CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Mesozoic - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"86bea7fb-1e00-4ddd-9ecf-7a9ef22ea0b5","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Mesozoic","wgTitle":"Mesozoic","wgCurRevisionId":1284506617,"wgRevisionId":1284506617,"wgArticleId":19322,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2012","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use dmy dates from April 2021","Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024","All articles with failed verification","Articles with failed verification from March 2022","All accuracy disputes","Accuracy disputes from March 2022","Articles with unsourced statements from March 2022","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2022","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2021","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Geological eras","Mesozoic"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Mesozoic","wgRelevantArticleId":19322,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q83222","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.WikiMiniAtlas","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.23"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Mesozoic - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="auth.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Mesozoic rootpage-Mesozoic skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Mesozoic" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Mesozoic" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Mesozoic" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Mesozoic" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Naming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Naming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geologic_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geologic_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Geologic periods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geologic_periods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geologic periods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geologic_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Triassic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Triassic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Triassic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Triassic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jurassic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurassic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Jurassic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jurassic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cretaceous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cretaceous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Cretaceous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cretaceous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paleogeography_and_tectonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleogeography_and_tectonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Paleogeography and tectonics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleogeography_and_tectonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Climate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Flora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Flora</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fauna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fauna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Fauna</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fauna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microbiota" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microbiota"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Microbiota</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microbiota-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesozoic</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 86 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-86" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">86 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoso%C3%AFkum" title="Mesosoïkum – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mesosoïkum" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoikum" title="Mesozoikum – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Mesozoikum" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="حقبة الحياة الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حقبة الحياة الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoico" title="Mesozoico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Mesozoico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoicu" title="Mesozoicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mesozoicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoy" title="Mezozoy – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mezozoy" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiong-seng-t%C4%81i" title="Tiong-seng-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiong-seng-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Мезозой – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мезозой" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Мезазой – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мезазой" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Мэзазой – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мэзазой" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Мезозой – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мезозой" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoik" title="Mezozoik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mezozoik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoeg" title="Mezozoeg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Mezozoeg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mesozoic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Мезозой – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Мезозой" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoikum" title="Mezozoikum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mezozoikum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesos%C3%B6ig" title="Mesosöig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mesosöig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoikum" title="Mesozoikum – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mesozoikum" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoikum" title="Mesozoikum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mesozoikum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesosoikum" title="Mesosoikum – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mesosoikum" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%B6%CF%89%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Μεσοζωικός αιώνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεσοζωικός αιώνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_mesozoica" title="Era mesozoica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Era mesozoica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoiko" title="Mezozoiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezozoiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoiko" title="Mesozoiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mesozoiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="میانه‌زیستی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میانه‌زیستی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9sozo%C3%AFque" title="Mésozoïque – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mésozoïque" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_R%C3%A9_Mh%C3%A9iseas%C3%B3ch" title="An Ré Mhéiseasóch – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Ré Mhéiseasóch" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoico" title="Mesozoico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mesozoico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%83%9D%EB%8C%80" title="중생대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중생대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D5%A6%D5%B8%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Մեզոզոյան դարաշրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մեզոզոյան դարաշրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA" title="मध्यजीवी महाकल्प – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मध्यजीवी महाकल्प" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoik" title="Mezozoik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mezozoik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoikum" title="Mesozoikum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mesozoikum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%B0l%C3%ADfs%C3%B6ld" title="Miðlífsöld – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Miðlífsöld" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoico" title="Mesozoico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Mesozoico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%96%D7%95%D7%96%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9F" title="מזוזואיקון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מזוזואיקון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoikum" title="Mesozoikum – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mesozoikum" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%96%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AF%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="მეზოზოური ჯგუფი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მეზოზოური ჯგუფი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Мезозой – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мезозой" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidistiugal" title="Sidistiugal – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Sidistiugal" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88_Mezozoyik" title="È Mezozoyik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="È Mezozoyik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%C2%AD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Мезозой заманы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мезозой заманы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoicum" title="Mesozoicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mesozoicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozojs" title="Mezozojs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mezozojs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84erdm%C3%ABttelalter" title="Äerdmëttelalter – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Äerdmëttelalter" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozojus" title="Mezozojus – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mezozojus" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoikum" title="Mezozoikum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mezozoikum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Мезозоик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мезозоик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoik" title="Mesozoik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mesozoik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Мезозой эрин – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мезозой эрин" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="သက်လယ်ကပ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သက်လယ်ကပ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozo%C3%AFcum" title="Mesozoïcum – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mesozoïcum" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA" title="मेसोजोइक महाकल्प – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मेसोजोइक महाकल्प" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E7%94%9F%E4%BB%A3" title="中生代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中生代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoikum" title="Mesozoikum – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Mesozoikum" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoikum" title="Mesozoikum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mesozoikum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoikum" title="Mesozoikum – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mesozoikum" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozo%C3%AFc" title="Mesozoïc – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Mesozoïc" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoy_eratemasi" title="Mezozoy eratemasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mezozoy eratemasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%86%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7_(%D8%AC%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%8C)" title="وچکارلا ویلا (جیالوجی) – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="وچکارلا ویلا (جیالوجی)" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%A6%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="میزوزوئیک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="میزوزوئیک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9sozo%C3%AFke" title="Mésozoïke – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Mésozoïke" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesos%C3%B2ich" title="Mesosòich – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Mesosòich" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoikum" title="Mesozoikum – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Mesozoikum" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoik" title="Mezozoik – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mezozoik" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoico" title="Mesozoico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mesozoico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoic" title="Mezozoic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mezozoic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chawpikawsaq_Pacha" title="Chawpikawsaq Pacha – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Chawpikawsaq Pacha" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Мезозой – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мезозой" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mesozoic" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoikum" title="Mezozoikum – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mezozoikum" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoik" title="Mezozoik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mezozoik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Мезозоик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мезозоик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoik" title="Mezozoik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mezozoik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9sozoikum" title="Mésozoikum – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Mésozoikum" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesotsooinen_maailmankausi" title="Mesotsooinen maailmankausi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mesotsooinen maailmankausi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoikum" title="Mesozoikum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mesozoikum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesosoiko" title="Mesosoiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mesosoiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81" title="มหายุคมีโซโซอิก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มหายุคมีโซโซอิก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezozoyik" title="Mezozoyik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mezozoyik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Мезозойська ера – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мезозойська ера" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Trung_sinh" title="Đại Trung sinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đại Trung sinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Mesozoic" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E7%94%9F%E4%BB%A3" title="中生代 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="中生代" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E7%94%9F%E4%BB%A3" title="中生代 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="中生代" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E7%94%9F%E4%BB%A3" title="中生代 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中生代" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q83222#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Mesozoic" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoic"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoic"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Mesozoic" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Mesozoic" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&oldid=1284506617" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Mesozoic&id=1284506617&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMesozoic"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMesozoic"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Mesozoic&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mesozoic" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q83222" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Second era of the Phanerozoic Eon</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:23em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding:0.25em 0.33em 0.33em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:1.25em;background:rgb(103,197,202);">Mesozoic Era</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">251.902 ± 0.024 – 66.0 <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:17.583076923077px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.22px; width:14.807692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:70.027692307692px; width:7.9470769230769px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:77.974769230769px; width:20.564923076923px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.539692307692px; width:20.294153846154px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.732307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:171.56615384615px; width:26.095384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.540307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20184615385px; width:6.9249230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:134.74086153846px; width:62.920676923077px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:134.74086153846px; width:62.920676923077px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:135.74086153846px; width:60.920676923077px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Chronology</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="font-size:14px"><table id="Container" role="presentation" class="toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:none;margin:auto;overflow:hidden;min-width:13.900em"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:32em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.46em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−260 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:29.93em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−240 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.87em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.34em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−220 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.28em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.75em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.22em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−180 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.69em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.16em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−160 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:14.63em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.10em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−140 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.57em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.04em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−120 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.51em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:6.98em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−100 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.45em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.92em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−80 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.39em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.86em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−60 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:8em;height:32em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#000000"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(154,217,221);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.000em;height:32.000em;left:0.000em;width:0.880em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-16.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span style="line-height:16px;display:block;"><b><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic"> P <br /> h <br /> a <br /> n <br /> e <br /> r <br /> o <br /> z <br /> o <br /> i <br /> c</a></b></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(153,192,141);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:30.222em;height:1.778em;left:0.960em;width:7.040em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.889em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><b><a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(103,197,202);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:1.778em;height:28.344em;left:0.960em;width:0.880em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-14.172em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span style="line-height:16px;display:block;"><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">M<br />e<br />s<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></b></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(242,249,29);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.000em;height:1.778em;left:0.960em;width:7.040em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.889em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><b><a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(129,43,146);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:22.495em;height:7.627em;left:1.920em;width:6.080em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.814em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic"><span style="color:white;">Triassic</span></a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(52,178,201);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:13.865em;height:8.630em;left:1.920em;width:6.080em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.315em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(127,198,78);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:1.778em;height:11.988em;left:1.920em;width:6.080em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.994em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:30.222em;height:0.046em;left:0.960em;width:7.040em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.023em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 auto;float:left;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:12.750em"><b>An approximate timescale of key Mesozoic events.</b><br />Vertical axis scale: <a href="/wiki/Megaannus" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannus">Millions of years ago</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Etymology</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Name formality</th><td class="infobox-data">Formal</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Nickname(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">Age of Reptiles, Age of Dinosaurs, Age of Conifers</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Usage information</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Celestial body</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Earth</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Regional usage</th><td class="infobox-data">Global (<a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">ICS</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Time scale(s) used</th><td class="infobox-data">ICS Time Scale</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Definition</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Chronological unit</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">Era</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Stratigraphic unit</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Erathem" title="Erathem">Erathem</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Time span formality</th><td class="infobox-data">Formal</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower boundary definition</th><td class="infobox-data">First appearance of the Conodont <i>Hindeodus parvus</i>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower boundary GSSP</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Meishan" title="Meishan">Meishan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a><br /><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Mesozoic&params=31.0798_N_119.7058_E_"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">31°04′47″N</span> <span class="longitude">119°42′21″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">31.0798°N 119.7058°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">31.0798; 119.7058</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower GSSP ratified</th><td class="infobox-data">2001</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper boundary definition</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Iridium</a> enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">K-Pg extinction event</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper boundary GSSP</th><td class="infobox-data">El Kef Section, <a href="/wiki/El_Kef" title="El Kef">El Kef</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a><br /><span class="geo-inline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818" /><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Mesozoic&params=36.1537_N_8.6486_E_"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">36°09′13″N</span> <span class="longitude">8°38′55″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">36.1537°N 8.6486°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">36.1537; 8.6486</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper GSSP ratified</th><td class="infobox-data">1991</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Mesozoic Era</b><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the <a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">era</a> of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geological history</a>, lasting from about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=251.902–66">252 to 66</a> million years ago</span>, comprising the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> <a href="/wiki/Period_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Period (geology)">Periods</a>. It is characterized by the dominance of archosaurian reptiles such as the dinosaurs, and of <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">cycads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ginkgoaceae" title="Ginkgoaceae">ginkgoaceae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Araucariaceae" title="Araucariaceae">araucarian</a> conifers; a hot <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_and_icehouse_earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse and icehouse earth">greenhouse</a> climate; and the <a href="/wiki/Tectonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic">tectonic</a> break-up of <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>. The Mesozoic is the middle of the three eras since <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">complex life evolved</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>, the Mesozoic, and the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>. </p><p>The era began in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a>, the largest <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinction</a> in Earth's history, and ended with the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>, another mass extinction whose victims included the <a href="/wiki/Non-avian_dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-avian dinosaurs">non-avian dinosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pterosaur" title="Pterosaur">pterosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mosasaur" title="Mosasaur">mosasaurs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plesiosaur" title="Plesiosaur">plesiosaurs</a>. The Mesozoic was a time of significant tectonic, climatic, and evolutionary activity. The supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Pangaea#Rifting_and_break-up" title="Pangaea">Pangaea began to break apart</a> into separate landmasses. The climate of the Mesozoic was varied, alternating between warming and cooling periods. Overall, however, the Earth was hotter than it is today. </p><p>Dinosaurs first appeared in the Mid-Triassic, and became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates in the Late Triassic or Early Jurassic, occupying this position for about 150 or 135 million years until their demise at the end of the Cretaceous. <a href="/wiki/Avialae" title="Avialae">Archaic birds</a> appeared in the Jurassic, having <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">evolved</a> from a branch of <a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">theropod</a> dinosaurs, then <a href="/wiki/Aves" class="mw-redirect" title="Aves">true toothless birds</a> appeared in the Cretaceous. The first <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> also appeared during the Mesozoic, but would remain small—less than 15 kg (33 lb)—until the Cenozoic. <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">Flowering plants</a> appeared in the Early Cretaceous and would rapidly diversify through the end of the era, replacing <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a> and other gymnosperms (<i><a href="/wiki/Sensu_lato" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu lato">sensu lato</a></i>), such as <a href="/wiki/Ginkgoales" title="Ginkgoales">ginkgoales</a>, cycads and <a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">bennettitales</a> as the dominant group of plants. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naming">Naming</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Naming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phrase "Age of Reptiles" was introduced by the 19th century <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Gideon_Mantell" title="Gideon Mantell">Gideon Mantell</a> who viewed it as dominated by <a href="/wiki/Diapsid" title="Diapsid">diapsids</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Iguanodon" title="Iguanodon">Iguanodon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Megalosaurus" title="Megalosaurus">Megalosaurus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Plesiosaurus" title="Plesiosaurus">Plesiosaurus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Pterodactylus" title="Pterodactylus">Pterodactylus</a></i>. </p><p>The current name was proposed in 1840 by the British geologist <a href="/wiki/John_Phillips_(geologist)" title="John Phillips (geologist)">John Phillips</a> (1800–1874). "Mesozoic" literally means 'middle life', deriving from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> prefix <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">meso-</i></span> (<span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%BF-#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:μεσο-">μεσο-</a></span> 'between') and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">zōon</i></span> (<span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B6%E1%BF%B7%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ζῷον">ζῷον</a></span> 'animal, living being').<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OnlineEtDict-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this way, the Mesozoic is comparable to the Cenozoic (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">new life</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) and Paleozoic ('old life') eras as well as the <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> ('earlier life') Eon. </p><p>The Mesozoic Era was originally described as the "secondary" era, following the "primary" (<a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>), and preceding the <a href="/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tang_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tang-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geologic_periods">Geologic periods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geologic periods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic extended roughly 186 million years, from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=251.902–66">251.902 to 66</a> million years ago</span> when the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> Era began. This time frame is separated into three geologic <a href="/wiki/Period_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Period (geology)">periods</a>. From oldest to youngest: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic Period</a> (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=251.902–201.4">251.902 to 201.4</a> million years ago</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic Period</a> (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=201.4–143.1">201.4 to 143.1</a> million years ago</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous Period</a> (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=143.1–66">143.1 to 66</a> million years ago</span>)</li></ul> <p>The lower boundary of the Mesozoic is set by the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a>, during which it has been estimated that up to 90-96% of marine species became <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although those approximations have been brought into question with some paleontologists estimating the actual numbers as low as 81%.<sup id="cite_ref-stanley_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanley-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also known as the "Great Dying" because it is considered the largest mass extinction in the Earth's history. The upper boundary of the Mesozoic is set at the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> (or K–Pg extinction event<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), which may have been caused by an asteroid impactor that created <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicxulub Crater">Chicxulub Crater</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a>. Towards the Late Cretaceous, large volcanic eruptions are also believed to have contributed to the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.<sup id="cite_ref-PetersenEtAl2016_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetersenEtAl2016-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 50% of all genera became extinct, including all of the non-<a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">avian</a> dinosaurs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Triassic">Triassic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Triassic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Triassic ranges roughly from 252 million to 201 million years ago, preceding the Jurassic Period. The period is bracketed between the Permian–Triassic extinction event and the <a href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Triassic–Jurassic extinction event</a>, two of the "<a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">big five</a>", and it is divided into three major epochs: Early, Middle, and Late Triassic.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The Early Triassic, about 252 to 247 million years ago, was dominated by deserts in the interior of the Pangaea supercontinent. The Earth had just witnessed a massive die-off in which 95% of all life became extinct, and the most common vertebrate life on land were <i><a href="/wiki/Lystrosaurus" title="Lystrosaurus">Lystrosaurus</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Labyrinthodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Labyrinthodont">labyrinthodonts</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Euparkeria" title="Euparkeria">Euparkeria</a></i> along with many other creatures that managed to survive the Permian extinction. <a href="/wiki/Temnospondyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Temnospondyl">Temnospondyls</a> reached peak diversity during the early Triassic.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sellosaurus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sellosaurus.jpg/250px-Sellosaurus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sellosaurus.jpg/330px-Sellosaurus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sellosaurus.jpg/500px-Sellosaurus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Plateosaurus" title="Plateosaurus">Plateosaurus</a></i> (a <a href="/wiki/Prosauropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosauropod">prosauropod</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Middle Triassic, from 247 to 237 million years ago, featured the beginnings of the breakup of Pangaea and the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Ocean</a>. Ecosystems had recovered from the Permian extinction. Algae, sponge, corals, and crustaceans all had recovered, and new aquatic reptiles evolved, such as <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaur">ichthyosaurs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nothosaur" title="Nothosaur">nothosaurs</a>. On land, pine forests flourished, as did groups of insects such as mosquitoes and fruit flies. Reptiles began to get bigger and bigger, and the first crocodilians and dinosaurs evolved, which sparked competition with the large amphibians that had previously ruled the freshwater world, respectively mammal-like reptiles on land.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Triassic_250.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Triassic_250.png/330px-Triassic_250.png" decoding="async" width="293" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Triassic_250.png/500px-Triassic_250.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Triassic_250.png/960px-Triassic_250.png 2x" data-file-width="1542" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Approximate map of Earth in the Early Triassic Period.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the bloom of the Middle Triassic, the Late Triassic, from 237 to 201 million years ago, featured frequent heat spells and moderate precipitation (10–20 inches per year). The recent warming led to a boom of dinosaurian evolution on land as the continents began to separate from each other (Nyasasaurus from 243 to 210 million years ago, approximately 235–30 ma, some of them separated into Sauropodomorphs, Theropods and Herrerasaurids), as well as the first <a href="/wiki/Pterosaur" title="Pterosaur">pterosaurs</a>. During the Late Triassic, some advanced <a href="/wiki/Cynodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynodont">cynodonts</a> gave rise to the first <a href="/wiki/Mammaliaformes" title="Mammaliaformes">Mammaliaformes</a>. All this climatic change, however, resulted in a large die-out known as the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, in which many <a href="/wiki/Archosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Archosaurs">archosaurs</a> (excluding pterosaurs, dinosaurs and <a href="/wiki/Crocodylomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodylomorph">crocodylomorphs</a>), most <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsids</a>, and almost all large amphibians became extinct, as well as 34% of marine life, in the Earth's fourth mass extinction event. The cause is debatable;<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt_eruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood basalt eruption">flood basalt eruptions</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Central_Atlantic_magmatic_province" title="Central Atlantic magmatic province">Central Atlantic magmatic province</a> is cited as one possible cause.<sup id="cite_ref-AnthropogenicScaleDegassing_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AnthropogenicScaleDegassing-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PlatinumGroupElementsCAMP_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PlatinumGroupElementsCAMP-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jurassic">Jurassic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Jurassic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sericipterus_NT.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Sericipterus_NT.jpg/250px-Sericipterus_NT.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Sericipterus_NT.jpg/330px-Sericipterus_NT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Sericipterus_NT.jpg/500px-Sericipterus_NT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Sericipterus" title="Sericipterus">Sericipterus</a></i></figcaption></figure><p>The Jurassic ranges from 200 million years to 145 million years ago and features three major epochs: The Early Jurassic, the Middle Jurassic, and the Late Jurassic.<sup id="cite_ref-Carol_Marie_Tang_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carol_Marie_Tang-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Early Jurassic spans from 200 to 175 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Carol_Marie_Tang_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carol_Marie_Tang-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The climate was tropical and much more humid than the Triassic, as a result of the large seas appearing between the land masses. In the oceans, <a href="/wiki/Plesiosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiosaurs">plesiosaurs</a>, ichthyosaurs and <a href="/wiki/Ammonites" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonites">ammonites</a> were abundant. On land, dinosaurs and other archosaurs staked their claim as the dominant race, with <a href="/wiki/Theropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropods">theropods</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Dilophosaurus" title="Dilophosaurus">Dilophosaurus</a></i> at the top of the food chain. The first true crocodiles evolved, pushing the large amphibians to near extinction. All-in-all, archosaurs rose to rule the world. Meanwhile, the first true mammals evolved, remaining relatively small, but spreading widely; the Jurassic <i><a href="/wiki/Castorocauda" title="Castorocauda">Castorocauda</a></i>, for example, had adaptations for swimming, digging and catching fish. <i><a href="/wiki/Fruitafossor" title="Fruitafossor">Fruitafossor</a></i>, from the late Jurassic Period about 150 million years ago, was about the size of a chipmunk, and its teeth, forelimbs and back suggest that it dug open the nests of social insects (probably <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a>, as ants had not yet appeared) ; <i><a href="/wiki/Volaticotherium" title="Volaticotherium">Volaticotherium</a></i> was able to glide for short distances, such as modern <a href="/wiki/Flying_squirrel" title="Flying squirrel">flying squirrels</a>. The first <a href="/wiki/Multituberculates" class="mw-redirect" title="Multituberculates">multituberculates</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Rugosodon" title="Rugosodon">Rugosodon</a></i> evolved.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><br /> </p><p> The Middle Jurassic spans from 175 to 163 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Carol_Marie_Tang_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carol_Marie_Tang-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this epoch, dinosaurs flourished as huge herds of sauropods, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Brachiosaurus" title="Brachiosaurus">Brachiosaurus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Diplodocus" title="Diplodocus">Diplodocus</a></i>, filled the fern prairies, chased by many new predators such as <i><a href="/wiki/Allosaurus" title="Allosaurus">Allosaurus</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">Conifer</a> forests made up a large portion of the forests. In the oceans, plesiosaurs were quite common, and ichthyosaurs flourished. This epoch was the peak of the reptiles.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (March 2022)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This reference citation appears to be to a self-published source. (March 2022)">self-published source</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stegosaurus_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg/250px-Stegosaurus_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg/330px-Stegosaurus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg/500px-Stegosaurus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Stegosaurus" title="Stegosaurus">Stegosaurus</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The Late Jurassic spans from 163 to 145 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Carol_Marie_Tang_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carol_Marie_Tang-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this epoch, the first <a href="/wiki/Avialan" class="mw-redirect" title="Avialan">avialans</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i>, evolved from small <a href="/wiki/Coelurosaurian" class="mw-redirect" title="Coelurosaurian">coelurosaurian</a> dinosaurs. The increase in sea levels opened up the Atlantic seaway, which has grown continually larger until today. The further separation of the continents gave opportunity for the diversification of new dinosaurs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cretaceous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The Cretaceous is the longest period of the Mesozoic, but has only two epochs: Early and Late Cretaceous.<sup id="cite_ref-Carl_Fred_Koch_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carl_Fred_Koch-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Knight_Tylosaurus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Knight_Tylosaurus.jpg/220px-Knight_Tylosaurus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Knight_Tylosaurus.jpg/330px-Knight_Tylosaurus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Knight_Tylosaurus.jpg/440px-Knight_Tylosaurus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="813" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Tylosaurus" title="Tylosaurus">Tylosaurus</a></i> (a <a href="/wiki/Mosasaur" title="Mosasaur">mosasaur</a>) hunting <i><a href="/wiki/Xiphactinus" title="Xiphactinus">Xiphactinus</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The Early Cretaceous spans from 145 to 100 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Carl_Fred_Koch_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carl_Fred_Koch-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Early Cretaceous saw the expansion of seaways and a decline in diversity of sauropods, stegosaurs, and other high-browsing groups, with sauropods particularly scarce in North America.<sup id="cite_ref-ButlerEtal2009_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ButlerEtal2009-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">Some island-hopping dinosaurs, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Eustreptospondylus" title="Eustreptospondylus">Eustreptospondylus</a></i>, evolved to cope with the coastal shallows and small islands of ancient Europe. Other dinosaurs rose up to fill the empty space that the Jurassic-Cretaceous extinction left behind, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Carcharodontosaurus" title="Carcharodontosaurus">Carcharodontosaurus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Spinosaurus" title="Spinosaurus">Spinosaurus</a></i>.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Seasons came back into effect and the poles got seasonally colder, but some dinosaurs still inhabited the polar forests year round, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Leaellynasaura" title="Leaellynasaura">Leaellynasaura</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Muttaburrasaurus" title="Muttaburrasaurus">Muttaburrasaurus</a></i>. The poles were too cold for crocodiles, and became the last stronghold for large amphibians such as <i><a href="/wiki/Koolasuchus" title="Koolasuchus">Koolasuchus</a></i>. Pterosaurs got larger as genera such as <i><a href="/wiki/Tapejara_(pterosaur)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapejara (pterosaur)">Tapejara</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ornithocheirus" title="Ornithocheirus">Ornithocheirus</a></i> evolved. Mammals continued to expand their range: <a href="/wiki/Eutriconodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutriconodont">eutriconodonts</a> produced fairly large, <a href="/wiki/Wolverine" title="Wolverine">wolverine</a>-like predators such as <i><a href="/wiki/Repenomamus" title="Repenomamus">Repenomamus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Gobiconodon" title="Gobiconodon">Gobiconodon</a></i>, early <a href="/wiki/Theria" title="Theria">therians</a> began to expand into <a href="/wiki/Metatheria" title="Metatheria">metatherians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eutheria" title="Eutheria">eutherians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cimolodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Cimolodont">cimolodont</a> <a href="/wiki/Multituberculate" class="mw-redirect" title="Multituberculate">multituberculates</a> went on to become common in the fossil record. </p><p>The Late Cretaceous spans from 100 to 66 million years ago. The Late Cretaceous featured a cooling trend that would continue in the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> Era. Eventually, tropics were restricted to the equator and areas beyond the tropic lines experienced extreme seasonal changes in weather. Dinosaurs still thrived, as new taxa such as <i><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ankylosaurus" title="Ankylosaurus">Ankylosaurus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Triceratops" title="Triceratops">Triceratops</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Hadrosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadrosaurs">hadrosaurs</a> dominated the food web. In the oceans, <a href="/wiki/Mosasaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosasaurs">mosasaurs</a> ruled, filling the role of the ichthyosaurs, which, after declining, had disappeared in the <a href="/wiki/Cenomanian-Turonian_boundary_event" title="Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event">Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event</a>. Though <a href="/wiki/Pliosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Pliosaur">pliosaurs</a> had gone extinct in the same event, long-necked plesiosaurs such as <i><a href="/wiki/Elasmosaurus" title="Elasmosaurus">Elasmosaurus</a></i> continued to thrive. Flowering plants, possibly appearing as far back as the Triassic, became truly dominant for the first time. Pterosaurs in the Late Cretaceous declined for poorly understood reasons, though this might be due to tendencies of the fossil record, as their diversity seems to be much higher than previously thought. Birds became increasingly common and diversified into a variety of <a href="/wiki/Enantiornithes" title="Enantiornithes">enantiornithe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ornithurae" title="Ornithurae">ornithurine</a> forms. Though mostly small, marine <a href="/wiki/Hesperornithes" title="Hesperornithes">hesperornithes</a> became relatively large and flightless, adapted to life in the open sea. Metatherians and primitive eutherian also became common and even produced large and specialised genera such as <i><a href="/wiki/Didelphodon" title="Didelphodon">Didelphodon</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Schowalteria" title="Schowalteria">Schowalteria</a></i>. Still, the dominant mammals were multituberculates, <a href="/wiki/Cimolodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Cimolodont">cimolodonts</a> in the north and <a href="/wiki/Gondwanathere" class="mw-redirect" title="Gondwanathere">gondwanatheres</a> in the south. At the end of the Cretaceous, the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_traps" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccan traps">Deccan traps</a> and other volcanic eruptions were poisoning the atmosphere. As this continued, it is thought that a large meteor smashed into earth 66 million years ago, creating the Chicxulub Crater in an event known as the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">K-Pg Extinction</a> (formerly K-T), the fifth and most recent mass extinction event, in which 75% of life became extinct, including all non-avian dinosaurs.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paleogeography_and_tectonics">Paleogeography and tectonics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Paleogeography and tectonics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Compared to the vigorous convergent plate <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">mountain-building</a> of the late Paleozoic, Mesozoic tectonic deformation was comparatively mild. The sole major Mesozoic orogeny occurred in what is now the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> creating the <a href="/wiki/Innuitian_orogeny" title="Innuitian orogeny">Innuitian orogeny</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Brooks_Range" title="Brooks Range">Brooks Range</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Verkhoyansk_Range" title="Verkhoyansk Range">Verkhoyansk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cherskiy_Range" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherskiy Range">Cherskiy Ranges</a> in Siberia, and the <a href="/wiki/Khingan_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Khingan Mountains">Khingan Mountains</a> in Manchuria. </p><p>This orogeny was related to the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suture_(geology)" title="Suture (geology)">suturing</a> of the <a href="/wiki/North_China_craton" class="mw-redirect" title="North China craton">North China</a> and Siberian cratons to Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the era featured the dramatic <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">rifting</a> of the supercontinent Pangaea, which gradually split into a northern continent, <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a>, and a southern continent, <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a>. This created the <a href="/wiki/Passive_continental_margin" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive continental margin">passive continental margin</a> that characterizes most of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> coastline (such as along the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">U.S. East Coast</a>) today.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the era, the continents had rifted into nearly their present forms, though not their present positions. <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> became <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> split into <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and the <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">Indian subcontinent</a>, which collided with the <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asian</a> plate during the Cenozoic, giving rise to the <a href="/wiki/Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Himalaya">Himalayas</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate">Climate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Triassic was generally dry, a trend that began in the late <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a>, and highly seasonal, especially in the interior of Pangaea. Low sea levels may have also exacerbated temperature extremes. With its high <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity" title="Specific heat capacity">specific heat capacity</a>, water acts as a temperature-stabilizing heat reservoir, and land areas near large bodies of water—especially oceans—experience less variation in temperature. Because much of Pangaea's land was distant from its shores, temperatures fluctuated greatly, and the interior probably included expansive <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a>. Abundant <a href="/wiki/Red_beds" title="Red beds">red beds</a> and evaporites such as <a href="/wiki/Halite" title="Halite">halite</a> support these conclusions, but some evidence suggests the generally dry climate of the Triassic was punctuated by episodes of increased rainfall.<sup id="cite_ref-Pretoetal2010_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pretoetal2010-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important humid episodes were the <a href="/wiki/Carnian_Pluvial_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnian Pluvial Event">Carnian Pluvial Event</a> and one in the <a href="/wiki/Rhaetian" title="Rhaetian">Rhaetian</a>, a few million years before the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. </p><p>Sea levels began to rise during the Jurassic, probably caused by an increase in <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a>. The formation of new crust beneath the surface displaced ocean waters by as much as 200 m (656 ft) above today's sea level, flooding coastal areas. Furthermore, Pangaea began to rift into smaller divisions, creating new shoreline around the Tethys Ocean. Temperatures continued to increase, then began to stabilize. <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a> also increased with the proximity of water, and deserts retreated.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The climate of the Cretaceous is less certain and more widely disputed. Probably, higher levels of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> are thought to have almost eliminated the north–south <a href="/wiki/Temperature_gradient" title="Temperature gradient">temperature gradient</a>: temperatures were about the same across the planet, and about 10°<a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">C</a> higher than today. The circulation of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> to the deep ocean may also have been disrupted, preventing the <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a> of large volumes of organic matter, which was eventually <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(sediment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition (sediment)">deposited</a> as "<a href="/wiki/Black_shale" class="mw-redirect" title="Black shale">black shale</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Different studies have come to different conclusions about the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere during different parts of the Mesozoic, with some concluding oxygen levels were lower than the current level (about 21%) throughout the Mesozoic,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some concluding they were lower in the Triassic and part of the Jurassic but higher in the Cretaceous,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some concluding they were higher throughout most or all of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flora">Flora</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Flora"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ProspectPemulwuypine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/ProspectPemulwuypine.jpg/330px-ProspectPemulwuypine.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/ProspectPemulwuypine.jpg/500px-ProspectPemulwuypine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/ProspectPemulwuypine.jpg/960px-ProspectPemulwuypine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3071" data-file-height="1151" /></a><figcaption>Conifers were the dominant terrestrial plants for most of the Mesozoic, with <a href="/wiki/Grasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Grasses">grasses</a> becoming widespread in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a>. <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plants</a> appeared late in the era but did not become widespread until the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The dominant land plant species of the time were <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a>, which are vascular, cone-bearing, non-flowering plants such as conifers that produce seeds without a coating. This contrasts with the earth's current flora, in which the dominant land plants in terms of number of species are <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a>. The earliest members of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i> first appeared during the Middle Jurassic. This genus is represented today by a single species, <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo_biloba" title="Ginkgo biloba">Ginkgo biloba</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Balducci_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balducci-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern conifer groups began to radiate during the Jurassic.<sup id="cite_ref-Leslie-2018_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leslie-2018-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a>, an extinct group of gymnosperms with foliage superficially resembling that of <a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">cycads</a> gained a global distribution during the Late Triassic, and represented one of the most common groups of Mesozoic seed plants.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plants</a> radiated during the early Cretaceous, first in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a>, but the even temperature gradient allowed them to spread toward the poles throughout the period. By the end of the Cretaceous, angiosperms dominated tree floras in many areas, although some evidence suggests that <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> was still dominated by cycads and <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> until after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction. Some plant species had distributions that were markedly different from succeeding periods; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Schizeales" class="mw-redirect" title="Schizeales">Schizeales</a>, a fern order, were skewed to the Northern Hemisphere in the Mesozoic, but are now better represented in the Southern Hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fauna">Fauna</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Fauna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg/220px-Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg/330px-Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg/440px-Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a> were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates throughout much of the Mesozoic.</figcaption></figure> <p>The extinction of nearly all animal species at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> Period allowed for the <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">radiation</a> of many new lifeforms. In particular, the extinction of the large <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivorous</a> <a href="/wiki/Pareiasaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Pareiasaur">pareiasaurs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">carnivorous</a> <a href="/wiki/Gorgonopsia" title="Gorgonopsia">gorgonopsians</a> left those <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niches</a> empty. Some were filled by the surviving <a href="/wiki/Cynodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynodont">cynodonts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dicynodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicynodont">dicynodonts</a>, the latter of which subsequently became extinct. </p><p>Recent research indicates that it took much longer for the reestablishment of complex ecosystems with high biodiversity, complex food webs, and specialized animals in a variety of niches, beginning in the mid-Triassic 4 million to 6 million years after the extinction,<sup id="cite_ref-LehrmannRamezanBowring2006TimingOfRecovery_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LehrmannRamezanBowring2006TimingOfRecovery-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and not fully proliferated until 30 million years after the extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Triassic, terrestrial herbivores avoided competition through significant niche partitioning by generally occupying highly distinct guilds.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animal life was then dominated by various archosaurs: <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>, pterosaurs, and aquatic reptiles such as ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and <a href="/wiki/Mosasaur" title="Mosasaur">mosasaurs</a>. </p><p>The climatic changes of the late Jurassic and Cretaceous favored further adaptive radiation. The Jurassic was the height of archosaur diversity, and the first <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eutheria" title="Eutheria">eutherian</a> mammals also appeared. Some have argued that <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> diversified in <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a> with angiosperms, because insect <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, especially the mouth parts, seems particularly well-suited for flowering plants. However, all major insect mouth parts preceded angiosperms, and insect diversification actually slowed when they arrived, so their anatomy originally must have been suited for some other purpose.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Molecular clock data for at least some genera are consistent with insect/angiosperm co-evolution. While also potentially plausible, this counter-claim should be supported with a citation. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microbiota">Microbiota</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Microbiota"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the dawn of the Mesozoic, ocean plankton communities transitioned from ones dominated by green <a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">archaeplastidans</a> to ones dominated by endosymbiotic algae with red-algal-derived plastids. This transition is speculated to have been caused by an increasing paucity of many trace metals in the Mesozoic ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic Eon</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJones2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Jones, Daniel</a> (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), <i>English Pronouncing Dictionary</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-12-539683-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-12-539683-8"><bdi>978-3-12-539683-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Pronouncing+Dictionary&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-12-539683-8&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Mesozoic">"Mesozoic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary.com" title="Dictionary.com">Dictionary.com Unabridged</a></i> (Online). n.d.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mesozoic&rft.btitle=Dictionary.com+Unabridged&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2FMesozoic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are several ways of pronouncing <i>Mesozoic</i>, including <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>-,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>-,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>-,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>-/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">MEZ</span>-ə-<span style="font-size:90%">ZOH</span>-ik, <span style="font-size:90%">MEZ</span>-oh-, <span style="font-size:90%">MESS</span>-, <span style="font-size:90%">MEE</span>-z-, <span style="font-size:90%">MEE</span>-s-</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1840" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, John (1840). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hn4zr7;view=1up;seq=163">"Palæozoic series"</a>. <i>Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge</i>. Vol. 17. London: Charles Knight and Co. pp. <span class="nowrap">153–</span>54.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pal%C3%A6ozoic+series&rft.btitle=Penny+Cyclopaedia+of+the+Society+for+the+Diffusion+of+Useful+Knowledge&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.pub=Charles+Knight+and+Co.&rft.date=1840&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dhvd.hn4zr7%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span> "As many systems or combinations of organic forms as are clearly traceable in the stratified crust of the globe, so many corresponding terms (as Palæozoic, Mesozoic, Kainozoic, &c.) may be made, … "</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilmarth1925" class="citation book cs1">Wilmarth, Mary Grace (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=my7x_PBkpm4C&pg=PA9"><i>Bulletin 769: The Geologic Time Classification of the United States Geological Survey Compared With Other Classifications, accompanied by the original definitions of era, period and epoch terms</i></a>. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bulletin+769%3A+The+Geologic+Time+Classification+of+the+United+States+Geological+Survey+Compared+With+Other+Classifications%2C+accompanied+by+the+original+definitions+of+era%2C+period+and+epoch+terms&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Wilmarth&rft.aufirst=Mary+Grace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmy7x_PBkpm4C%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-OnlineEtDict-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=Mesozoic">"Mesozoic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Mesozoic&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3DMesozoic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tang-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tang_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTang" class="citation web cs1">Tang, Carol Marie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Mesozoic-Era">"Mesozoic Era"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Encyclopædia Britannica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Mesozoic+Era&rft.aulast=Tang&rft.aufirst=Carol+Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2FMesozoic-Era&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBenton_M_J2005" class="citation book cs1">Benton M J (2005). "Chapter 8: Life's Biggest Challenge". <i>When life nearly died: the greatest mass extinction of all time</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28573-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28573-2"><bdi>978-0-500-28573-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%3A+Life%27s+Biggest+Challenge&rft.btitle=When+life+nearly+died%3A+the+greatest+mass+extinction+of+all+time&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-500-28573-2&rft.au=Benton+M+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2012)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stanley-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stanley_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStanley2016" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_M._Stanley" title="Steven M. Stanley">Stanley, Steven M.</a> (3 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5081622">"Estimates of the magnitudes of major marine mass extinctions in earth history"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</a></i>. <b>113</b> (42). National Academy of Sciences: <span class="nowrap">E6325 –</span> <span class="nowrap">E6334</span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PNAS..113E6325S">2016PNAS..113E6325S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1613094113">10.1073/pnas.1613094113</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1091-6490">1091-6490</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5081622">5081622</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27698119">27698119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Estimates+of+the+magnitudes+of+major+marine+mass+extinctions+in+earth+history&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=42&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3EE6325+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3EE6334%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2016-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5081622%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016PNAS..113E6325S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27698119&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1613094113&rft.issn=1091-6490&rft.aulast=Stanley&rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5081622&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGradsteinOggSmith2005" class="citation book cs1">Gradstein F, Ogg J, Smith A (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/geologic-time-scale-2004/ACED6139A9320FC9CA982E316FFF3E38"><i>A Geologic Time Scale 2004</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511536045" title="Special:BookSources/9780511536045"><bdi>9780511536045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Geologic+Time+Scale+2004&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780511536045&rft.aulast=Gradstein&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Ogg%2C+J&rft.au=Smith%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fgeologic-time-scale-2004%2FACED6139A9320FC9CA982E316FFF3E38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PetersenEtAl2016-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PetersenEtAl2016_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPetersenDuttonLohmann2016" class="citation journal cs1">Petersen, Sierra V.; Dutton, Andrea; Lohmann, Kyger C. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304836395_ARTICLE_End-Cretaceous_extinction_in_Antarctica_linked_to_both_Deccan_volcanism_and_meteorite_impact_via_climate_change">"End-Cretaceous extinction in Antarctica linked to both Deccan volcanism and meteorite impact via climate change"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a></i>. <b>7</b>: 12079. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatCo...712079P">2016NatCo...712079P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms12079">10.1038/ncomms12079</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4935969">4935969</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27377632">27377632</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=End-Cretaceous+extinction+in+Antarctica+linked+to+both+Deccan+volcanism+and+meteorite+impact+via+climate+change&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=12079&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4935969%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27377632&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fncomms12079&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatCo...712079P&rft.aulast=Petersen&rft.aufirst=Sierra+V.&rft.au=Dutton%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Lohmann%2C+Kyger+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F304836395_ARTICLE_End-Cretaceous_extinction_in_Antarctica_linked_to_both_Deccan_volcanism_and_meteorite_impact_via_climate_change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Logan2024" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Alan Logan (31 January 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/604667/Triassic-Period/225842/Economic-significance-of-Triassic-deposits">"Triassic Period"</a>. <i>britannica.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Triassic+Period&rft.btitle=britannica.com&rft.date=2024-01-31&rft.au=Alan+Logan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F604667%2FTriassic-Period%2F225842%2FEconomic-significance-of-Triassic-deposits&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRutaBenton2008" class="citation journal cs1">Ruta, Marcello; Benton, Michael J. (November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4983.2008.00808.x">"Calibrated Diversity, Tree Topology and the Mother of Mass Extinctions: The Lesson of Temnospondyls"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Palaeontology_(journal)" title="Palaeontology (journal)">Palaeontology</a></i>. <b>51</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1261–</span>1288. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4983.2008.00808.x">10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00808.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85411546">85411546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeontology&rft.atitle=Calibrated+Diversity%2C+Tree+Topology+and+the+Mother+of+Mass+Extinctions%3A+The+Lesson+of+Temnospondyls&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1261-%3C%2Fspan%3E1288&rft.date=2008-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-4983.2008.00808.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85411546%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ruta&rft.aufirst=Marcello&rft.au=Benton%2C+Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1475-4983.2008.00808.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRubidge" class="citation web cs1">Rubidge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://palaeos.com/mesozoic/triassic/midtrias.html">"Middle Triassic"</a>. <i>palaeos.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=palaeos.com&rft.atitle=Middle+Triassic&rft.au=Rubidge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpalaeos.com%2Fmesozoic%2Ftriassic%2Fmidtrias.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRampinoHaggerty1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_R._Rampino" title="Michael R. Rampino">Rampino, Michael R.</a> & Haggerty, Bruce M. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kAup0TOL09gC&pg=PA19">"Impact Crises and Mass Extinctions: A Working Hypothesis"</a>. In Ryder, Graham; Fastovsky, David & Gartner, Stefan (eds.). <i>The Cretaceous-Tertiary event and other catastrophes in earth history</i>. Geological Society of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813723075" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813723075"><bdi>978-0813723075</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Impact+Crises+and+Mass+Extinctions%3A+A+Working+Hypothesis&rft.btitle=The+Cretaceous-Tertiary+event+and+other+catastrophes+in+earth+history&rft.pub=Geological+Society+of+America&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0813723075&rft.aulast=Rampino&rft.aufirst=Michael+R.&rft.au=Haggerty%2C+Bruce+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkAup0TOL09gC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEnchanted_Learning" class="citation web cs1">Enchanted Learning. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/mesozoic/triassic/lt.shtml">"Late Triassic life"</a>. <i>Enchanted Learning</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Enchanted+Learning&rft.atitle=Late+Triassic+life&rft.au=Enchanted+Learning&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enchantedlearning.com%2Fsubjects%2Fdinosaurs%2Fmesozoic%2Ftriassic%2Flt.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AnthropogenicScaleDegassing-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AnthropogenicScaleDegassing_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCaprioloMillsNewtonCorso2022" class="citation journal cs1">Capriolo, Manfredo; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; Newton, Robert J.; Corso, Jacobo Dal; Dunhill, Alexander M.; Wignall, Paul B.; Marzoli, Andrea (February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921818121003167">"Anthropogenic-scale CO2 degassing from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province as a driver of the end-Triassic mass extinction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Global_and_Planetary_Change" title="Global and Planetary Change">Global and Planetary Change</a></i>. <b>209</b>: 103731. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022GPC...20903731C">2022GPC...20903731C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gloplacha.2021.103731">10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103731</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10852%2F91551">10852/91551</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245530815">245530815</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+and+Planetary+Change&rft.atitle=Anthropogenic-scale+CO2+degassing+from+the+Central+Atlantic+Magmatic+Province+as+a+driver+of+the+end-Triassic+mass+extinction&rft.volume=209&rft.pages=103731&rft.date=2022-02&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10852%2F91551&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245530815%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.gloplacha.2021.103731&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022GPC...20903731C&rft.aulast=Capriolo&rft.aufirst=Manfredo&rft.au=Mills%2C+Benjamin+J.+W.&rft.au=Newton%2C+Robert+J.&rft.au=Corso%2C+Jacobo+Dal&rft.au=Dunhill%2C+Alexander+M.&rft.au=Wignall%2C+Paul+B.&rft.au=Marzoli%2C+Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0921818121003167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCaprioloMarzoliAradiCallegaro2020" class="citation journal cs1">Capriolo, Manfredo; Marzoli, Andrea; Aradi, László E.; Callegaro, Sara; Corso, Jacopo Dal; Newton, Robert J.; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; Wignall, Paul B.; Bartoli, Omar; Baker, Don R.; Youbi, Nasrrddine; Remusat, Laurent; Spiess, Richard; Szabó, Csaba (7 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7138847">"Deep CO2 in the end-Triassic Central Atlantic Magmatic Province"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a></i>. <b>11</b> (1): 1670. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatCo..11.1670C">2020NatCo..11.1670C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-15325-6">10.1038/s41467-020-15325-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7138847">7138847</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32265448">32265448</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:215404768">215404768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Deep+CO2+in+the+end-Triassic+Central+Atlantic+Magmatic+Province&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1670&rft.date=2020-04-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7138847%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A215404768%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatCo..11.1670C&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32265448&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-15325-6&rft.aulast=Capriolo&rft.aufirst=Manfredo&rft.au=Marzoli%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Aradi%2C+L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3+E.&rft.au=Callegaro%2C+Sara&rft.au=Corso%2C+Jacopo+Dal&rft.au=Newton%2C+Robert+J.&rft.au=Mills%2C+Benjamin+J.+W.&rft.au=Wignall%2C+Paul+B.&rft.au=Bartoli%2C+Omar&rft.au=Baker%2C+Don+R.&rft.au=Youbi%2C+Nasrrddine&rft.au=Remusat%2C+Laurent&rft.au=Spiess%2C+Richard&rft.au=Szab%C3%B3%2C+Csaba&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7138847&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PlatinumGroupElementsCAMP-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PlatinumGroupElementsCAMP_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTegnerMarzoliMcDonaldYoubi2020" class="citation journal cs1">Tegner, Christian; Marzoli, Andrea; McDonald, Iain; Youbi, Nasrrddine; Lindström, Sofie (26 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-60483-8">"Platinum-group elements link the end-Triassic mass extinction and the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Reports" title="Scientific Reports">Scientific Reports</a></i>. <b>10</b> (1): 3482. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-020-60483-8">10.1038/s41598-020-60483-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7044291">7044291</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32103087">32103087</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Platinum-group+elements+link+the+end-Triassic+mass+extinction+and+the+Central+Atlantic+Magmatic+Province&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3482&rft.date=2020-02-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7044291%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32103087&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-020-60483-8&rft.aulast=Tegner&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft.au=Marzoli%2C+Andrea&rft.au=McDonald%2C+Iain&rft.au=Youbi%2C+Nasrrddine&rft.au=Lindstr%C3%B6m%2C+Sofie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41598-020-60483-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carol_Marie_Tang-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carol_Marie_Tang_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carol_Marie_Tang_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carol_Marie_Tang_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carol_Marie_Tang_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCarol_Marie_Tang2024" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Carol Marie Tang (7 February 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/308541/Jurassic-Period/257903/Major-subdivisions-of-the-Jurassic-System">"Jurassic Era"</a>. <i>britannica.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jurassic+Era&rft.btitle=britannica.com&rft.date=2024-02-07&rft.au=Carol+Marie+Tang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F308541%2FJurassic-Period%2F257903%2FMajor-subdivisions-of-the-Jurassic-System&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEnchanted_Learning" class="citation web cs1">Enchanted Learning. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/mesozoic/jurassic/mj.shtml">"Middle Jurassic"</a>. <i>Enchanted Learning</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Enchanted+Learning&rft.atitle=Middle+Jurassic&rft.au=Enchanted+Learning&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enchantedlearning.com%2Fsubjects%2Fdinosaurs%2Fmesozoic%2Fjurassic%2Fmj.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carl_Fred_Koch-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carl_Fred_Koch_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carl_Fred_Koch_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCarl_Fred_Koch" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Carl Fred Koch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/142729/Cretaceous-Period/257709/Major-subdivisions-of-the-Cretaceous-System">"Cretaceous"</a>. <i>britannica.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cretaceous&rft.btitle=britannica.com&rft.au=Carl+Fred+Koch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F142729%2FCretaceous-Period%2F257709%2FMajor-subdivisions-of-the-Cretaceous-System&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ButlerEtal2009-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ButlerEtal2009_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFButlerBarrettKenrickPenn2009" class="citation journal cs1">Butler, R. J.; Barrett, P. M.; Kenrick, P.; Penn, M. G. (March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1420-9101.2008.01680.x">"Diversity patterns amongst herbivorous dinosaurs and plants during the Cretaceous: implications for hypotheses of dinosaur/angiosperm co-evolution"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Evolutionary_Biology" title="Journal of Evolutionary Biology">Journal of Evolutionary Biology</a></i>. <b>22</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">446–</span>459. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1420-9101.2008.01680.x">10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01680.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19210589">19210589</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26000791">26000791</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.atitle=Diversity+patterns+amongst+herbivorous+dinosaurs+and+plants+during+the+Cretaceous%3A+implications+for+hypotheses+of+dinosaur%2Fangiosperm+co-evolution&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E446-%3C%2Fspan%3E459&rft.date=2009-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26000791%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19210589&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1420-9101.2008.01680.x&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft.au=Barrett%2C+P.+M.&rft.au=Kenrick%2C+P.&rft.au=Penn%2C+M.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1420-9101.2008.01680.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBecker2002" class="citation journal cs1">Becker, Luann (2002). "Repeated Blows". <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. <b>286</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">76–</span>83. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002SciAm.286c..76B">2002SciAm.286c..76B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0302-76">10.1038/scientificamerican0302-76</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11857903">11857903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Repeated+Blows&rft.volume=286&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E76-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11857903&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0302-76&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002SciAm.286c..76B&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Luann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mesozoic/cretaceous/cretaceous.php">"Cretaceous"</a>. <i>University of California</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+California&rft.atitle=Cretaceous&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fmesozoic%2Fcretaceous%2Fcretaceous.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFElizabeth_Howell2015" class="citation web cs1">Elizabeth Howell (3 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.universetoday.com/36697/the-asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">"K-T Extinction event"</a>. <i>Universe Today</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Universe+Today&rft.atitle=K-T+Extinction+event&rft.date=2015-02-03&rft.au=Elizabeth+Howell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.universetoday.com%2F36697%2Fthe-asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHughes1975" class="citation journal cs1">Hughes, T. (August 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0031018275900152">"The case for creation of the North Pacific Ocean during the Mesozoic Era"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography,_Palaeoclimatology,_Palaeoecology" title="Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology">Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</a></i>. <b>18</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>43. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975PPP....18....1H">1975PPP....18....1H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0031-0182%2875%2990015-2">10.1016/0031-0182(75)90015-2</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeogeography%2C+Palaeoclimatology%2C+Palaeoecology&rft.atitle=The+case+for+creation+of+the+North+Pacific+Ocean+during+the+Mesozoic+Era&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=1975-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0031-0182%2875%2990015-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975PPP....18....1H&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2F0031018275900152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanley, Steven M. <i>Earth System History</i>. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-2882-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-2882-6">0-7167-2882-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pretoetal2010-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pretoetal2010_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPretoKustatscherWignall2010" class="citation journal cs1">Preto, Nereo; Kustatscher, Evelyn; Wignall, Paul B. (15 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018210001434">"Triassic climates – State of the art and perspectives"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography,_Palaeoclimatology,_Palaeoecology" title="Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology">Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</a></i>. <b>290</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PPP...290....1P">2010PPP...290....1P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.palaeo.2010.03.015">10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.03.015</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeogeography%2C+Palaeoclimatology%2C+Palaeoecology&rft.atitle=Triassic+climates+%E2%80%93+State+of+the+art+and+perspectives&rft.volume=290&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.date=2010-04-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.palaeo.2010.03.015&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PPP...290....1P&rft.aulast=Preto&rft.aufirst=Nereo&rft.au=Kustatscher%2C+Evelyn&rft.au=Wignall%2C+Paul+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0031018210001434&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGurungFieldBattermanPoulton2024" class="citation journal cs1">Gurung, Khushboo; Field, Katie J.; Batterman, Sarah A.; Poulton, Simon W.; Mills, Benjamin J. W. (28 February 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46105-1">"Geographic range of plants drives long-term climate change"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a></i>. <b>15</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-024-46105-1">10.1038/s41467-024-46105-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10901853">10901853</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38418475">38418475</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Geographic+range+of+plants+drives+long-term+climate+change&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2024-02-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10901853%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2041-1723&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38418475&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-024-46105-1&rft.aulast=Gurung&rft.aufirst=Khushboo&rft.au=Field%2C+Katie+J.&rft.au=Batterman%2C+Sarah+A.&rft.au=Poulton%2C+Simon+W.&rft.au=Mills%2C+Benjamin+J.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41467-024-46105-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeckieBralowerCashman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Leckie, R. Mark; Bralower, Timothy J.; Cashman, Richard (September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2001PA000623">"Oceanic anoxic events and plankton evolution: Biotic response to tectonic forcing during the mid-Cretaceous: OCEANIC ANOXIC EVENTS AND PLANKTON EVOLUTION"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Paleoceanography_and_Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology">Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology</a></i>. <b>17</b> (3): 13–1–13–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2001PA000623">10.1029/2001PA000623</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleoceanography+and+Paleoclimatology&rft.atitle=Oceanic+anoxic+events+and+plankton+evolution%3A+Biotic+response+to+tectonic+forcing+during+the+mid-Cretaceous%3A+OCEANIC+ANOXIC+EVENTS+AND+PLANKTON+EVOLUTION&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=13-1-13-29&rft.date=2002-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2001PA000623&rft.aulast=Leckie&rft.aufirst=R.+Mark&rft.au=Bralower%2C+Timothy+J.&rft.au=Cashman%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2001PA000623&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTurgeonCreaser2008" class="citation journal cs1">Turgeon, Steven C.; Creaser, Robert A. (17 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51407958_Cretaceous_Anoxic_Event_2_triggered_by_a_massive_magmatic_episode">"Cretaceous oceanic anoxic event 2 triggered by a massive magmatic episode"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>454</b> (7202): <span class="nowrap">323–</span>326. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.454..323T">2008Natur.454..323T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07076">10.1038/nature07076</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18633415">18633415</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4315155">4315155</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Cretaceous+oceanic+anoxic+event+2+triggered+by+a+massive+magmatic+episode&rft.volume=454&rft.issue=7202&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E323-%3C%2Fspan%3E326&rft.date=2008-07-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature07076&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4315155%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18633415&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.454..323T&rft.aulast=Turgeon&rft.aufirst=Steven+C.&rft.au=Creaser%2C+Robert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F51407958_Cretaceous_Anoxic_Event_2_triggered_by_a_massive_magmatic_episode&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Berner" title="Robert Berner">Robert Berner</a>, John M. VandenBrooks and Peter D. Ward, 2007, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1140273"><i>Oxygen and Evolution</i></a>. <i>Science 27 April 2007</i>, Vol. 316 no. 5824 pp. 557–58 . A graph showing the reconstruction from this paper can be found <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oocities.org/marie.mitchell@rogers.com/climate_files/Phanerozoic_Oxygen.gif">here</a>, from the webpage <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oocities.org/marie.mitchell@rogers.com/PaleoClimate.html">Paleoclimate – The History of Climate Change</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Berner" title="Robert Berner">Berner R. A.</a> 2006 <i>GEOCARBSULF: a combined model for Phanerozoic atmospheric O2 and CO2</i>. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70, 5653–64. See the dotted line in Fig. 1 of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/03/04/rspb.2010.0001.full"><i>Atmospheric oxygen level and the evolution of insect body size</i></a> by Jon F. Harrison, Alexander Kaiser and John M. VandenBrooks</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Berner" title="Robert Berner">Berner</a>, Robert A., 2009, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ajsonline.org/content/309/7/603.abstract"><i>Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen: New results using the GEOCARBSULF model</i></a>. <i>Am. J. Sci.</i> 309 no. 7, 603–06. A graph showing the reconstructed levels in this paper can be found on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GdRnFn7I38kC&pg=PA31">p. 31</a> of the book <i>Living Dinosaurs</i> by <a href="/wiki/Gareth_J._Dyke" title="Gareth J. Dyke">Gareth Dyke</a> and Gary Kaiser.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Berner" title="Robert Berner">Berner R. A.</a>, Canfield D. E. 1989 <i>A new model for atmospheric oxygen over phanerozoic time</i>. <i>Am. J. Sci.</i> 289, 333–61. See the solid line in Fig. 1 of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/03/04/rspb.2010.0001.full"><i>Atmospheric oxygen level and the evolution of insect body size</i></a> by Jon F. Harrison, Alexander Kaiser and John M. VandenBrooks</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Berner" title="Robert Berner">Berner, R</a>, et al., 2003, <i>Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen</i>, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., V, 31, p. 105–34. See the graph near the bottom of the webpage <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://essayweb.net/geology/timeline/phanerozoic.shtml">Phanerozoic Eon</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130427055918/http://essayweb.net/geology/timeline/phanerozoic.shtml">Archived</a> 27 April 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glasspool, I.J., Scott, A.C., 2010, <i>Phanerozoic concentrations of atmospheric oxygen reconstructed from sedimentary charcoal</i>, <a href="/wiki/Nature_Geoscience" title="Nature Geoscience">Nature Geoscience</a>, 3, 627–30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bergman N. M., Lenton T. M., Watson A. J. 2004 COPSE: a new model of biogeochemical cycling over Phanaerozoic time. <i>Am. J. Sci.</i> 304, 397–437. See the dashed line in Fig. 1 of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/03/04/rspb.2010.0001.full"><i>Atmospheric oxygen level and the evolution of insect body size</i></a> by Jon F. Harrison, Alexander Kaiser and John M. VandenBrooks</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Balducci-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Balducci_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBalducci2000" class="citation web cs1">Balducci, Stan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130123140455/http://www.fossilnews.com/2000/mezplants/mezplants.html">"Mesozoic Plants"</a>. fossilnews.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fossilnews.com/2000/mezplants/mezplants.html">the original</a> on 23 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mesozoic+Plants&rft.pub=fossilnews.com&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Balducci&rft.aufirst=Stan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fossilnews.com%2F2000%2Fmezplants%2Fmezplants.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leslie-2018-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leslie-2018_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeslieBeaulieuHolmanCampbell2018" class="citation journal cs1">Leslie, Andrew B.; Beaulieu, Jeremy; Holman, Garth; Campbell, Christopher S.; Mei, Wenbin; Raubeson, Linda R.; Mathews, Sarah (September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/ajb2.1143">"An overview of extant conifer evolution from the perspective of the fossil record"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>105</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">1531–</span>1544. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajb2.1143">10.1002/ajb2.1143</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30157290">30157290</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52120430">52120430</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=An+overview+of+extant+conifer+evolution+from+the+perspective+of+the+fossil+record&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1531-%3C%2Fspan%3E1544&rft.date=2018-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52120430%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30157290&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajb2.1143&rft.aulast=Leslie&rft.aufirst=Andrew+B.&rft.au=Beaulieu%2C+Jeremy&rft.au=Holman%2C+Garth&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Christopher+S.&rft.au=Mei%2C+Wenbin&rft.au=Raubeson%2C+Linda+R.&rft.au=Mathews%2C+Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1002%2Fajb2.1143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlomenkemperBäumerBackerAbu_Hamad2021" class="citation journal cs1">Blomenkemper, Patrick; Bäumer, Robert; Backer, Malte; Abu Hamad, Abdalla; Wang, Jun; Kerp, Hans; Bomfleur, Benjamin (26 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffeart.2021.652699">"Bennettitalean Leaves From the Permian of Equatorial Pangea—The Early Radiation of an Iconic Mesozoic Gymnosperm Group"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Frontiers_in_Earth_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontiers in Earth Science">Frontiers in Earth Science</a></i>. <b>9</b>: 652699. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021FrEaS...9..162B">2021FrEaS...9..162B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffeart.2021.652699">10.3389/feart.2021.652699</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2296-6463">2296-6463</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Earth+Science&rft.atitle=Bennettitalean+Leaves+From+the+Permian+of+Equatorial+Pangea%E2%80%94The+Early+Radiation+of+an+Iconic+Mesozoic+Gymnosperm+Group&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=652699&rft.date=2021-03-26&rft.issn=2296-6463&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffeart.2021.652699&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021FrEaS...9..162B&rft.aulast=Blomenkemper&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.au=B%C3%A4umer%2C+Robert&rft.au=Backer%2C+Malte&rft.au=Abu+Hamad%2C+Abdalla&rft.au=Wang%2C+Jun&rft.au=Kerp%2C+Hans&rft.au=Bomfleur%2C+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3389%252Ffeart.2021.652699&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C.Michael Hogan. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eoearth.org/article/Fern"><i>Fern</i>. Encyclopedia of Earth. National council for Science and the Environment</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111109071540/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Fern">Archived</a> 9 November 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Washington, DC</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LehrmannRamezanBowring2006TimingOfRecovery-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LehrmannRamezanBowring2006TimingOfRecovery_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLehrmannRamezanBowring2006" class="citation journal cs1">Lehrmann, D. J.; Ramezan, J.; Bowring, S.A.; et al. (December 2006). "Timing of recovery from the end-Permian extinction: Geochronologic and biostratigraphic constraints from south China". <i><a href="/wiki/Geology_(journal)" title="Geology (journal)">Geology</a></i>. <b>34</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">1053–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Geo....34.1053L">2006Geo....34.1053L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FG22827A.1">10.1130/G22827A.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Timing+of+recovery+from+the+end-Permian+extinction%3A+Geochronologic+and+biostratigraphic+constraints+from+south+China&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1053-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FG22827A.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Geo....34.1053L&rft.aulast=Lehrmann&rft.aufirst=D.+J.&rft.au=Ramezan%2C+J.&rft.au=Bowring%2C+S.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSahney,_S.Benton,_M._J.2008" class="citation journal cs1">Sahney, S. & Benton, M. J. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2596898">"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_B:_Biological_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a></i>. <b>275</b> (1636): <span class="nowrap">759–</span>65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2007.1370">10.1098/rspb.2007.1370</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2596898">2596898</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18198148">18198148</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Recovery+from+the+most+profound+mass+extinction+of+all+time&rft.volume=275&rft.issue=1636&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E759-%3C%2Fspan%3E65&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2596898%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18198148&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2007.1370&rft.au=Sahney%2C+S.&rft.au=Benton%2C+M.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2596898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSinghElslerStubbsBond2021" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Suresh A.; Elsler, Armin; Stubbs, Thomas L.; Bond, Russell; Rayfield, Emily J.; Benton, Michael James (14 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-23169-x">"Niche partitioning shaped herbivore macroevolution through the early Mesozoic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a></i>. <b>12</b> (1): 2796. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-021-23169-x">10.1038/s41467-021-23169-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Niche+partitioning+shaped+herbivore+macroevolution+through+the+early+Mesozoic&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2796&rft.date=2021-05-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-021-23169-x&rft.issn=2041-1723&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Suresh+A.&rft.au=Elsler%2C+Armin&rft.au=Stubbs%2C+Thomas+L.&rft.au=Bond%2C+Russell&rft.au=Rayfield%2C+Emily+J.&rft.au=Benton%2C+Michael+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41467-021-23169-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhangBendifZhouNevado2022" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Qiong; Bendif, El Mahdi; Zhou, Yu; Nevado, Bruno; Shafiee, Roxana; Rickaby, Rosalind E. M. (31 October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-01053-7">"Declining metal availability in the Mesozoic seawater reflected in phytoplankton succession"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Geoscience" title="Nature Geoscience">Nature Geoscience</a></i>. <b>15</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">932–</span>941. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41561-022-01053-7">10.1038/s41561-022-01053-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10451%2F55860">10451/55860</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Geoscience&rft.atitle=Declining+metal+availability+in+the+Mesozoic+seawater+reflected+in+phytoplankton+succession&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E932-%3C%2Fspan%3E941&rft.date=2022-10-31&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10451%2F55860&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41561-022-01053-7&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Qiong&rft.au=Bendif%2C+El+Mahdi&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Yu&rft.au=Nevado%2C+Bruno&rft.au=Shafiee%2C+Roxana&rft.au=Rickaby%2C+Rosalind+E.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41561-022-01053-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><i>British Mesozoic Fossils</i>, 1983, The Natural History Museum, London.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghkclass.com/ghkC.html?mesozoic">Mesozoic (chronostratigraphy scale)</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/120px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikisource has original works on the topic: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Mesozoic" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mesozoic" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geological_history_of_Earth1258" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Template:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Template talk:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geological_history_of_Earth1258" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic Era<br /><span class="nobold">(present–66.0 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary <span class="nobold">(present–2.58 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene (present–11.7 ka)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene <span class="nobold">(2.58–23.0 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene <span class="nobold">(23.0–66.0 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mesozoic Era<br /><span class="nobold">(66.0–252 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous <span class="nobold">(66.0–145 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late (66.0–100 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Early (100–145 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic <span class="nobold">(145–201 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Jurassic" title="Late Jurassic">Late (145–164 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Jurassic" title="Middle Jurassic">Middle (164–174 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Jurassic" title="Early Jurassic">Early (174–201 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic <span class="nobold">(201–252 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Triassic" title="Late Triassic">Late (201–237 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Triassic" title="Middle Triassic">Middle (237–247 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Triassic" title="Early Triassic">Early (247–252 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic Era<br /><span class="nobold">(252–539 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian <span class="nobold">(252–299 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lopingian" title="Lopingian">Lopingian (252–260 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalupian" title="Guadalupian">Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisuralian" title="Cisuralian">Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous <span class="nobold">(299–359 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_(geology)" title="Mississippian (geology)">Mississippian (323–359 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian <span class="nobold">(359–419 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">Late (359–383 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Devonian" title="Middle Devonian">Middle (383–393 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Devonian" title="Early Devonian">Early (393–419 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian <span class="nobold">(419–444 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pridoli_Epoch" title="Pridoli Epoch">Pridoli (419–423 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Epoch" title="Ludlow Epoch">Ludlow (423–427 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenlock_Epoch" title="Wenlock Epoch">Wenlock (427–433 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llandovery_Epoch" title="Llandovery Epoch">Llandovery (433–444 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician <span class="nobold">(444–485 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician" title="Late Ordovician">Late (444–458 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ordovician" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ordovician">Middle (458–470 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Ordovician" title="Early Ordovician">Early (470–485 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian <span class="nobold">(485–539 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furongian" title="Furongian">Furongian (485–497 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaolingian" title="Miaolingian">Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Series_2" title="Cambrian Series 2">Series 2 (509–521 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terreneuvian" title="Terreneuvian">Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic Eon<br /><span class="nobold">(539 Ma–2.5 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic <span class="nobold">(539 Ma–1 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonian" title="Tonian">Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Mesoproterozoic" title="Mesoproterozoic">Mesoproterozoic <span class="nobold">(1–1.6 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stenian" title="Stenian">Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectasian" title="Ectasian">Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calymmian" title="Calymmian">Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic <span class="nobold">(1.6–2.5 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statherian" title="Statherian">Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosirian" title="Orosirian">Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyacian" title="Rhyacian">Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siderian" title="Siderian">Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean Eon <span class="nobold">(2.5–4 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoarchean" title="Neoarchean">Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoarchean" title="Mesoarchean">Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoarchean" title="Paleoarchean">Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eoarchean" title="Eoarchean">Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean Eon <span class="nobold">(4–4.6 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">ka</a> = kiloannum (thousand years ago); <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a> = megaannum (million years ago); <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ga</a> = gigaannum (billion years ago).<br /> <i>See also:</i> <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a>  •  <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/20px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/40px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a>  •  <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/15px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/23px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/30px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83222#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1931" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83222#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1931" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83222#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4038793-8">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Paleontology--Mesozoic"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85097131">United States</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Geology, Stratigraphic--Mesozoic"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85054098">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Mésozoïque"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119469745">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Mésozoïque"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119469745">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573928">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="druhohory"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph117573&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007560659805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=66137">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&oldid=1284506617">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&oldid=1284506617</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geological_eras" title="Category:Geological eras">Geological eras</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mesozoic" title="Category:Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2012" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2012">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_April_2021" title="Category:Use dmy dates from April 2021">Use dmy dates from April 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas" title="Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas">Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_failed_verification" title="Category:All articles with failed verification">All articles with failed verification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_failed_verification_from_March_2022" title="Category:Articles with failed verification from March 2022">Articles with failed verification from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_accuracy_disputes" title="Category:All accuracy disputes">All accuracy disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Accuracy_disputes_from_March_2022" title="Category:Accuracy disputes from March 2022">Accuracy disputes from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 8 April 2025, at 01:01<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mesozoic&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://www.wikimedia.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesozoic</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>86 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-85bfcffb59-kxwnq","wgBackendResponseTime":159,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.997","walltime":"1.243","ppvisitednodes":{"value":24592,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":271316,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":18995,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":24,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":11,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":174985,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":500},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1100.461 1 -total"," 22.67% 249.453 1 Template:Reflist"," 17.54% 192.991 3 Template:Refn"," 16.26% 178.990 1 Template:Infobox_geologic_timespan"," 10.57% 116.338 19 Template:Cite_journal"," 10.41% 114.607 69 Template:Period_start"," 9.06% 99.706 5 Template:Navbox"," 9.01% 99.201 1 Template:Geological_history"," 8.43% 92.777 1 Template:Geological_range"," 7.99% 87.962 1 Template:Phanerozoic_220px"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.557","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19549846,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-59fd5dcf67-mv84c","timestamp":"20250408200504","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Mesozoic","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mesozoic","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q83222","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q83222","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-05-30T18:13:12Z","dateModified":"2025-04-08T01:01:56Z","headline":"second era of the Phanerozoic Eon"}</script> </body> </html>