Code">Bacteriological Code</a>:<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 150px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneolota" class="mw-redirect" title="Balneolota">Balneolota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorobiota">Chlorobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacterota" class="mw-redirect" title="Deferribacterota">Deferribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomota" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictyoglomota">Dictyoglomota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota">Fusobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteriota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteriota">Ignavibacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerota" title="Lentisphaerota">Lentisphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasmatota" title="Mycoplasmatota">Mycoplasmatota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermota">Rhodothermota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermomicrobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermomicrobiota">Thermomicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactions_with_other_organisms">Interactions with other organisms</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Microbes_in_human_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbes in human culture">Microbes in human culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bacterial_infections_and_involved_species.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="chart showing bacterial infections upon various parts of human body" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bacterial_infections_and_involved_species.png/300px-Bacterial_infections_and_involved_species.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bacterial_infections_and_involved_species.png/450px-Bacterial_infections_and_involved_species.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bacterial_infections_and_involved_species.png/600px-Bacterial_infections_and_involved_species.png 2x" data-file-width="2746" data-file-height="2709" /></a><figcaption>Overview of bacterial infections and main species involved.<a href="#cite_note-Microbiology33-189">[189]</a></figcaption></figure> Despite their apparent simplicity, bacteria can form complex associations with other organisms. These <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> associations can be divided into <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26568407-190">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commensals">Commensals</h3></div> The word "<a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensalism</a>" is derived from the word "commensal", meaning "eating at the same table"<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> and all plants and animals are colonised by commensal bacteria. In humans and other animals, millions of them live on the skin, the airways, the gut and other orifices.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid31214175-193">[193]</a> Referred to as "normal flora",<a href="#cite_note-pmid3074102-194">[194]</a> or "commensals",<a href="#cite_note-pmid34329585-195">[195]</a> these bacteria usually cause no harm but may occasionally invade other sites of the body and cause infection. <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> is a commensal in the human gut but can cause urinary tract infections.<a href="#cite_note-pmid33575225-196">[196]</a> Similarly, streptococci, which are part of the normal flora of the human mouth, can cause <a href="/wiki/Subacute_bacterial_endocarditis" title="Subacute bacterial endocarditis">heart disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid33852085-197">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predators">Predators</h3></div> Some species of bacteria kill and then consume other microorganisms; these species are called predatory bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> These include organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Myxococcus_xanthus" title="Myxococcus xanthus">Myxococcus xanthus</a>, which forms <a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour#Bacteria" title="Swarm behaviour">swarms of cells</a> that kill and digest any bacteria they encounter.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Other bacterial predators either attach to their prey in order to digest them and absorb nutrients or invade another cell and multiply inside the cytosol.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34010833-200">[200]</a> These predatory bacteria are thought to have evolved from <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">saprophages</a> that consumed dead microorganisms, through adaptations that allowed them to entrap and kill other organisms.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19174136-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutualists">Mutualists</h3></div> Certain bacteria form close spatial associations that are essential for their survival. One such mutualistic association, called interspecies hydrogen transfer, occurs between clusters of <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaerobic bacteria">anaerobic bacteria</a> that consume <a href="/wiki/Organic_acid" title="Organic acid">organic acids</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Butyric_acid" title="Butyric acid">butyric acid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Propionic_acid" title="Propionic acid">propionic acid</a>, and produce <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Methanogen" title="Methanogen">methanogenic</a> archaea that consume hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> The bacteria in this association are unable to consume the organic acids as this reaction produces hydrogen that accumulates in their surroundings. Only the intimate association with the hydrogen-consuming archaea keeps the hydrogen concentration low enough to allow the bacteria to grow.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29411546-203">[203]</a> In soil, microorganisms that reside in the <a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizosphere (ecology)">rhizosphere</a> (a zone that includes the <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">root</a> surface and the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking) carry out <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>, converting nitrogen gas to nitrogenous compounds.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> This serves to provide an easily absorbable form of nitrogen for many plants, which cannot fix nitrogen themselves. Many other bacteria are found as <a href="/wiki/Symbiont" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiont">symbionts</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacteria_in_the_human_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteria in the human body">in humans</a> and other organisms. For example, the presence of over 1,000 bacterial species in the normal human <a href="/wiki/Gut_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut flora">gut flora</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Intestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestine">intestines</a> can contribute to gut immunity, synthesise <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamins</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Folic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K" title="Vitamin K">vitamin K</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biotin" title="Biotin">biotin</a>, convert <a href="/wiki/Milk_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Milk protein">sugars</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Lactobacillus" title="Lactobacillus">Lactobacillus</a>), as well as fermenting complex undigestible <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> The presence of this gut flora also inhibits the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria (usually through <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Competitive exclusion">competitive exclusion</a>) and these beneficial bacteria are consequently sold as <a href="/wiki/Probiotic" title="Probiotic">probiotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">dietary supplements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Nearly all <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">animal life</a> is dependent on bacteria for survival as only bacteria and some <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> possess the genes and enzymes necessary to synthesise <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">vitamin B12</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Cobalamin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobalamin">cobalamin</a>, and provide it through the food chain. Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamin</a> that is involved in the <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> of every cell of the human body. It is a <a href="/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)" title="Cofactor (biochemistry)">cofactor</a> in <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA synthesis</a> and in both <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_metabolism" title="Fatty acid metabolism">fatty acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acid metabolism">amino acid metabolism</a>. It is particularly important in the normal functioning of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> via its role in the <a href="/wiki/Myelinogenesis" title="Myelinogenesis">synthesis of myelin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29216732-209">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pathogens">Pathogens</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Pathogenic bacteria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neisseria_gonorrhoeae_and_pus_cells.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Neisseria_gonorrhoeae_and_pus_cells.jpg/220px-Neisseria_gonorrhoeae_and_pus_cells.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Neisseria_gonorrhoeae_and_pus_cells.jpg/330px-Neisseria_gonorrhoeae_and_pus_cells.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Neisseria_gonorrhoeae_and_pus_cells.jpg/440px-Neisseria_gonorrhoeae_and_pus_cells.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3604" data-file-height="2925" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Neisseria_gonorrhoeae" title="Neisseria gonorrhoeae">Neisseria gonorrhoeae</a> and pus cells from a penile discharge (<a href="/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SalmonellaNIAID.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color-enhanced scanning electron micrograph of red Salmonella typhimurium in yellow human cells" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/SalmonellaNIAID.jpg/220px-SalmonellaNIAID.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/SalmonellaNIAID.jpg/330px-SalmonellaNIAID.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/SalmonellaNIAID.jpg/440px-SalmonellaNIAID.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1761" /></a><figcaption>Colour-enhanced scanning electron micrograph showing <a href="/wiki/Salmonella_typhimurium" class="mw-redirect" title="Salmonella typhimurium">Salmonella typhimurium</a> (red) invading cultured human cells</figcaption></figure> The body is continually exposed to many species of bacteria, including beneficial commensals, which grow on the skin and <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucous membranes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saprophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprophyte">saprophytes</a>, which grow mainly in the soil and in <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decaying</a> matter. The blood and tissue fluids contain nutrients sufficient to sustain the growth of many bacteria. The body has defence mechanisms that enable it to resist microbial invasion of its tissues and give it a natural <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immunity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Innate_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Innate immunity">innate resistance</a> against many <a href="/wiki/Microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Microorganisms">microorganisms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville201416–21-210">[210]</a> Unlike some <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, bacteria evolve relatively slowly so many bacterial diseases also occur in other animals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2010215-211">[211]</a> If bacteria form a parasitic association with other organisms, they are classed as pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis200844-212">[212]</a> Pathogenic bacteria are a major cause of human death and disease and cause infections such as <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a> (caused by <a href="/wiki/Clostridium_tetani" title="Clostridium tetani">Clostridium tetani</a>), <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">foodborne illness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a> (caused by <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_leprae" title="Mycobacterium leprae">Mycobacterium leprae</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> (caused by <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark201030,_195,_233,_236-213">[213]</a> A pathogenic cause for a known medical disease may only be discovered many years later, as was the case with <a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_peptic_ulcer_disease_and_Helicobacter_pylori" title="Timeline of peptic ulcer disease and Helicobacter pylori">peptic ulcer disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34244666-214">[214]</a> Bacterial diseases are also important in <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, and bacteria cause <a href="/wiki/Leaf_spot" title="Leaf spot">leaf spot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fire_blight" title="Fire blight">fire blight</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilting" title="Wilting">wilts</a> in plants, as well as <a href="/wiki/Johne%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Johne's disease">Johne's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mastitis_in_dairy_cattle" title="Mastitis in dairy cattle">mastitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salmonellosis" title="Salmonellosis">salmonella</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> in farm animals.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27660260-215">[215]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Normal_and_BV_flora.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Gram-stained micrograph of bacteria from the vagina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Normal_and_BV_flora.jpg/220px-Normal_and_BV_flora.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Normal_and_BV_flora.jpg/330px-Normal_and_BV_flora.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Normal_and_BV_flora.jpg/440px-Normal_and_BV_flora.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>In <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_vaginosis" title="Bacterial vaginosis">bacterial vaginosis</a>, beneficial bacteria in the vagina (top) are displaced by pathogens (bottom). Gram stain.</figcaption></figure> Each species of pathogen has a characteristic spectrum of interactions with its human <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">hosts</a>. Some organisms, such as <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">Staphylococcus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Streptococcus" title="Streptococcus">Streptococcus</a>, can cause skin infections, <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a>, a systemic <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammatory response</a> producing <a href="/wiki/Shock_(circulatory)" title="Shock (circulatory)">shock</a>, massive <a href="/wiki/Vasodilator" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasodilator">vasodilation</a> and death.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> Yet these organisms are also part of the normal human flora and usually exist on the skin or in the nose without causing any disease at all. Other organisms invariably cause disease in humans, such as <a href="/wiki/Rickettsia" title="Rickettsia">Rickettsia</a>, which are <a href="/wiki/Obligate_intracellular_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Obligate intracellular parasite">obligate intracellular parasites</a> able to grow and reproduce only within the cells of other organisms. One species of Rickettsia causes <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, while another causes <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_spotted_fever" title="Rocky Mountain spotted fever">Rocky Mountain spotted fever</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chlamydia_(bacterium)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydia (bacterium)">Chlamydia</a>, another phylum of obligate intracellular parasites, contains species that can cause pneumonia or <a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection" title="Urinary tract infection">urinary tract infection</a> and may be involved in <a href="/wiki/Coronary_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronary heart disease">coronary heart disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Some species, such as <a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_aeruginosa" title="Pseudomonas aeruginosa">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burkholderia_cenocepacia" title="Burkholderia cenocepacia">Burkholderia cenocepacia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_avium_complex" title="Mycobacterium avium complex">Mycobacterium avium</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">opportunistic pathogens</a> and cause disease mainly in people who are <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">immunosuppressed</a> or have <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-Saiman-219">[219]</a> Some bacteria produce <a href="/wiki/Microbial_toxin" title="Microbial toxin">toxins</a>, which cause diseases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014118-220">[220]</a> These are <a href="/wiki/Endotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Endotoxin">endotoxins</a>, which come from broken bacterial cells, and <a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">exotoxins</a>, which are produced by bacteria and released into the environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014646–47-221">[221]</a> The bacterium <a href="/wiki/Clostridium_botulinum" title="Clostridium botulinum">Clostridium botulinum</a> for example, produces a powerful exotoxin that cause respiratory paralysis, and <a href="/wiki/Salmonellae" class="mw-redirect" title="Salmonellae">Salmonellae</a> produce an endotoxin that causes gastroenteritis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville2014646–47-221">[221]</a> Some exotoxins can be converted to <a href="/wiki/Toxoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxoids">toxoids</a>, which are used as vaccines to prevent the disease.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrasner2014165,_369-222">[222]</a> Bacterial infections may be treated with <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, which are classified as <a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">bacteriocidal</a> if they kill bacteria or <a href="/wiki/Bacteriostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriostatic">bacteriostatic</a> if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics, and each class <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">inhibits</a> a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. An example of how antibiotics produce selective toxicity are <a href="/wiki/Chloramphenicol" title="Chloramphenicol">chloramphenicol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puromycin" title="Puromycin">puromycin</a>, which inhibit the bacterial <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a>, but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">intensive farming</a> to promote animal growth, where they may be contributing to the rapid development of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a> in bacterial populations.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> Infections can be prevented by <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic</a> measures such as sterilising the skin prior to piercing it with the needle of a syringe, and by proper care of indwelling catheters. Surgical and dental instruments are also <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">sterilised</a> to prevent contamination by bacteria. <a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">Disinfectants</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bleach" title="Bleach">bleach</a> are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28954657-225">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance_in_technology_and_industry">Significance in technology and industry</h2></div> Bacteria, often <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_bacteria" title="Lactic acid bacteria">lactic acid bacteria</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Lactobacillus" title="Lactobacillus">Lactobacillus</a> species and <a href="/wiki/Lactococcus" title="Lactococcus">Lactococcus</a> species, in combination with <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeasts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">moulds</a>, have been used for thousands of years in the preparation of <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermented</a> foods, such as <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">cheese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pickling" title="Pickling">pickles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soy_sauce" title="Soy sauce">soy sauce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sauerkraut" title="Sauerkraut">sauerkraut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vinegar" title="Vinegar">vinegar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yogurt" title="Yogurt">yogurt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrasner201425–26-227">[227]</a> The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and <a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">bioremediation</a>. Bacteria capable of digesting the <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a> in <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> are often used to clean up <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">oil spills</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> Fertiliser was added to some of the beaches in <a href="/wiki/Prince_William_Sound" title="Prince William Sound">Prince William Sound</a> in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989 <a href="/wiki/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill" title="Exxon Valdez oil spill">Exxon Valdez oil spill</a>. These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria are also used for the <a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">bioremediation</a> of industrial <a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">toxic wastes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">chemical industry</a>, bacteria are most important in the production of <a href="/wiki/Enantiomer" title="Enantiomer">enantiomerically</a> pure chemicals for use as <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical company">pharmaceuticals</a> or <a href="/wiki/Agrichemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrichemical">agrichemicals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Bacteria can also be used in place of <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a> in <a href="/wiki/Biological_pest_control" title="Biological pest control">biological pest control</a>. This commonly involves <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_thuringiensis" title="Bacillus thuringiensis">Bacillus thuringiensis</a> (also called BT), a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium. Subspecies of this bacteria are used as <a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">Lepidopteran</a>-specific <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticides</a> under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as <a href="/wiki/Environmentally_friendly" title="Environmentally friendly">environmentally friendly</a>, with little or no effect on humans, <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a>, and most other <a href="/wiki/Beneficial_insect" title="Beneficial insect">beneficial insects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> Because of their ability to quickly grow and the relative ease with which they can be manipulated, bacteria are the workhorses for the fields of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>. By making mutations in bacterial DNA and examining the resulting phenotypes, scientists can determine the function of genes, <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathways</a> in bacteria, then apply this knowledge to more complex organisms.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> This aim of understanding the biochemistry of a cell reaches its most complex expression in the synthesis of huge amounts of <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics" title="Enzyme kinetics">enzyme kinetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> data into <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a> of entire organisms. This is achievable in some well-studied bacteria, with models of Escherichia coli metabolism now being produced and tested.<a href="#cite_note-pmid14985762-235">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> This understanding of bacterial metabolism and genetics allows the use of biotechnology to <a href="/wiki/Bioengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioengineering">bioengineer</a> bacteria for the production of therapeutic proteins, such as <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Growth_factor" title="Growth factor">growth factors</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> Because of their importance for research in general, samples of bacterial strains are isolated and preserved in <a href="/wiki/Biological_Resource_Centers" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological Resource Centers">Biological Resource Centers</a>. This ensures the availability of the strain to scientists worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-pmid14766539-239">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_bacteriology">History of bacteriology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the history of microbiology, see <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a>. For the history of bacterial classification, see <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_taxonomy" title="Bacterial taxonomy">Bacterial taxonomy</a>. For the natural history of Bacteria, see <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_(1632-1723)._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="painting of Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, in robe and frilled shirt, with ink pen and paper" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg/220px-Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg/330px-Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg/440px-Anthonie_van_Leeuwenhoek_%281632-1723%29._Natuurkundige_te_Delft_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-957.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2148" data-file-height="2547" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">microbiologist</a> and the first person to observe bacteria using a <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>.</figcaption></figure> Bacteria were first observed by the Dutch microscopist <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> in 1676, using a single-lens <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> of his own design. He then published his observations in a series of letters to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society of London">Royal Society of London</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis2008-240">[240]</a> Bacteria were Leeuwenhoek's most remarkable microscopic discovery. Their size was just at the limit of what his simple lenses could resolve, and, in one of the most striking hiatuses in the history of science, no one else would see them again for over a century.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> His observations also included protozoans which he called <a href="/wiki/Animalcule" title="Animalcule">animalcules</a>, and his findings were looked at again in the light of the more recent findings of <a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">cell theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPommerville20147-242">[242]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg" title="Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg">Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg</a> introduced the word "bacterium" in 1828.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> In fact, his <a href="/wiki/Bacterium_(genus)" title="Bacterium (genus)">Bacterium</a> was a genus that contained non-spore-forming rod-shaped bacteria,<a href="#cite_note-status-244">[244]</a> as opposed to Bacillus, a genus of spore-forming rod-shaped bacteria defined by Ehrenberg in 1835.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> demonstrated in 1859 that the growth of microorganisms causes the <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentation</a> process and that this growth is not due to <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">spontaneous generation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeasts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">molds</a>, commonly associated with fermentation, are not bacteria, but rather <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>). Along with his contemporary <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>, Pasteur was an early advocate of the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> Before them, <a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignaz Semmelweis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a> had realised the importance of sanitised hands in medical work. Semmelweis, who in the 1840s formulated his rules for handwashing in the hospital, prior to the advent of germ theory, attributed disease to "decomposing animal organic matter". His ideas were rejected and his book on the topic condemned by the medical community. After Lister, however, doctors started sanitising their hands in the 1870s.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> Robert Koch, a pioneer in medical microbiology, worked on <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>. In his research into tuberculosis, Koch finally proved the germ theory, for which he received a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize</a> in 1905.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Koch%27s_postulates" title="Koch's postulates">Koch's postulates</a>, he set out criteria to test if an organism is the cause of a <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>, and these postulates are still used today.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Cohn" title="Ferdinand Cohn">Ferdinand Cohn</a> is said to be a founder of <a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">bacteriology</a>, studying bacteria from 1870. Cohn was the first to classify bacteria based on their morphology.<a href="#cite_note-Chung-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-microbeworld1-251">[251]</a> Though it was known in the nineteenth century that bacteria are the cause of many diseases, no effective <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antibacterial</a> treatments were available.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> In 1910, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a> developed the first antibiotic, by changing dyes that selectively stained <a href="/wiki/Treponema_pallidum" title="Treponema pallidum">Treponema pallidum</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Spirochaete" title="Spirochaete">spirochaete</a> that causes <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>—into compounds that selectively killed the pathogen.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> Ehrlich, who had been awarded a 1908 Nobel Prize for his work on <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a>, pioneered the use of stains to detect and identify bacteria, with his work being the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ziehl%E2%80%93Neelsen_stain" title="Ziehl–Neelsen stain">Ziehl–Neelsen stain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> A major step forward in the study of bacteria came in 1977 when <a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a> recognised that archaea have a separate line of evolutionary descent from bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-Woese1977-255">[255]</a> This new <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> depended on the <a href="/wiki/Sequencing" title="Sequencing">sequencing</a> of <a href="/wiki/16S_ribosomal_RNA" title="16S ribosomal RNA">16S ribosomal RNA</a> and divided prokaryotes into two evolutionary domains, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">three-domain system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2008145-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriohopanepolyol" title="Bacteriohopanepolyol">Bacteriohopanepolyol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_bacteria" title="Genetically modified bacteria">Genetically modified bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 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Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-0066-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-0066-9"><bdi>978-0-7637-0066-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/85814089">85814089</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strickberger%27s+Evolution+%3A+the+integration+of+genes%2C+organisms+and+populations&rft.place=Sudbury%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F85814089&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-0066-9&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABacteria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrasner2014" class="citation book cs1">Krasner R (2014). The Microbial Challenge : a public health perspective. Burlington, Mass: Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-7375-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-7375-8"><bdi>978-1-4496-7375-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/794228026">794228026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Microbial+Challenge+%3A+a+public+health+perspective&rft.place=Burlington%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F794228026&rft.isbn=978-1-4496-7375-8&rft.aulast=Krasner&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABacteria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPommerville2014" class="citation book cs1">Pommerville JC (2014). Fundamentals of Microbiology (10th ed.). Boston: Jones and Bartlett. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-284-03968-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-284-03968-9"><bdi>978-1-284-03968-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Microbiology&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-284-03968-9&rft.aulast=Pommerville&rft.aufirst=JC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABacteria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelis2008" class="citation book cs1">Wheelis M (2008). Principles of modern microbiology. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-1075-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-1075-0"><bdi>978-0-7637-1075-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/67392796">67392796</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+modern+microbiology&rft.place=Sudbury%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F67392796&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-1075-0&rft.aulast=Wheelis&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABacteria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/">On-line text book on bacteriology (2015)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prokaryotes:_Bacteria_classification" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bacteria_classification" title="Template talk:Bacteria classification"><abbr title="Discuss this 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title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Terrabacteria" title="Terrabacteria">Terrabacteria</a> <a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Systematic_Bacteriology" title="Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology">BV1, BV3, BV5</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidimicrobiia" title="Acidimicrobiia">Acidimicrobiia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetia" title="Actinomycetia">Actinomycetia</a></li> <li>"Aquicultoria"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriobacteriia" title="Coriobacteriia">Coriobacteriia</a></li> <li>"Geothermincolia"</li> <li>"Humimicrobiia"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubrobacteria" title="Rubrobacteria">Rubrobacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoleophilia" title="Thermoleophilia">Thermoleophilia</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolaricaulota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bipolaricaulota (page does not exist)">Bipolaricaulota</a>" <ul><li>"Bipolaricaulia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a> <ul><li>"Caldilineia"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexia" title="Chloroflexia">Chloroflexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehalococcoidia" title="Dehalococcoidia">Dehalococcoidia</a></li> <li>Ktedonobacteria</li> <li>"Limnocylindria"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Deinococci" class="mw-redirect" title="Deinococci">Deinococcia</a>"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dormiibacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dormiibacterota (page does not exist)">Dormiibacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Dormibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a> <ul><li>"Abditibacteriia"</li> <li>Armatimonadia</li> <li>Chthonomonadia</li> <li>Fimbriimonadia</li> <li>"Heboniibacteriia"</li> <li>"Zipacnadia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eremiobacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eremiobacterota (page does not exist)">Eremiobacterota</a>"</li> <li>"Eudoremicrobiia" <ul><li>"Xenobiia"</li> <li>"Eremiobacteria"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cyanoprokaryota</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Cyanobacteriota <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></li> <li>"Sericytochromatia"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Melainabacteria" title="Melainabacteria">Vampirovibrionophyceae</a>"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Margulisiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Margulisiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Margulisiibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Marinamargulisbacteria"</li> <li>"Riflemargulisbacteria"</li> <li>"Saganbacteria"</li> <li>"Termititenacia"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Firmicutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Firmicutes">Firmicutes</a> <a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Systematic_Bacteriology" title="Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology">BV3</a> Low GC</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Bacilli" title="Bacilli">Bacillia</a>"</li></ul></li> <li>Bacillota A <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Clostridia" title="Clostridia">Clostridiia</a>"</li> <li>"Thermoanaerobacteria"</li> <li>"Thermosediminibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>Bacillota D <ul><li>"Dethiobacteria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Natranaerobiales" title="Natranaerobiales">Natranaerobiia</a>"</li> <li>"Proteinivoracia"</li></ul></li> <li>Bacillota E <ul><li>"Sulfobacillia"</li> <li>"Symbiobacteriia"</li> <li>"Thermaerobacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>Bacillota G <ul><li>"Hydrogenisporia"</li> <li>Limnochordia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Desulfotomaculota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Desulfotomaculota (page does not exist)">Desulfotomaculota</a>" <ul><li>"Carboxydocellia"</li> <li>"Carboxydothermia"</li> <li>"Dehalobacteriia"</li> <li>"Desulfitobacteriia"</li> <li>"Desulfotomaculia"</li> <li>"Moorellia"</li> <li>"Peptococcia"</li> <li>"Syntrophomonadia"</li> <li>"Thermincolia"</li></ul></li> <li>"Halanaerobiaeota" <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Halanaerobiales" title="Halanaerobiales">Halanaerobiia</a>"</li></ul></li> <li>"Selenobacteria" <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Negativicutes" title="Negativicutes">Selenomonadia</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Candidate_Phyla_Radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Candidate Phyla Radiation">CPR group</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Elulota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elulota (page does not exist)">Elulota</a>" <ul><li>"Elulimicrobia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Patescibacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Patescibacteria">Patescibacteria</a>" <ul><li>ABY1</li> <li>"Absconditabacteria"</li> <li>"Andersenbacteria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Berkelbacteria" title="Berkelbacteria">Berkelbacteria</a>"</li> <li>"Dojkabacteria"</li> <li>"Doudnabacteria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Gracilibacteria" title="Gracilibacteria">Gracilibacteria</a>"</li> <li>"Howlettbacteria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Katanobacteria" title="Katanobacteria">Katanobacteria</a>"</li> <li>"Kazanbacteria"</li> <li>"Microgenomatia"</li> <li>"Paceibacteria"</li> <li>"Saccharimonadia"</li> <li>"Torokbacteria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Wirthbacteria" title="Wirthbacteria">Wirthbacteria</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Thermotogida</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synergistetes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a> <ul><li>Atribacteria</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a> <ul><li>Synergistia</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Thermocalda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a> <ul><li>Caldisericia</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacteria" title="Coprothermobacteria">Coprothermobacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomota" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictyoglomota">Dictyoglomerota</a> <ul><li>Dictyoglomeria</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lithacetigenota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lithacetigenota (page does not exist)">Lithacetigenota</a>" <ul><li>"Lithacetigenia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermodesulfobiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thermodesulfobiota (page does not exist)">Thermodesulfobiota</a>" <ul><li>"Thermodesulfobiia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a> <ul><li>"Thermotogia"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fusobacterida</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusobacteria">Fusobacteriota</a> <ul><li>Fusobacteriia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macinerneyibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macinerneyibacteriota (page does not exist)">Macinerneyibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Macinerneyibacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Muiribacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muiribacteriota (page does not exist)">Muiribacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Muiribacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rifleibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rifleibacteriota (page does not exist)">Rifleibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Ozemibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Walliibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walliibacteriota (page does not exist)">Walliibacteriota</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydrobacteria" title="Hydrobacteria">Hydrobacteria</a> <a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Systematic_Bacteriology" title="Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology">BV2, BV4</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clade 1</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerophobota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aerophobota (page does not exist)">Aerophobota</a>" <ul><li>"Aerophobia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Auribacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Auribacterota (page does not exist)">Auribacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Ancaeobacteria"</li> <li>"Auribacteria"</li> <li>"Erginobacteria"</li> <li>"Tritonobacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Desantisiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Desantisiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Desantisiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a> <ul><li>Elusimicrobiia</li> <li>Endomicrobiia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Firestoneibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Firestoneibacteriota (page does not exist)">Firestoneibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goldiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Goldiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Goldiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Omnitrophota" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnitrophota">Omnitrophota</a>" <ul><li>"Omnitrophia"</li> <li>"Velamenicoccia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ratteibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ratteibacteriota (page does not exist)">Ratteibacteriota</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clade 2</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssubacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abyssubacteria (page does not exist)">Abyssubacteria</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hinthialibacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hinthialibacterota (page does not exist)">Hinthialibacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Hinthialibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogenedentota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hydrogenedentota (page does not exist)">Hydrogenedentota</a>" <ul><li>"Hydrogenedentia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Poribacteria" title="Poribacteria">Poribacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Saltatorellota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saltatorellota (page does not exist)">Saltatorellota</a>" <ul><li>"Saltatorellae"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerlaeota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerlaeota (page does not exist)">Sumerlaeota</a>" <ul><li>"Sumerlaeia"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spirochaeto bacteriobiontes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babelota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Babelota (page does not exist)">Babelota</a>" <ul><li>"Babeliae"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lindowiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lindowiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Lindowiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a> <ul><li>"Brevinematia"</li> <li>"Brachyspirae"</li> <li>"Exilispiria"</li> <li>"Leptospiria"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Spirochaetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetes">Spirochaetia</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/PVC_superphylum" title="PVC superphylum">PVC group</a> (Planctobacteria)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydiia">Chlamydiia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a> <ul><li>"Brocadiia"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycisphaerae" title="Phycisphaerae">Phycisphaeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetia" title="Planctomycetia">Planctomycetia</a></li> <li>"Uabimicrobiia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a> <ul><li>Kiritimatiellia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerae" class="mw-redirect" title="Lentisphaerae">Lentisphaeria</a></li> <li>Verrucomicrobiia</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/FCB_group" class="mw-redirect" title="FCB group">FCB group</a> (Sphingobacteria)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteroidia">Bacteroidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorobiia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorobiia">Chlorobiia</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteria">Ignavibacteriia</a>"</li> <li>"Kapabacteria"</li> <li>"Kryptoniia"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermia">Rhodothermia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a> <ul><li>Calditrichia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cloacimonadota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cloacimonadota (page does not exist)">Cloacimonadota</a>" <ul><li>"Cloacimonadia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coatesiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coatesiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Coatesiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmopoliota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cosmopoliota (page does not exist)">Cosmopoliota</a>" <ul><li>"Cosmopolitia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Delongiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Delongiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Delongiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Edwardsiibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edwardsiibacteriota (page does not exist)">Edwardsiibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eiseniibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eiseniibacteriota (page does not exist)">Eiseniibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electryoneota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electryoneota (page does not exist)">Electryoneota</a>" <ul><li>"Electryoneia"</li> <li>"Tariuqbacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Fermentibacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fermentibacterota (page does not exist)">Fermentibacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Fermentibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chitinivibrionia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitinivibrionia">Chitinivibrionia</a></li> <li>Fibrobacteria</li> <li>"Raymondbacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a> <ul><li>Gemmatimonadia</li> <li>"Glassbacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Heilongiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heilongiota (page does not exist)">Heilongiota</a>" <ul><li>"Heilongiia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hydrothermota (page does not exist)">Hydrothermota</a>" <ul><li>"Hydrothermia"</li> <li>"Stahlbacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Krumholzibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Krumholzibacteriota (page does not exist)">Krumholzibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Krumholzibacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latescibacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Latescibacterota (page does not exist)">Latescibacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Handelsmanbacteria"</li> <li>"Latescibacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marinimicrobia" title="Marinimicrobia">Neomarinimicrobiota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marinisomatota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marinisomatota (page does not exist)">Marinisomatota</a>" <ul><li>"Marinisomatia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tianyaibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tianyaibacteriota (page does not exist)">Tianyaibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Zixibacteria" title="Zixibacteria">Zixiibacteriota</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proteobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteobacteria">Proteobacteria</a> <a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Systematic_Bacteriology" title="Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology">BV2</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aquificida</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Acidulodesulfobacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acidulodesulfobacteriota (page does not exist)">Acidulodesulfobacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Acidulodesulfobacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a> <ul><li>Aquificia</li> <li>"Desulfurobacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a> <ul><li>"Campylobacteria"</li> <li>Desulfurellia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Calescibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calescibacteriota (page does not exist)">Calescibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Calescibacteriia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a> <ul><li>Chrysiogenia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dadaibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dadaibacteriota (page does not exist)">Dadaibacteriota</a>" <ul><li>"Dadabacteria"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacterota" class="mw-redirect" title="Deferribacterota">Deferribacterota</a> <ul><li>"Deferribacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>Desulfobacterota G <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syntrophorhabdia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Syntrophorhabdia (page does not exist)">Syntrophorhabdia</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermosulfidibacterota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thermosulfidibacterota (page does not exist)">Thermosulfidibacterota</a>" <ul><li>"Thermosulfidibacteria"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deltaproteobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Deltaproteobacteria">Deltaproteobacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriovoracia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriovoracia">Bacteriovoracia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bdellovibrionia">Bdellovibrionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligoflexia" title="Oligoflexia">Oligoflexia</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Binatota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Binatota (page does not exist)">Binatota</a>" <ul><li>"Binatia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Deferrimicrobiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deferrimicrobiota (page does not exist)">Deferrimicrobiota</a>" <ul><li>"Anaeroferrophilia"</li> <li>"Deferrimicrobiia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Deferrisomatota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deferrisomatota (page does not exist)">Deferrisomatota</a>" <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deferrisomatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deferrisomatia">Deferrisomatia</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Desulfuromonadota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Desulfuromonadota (page does not exist)">Desulfuromonadota</a>" <ul><li>Desulfuromonadia</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lernaellota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lernaellota (page does not exist)">Lernaellota</a>" <ul><li>"Lernaellia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Methylomirabilota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Methylomirabilota (page does not exist)">Methylomirabilota</a>" <ul><li>"Methylomirabilia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Modulibacteria" title="Modulibacteria">Moduliflexota</a>" <ul><li>"Moduliflexia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcia" class="mw-redirect" title="Myxococcia">Myxococcia</a></li> <li>"Bradymonadia"</li> <li>Polyangiia</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a> <ul><li>Nitrospinia</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a> <ul><li>Nitrospiria</li> <li>"Thermodesulfovibrionia"</li></ul></li> <li>SAR324 <ul><li>"Lambdaproteobacteria"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Schekmaniibacteriota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schekmaniibacteriota (page does not exist)">Schekmaniibacteriota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tectimicrobiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tectimicrobiota (page does not exist)">Tectimicrobiota</a>" <ul><li>"Entotheonellia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriia" title="Acidobacteriia">Acidobacteriia</a>"</li> <li>"Aminicenantia"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocatellia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastocatellia">Blastocatellia</a></li> <li>"Fischerbacteria"</li> <li>"Guanabaribacteriia"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Holophagae" title="Holophagae">Holophagia</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Polarisedimenticolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarisedimenticolia">Polarisedimenticolia</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoanaerobaculia" title="Thermoanaerobaculia">Thermoanaerobaculia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinamibacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicinamibacteria">Vicinamibacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Canglongiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canglongiota (page does not exist)">Canglongiota</a>" <ul><li>"Canglongiia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Leptospirillaeota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leptospirillaeota (page does not exist)">Leptospirillaeota</a>" <ul><li>"Leptospirillia"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Caulobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Caulobacteria">Caulobacteria</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Zetaproteobacteria" title="Zetaproteobacteria">Mariprofundia</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Magnetococcales" title="Magnetococcales">Magnetococcia</a>"</li> <li>"Pseudomonadia"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Qinglongiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qinglongiota (page does not exist)">Qinglongiota</a>" <ul><li>"Qinglongiia"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salinosulfoleibacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salinosulfoleibacteria (page does not exist)">Salinosulfoleibacteria</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Teskebacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Teskebacteria (page does not exist)">Teskebacteria</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Source: <a href="/wiki/Bergey%27s_Manual_of_Systematic_Bacteriology" title="Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology">Bergey's Manual</a> (2001–2012)</li> <li>Alternative views: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bacteria_(classifications)" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Bacteria (classifications)">Wikispecies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microbiology:_Bacteria" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria" title="Template:Bacteria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bacteria" title="Template talk:Bacteria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bacteria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bacteria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microbiology:_Bacteria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bacteria</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">Exotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysogenic_cycle" title="Lysogenic cycle">Lysogenic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Pathogenic bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Resistance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Oxygen preference</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerobic_organism" title="Aerobic organism">Aerobic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obligate_aerobe" title="Obligate aerobe">Obligate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_aerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Facultative aerobe">Facultative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">Anaerobic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_anaerobic_organism" title="Facultative anaerobic organism">Facultative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obligate_anaerobe" title="Obligate anaerobe">Obligate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microaerophile" title="Microaerophile">Microaerophile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanaerobe" title="Nanaerobe">Nanaerobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerotolerant_anaerobe" title="Aerotolerant anaerobe">Aerotolerant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">Extremophile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome" title="Human microbiome">Human microbiome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gut_microbiota" title="Gut microbiota">Gut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung_microbiota" title="Lung microbiota">Lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_microbiology" title="Oral microbiology">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_flora" title="Skin flora">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora" title="Vaginal flora">Vaginal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vaginal_microbiota_in_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaginal microbiota in pregnancy">in pregnancy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_microbiome" title="Placental microbiome">Placental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_microbiome" title="Uterine microbiome">Uterine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salivary_microbiome" title="Salivary microbiome">Salivary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">Nitrogen fixation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li>Substrate preference <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipophilic_bacteria" title="Lipophilic bacteria">Lipophilic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmophile" title="Osmophile">Saccharophilic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Shape</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cellular_morphologies" title="Bacterial cellular morphologies">Bacterial cellular morphologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">cell structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_morphological_plasticity" title="Bacterial morphological plasticity">plasticity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccus">Cocci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillus_(shape)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus (shape)">Bacilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccobacillus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccobacillus">Coccobacilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiral bacteria">Spiral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">Structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Cell_envelope" title="Cell envelope">Cell envelope</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">Cell membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a>: <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">Peptidoglycan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylmuramic_acid" title="N-Acetylmuramic acid">NAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylglucosamine" title="N-Acetylglucosamine">NAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaminopimelic_acid" title="Diaminopimelic acid">DAP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">Gram-positive bacteria</a> only: <a href="/wiki/Teichoic_acid" title="Teichoic acid">Teichoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipoteichoic_acid" title="Lipoteichoic acid">Lipoteichoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endospore" title="Endospore">Endospore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">Gram-negative bacteria</a> only: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_outer_membrane" title="Bacterial outer membrane">Bacterial outer membrane</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_bacterial_porin_family" title="General bacterial porin family">Porin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide" title="Lipopolysaccharide">Lipopolysaccharide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplasmic_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Periplasmic space">Periplasmic space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium" title="Mycobacterium">Mycobacteria</a> only: <a href="/wiki/Arabinogalactan" title="Arabinogalactan">Arabinogalactan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycolic_acid" title="Mycolic acid">Mycolic acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Outside envelope</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_capsule" title="Bacterial capsule">Bacterial capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slime_layer" title="Slime layer">Slime layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-layer" title="S-layer">S-layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycocalyx" title="Glycocalyx">Glycocalyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilus" title="Pilus">Pilus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbria_(bacteriology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria (bacteriology)">Fimbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-motile_bacteria" title="Non-motile bacteria">Non-motile bacteria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Composite</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_taxonomy" title="Bacterial taxonomy">Taxonomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bacteria_(classifications)" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Bacteria (classifications)">Bacteria (classifications)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_phyla" title="Bacterial phyla">Bacterial phyla</a></li> <li>Former groupings: <a href="/wiki/Schizomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Schizomycetes">Schizomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryota">Prokaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gracilicutes" title="Gracilicutes">Gracilicutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Firmicutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollicutes" title="Mollicutes">Mollicutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendosicutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendosicutes">Mendosicutes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Bacteria" title="Category:Bacteria">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bacteria" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bacteria">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microorganisms" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Microorganisms" title="Template:Microorganisms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Microorganisms" title="Template talk:Microorganisms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Microorganisms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Microorganisms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microorganisms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobacterium" title="Nanobacterium">Nanobacterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Streptococcus pyogenes"><img alt="Streptococcus pyogenes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg/140px-Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg/210px-Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg/280px-Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2079" data-file-height="2040" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biogeography" title="Microbial biogeography">Microbial biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_phylogenetics" title="Microbial phylogenetics">Microbial phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_population_biology" title="Microbial population biology">Microbial population biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Motion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_motility" title="Bacterial motility">Bacterial motility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Run-and-tumble_motion" title="Run-and-tumble motion">run-and-tumble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twitching_motility" title="Twitching motility">twitching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gliding_motility" title="Gliding motility">gliding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist_locomotion" title="Protist locomotion">Protist locomotion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amoeboid_movement" title="Amoeboid movement">amoeboids</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria_collective_motion" title="Bacteria collective motion">Bacteria collective motion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Biological pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_the_Winner_hypothesis" title="Kill the Winner hypothesis">Kill the Winner hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_consortium" title="Microbial consortium">Microbial consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biodegradation" title="Microbial biodegradation">Microbial biodegradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cyst" title="Microbial cyst">Microbial cyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">viral shunt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_synergy" title="Microbial synergy">Microbial synergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holobiont" title="Holobiont">holobiont</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_microbe_interactions_in_Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Host microbe interactions in Caenorhabditis elegans">Host microbe interactions in Caenorhabditis elegans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_microbiome" title="Plant microbiome">Plant microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_microbiome" title="Root microbiome">Root microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_microbiome" class="mw-redirect" title="Seagrass microbiome">Seagrass microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_microbiology" title="Soil microbiology">Soil microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermosphere" title="Spermosphere">Spermosphere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">Microalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_microorganism" title="Antarctic microorganism">Antarctic microorganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_microbiome" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral microbiome">Coral microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent_microbial_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent microbial communities">Hydrothermal vent microbial communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microbial_symbiosis" title="Marine microbial symbiosis">Marine microbial symbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_oxidation_of_sulfur" title="Microbial oxidation of sulfur">Microbial oxidation of sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycosphere" title="Phycosphere">Phycosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picoeukaryote" title="Picoeukaryote">Picoeukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Census_of_Marine_Microbes" title="International Census of Marine Microbes">International Census of Marine Microbes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Human related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_interactions_with_microbes" title="Human interactions with microbes">Microbes in human culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiomes_of_the_built_environment" title="Microbiomes of the built environment">Microbiomes of the built environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Food microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_oil" title="Microbial oil">Microbial oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_symbiosis_and_immunity" title="Microbial symbiosis and immunity">Microbial symbiosis and immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nylon-eating_bacteria" title="Nylon-eating bacteria">Nylon-eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome" title="Human microbiome">Human microbiome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthma-related_microbes" title="Asthma-related microbes">asthma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysbiosis" title="Dysbiosis">dysbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal_microbiota_transplant" title="Fecal microbiota transplant">fecal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gut_microbiota" title="Gut microbiota">gut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung_microbiota" title="Lung microbiota">lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_microbiology" title="Oral microbiology">mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_flora" title="Skin flora">skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora" title="Vaginal flora">vagina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora_in_pregnancy" title="Vaginal flora in pregnancy">in pregnancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_microbiome" title="Placental microbiome">placenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_microbiome" title="Uterine microbiome">uterus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Microbiome_Project" title="Human Microbiome Project">Human Microbiome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_production" title="Protein production">Protein production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_microbial_consortia" title="Synthetic microbial consortia">Synthetic microbial consortia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark-field_microscopy" title="Dark-field microscopy">Dark-field microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impedance_microbiology" title="Impedance microbiology">Impedance microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cytology" title="Microbial cytology">Microbial cytology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_DNA_barcoding" title="Microbial DNA barcoding">Microbial DNA barcoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">Microbiological culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">Staining</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_biosphere" title="Deep biosphere">Deep biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_dark_matter" title="Microbial dark matter">Microbial dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microswimmer" title="Microswimmer">Microswimmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biohybrid_microswimmer" title="Biohybrid microswimmer">biohybrid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lines_on_the_Antiquity_of_Microbes" title="Lines on the Antiquity of Microbes">Lines on the Antiquity of Microbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbially_induced_sedimentary_structure" title="Microbially induced sedimentary structure">Microbially induced sedimentary structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">Omics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_factors_affecting_microbial_life" title="Physical factors affecting microbial life">Physical factors affecting microbial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siderophore" title="Siderophore">Siderophore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Microorganisms" title="Category:Microorganisms">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_on_Earth" title="Template talk:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> phyla/divisions by domain</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bacteria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneolota" class="mw-redirect" title="Balneolota">Balneolota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacteraceae" title="Deferribacteraceae">Deferribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomus_thermophilum" title="Dictyoglomus thermophilum">Dictyoglomota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota">Fusobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteriota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteriota">Ignavibacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiritimatiellota" title="Kiritimatiellota">Kiritimatiellota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerota" title="Lentisphaerota">Lentisphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasmatota" title="Mycoplasmatota">Mycoplasmatota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermota">Rhodothermota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermomicrobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermomicrobiota">Thermomicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota">Euryarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Korarchaeota" title="Korarchaeota">Korarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota">Nanoarchaeota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrososphaerota" title="Nitrososphaerota">Nitrososphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota">Thermoproteota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_Richmond_Mine_acidophilic_nanoorganisms" title="Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms">Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Apusomonadida">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakobea" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobea">Jakobea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthocerotophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthocerotophyta">Anthocerotophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Moss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">Lycopodiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">Pteridophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Flatworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotricha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotricha">Gastrotricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulida">Gnathostomulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micrognathozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrognathozoa">Micrognathozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures" title="Template:Life, non-cellular life, and comparable structures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures" title="Template talk:Life, non-cellular life, and comparable structures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life, non-cellular life, and comparable structures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-cellular_life" title="Non-cellular life">non-cellular life</a>, and comparable structures</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cellular life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryota</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bacteria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">Mitochondrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LUCA" class="mw-redirect" title="LUCA">LUCA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a></li> <li>'<a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a>'</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_dark_matter#Microbes_with_highly_unusual_DNA" title="Microbial dark matter">Microbes with highly unusual DNA</a> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-cellular life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a> <hr /><a href="/wiki/Viroid" title="Viroid">Viroid</a> <hr /><a href="/wiki/Satellite_(biology)" title="Satellite (biology)">Satellite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Realms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adnaviria" title="Adnaviria">Adnaviria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duplodnaviria" title="Duplodnaviria">Duplodnaviria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monodnaviria" title="Monodnaviria">Monodnaviria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riboviria" title="Riboviria">Riboviria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribozyviria" title="Ribozyviria">Ribozyviria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varidnaviria" title="Varidnaviria">Varidnaviria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unassigned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Naldaviricetes" title="Naldaviricetes">Naldaviricetes</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphasatellitidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphasatellitidae">Alphasatellitidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampullaviridae" title="Ampullaviridae">Ampullaviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anelloviridae" title="Anelloviridae">Anelloviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avsunviroidae" title="Avsunviroidae">Avsunviroidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicaudaviridae" title="Bicaudaviridae">Bicaudaviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavaviridae" title="Clavaviridae">Clavaviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnlakeviridae" title="Finnlakeviridae">Finnlakeviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuselloviridae" title="Fuselloviridae">Fuselloviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globuloviridae" title="Globuloviridae">Globuloviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guttaviridae" title="Guttaviridae">Guttaviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halspiviridae" title="Halspiviridae">Halspiviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovaliviridae" title="Ovaliviridae">Ovaliviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmaviridae" title="Plasmaviridae">Plasmaviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polydnaviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Polydnaviridae">Polydnaviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portogloboviridae" title="Portogloboviridae">Portogloboviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pospiviroidae" title="Pospiviroidae">Pospiviroidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiraviridae" title="Spiraviridae">Spiraviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaspiviridae" title="Thaspiviridae">Thaspiviridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolecusatellitidae" title="Tolecusatellitidae">Tolecusatellitidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genera</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dinodnavirus" title="Dinodnavirus">Dinodnavirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizidiovirus" title="Rhizidiovirus">Rhizidiovirus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanobe" title="Nanobe">Nanobe</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_(biology)" title="Obelisk (biology)">Obelisk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Comparable structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bio-like_structure" title="Bio-like structure">Bio-like structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_cell" title="Cancer cell">Cancer cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HeLa" title="HeLa">HeLa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer" title="Clonally transmissible cancer">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmid" title="Cosmid">Cosmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defective_interfering_particle" title="Defective interfering particle">Defective interfering particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_viral_element" title="Endogenous viral element">Endogenous viral element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosmid" title="Fosmid">Fosmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_and_conjugative_element" title="Integrative and conjugative element">Integrative and conjugative element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeewanu" title="Jeewanu">Jeewanu</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nanobacterium" title="Nanobacterium">Nanobacterium</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagemid" title="Phagemid">Phagemid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Prion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_prion" title="Fungal prion">Fungal prion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteinoid" title="Proteinoid">Proteinoid</a> <a href="/wiki/Microparticle#Biological_protocells" title="Microparticle">microsphere</a></li> <li>Retroelements not elsewhere classified <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retron" title="Retron">Retron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity-generating_retroelement" title="Diversity-generating retroelement">Diversity-generating retroelement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telomerase_reverse_transcriptase" title="Telomerase reverse transcriptase">Telomerase reverse transcriptase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase-related_cellular_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse transcriptase-related cellular gene">Reverse transcriptase-related cellular gene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">Ribozyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiegelman%27s_Monster" title="Spiegelman's Monster">Spiegelman's Monster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tandem_repeat" title="Tandem repeat">Tandem repeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transposable_element" title="Transposable element">Transposable element</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retroposon" title="Retroposon">Retroposon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpoviron" title="Transpoviron">Transpoviron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobot" title="Xenobot">Xenobot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Bacteria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10876" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q10876">Q10876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li>BioLib: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id14778">14778</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">CoL</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/B">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/288">288</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1BACTK">1BACTK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/67333">67333</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=50">50</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prokaryotic_names_with_Standing_in_Nomenclature" title="List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature">LPSN</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lpsn.dsmz.de/domain/bacteria">bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MycoBank" title="MycoBank">MycoBank</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mycobank.org/MB/562108">562108</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=2">2</a></li> <li>NZOR: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/50966b34-a83a-4324-9136-d64696ca3d52">50966b34-a83a-4324-9136-d64696ca3d52</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=844192">844192</a></li> <li>PPE: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bladmineerders.nl/parasites/bacteria/">bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_Life_Web_Project" title="Tree of Life Web Project">Tree of Life</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=6">6</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10876#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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5.37% 143.485 1 Template:Long_fossil_range"," 4.86% 129.685 1 Template:All_time_250px"," 4.77% 127.280 15 Template:Long_fossil_range/bar_250"," 4.06% 108.453 3 Template:Wikt-lang"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.761","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19789226,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbisadoBenomarKlausDandekar2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlderwickHarrisonLloydBirch2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlizadehYousefiPakdelGhotaslou2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlmaasKovácsVicsekOltvai2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAronsonShai2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsimov1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaker-AustinDopson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBar-OnPhillipsMilo2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBareaPozoAzcónAzcón-Aguilar2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarrangouFremauxDeveauRichards2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBattistuzziFeijaoHedges2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBauerForchhammer2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBelfortReabanCoetzeeDalgaard1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellandOuelletteGieffersByrne2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertrand2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeveridgePouwelsSáraKotiranta1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBickleKrüger1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBobik2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoucherDouadyPapkeWalsh2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBozsik2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrandaVikFriedmanKolter2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBreedConn1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrounsJoreLundgrenWestra2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownDoolittle1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownHorswill2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrune1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryantFrigaard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrüssowCanchayaHardt2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCabeenJacobs-Wagner2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCabezónRipoll-RozadaPeñade_la_Cruz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalcagnileTrediciTalàAlifano2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCallier2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCanoBorucki1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavalier-Smith2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChallisHopwood2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChattopadhyayBhatnagarBhatnagar2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChenDubnau2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChengWiedmann2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChung\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClaessenRozenKuipersSøgaard-Andersen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCostaFelisberto-RodriguesMeirPrevost2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCostertonLewandowskiCaldwellKorber1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawford2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtisSloanScannell2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaumGold2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaveyO\u0026#039;toole2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavison1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeLongPace2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenamurMatic2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDi_Giulio2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonlan2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonlanCosterton2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoolittle2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrews,_Gerhart1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDudekSunBurstein2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDusenbery2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyallBrownJohnson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrenberg1828\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrenberg1835\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEleyanKhanMusollariChandiramani2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEuzéby2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaganFairweather2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeijoo-SiotaRamaSánchez-PérezVilla2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFish2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisherHarveyChampe2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlemmingWuertz2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankelBazylinskiJohnsonTaylor1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGabaldón2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGitai2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGodoy-Vitorino2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldberg2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorbach1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGram1884\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraumannPremstaller2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHastingsRosenbergSlack2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeckerVölker2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHedlundDodsworthStaley2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeise1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHellingwerfCrielaardHoffMatthijs1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinnebuschTilly1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHomannSansjofreVan_ZuilenHeubeck2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHugenholtz2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImranHakimTariqNawaz2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeongChoi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJerniganStephensAshfordOmenaca2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsborgEldholmHåvarstein2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonLucey2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKado2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKadouriJurkevitchOkonCastro-Sowinski2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaiser2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalscheuerPalaciosAnsoCifuente2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKerfeldSawayaTanakaNguyen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhachatourians1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhanPetersenShekhar2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKojimaBlair2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKooijmanAugerPoggialeKooi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKosugiMatsuuraLiangYamamoto-Ikemoto2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrasner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuo2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKushkevychProcházkaGajdácsRittmann2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLenkowskiNijakowskiKaczmarekSurdacka2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeppänenSundbergLaantode_Freitas_Almeida2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLieseFilho1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinKieserHopwoodChen1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouieLouieSimor2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuongDube2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuxShi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyapichevIvashkevichChernovChinenov2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacnab1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMandalDuttaDasMukherjee2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattick2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCutcheon2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKenneyDriksEichenberger2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerzSoSheetz2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichodBernsteinNedelcu2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerBassler2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerLamont2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerWilliams2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorelKraepielAmyot1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMushegianEbert2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNakabachiYamashitaTohIshikawa2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNanZusman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNealson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNevesMiyamuraMoraesPenna2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholsonFajardo-CavazosRebeilSlieman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholsonMunakataHorneckMelosh2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholsonSchuergerSetlow2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorrisden_BlaauwenCabin-FlamanDoi2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;BrienGoedert1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;HaraShanahan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliver2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsenWoeseOverbeek1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrenGarrity2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaerlFultonMoisanderDyble2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoehlsgaardDouthwaite2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPommerville2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoolePenny2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPradellaHansSpröerReichenbach2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratsLópezGiróFerrer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPsencíkIkonenLaurinmäkiMerckel2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabschHelmEisenstark2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRappéGiovannoni2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReedVoSchillingPalsson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReigadasvan_PrehnFalconeFitzpatrick2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRevitt-MillsVidorWattsLyras2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiley2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertsonGomersallGill1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoscoeChow1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaiman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalminenGueimondeIsolauri2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanderson2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlossHandelsman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopf1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchulzJorgensen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwarzEnnevan_Duijkeren2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchweinitzerJosenhans2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSears2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSenderFuchsMilo2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSerresGopalNahumLiang2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapiro1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShiaoKershawLimonYou2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShibaTsutsumiIshigeNoguchi2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShihRothfield2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShimkets1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilverman1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlonczewskiFoster\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSlonczewskiFoster2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStamsde_BokPluggevan_Eekert2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephensGabrCalatravaGrossman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewartMaddenPaulTaddei2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStokesNorris-JonesBrooksBeveridge2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTangOrsiLuoGe2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThanbichlerWangShapiro2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomsonBertram2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThurston2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValSoler-BistuéBlandMazel2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVelicerMendes-Soares2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVelicerStredwick2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVelimirov2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVollandGonzalez-RizzoGrosTyml2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVreelandRosenzweigPowers2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalsby1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalsh2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalshAmyes2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatanabeBito2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinstein1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheelis2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoeseFox1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoeseKandlerWheelis1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodsWalker1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWuRobertsKimKoch2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXu2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYangBlairSalama2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYeatesKerfeldHeinhorstCannon2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYeoChater2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYonathBashan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZehrJenkinsShortSteward2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhuMaiPfeifferJanssen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZillig1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZinser2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZoetendalVaughande_Vos2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Heijenoort2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŚlesakKulaŚlesakMiszalski2019\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Automatic taxobox\"] = 1,\n [\"Bacteria\"] = 1,\n [\"Bacteria classification\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 199,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 9,\n [\"Cs1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"For multi\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 9,\n [\"Grc-transl\"] = 2,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"LSJ\"] = 2,\n [\"Life on Earth\"] = 1,\n [\"Long fossil range\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Microorganisms\"] = 1,\n [\"OEtymD\"] = 2,\n [\"Organisms et al.\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Section link\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 42,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Singular\"] = 1,\n [\"Taxonbar\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikt-lang\"] = 3,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","340","18.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","260","14.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","8.6"],["dataWrapper 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