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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Two-piece lapping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two-piece_lapping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accuracy_and_surface_roughness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accuracy_and_surface_roughness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Accuracy and surface roughness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accuracy_and_surface_roughness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Measurement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Measurement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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class="mw-page-title-main">Lapping</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCrtm%C9%99_(emal_n%C3%B6v%C3%BC)" title="Sürtmə (emal növü) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sürtmə (emal növü)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Лепинговане – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лепинговане" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Lapování – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lapování" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4ppen" title="Läppen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Läppen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapeado" title="Lapeado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lapeado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="پرداخت‌کاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پرداخت‌کاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodage" title="Rodage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rodage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepanje" title="Lepanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Lepanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelampasan" title="Pelampasan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pelampasan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lappatura" title="Lappatura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lappatura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leppen" title="Leppen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Leppen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepping" title="Lepping – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Lepping" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docieranie_(obr%C3%B3bka)" title="Docieranie (obróbka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Docieranie (obróbka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepuire" title="Lepuire – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Lepuire" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Притирание – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Притирание" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapovanie" title="Lapovanie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Lapovanie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4ppning" title="Läppning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Läppning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="அணைவு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணைவு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Притирання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Притирання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process of removing material from two workpieces</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the machining operation. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Lapping_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Lapping (disambiguation)">Lapping (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Lapping" title="Special:EditPage/Lapping">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Lapping%22">"Lapping"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Lapping%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Lapping%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Lapping%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Lapping%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Lapping%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv/220px--L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="21" data-mwtitle="Läppmaschine.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0f/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0f/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0f/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0f/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0f/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0f/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv/L%C3%A4ppmaschine.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Lapping machine.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Lapping</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Machining" title="Machining">machining</a> process in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an <a href="/wiki/Abrasive" title="Abrasive">abrasive</a> between them, by hand movement or using a machine. </p><p>Lapping often follows other subtractive processes with more aggressive material removal as a first step, such as <a href="/wiki/Milling_(machining)" title="Milling (machining)">milling</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Grinding_machine" title="Grinding machine">grinding</a>. </p><p>Lapping can take two forms. The first type of lapping (traditionally often called grinding), involves rubbing a brittle material such as <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> against a surface such as <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> or glass itself (also known as the "lap" or grinding tool) with an abrasive such as <a href="/wiki/Aluminum_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum oxide">aluminum oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeweller%27s_rouge" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeweller's rouge">jeweller's rouge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerium(IV)_oxide" title="Cerium(IV) oxide">optician's rouge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emery_(mineral)" class="mw-redirect" title="Emery (mineral)">emery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a>, etc., between them. This produces microscopic <a href="/wiki/Conchoidal_fracture" title="Conchoidal fracture">conchoidal fractures</a> as the abrasive rolls about between the two surfaces and removes material from both. </p><p>The other form of lapping involves a softer material such as <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">pitch</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramic</a> for the lap, which is "charged" with the abrasive. The lap is then used to cut a harder material—the workpiece. The abrasive embeds within the softer material, which holds it and permits it to score across and cut the harder material. Taken to a finer limit, this will produce a polished surface such as with a polishing cloth on an automobile, or a polishing cloth or polishing pitch upon glass or steel. </p><p>Taken to the ultimate limit, with the aid of accurate <a href="/wiki/Interferometry" title="Interferometry">interferometry</a> and specialized polishing machines or skilled hand polishing, <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lensmakers</a> can produce surfaces that are flat to better than 30 <a href="/wiki/Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nanometers</a>. This is one twentieth of the <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> of light from the commonly used 632.8 nm helium neon laser light source. Surfaces this flat can be molecularly bonded (<a href="/wiki/Optical_contact_bonding" title="Optical contact bonding">optically contacted</a>) by bringing them together under the right conditions. (This is not the same as the <a href="/wiki/Gauge_blocks#Wringing" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauge blocks">wringing</a> effect of <a href="/wiki/Gauge_blocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauge blocks">Johansson blocks</a>, although it is similar). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation">Operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lapping&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Small_Lapping_Plate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Small_Lapping_Plate.jpg/200px-Small_Lapping_Plate.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Small_Lapping_Plate.jpg/300px-Small_Lapping_Plate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Small_Lapping_Plate.jpg/400px-Small_Lapping_Plate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption>Small lapping plate made of cast iron</figcaption></figure> <p>A piece of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> may be used as the lap, charged with emery, and used to cut a piece of hardened <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>. The small plate shown in the first picture is a hand lapping plate. That particular plate is made of <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>. In use, a slurry of emery powder would be spread on the plate and the workpiece simply rubbed against the plate, usually in a "figure-eight" pattern. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SpeedFam12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/SpeedFam12.jpg/200px-SpeedFam12.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/SpeedFam12.jpg/300px-SpeedFam12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/SpeedFam12.jpg/400px-SpeedFam12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="725" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>Small lapping machine</figcaption></figure> <p>The second picture is of a commercially available lapping machine. The lap or lapping plate in this machine is 30 cm (12 in) in diameter, about the smallest size available commercially. At the other end of the size spectrum, machines with 2.4-to-3.0-metre-diameter (8 to 10 ft) plates are not uncommon, and systems with tables 9 m (30 ft) in diameter have been constructed. Referring to the second picture again, the lap is the large circular disk on the top of the machine. On top of the lap are two rings. The workpiece would be placed inside one of these rings. A weight would then be placed on top of the workpiece. The weights can also be seen in the picture along with two fiber spacer disks that are used to even the load. </p><p>In operation, the rings stay in one location as the lapping plate rotates beneath them. In this machine, a small slurry pump can be seen at the side, this pump feeds abrasive slurry onto the rotating lapping plate. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Logitech_Lapping_Machine_Jig.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Logitech_Lapping_Machine_Jig.jpg/250px-Logitech_Lapping_Machine_Jig.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Logitech_Lapping_Machine_Jig.jpg/330px-Logitech_Lapping_Machine_Jig.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Logitech_Lapping_Machine_Jig.jpg/400px-Logitech_Lapping_Machine_Jig.jpg 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="331" /></a><figcaption>Logitech lapping machine and retention jig</figcaption></figure> <p>When there is a requirement to lap very small specimens (from 75 mm (3 in) down to a few millimetres), a lapping jig can be used to hold the material while it is lapped (see Image 3, Lapping machine and retention jig). A jig allows precise control of the orientation of the specimen to the lapping plate and fine adjustment of the load applied to the specimen during the material removal process. Due to the dimensions of such small samples, traditional loads and weights are too heavy as they would destroy delicate materials. The jig sits in a cradle on top of the lapping plate and the dial on the front of the jig indicates the amount of material removed from the specimen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Two-piece_lapping">Two-piece lapping</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lapping&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Two-piece lapping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Where the mating of the two surfaces is more important than the flatness, the two pieces can be lapped together. The principle is that the protrusions on one surface will both abrade and be abraded by the protrusions on the other, resulting in two surfaces evolving towards some common shape (not necessarily perfectly flat), separated by a distance determined by the average size of the abrasive particles, with a surface roughness determined by the variation in the abrasive size. This yields closeness-of-fit results comparable to that of two accurately-flat pieces, without quite the same degree of <a href="/wiki/Metrology" title="Metrology">testing</a> required for the latter. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lapping101.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3a/Lapping101.gif/250px-Lapping101.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="54" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3a/Lapping101.gif/330px-Lapping101.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3a/Lapping101.gif 2x" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="105" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of two-piece lapping</figcaption></figure> <p>One complication in two-piece lapping is the need to ensure that neither piece flexes or is deformed during the process. As the pieces are moved past each other, part of each (some area near the edge) will be unsupported for some fraction of the rubbing movement. If one piece flexes due to this lack of support, the edges of the opposite piece will tend to dig depressions into it a short distance in from the edge, and the edges of the opposite piece are heavily abraded by the same action - the lapping procedure assumes roughly equal pressure distribution across the whole surface at all times, and will fail in this manner if the workpiece itself deforms under that pressure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accuracy_and_surface_roughness">Accuracy and surface roughness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lapping&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Accuracy and surface roughness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lapping can be used to obtain a specific <a href="/wiki/Surface_roughness" title="Surface roughness">surface roughness</a>; it is also used to obtain very accurate surfaces, usually very flat surfaces. Surface roughness and surface flatness are two quite different concepts. </p><p>A typical range of surface roughness that can be obtained without resorting to special equipment would fall in the range of 1 to 30 units Ra (average roughness), usually microinches. </p><p>Surface accuracy or flatness is usually measured in <a href="/wiki/Unit_of_measurement" title="Unit of measurement">units</a> of <b>helium light band</b> (<b>HLB</b>), one HLB measuring about 280 nm (1.1<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>−5</sup> in). Again, without resort to special equipment accuracies of 1 to 3 HLB are typical. Though flatness is the most common goal of lapping, the process is also used to obtain other configurations such as a concave or convex surface. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement">Measurement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lapping&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flatness">Flatness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lapping&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Flatness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The easiest method for measuring <a href="/wiki/Flatness_(manufacturing)" title="Flatness (manufacturing)">flatness</a> is with a height gauge positioned on a <a href="/wiki/Surface_plate" title="Surface plate">surface plate</a>. You must set up the part on three stands and find the minimum variation while adjusting them, just placing the part on the surface plate and using a dial indicator to find <a href="/wiki/Total_indicator_reading" title="Total indicator reading">TIR</a> on the opposite side of the part measures parallelism. Flatness is more easily measured with a co-ordinate measuring machine. But neither of these methods can measure flatness more accurately than about 2.5 μm (9.8<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>−5</sup> in). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OpticalFlats157-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/OpticalFlats157-03.jpg/220px-OpticalFlats157-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/OpticalFlats157-03.jpg/330px-OpticalFlats157-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/OpticalFlats157-03.jpg/440px-OpticalFlats157-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1851" data-file-height="1263" /></a><figcaption>Optical flats in a wooden case</figcaption></figure> <p>Another method that is commonly used with lapped parts is the reflection and interference of monochromatic light.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A monochromatic light source and an <a href="/wiki/Optical_flat" title="Optical flat">optical flat</a> are all that are needed. The optical flat – which is a piece of transparent glass that has itself been lapped and polished on one or both sides – is placed on the lapped surface. The monochromatic light is then shone down through the glass. The light will pass through the glass and reflect off the workpiece. As the light reflects in the gap between the workpiece and the polished surface of the glass, the light will interfere with itself creating light and dark fringes called <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_rings" title="Newton's rings">Newton's rings</a>. Each fringe – or band – represents a change of one half wavelength in the width of the gap between the glass and the workpiece. The light bands display a contour map of the surface of the workpiece and can be readily interpreted for flatness. In the past the light source would have been provided by a <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>-neon lamp or tube, using the neon 632.8 nm line,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> or mercury vapor green line but nowadays a more common source of monochromatic light is the <a href="/wiki/Low_pressure_sodium_lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure sodium lamp">low pressure sodium lamp</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Today, laser diodes and LEDs are used, both being inexpensive and narrow-band light sources. With semiconductor light sources, blue is an option, having a smaller wavelength than red. </p><p>For a more thorough description of the physics behind this measurement technique, see <a href="/wiki/Interference_(wave_propagation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interference (wave propagation)">interference</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roughness">Roughness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lapping&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Roughness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surface roughness is defined by the minute variations in height of the surface of a given material or workpiece. The individual variances of the peaks and valleys are averaged (Ra value), or quantified by the largest difference from peak-to-valley (Rz). Roughness is usually expressed in <a href="/wiki/Microns" class="mw-redirect" title="Microns">microns</a>. A surface that exhibits an Ra of 8 consists of peaks and valleys that average no more than 8 μm over a given distance. Roughness may be also measured by comparing the surface of the workpiece to a known sample. Calibration samples are available usually sold in a set and usually covering the typical range of machining operations from about 125 μm Ra to 1 μm Ra. </p><p>Surface roughness is measured with a <a href="/wiki/Profilometer" title="Profilometer">profilometer</a>, an instrument that measures the minute variations in height of the surface of a workpiece. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lapping&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flat_honing" title="Flat honing">Flat honing</a> – a variation of very fine grinding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapping_film" title="Lapping film">Lapping film</a> - a lapping consumable</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razor_strop" title="Razor strop">Stropping</a>, which often includes lapping action in its action</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfinishing" title="Superfinishing">Superfinishing</a> – another micro-scale subtractive finishing operation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_metrology" title="Surface metrology">Surface metrology</a> – measuring the effects of such processes</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lapping&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEnglish1953" class="citation book cs1">English, R. E. (1953). "Optical Flats". In <a href="/wiki/Albert_Graham_Ingalls" title="Albert Graham Ingalls">Ingalls, Albert G.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Amateur_Telescope_Making" title="Amateur Telescope Making">Amateur Telescope Making, Book Three</a></i>. Scientific American. pp. <span class="nowrap">156–</span>162.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Optical+Flats&rft.btitle=Amateur+Telescope+Making%2C+Book+Three&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E156-%3C%2Fspan%3E162&rft.pub=Scientific+American&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=English&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALapping" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lapping&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMark_Irvin,_Engis_Corporation2011" class="citation journal cs1">Mark Irvin, Engis Corporation (February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120425061209/http://www.engis.com/pdf/2011ProductionMachiningDiamondLappingandPlateControl.pdf">"Diamond Lapping and Lapping Plate Control"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Production Machining</i>. Gardner Publications. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.engis.com/pdf/2011ProductionMachiningDiamondLappingandPlateControl.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-04-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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