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id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Green_methanol" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Green_methanol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Green methanol </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Green_methanol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Uses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Uses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Transport </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_system_balancing_and_storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_system_balancing_and_storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Energy system balancing and storage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_system_balancing_and_storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ammonia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ammonia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Ammonia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ammonia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Buildings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bio-SNG" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bio-SNG"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Bio-SNG </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bio-SNG-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Safety </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrogen_infrastructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrogen_infrastructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Hydrogen infrastructure </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hydrogen_infrastructure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Hydrogen infrastructure subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Hydrogen_infrastructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Storage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Power plants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Costs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Costs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_and_pilot_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_and_pilot_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Examples and pilot programs </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples_and_pilot_programs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Examples and pilot programs subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Examples_and_pilot_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 European Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.2 Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iceland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iceland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.3 Iceland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iceland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saudi_Arabia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saudi_Arabia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Saudi Arabia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saudi_Arabia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Turkey </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.7 United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.8 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vietnam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vietnam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.9 Vietnam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Hydrogen economy</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" > 39 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterstof_se_kleure" title="Waterstof se kleure – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Waterstof se kleure" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%86" title="اقتصاد الهيدروجين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اقتصاد الهيدروجين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrogen_enerjisi" title="Hidrogen enerjisi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hidrogen enerjisi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Вадародная энэргетыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вадародная энэргетыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Водородна енергетика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Водородна енергетика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_de_l%27hidrogen" title="Economia de l'hidrogen – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Economia de l'hidrogen" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%AF_%D9%84%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%86" title="قتيصاد د لهيدروجين – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="قتيصاد د لهيدروجين" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasserstoffwirtschaft" title="Wasserstoffwirtschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wasserstoffwirtschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesinikuenergeetika" title="Vesinikuenergeetika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vesinikuenergeetika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa_de_hidr%C3%B3geno" title="Economía de hidrógeno – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Economía de hidrógeno" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrogena_civilizacio" title="Hidrogena civilizacio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hidrogena civilizacio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%98%D9%86" title="اقتصاد هیدروژن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اقتصاد هیدروژن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89conomie_hydrog%C3%A8ne" title="Économie hydrogène – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Économie hydrogène" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EC%86%8C%EA%B2%BD%EC%A0%9C" title="수소경제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수소경제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A7%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Ջրածնային էներգետիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջրածնային էներգետիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE" title="हाइड्रोजन अर्थव्यवस्था – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हाइड्रोजन अर्थव्यवस्था" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodikova_ekonomija" title="Vodikova ekonomija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vodikova ekonomija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umnotho_wehwanzi" title="Umnotho wehwanzi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umnotho wehwanzi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_dell%27idrogeno" title="Economia dell'idrogeno – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Economia dell'idrogeno" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%96_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Сутекті энергетика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сутекті энергетика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenilio_ekonomika" title="Vandenilio ekonomika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vandenilio ekonomika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrog%C3%A9ngazdas%C3%A1g" title="Hidrogéngazdaság – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hidrogéngazdaság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomi_hidrogen" title="Ekonomi hidrogen – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ekonomi hidrogen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%80%D3%A9%D0%B3%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D1%85%D2%AF%D1%87" title="Устөрөгчийн эрчим хүч – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Устөрөгчийн эрчим хүч" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterstofeconomie" title="Waterstofeconomie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Waterstofeconomie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E7%B4%A0%E3%82%A8%E3%83%8D%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AE%E3%83%BC%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A" title="水素エネルギー社会 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="水素エネルギー社会" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_do_hidrog%C3%AAnio" title="Economia do hidrogênio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Economia do hidrogênio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Водородная энергетика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Водородная энергетика" 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fuel</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Using hydrogen to decarbonize more sectors</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IRENA_maturity_of_hydrogen_solutions_2022.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/IRENA_maturity_of_hydrogen_solutions_2022.svg/220px-IRENA_maturity_of_hydrogen_solutions_2022.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/IRENA_maturity_of_hydrogen_solutions_2022.svg/330px-IRENA_maturity_of_hydrogen_solutions_2022.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/IRENA_maturity_of_hydrogen_solutions_2022.svg/440px-IRENA_maturity_of_hydrogen_solutions_2022.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="489" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption>Hydrogen has the most potential to reduce <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> when used in chemical production, refineries, international shipping, and <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steelmaking</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> The hydrogen economy is an umbrella term for the roles <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> can play alongside <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_electricity" title="Low-carbon electricity">low-carbon electricity</a> to reduce emissions of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>. The aim is to reduce emissions where cheaper and more energy-efficient clean solutions are not available.<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> In this context, hydrogen economy encompasses the production of hydrogen and the use of hydrogen in ways that contribute to <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">phasing-out fossil fuels</a> and limiting <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. Hydrogen can be produced by several means. Most hydrogen produced today is gray hydrogen, made from <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> through <a href="/wiki/Steam_reforming" title="Steam reforming">steam methane reforming</a> (SMR). This process accounted for 1.8% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-3">[3]</a> Low-carbon hydrogen, which is made using SMR with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> (<a href="/wiki/Blue_hydrogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue hydrogen">blue hydrogen</a>), or through electrolysis of water using renewable power (<a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">green hydrogen</a>), accounted for less than 1% of production.<a href="#cite_note-:23-4">[4]</a> Virtually all of the 100 million tonnes<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> of hydrogen produced each year is used in oil refining (43% in 2021) and industry (57%), principally in the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> for fertilizers, and <a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-6">[6]</a>: 18, 22, 29  To <a href="/wiki/Limit_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Limit global warming">limit global warming</a>, it is generally envisaged that the future hydrogen economy replaces gray hydrogen with low-carbon hydrogen. As of 2024 it is unclear when enough low-carbon hydrogen could be produced to phase-out all the gray hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The future end-uses are likely in heavy industry (e.g. high-temperature processes alongside electricity, feedstock for production of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">green ammonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic chemicals">organic chemicals</a>, as alternative to coal-derived <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> for <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steelmaking</a>), long-haul transport (e.g. shipping, and to a lesser extent <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_aircraft" title="Hydrogen-powered aircraft">hydrogen-powered aircraft</a> and heavy goods vehicles), and long-term energy storage.<a href="#cite_note-:12-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-IRENA_2021_95-9">[9]</a> Other applications, such as light duty vehicles and heating in buildings, are no longer part of the future hydrogen economy, primarily for economic and environmental reasons.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-:62-11">[11]</a> Hydrogen is challenging to store, to transport in pipelines, and to use. It presents <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_safety" title="Hydrogen safety">safety</a> concerns since it is highly explosive, and it is inefficient compared to direct <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">use of electricity</a>. Since relatively small amounts of low-carbon hydrogen are available, climate benefits can be maximized by using it in harder-to-decarbonize applications.<a href="#cite_note-:62-11">[11]</a> As of 2023<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit">[update]</a> there are no real alternatives to hydrogen for several chemical processes in which it is currently used, such as <a href="/wiki/Ammonia_production" title="Ammonia production">ammonia production</a> for <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The cost of low- and zero-carbon hydrogen is likely to influence the degree to which it will be used in chemical feedstocks, long haul aviation and shipping, and long-term energy storage. Production costs of low- and zero-carbon hydrogen are evolving. Future costs may be influenced by <a href="/wiki/Carbon_taxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon taxes">carbon taxes</a>, the geography and geopolitics of energy, energy prices, technology choices, and their raw material requirements. It is likely that green hydrogen will see the greatest reductions in production cost over time.<a href="#cite_note-Goldman_Sachs_Research_4–6-13">[13]</a> The U.S. Department of Energy's Hydrogen Hotshot Initiative seeks to reduce the cost of green hydrogen drop to $1 a kilogram during the 2030s. <a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_Hotshot-14">[14]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_objectives">History and objectives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and objectives">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> The concept of a society that uses hydrogen as the primary means of energy storage was theorized by geneticist <a href="/wiki/J._B._S._Haldane" title="J. B. S. Haldane">J. B. S. Haldane</a> in 1923. Anticipating the exhaustion of Britain's coal reserves for power generation, Haldane proposed a network of wind turbines to produce hydrogen and oxygen for long-term energy storage through <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis_of_water" title="Electrolysis of water">electrolysis</a>, to help address renewable power's <a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">variable output</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The term "hydrogen economy" itself was coined by <a href="/wiki/John_Bockris" title="John Bockris">John Bockris</a> during a talk he gave in 1970 at <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> (GM) Technical Center.<a href="#cite_note-timeline-16">[16]</a> Bockris viewed it as an economy in which hydrogen, underpinned by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar</a> power, would help address growing concern about fossil fuel depletion and environmental pollution, by serving as <a href="/wiki/Energy_carrier" title="Energy carrier">energy carrier</a> for end-uses in which <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a> was not suitable.<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> A hydrogen economy was proposed by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a> to solve some of the negative effects of using <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> fuels where the carbon is released to the atmosphere (as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons, etc.). Modern interest in the hydrogen economy can generally be traced to a 1970 technical report by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_W._Jones" title="Lawrence W. Jones">Lawrence W. Jones</a> of the University of Michigan,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> in which he echoed Bockris' dual rationale of addressing energy security and environmental challenges. Unlike Haldane and Bockris, Jones only focused on nuclear power as the energy source for electrolysis, and principally on the use of hydrogen in transport, where he regarded aviation and heavy goods transport as the top priorities.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_evolution">Later evolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Later evolution">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IRENA_hydrogen_leadership_opportunities.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/IRENA_hydrogen_leadership_opportunities.png/220px-IRENA_hydrogen_leadership_opportunities.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/IRENA_hydrogen_leadership_opportunities.png/330px-IRENA_hydrogen_leadership_opportunities.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/IRENA_hydrogen_leadership_opportunities.png/440px-IRENA_hydrogen_leadership_opportunities.png 2x" data-file-width="3744" data-file-height="2924" /></a><figcaption>Technology leadership opportunities in green hydrogen value chains according to the <a href="/wiki/International_Renewable_Energy_Agency" title="International Renewable Energy Agency">International Renewable Energy Agency</a> in 2022<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>: 55 </figcaption></figure> A spike in attention for the hydrogen economy concept during the 2000s was repeatedly described as hype by some <a href="/wiki/The_Hype_about_Hydrogen" class="mw-redirect" title="The Hype about Hydrogen">critics</a> and proponents of alternative technologies,<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> and investors lost money in the <a href="/wiki/Economic_bubble" title="Economic bubble">bubble</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-24">[24]</a> Interest in the energy carrier resurged in the 2010s, notably with the forming of the <a href="/wiki/World_Hydrogen_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="World Hydrogen Council">World Hydrogen Council</a> in 2017. Several manufacturers released hydrogen fuel cell cars commercially, with manufacturers such as Toyota, Hyundai, and industry groups in China having planned to increase numbers of the cars into the hundreds of thousands over the next decade.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The global scope for hydrogen's role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations.<a href="#cite_note-role2-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Collins_l_collins2-28">[28]</a> By the end of 2022, 70,200 <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle" title="Hydrogen vehicle">hydrogen vehicles</a> had been sold worldwide,<a href="#cite_note-auto2-29">[29]</a> compared with 26 million <a href="/wiki/Plug-in_electric_vehicle" title="Plug-in electric vehicle">plug-in electric vehicles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Outlook2023-30">[30]</a> Early 2020s takes on the hydrogen economy share earlier perspectives' emphasis on the complementarity of electricity and hydrogen, and the use of electrolysis as the mainstay of hydrogen production.<a href="#cite_note-:12-8">[8]</a> They focus on the need to limit <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">global warming</a> to 1.5 °C and prioritize the production, transportation and use of <a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">green hydrogen</a> for heavy industry (e.g. high-temperature processes alongside electricity,<a href="#cite_note-Kjellberg-Motton-31">[31]</a> feedstock for production of <a href="/wiki/Green_ammonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Green ammonia">green ammonia</a> and organic chemicals,<a href="#cite_note-:12-8">[8]</a> as alternative to coal-derived coke for <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steelmaking</a>),<a href="#cite_note-auto-32">[32]</a> long-haul transport (e.g. shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles), and long-term energy storage.<a href="#cite_note-:12-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-IRENA_2021_95-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_hydrogen_market">Current hydrogen market</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Current hydrogen market">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">Hydrogen production</a> globally was valued at over US$155 billion in 2022 and is expected to grow over 9% annually through 2030.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In 2021, 94 million tonnes (Mt) of molecular hydrogen (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>H2) was produced.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Of this total, approximately one sixth was as a by-product of <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical_industry" title="Petrochemical industry">petrochemical industry</a> processes.<a href="#cite_note-:23-4">[4]</a> Most hydrogen comes from dedicated production facilities, over 99% of which is from fossil fuels, mainly via steam reforming of natural gas (70%) and coal gasification (30%, almost all of which in China).<a href="#cite_note-:23-4">[4]</a> Less than 1% of dedicated hydrogen production is low carbon: steam fossil fuel reforming with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">green hydrogen</a> produced using electrolysis, and hydrogen produced from <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(energy)" title="Biomass (energy)">biomass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:23-4">[4]</a> CO2 emissions from 2021 production, at 915 MtCO2,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> amounted to 2.5% of energy-related CO2 emissions<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> and 1.8% of global greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-3">[3]</a> Virtually all hydrogen produced for the current market is used in <a href="/wiki/Oil_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refining">oil refining</a> (40 Mt<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">H2 in 2021) and industry (54 MtH2).<a href="#cite_note-:02-6">[6]</a>: 18, 22  In oil refining, hydrogen is used, in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Hydrocracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocracking">hydrocracking</a>, to convert heavy petroleum sources into lighter fractions suitable for use as fuels. Industrial uses mainly comprise <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> production to make fertilizers (34 Mt<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">H2 in 2021), <a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a> production (15 Mt<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">H2) and the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">direct reduced iron</a> (5 Mt<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">H2).<a href="#cite_note-:02-6">[6]</a>: 29  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">Hydrogen production</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_production&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> gas is produced by several industrial methods.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_production_rosenow-2022-39">[39]</a>: 1  Most hydrogen is gray hydrogen made through <a href="/wiki/Steam_methane_reforming" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam methane reforming">steam methane reforming</a>. In this process, hydrogen is produced from a chemical reaction between steam and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, the main component of natural gas. Producing one tonne of hydrogen through this process emits 6.6–9.3 tonnes of carbon dioxide.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_production_:7-40">[40]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> is used to remove a large fraction of these emissions, the product is known as <a href="/wiki/Blue_hydrogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue hydrogen">blue hydrogen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_production_:25-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">Green hydrogen</a> is usually understood to be produced from <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable</a> electricity via <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> of water.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_production_:3-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_production_:2-43">[43]</a> Less frequently, definitions of green hydrogen include hydrogen produced from other low-emission sources such as <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(energy)" title="Biomass (energy)">biomass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_production_:32-44">[44]</a> Producing green hydrogen is currently more expensive than producing gray hydrogen, and the efficiency of energy conversion is inherently low.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_production_:18-45">[45]</a> Other methods of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">hydrogen production</a> include <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> <a href="/wiki/Gasification" title="Gasification">gasification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane_pyrolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Methane pyrolysis">methane pyrolysis</a>, and extraction of <a href="/wiki/Natural_hydrogen" title="Natural hydrogen">underground hydrogen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_production_foraging-47">[47]</a> As of 2023, less than 1% of dedicated hydrogen production is low-carbon, i.e. blue hydrogen, green hydrogen, and hydrogen produced from biomass.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_production_:23-48">[48]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Green_methanol">Green methanol</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Green methanol">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Methanol_economy" title="Methanol economy">Methanol economy</a></div> Green <a href="/wiki/Methanol_fuel" title="Methanol fuel">methanol</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Liquid_fuel" title="Liquid fuel">liquid fuel</a> that is produced from combining <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CO2 + 3 H2 → CH3OH + H2O) under pressure and heat with <a href="/wiki/Catalyst_support" title="Catalyst support">catalysts</a>. It is a way to reuse <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_recycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon capture and recycling">carbon capture for recycling</a>. Methanol can store hydrogen economically at <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">standard outdoor temperatures and pressures</a>, compared to <a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen" title="Liquid hydrogen">liquid hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> that need to use a lot of energy to stay cold in their <a href="/wiki/Liquid_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid state">liquid state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> In 2023 the <a href="/wiki/Laura_Maersk_(2023)" title="Laura Maersk (2023)">Laura Maersk</a> was the first container ship to run on methanol fuel.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol plants</a> in the midwest are a good place for pure carbon capture to combine with hydrogen to make green methanol, with abundant <a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_the_United_States" title="Wind power in the United States">wind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_States" title="Nuclear power in the United States">nuclear energy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_Iowa" title="Wind power in Iowa">Iowa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_Minnesota" title="Wind power in Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Illinois" title="List of power stations in Illinois">Illinois</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Mixing methanol with <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> could make methanol a safer fuel to use because methanol doesn't have a visible flame in the daylight and doesn't emit smoke, and ethanol has a visible light yellow flame.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">Green hydrogen</a> production of 70% efficiency and a 70% efficiency of methanol production from that would be a 49% <a href="/wiki/Energy_conversion_efficiency" title="Energy conversion efficiency">energy conversion efficiency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Uses">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Hydrogen_Ladder,_Version_5.0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/The_Hydrogen_Ladder%2C_Version_5.0.jpg/220px-The_Hydrogen_Ladder%2C_Version_5.0.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/The_Hydrogen_Ladder%2C_Version_5.0.jpg/330px-The_Hydrogen_Ladder%2C_Version_5.0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/The_Hydrogen_Ladder%2C_Version_5.0.jpg/440px-The_Hydrogen_Ladder%2C_Version_5.0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Some projected uses in the medium term, but analysts disagree<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photo_praxair_plant.hydrogen.infrastructure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Photo_praxair_plant.hydrogen.infrastructure.jpg/200px-Photo_praxair_plant.hydrogen.infrastructure.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Photo_praxair_plant.hydrogen.infrastructure.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="198" /></a><figcaption>Hydrogen fuel requires the development of a specific infrastructure for processing, transport and storage.</figcaption></figure> Hydrogen can be deployed as a fuel in two distinct ways: in <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel cells">fuel cells</a> which produce electricity, and via combustion to generate heat.<a href="#cite_note-:04-58">[58]</a> When hydrogen is consumed in fuel cells, the only emission at the point of use is water vapor.<a href="#cite_note-:04-58">[58]</a> Combustion of hydrogen can lead to the thermal formation of harmful <a href="/wiki/NOx" title="NOx">nitrogen oxides</a> emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:04-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industry">Industry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Industry">edit</a>]</div> In the context of <a href="/wiki/Limiting_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Limiting global warming">limiting global warming</a>, low-carbon hydrogen (particularly <a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">green hydrogen</a>) is likely to play an important role in decarbonizing industry.<a href="#cite_note-:122-59">[59]</a> Hydrogen fuel can produce the intense heat required for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals, thus contributing to the decarbonization of industry alongside other technologies, such as <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnaces</a> for steelmaking.<a href="#cite_note-Kjellberg-Motton-31">[31]</a> However, it is likely to play a larger role in providing industrial feedstock for cleaner production of ammonia and organic chemicals.<a href="#cite_note-:122-59">[59]</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steelmaking</a>, hydrogen could function as a clean energy carrier and also as a low-carbon catalyst replacing coal-derived <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto-32">[32]</a> The imperative to use low-carbon hydrogen to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has the potential to reshape the geography of industrial activities, as locations with appropriate hydrogen production potential in different regions will interact in new ways with logistics infrastructure, raw material availability, human and technological capital.<a href="#cite_note-:122-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Transport">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle" title="Hydrogen vehicle">Hydrogen vehicle</a></div> Much of the interest in the hydrogen economy concept is focused on <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle" title="Hydrogen vehicle">hydrogen vehicles</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen plane">planes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Hydrogen vehicles produce significantly less local air pollution than conventional vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> By 2050, the energy requirement for transportation might be between 20% and 30% fulfilled by hydrogen and <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fuel" title="Synthetic fuel">synthetic fuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Hydrogen used to decarbonize transportation is likely to find its largest applications in <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_ship" title="Hydrogen-powered ship">shipping</a>, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles, through the use of hydrogen-derived synthetic fuels such as <a href="/wiki/Green_ammonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Green ammonia">ammonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_methanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Green methanol">methanol</a>, and fuel cell technology.<a href="#cite_note-:12-8">[8]</a> Hydrogen has been used in <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell_bus" title="Fuel cell bus">fuel cell buses</a> for many years. It is also used as a fuel for <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">spacecraft propulsion</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a>'s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario (NZE), hydrogen is forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen's role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The NZE foresees hydrogen meeting approximately 30% of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_truck" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy truck">heavy truck</a> energy demand in 2050, mainly for long-distance heavy freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%).<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Although hydrogen can be used in adapted <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehicle" title="Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle">internal combustion engines</a>, fuel cells, being <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a>, have an efficiency advantage over heat engines. Fuel cells are more expensive to produce than common internal combustion engines but also require higher purity hydrogen fuel than internal combustion engines.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In the light road vehicle segment including passenger cars, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,<a href="#cite_note-auto2-29">[29]</a> compared with 26 million plug-in electric vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-Outlook2023-30">[30]</a> With the rapid rise of <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicles</a> and associated battery technology and infrastructure, hydrogen's role in cars is minuscule.<a href="#cite_note-role2-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Collins_l_collins2-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_system_balancing_and_storage">Energy system balancing and storage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Energy system balancing and storage">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">Green hydrogen</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis_of_water" title="Electrolysis of water">electrolysis of water</a>, has the potential to address the <a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">variability of renewable energy</a> output. Producing green hydrogen can both reduce the need for renewable power <a href="/wiki/Curtailment_(electricity)" title="Curtailment (electricity)">curtailment</a> during periods of high renewables output and be <a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">stored</a> long-term to provide for power generation during periods of low output.<a href="#cite_note-Schrotenboer-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lipták-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ammonia">Ammonia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ammonia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammonia_production" title="Ammonia production">ammonia production</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_fuel_cell" title="Alkaline fuel cell">alkaline fuel cell</a></div> An alternative to gaseous hydrogen as an energy carrier is to bond it with <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> from the air to produce ammonia, which can be easily liquefied, transported, and used (directly or indirectly) as a clean and <a href="/wiki/Ammonia_as_a_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonia as a fuel">renewable fuel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Among disadvantages of ammonia as an energy carrier are its high toxicity, energy efficiency of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">NH3 production from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">N2 and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">H2, and poisoning of <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">PEM Fuel Cells</a> by traces of non-decomposed <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">NH3 after <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">NH3 to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">N2 conversion. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buildings">Buildings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Buildings">edit</a>]</div> Numerous industry groups (gas networks, <a href="/wiki/Gas_boiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas boiler">gas boiler</a> manufacturers) across the natural gas supply chain are promoting hydrogen combustion boilers for space and water heating, and hydrogen appliances for cooking, to reduce energy-related CO2 emissions from residential and commercial buildings.<a href="#cite_note-:5-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-:62-11">[11]</a> The proposition is that current end-users of piped natural gas can await the conversion of and supply of hydrogen to existing <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas#Domestic_use" title="Natural gas">natural gas grids</a>, and then swap heating and cooking appliances, and that there is no need for consumers to do anything now.<a href="#cite_note-:5-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-:62-11">[11]</a> A review of 32 studies on the question of hydrogen for heating buildings, independent of commercial interests, found that the economics and climate benefits of hydrogen for heating and cooking generally compare very poorly with the deployment of <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> networks, electrification of heating (principally through <a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">heat pumps</a>) and cooking, the use of <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">solar thermal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> and the installation of <a href="/wiki/Energy_efficient_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy efficient building">energy efficiency</a> measures to reduce energy demand for heat.<a href="#cite_note-:62-11">[11]</a> Due to inefficiencies in hydrogen production, using blue hydrogen to replace natural gas for heating could require three times as much <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, while using green hydrogen would need two to three times as much electricity as heat pumps.<a href="#cite_note-:62-11">[11]</a> Hybrid heat pumps, which combine the use of an electric heat pump with a hydrogen boiler, may play a role in residential heating in areas where upgrading networks to meet peak electrical demand would otherwise be costly.<a href="#cite_note-:62-11">[11]</a> The widespread use of hydrogen for heating buildings would entail higher energy system costs, higher heating costs and higher environmental impacts than the alternatives, although a niche role may be appropriate in specific contexts and geographies.<a href="#cite_note-:62-11">[11]</a> If deployed, using hydrogen in buildings would drive up the cost of hydrogen for harder-to-decarbonize applications in industry and transport.<a href="#cite_note-:62-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bio-SNG">Bio-SNG</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bio-SNG">edit</a>]</div> As of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit">[update]</a> although technically possible <a href="/wiki/Syngas#Carbon_dioxide_and_hydrogen" title="Syngas">production of syngas from hydrogen and carbon-dioxide</a> from <a href="/wiki/Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage">bio-energy with carbon capture and storage</a> (BECCS) via the <a href="/wiki/Sabatier_reaction" title="Sabatier reaction">Sabatier reaction</a> is limited by the amount of sustainable bioenergy available:<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> therefore any <a href="/wiki/Bio-SNG" class="mw-redirect" title="Bio-SNG">bio-SNG</a> made may be reserved for production of <a href="/wiki/Aviation_biofuel" title="Aviation biofuel">aviation biofuel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety">Safety</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Safety">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_safety" title="Hydrogen safety">Hydrogen safety</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrogen_Flame_Broom_Test_NASA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hydrogen_Flame_Broom_Test_NASA.jpg/220px-Hydrogen_Flame_Broom_Test_NASA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hydrogen_Flame_Broom_Test_NASA.jpg/330px-Hydrogen_Flame_Broom_Test_NASA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hydrogen_Flame_Broom_Test_NASA.jpg/440px-Hydrogen_Flame_Broom_Test_NASA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="671" /></a><figcaption>A NASA engineer sweeps an area with a corn broom to find the location of a hydrogen fire. Hydrogen burns with a nearly-invisible flame.</figcaption></figure>Hydrogen poses a number of hazards to human safety, from potential <a href="/wiki/Detonation" title="Detonation">detonations</a> and fires when mixed with air to being an <a href="/wiki/Asphyxiant_gas" title="Asphyxiant gas">asphyxiant</a> in its pure, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>-free form.<a href="#cite_note-NASAH2-77">[77]</a> In addition, liquid hydrogen is a <a href="/wiki/Cryogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogen">cryogen</a> and presents dangers (such as <a href="/wiki/Frostbite" title="Frostbite">frostbite</a>) associated with very cold liquids.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Hydrogen dissolves in many metals and in addition to leaking out, may have adverse effects on them, such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_embrittlement" title="Hydrogen embrittlement">hydrogen embrittlement</a>,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> leading to cracks and explosions.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Hydrogen is flammable when mixed even in small amounts with ordinary air. Ignition can occur at a volumetric ratio of hydrogen to air as low as 4%.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Moreover, hydrogen fire, while being extremely hot, is almost invisible, and thus can lead to accidental burns.<a href="#cite_note-Cunn88-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrogen_infrastructure">Hydrogen infrastructure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hydrogen infrastructure">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_infrastructure" title="Hydrogen infrastructure">Hydrogen infrastructure</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_infrastructure&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrogen_pipelines.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Hydrogen_pipelines.jpg/220px-Hydrogen_pipelines.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Hydrogen_pipelines.jpg/330px-Hydrogen_pipelines.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Hydrogen_pipelines.jpg/440px-Hydrogen_pipelines.jpg 2x" data-file-width="646" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Hydrogen pipelines</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_infrastructure" title="Hydrogen infrastructure">hydrogen infrastructure</a> is the infrastructure of hydrogen pipeline transport, points of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">hydrogen production</a> and hydrogen stations for distribution as well as the sale of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen fuel">hydrogen fuel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> and thus a crucial prerequisite before a successful commercialization of <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cell</a> technology.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_infrastructure_h2infra-84">[84]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soteska_Ljubljana_Slovenia_-_factory.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Soteska_Ljubljana_Slovenia_-_factory.JPG/300px-Soteska_Ljubljana_Slovenia_-_factory.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Soteska_Ljubljana_Slovenia_-_factory.JPG/450px-Soteska_Ljubljana_Slovenia_-_factory.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Soteska_Ljubljana_Slovenia_-_factory.JPG/600px-Soteska_Ljubljana_Slovenia_-_factory.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2760" data-file-height="2013" /></a><figcaption>Hydrogen gasification plant for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Belinka_Perkemija&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Belinka Perkemija (page does not exist)">Belinka Perkemija</a> [<a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belinka" class="extiw" title="sl:Belinka">sl</a>], 2015</figcaption></figure> The hydrogen infrastructure would consist mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and hydrogen-equipped filling stations. Hydrogen stations which were not situated near a hydrogen pipeline would get supply via hydrogen tanks, <a href="/wiki/Compressed_hydrogen_tube_trailer" class="mw-redirect" title="Compressed hydrogen tube trailer">compressed hydrogen tube trailers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen_trailer" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid hydrogen trailer">liquid hydrogen trailers</a>, liquid hydrogen <a href="/wiki/Tank_trucks" class="mw-redirect" title="Tank trucks">tank trucks</a> or dedicated onsite production. Pipelines are the cheapest way to move hydrogen over long distances compared to other options. Hydrogen gas piping is routine in large oil-refineries, because hydrogen is used to <a href="/wiki/Hydrocracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocracking">hydrocrack</a> fuels from crude oil. The IEA recommends existing industrial ports be used for production and existing natural gas pipelines for transport: also international co-operation and shipping.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> South Korea and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_highway_(Japan)" title="Hydrogen highway (Japan)">Japan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> which as of 2019 lack international <a href="/wiki/Electrical_interconnector" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical interconnector">electrical interconnectors</a>, are investing in the hydrogen economy.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> In March 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Hydrogen_Energy_Research_Field" title="Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field">Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field</a> was opened in Japan, claiming to be the world's largest hydrogen production facility.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_infrastructure_ToshibaNamie2-88">[88]</a> Much of the site is occupied by a <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">solar array</a>; power from the grid is also used for <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis_of_water" title="Electrolysis of water">electrolysis of water</a> to produce hydrogen fuel.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Storage">Storage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Storage">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_storage" title="Hydrogen storage">Hydrogen storage</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_storage&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liquid_Hydrogen_Tank_at_NASA%27s_Kennedy_Space_Center.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Liquid_Hydrogen_Tank_at_NASA%27s_Kennedy_Space_Center.png/220px-Liquid_Hydrogen_Tank_at_NASA%27s_Kennedy_Space_Center.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Liquid_Hydrogen_Tank_at_NASA%27s_Kennedy_Space_Center.png/330px-Liquid_Hydrogen_Tank_at_NASA%27s_Kennedy_Space_Center.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Liquid_Hydrogen_Tank_at_NASA%27s_Kennedy_Space_Center.png/440px-Liquid_Hydrogen_Tank_at_NASA%27s_Kennedy_Space_Center.png 2x" data-file-width="1172" data-file-height="1016" /></a><figcaption>Liquid hydrogen Tank at <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a></figcaption></figure> Several methods exist for storing <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>. These include mechanical approaches such as using high pressures and low temperatures, or employing chemical compounds that release H2 upon demand. While large amounts of hydrogen are produced by various industries, it is mostly consumed at the site of production, notably for the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>. For many years hydrogen has been stored as compressed gas or <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">cryogenic</a> liquid, and transported as such in cylinders, tubes, and cryogenic tanks for use in industry or as propellant in space programs. The overarching challenge is the very low boiling point of H2: it boils around 20.268 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a> (−252.882 °C or −423.188 °F). Achieving such low temperatures requires expending significant energy. Although molecular hydrogen has very high energy density on a mass basis, partly because of its low <a href="/wiki/Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weight</a>, as a gas at ambient conditions it has very low energy density by volume. If it is to be used as fuel stored on board a vehicle, pure hydrogen gas must be stored in an energy-dense form to provide sufficient driving range. Because hydrogen is the smallest molecule, it easily escapes from containers. Considering leakages, transport and production costs, hydrogen could have a <a href="/wiki/Global_Warming_Potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Warming Potential">Global Warming Potential</a> over 100 years (GWP100) of 11.6.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_plants">Power plants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Power plants">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cell_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen fuel cell power station">Hydrogen fuel cell power station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_hydrogen" title="Natural hydrogen">Natural hydrogen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Midcontinent_Rift_System" title="Midcontinent Rift System">Midcontinent Rift System</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Prairie_Island_Nuclear_Power_Plant#Hydrogen_production" title="Prairie Island Nuclear Power Plant">Xcel Energy</a> is going to build two <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle_hydrogen_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle hydrogen power plant">combined cycle power plants</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a> that can mix 30% hydrogen with the natural gas.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intermountain_Power_Plant" title="Intermountain Power Plant">Intermountain Power Plant</a> is being retrofitted to a natural gas/hydrogen power plant that can run on 30% hydrogen as well, and is scheduled to run on pure hydrogen by 2045.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Costs">Costs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Costs">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: current prices need updating and white hydrogen adding. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> More widespread use of hydrogen in economies entails the need for investment and costs in its production, storage, distribution and use. Estimates of hydrogen's cost are therefore complex and need to make assumptions about the cost of energy inputs (typically gas and electricity), production plant and method (e.g. green or blue hydrogen), technologies used (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_electrolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline electrolysis">alkaline</a> or <a href="/wiki/Proton_exchange_membrane_electrolysis" title="Proton exchange membrane electrolysis">proton exchange membrane</a> electrolysers), storage and distribution methods, and how different cost elements might change over time.<a href="#cite_note-:4-93">[93]</a>: 49–65  These factors are incorporated into calculations of the levelized costs of hydrogen (LCOH). The following table shows a range of estimates of the levelized costs of gray, blue, and green hydrogen, expressed in terms of US$ per kg of H2 (where data provided in other currencies or units, the average exchange rate to US dollars in the given year are used, and 1 kg of H2 is assumed to have a calorific value of 33.3kWh). <table> <tbody><tr> <td>Production method </td> <td>Note </td> <td>Current cost (2020–2022) </td> <td>Projected 2030 cost </td> <td>Projected 2050 cost </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">Gray hydrogen (not including a carbon tax) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a><a href="#cite_note-:03-94">[94]</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">2022 costs estimated for June, when gas prices peaked in the wake of Russia's invasion of Ukraine </td> <td>2021: 1.0–2.5 </td> <td rowspan="2">– </td> <td rowspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <td>2022: 4.8–7.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/PwC" title="PwC">PWC</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-95">[95]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>2021: 1.2–2.4 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">Blue hydrogen </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">International Energy Agency<a href="#cite_note-:03-94">[94]</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">2022 costs estimated for June, when gas prices peaked in the wake of Russia's invasion of Ukraine </td> <td>2021: 1.5–3.0 </td> <td rowspan="2">– </td> <td rowspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <td>2022: 5.3–8.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Department_for_Energy_Security_and_Net_Zero" title="Department for Energy Security and Net Zero">UK government</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-96">[96]</a> </td> <td>Range dependent on gas price </td> <td>2020: 1.6–2.7 </td> <td>1.6–2.7 </td> <td>1.6–2.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>GEP<a href="#cite_note-:3-97">[97]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>2022: 2.8–3.5 </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Energy_Transitions_Commission" title="Energy Transitions Commission">Energy Transitions Commission</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-93">[93]</a>: 28  </td> <td> </td> <td>2020: 1.5–2.4 </td> <td>1.3–2.3 </td> <td>1.4–2.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">Green hydrogen </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">International Energy Agency<a href="#cite_note-:03-94">[94]</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">2030 and 2050 estimates are using solar power in regions with good solar conditions </td> <td>2021: 4.0–9.0 </td> <td rowspan="2"><1.5 </td> <td rowspan="2"><1.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2022: 3.0-4.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">UK government<a href="#cite_note-:22-96">[96]</a> </td> <td>Using grid electricity, UK specific; range dependent on electricity price, and electrolyser technology and cost </td> <td>2020: 4.9–7.9 </td> <td>4.4–6.6 </td> <td>4.0–6.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Using otherwise curtailed renewable electricity, UK specific; range dependent on electrolyser technology and cost </td> <td>2020: 2.4–7.9 </td> <td>1.7–5.6 </td> <td>1.5–4.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/International_Renewable_Energy_Agency" title="International Renewable Energy Agency">IRENA</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>2020: 2.2–5.2 </td> <td>1.4–4.1 </td> <td>1.1–3.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>GEP<a href="#cite_note-:3-97">[97]</a> </td> <td>Source notes green H2 production cost has fallen by 60% since 2010 </td> <td>2022: 3.0–6.0 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lazard" title="Lazard">Lazard</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>2022: 2.8–5.3 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>PWC<a href="#cite_note-:15-95">[95]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>2021: 3.5–9.5 </td> <td>1.8–4.8 </td> <td>1.2–2.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Energy Transitions Commission<a href="#cite_note-:4-93">[93]</a>: 28  </td> <td> </td> <td>2020: 2.6–3.6 </td> <td>1.0–1.7 </td> <td>0.7–1.2 </td></tr></tbody></table> The range of cost estimates for commercially available hydrogen production methods is broad, As of 2022, gray hydrogen is cheapest to produce without a tax on its CO2 emissions, followed by blue and green hydrogen. Blue hydrogen production costs are not anticipated to fall substantially by 2050,<a href="#cite_note-:22-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-93">[93]</a>: 28  can be expected to fluctuate with natural gas prices and could face <a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">carbon taxes</a> for uncaptured emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:4-93">[93]</a>: 79  The cost of <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysers</a> fell by 60% from 2010 to 2022,<a href="#cite_note-:3-97">[97]</a> before rising slightly due to an increasing <a href="/wiki/Cost_of_capital" title="Cost of capital">cost of capital</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-24">[24]</a> Their cost is projected to fall significantly to 2030 and 2050,<a href="#cite_note-:52-100">[100]</a>: 26  driving down the cost of green hydrogen alongside the falling cost of renewable power generation.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-93">[93]</a>: 28  It is cheapest to produce green hydrogen with surplus renewable power that would otherwise be <a href="/wiki/Curtailment_(electricity)" title="Curtailment (electricity)">curtailed</a>, which favors electrolyzers capable of responding to low and <a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">variable power levels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:52-100">[100]</a>: 5  A 2022 <a href="/wiki/Goldman_Sachs" title="Goldman Sachs">Goldman Sachs</a> analysis anticipates that globally green hydrogen will achieve cost parity with grey hydrogen by 2030, earlier if a global carbon tax is placed on gray hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-Goldman_Sachs_Research_4–6-13">[13]</a> In terms of cost per unit of energy, blue and gray hydrogen will always cost more than the fossil fuels used in its production, while green hydrogen will always cost more than the renewable electricity used to make it. Subsidies for clean hydrogen production are much higher in the US and EU than in India.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_and_pilot_programs">Examples and pilot programs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Examples and pilot programs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2019)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brno,_Autotec,_Mercedes_Citaro_na_palivov%C3%A9_%C4%8Dl%C3%A1nky_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Brno%2C_Autotec%2C_Mercedes_Citaro_na_palivov%C3%A9_%C4%8Dl%C3%A1nky_II.jpg/220px-Brno%2C_Autotec%2C_Mercedes_Citaro_na_palivov%C3%A9_%C4%8Dl%C3%A1nky_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Brno%2C_Autotec%2C_Mercedes_Citaro_na_palivov%C3%A9_%C4%8Dl%C3%A1nky_II.jpg/330px-Brno%2C_Autotec%2C_Mercedes_Citaro_na_palivov%C3%A9_%C4%8Dl%C3%A1nky_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Brno%2C_Autotec%2C_Mercedes_Citaro_na_palivov%C3%A9_%C4%8Dl%C3%A1nky_II.jpg/440px-Brno%2C_Autotec%2C_Mercedes_Citaro_na_palivov%C3%A9_%C4%8Dl%C3%A1nky_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_O530_Citaro" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercedes-Benz O530 Citaro">Mercedes-Benz O530 Citaro</a> powered by hydrogen fuel cells in <a href="/wiki/Brno" title="Brno">Brno</a>, Czech Republic</figcaption></figure> The distribution of hydrogen for the purpose of transportation is being tested around the world, particularly in the US (<a href="/wiki/California_Hydrogen_Highway" title="California Hydrogen Highway">California</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusetts_Fuel_Cell_Bus_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Massachusetts Fuel Cell Bus Project (page does not exist)">Massachusetts</a>), <a href="/wiki/BC_hydrogen_highway" title="BC hydrogen highway">Canada</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Japan_hydrogen_fuel_cell_project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Japan hydrogen fuel cell project (page does not exist)">Japan</a>, the EU (<a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hynor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hynor">Norway</a>, Denmark, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>. An indicator of the presence of large natural gas infrastructures already in place in countries and in use by citizens is the number of natural gas vehicles present in the country. The countries with the largest amount of natural gas vehicles are (in order of magnitude):<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. Natural gas vehicles can also be <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehicle#Adaptation_of_existing_engines" title="Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle">converted to run on hydrogen</a>. Also, in a few private homes, <a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power#Fuel_cells" title="Micro combined heat and power">fuel cell micro-CHP</a> plants can be found, which can operate on hydrogen, or other fuels as natural gas or LPG.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> Western <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>'s Department of Planning and Infrastructure operated three Daimler Chrysler Citaro fuel cell buses as part of its Sustainable Transport Energy for Perth Fuel Cells Bus Trial in Perth.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The buses were operated by Path Transit on regular Transperth public bus routes. The trial began in September 2004 and concluded in September 2007. The buses' fuel cells used a proton exchange membrane system and were supplied with raw hydrogen from a BP refinery in Kwinana, south of Perth. The hydrogen was a byproduct of the refinery's industrial process. The buses were refueled at a station in the northern Perth suburb of Malaga. In October 2021, <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a> Premier <a href="/wiki/Annastacia_Palaszczuk" title="Annastacia Palaszczuk">Annastacia Palaszczuk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Forrest" title="Andrew Forrest">Andrew Forrest</a> announced that Queensland will be home to the world's largest hydrogen plant.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In Australia, the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Renewable_Energy_Agency" title="Australian Renewable Energy Agency">Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA)</a> has invested $55 million in 28 hydrogen projects, from early stage research and development to early stage trials and deployments. The agency's stated goal is to produce hydrogen by electrolysis for $2 per kilogram, announced by Minister for Energy and Emissions Angus Taylor in a 2021 Low Emissions Technology Statement.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union">European Union</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: European Union">edit</a>]</div> Countries in the <a href="/wiki/EU" class="mw-redirect" title="EU">EU</a> which have a relatively large natural gas pipeline system already in place include <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_transport_&_distribution-109">[109]</a> In 2020, The EU launched its European Clean Hydrogen Alliance (ECHA).<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: France">edit</a>]</div> Green hydrogen has become more common in France. A €150 million Green Hydrogen Plan was established in 2019, and it calls for building the infrastructure necessary to create, store, and distribute hydrogen as well as using the fuel to power local transportation systems like buses and trains. Corridor H2, a similar initiative, will create a network of hydrogen distribution facilities in <a href="/wiki/Occitania" title="Occitania">Occitania</a> along the route between the Mediterranean and the North Sea. The Corridor H2 project will get a €40 million loan from the <a href="/wiki/European_Investment_Bank" title="European Investment Bank">EIB</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:77-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Germany">Germany</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Germany">edit</a>]</div> German car manufacturer <a href="/wiki/BMW" title="BMW">BMW</a> has been working with hydrogen for years.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">quantify</a>].<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> The German government has announced plans to hold tenders for 5.5 GW of new hydrogen-ready gas-fired power plants and 2 GW of "comprehensive H2-ready modernisations" of existing gas power stations at the end of 2024 or beginning of 2025<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iceland">Iceland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Iceland">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> has committed to becoming the world's first hydrogen economy by the year 2050.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Iceland is in a unique position. Presently,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] it imports all the petroleum products necessary to power its automobiles and <a href="/wiki/Fishing_fleet" title="Fishing fleet">fishing fleet</a>. Iceland has large geothermal resources, so much that the local price of electricity actually is lower than the price of the hydrocarbons that could be used to produce that electricity. Iceland already converts its surplus electricity into exportable goods and hydrocarbon replacements. In 2002, it produced 2,000 tons of hydrogen gas by electrolysis, primarily for the production of <a href="/wiki/Anhydrous_ammonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhydrous ammonia">ammonia</a> (NH3) for fertilizer. Ammonia is produced, transported, and used throughout the world, and 90% of the cost of ammonia is the cost of the energy to produce it. Neither industry directly replaces hydrocarbons. <a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk" title="Reykjavík">Reykjavík</a>, Iceland, had a small pilot fleet of city buses running on compressed hydrogen,<a href="#cite_note-detnews-117">[117]</a> and research on powering the nation's fishing fleet with hydrogen is under way (for example by companies as <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_New_Energy" title="Icelandic New Energy">Icelandic New Energy</a>). For more practical purposes, Iceland might process imported oil with hydrogen to extend it, rather than to replace it altogether. The Reykjavík buses are part of a larger program, HyFLEET:CUTE,<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> operating hydrogen fueled buses in eight European cities. HyFLEET:CUTE buses were also operated in Beijing, China and Perth, Australia (see below). A pilot project demonstrating a hydrogen economy is operational on the <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norwegian</a> island of <a href="/wiki/Utsira" title="Utsira">Utsira</a>. The installation combines wind power and hydrogen power. In periods when there is surplus wind energy, the excess power is used for generating hydrogen by <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a>. The hydrogen is stored, and is available for power generation in periods when there is little wind.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: India">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> is said to adopt hydrogen and H-CNG, due to several reasons, amongst which the fact that a national rollout of natural gas networks is already taking place and natural gas is already a major vehicle fuel. In addition, India suffers from extreme air pollution in urban areas.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> According to some estimates, nearly 80% of India's hydrogen is projected to be green, driven by cost declines and new production technologies.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Currently however, hydrogen energy is just at the Research, Development and Demonstration (RD&D) stage.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> As a result, the number of hydrogen stations may still be low,<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> although much more are expected to be introduced soon.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Poland">edit</a>]</div> It planning open first hydrogen publication stations, The Ministry of Climate and Environment (MKiŚ) will soon schan competitions for 2-3 hydrogen refueling stations, Polish Deputy Minister in this ministry Krzysztof Bolesta.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saudi_Arabia">Saudi Arabia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Saudi Arabia">edit</a>]</div> Saudi Arabia as a part of the <a href="/wiki/Neom" title="Neom">NEOM project</a>, is looking to produce roughly 1.2 million tonnes of green ammonia a year, beginning production in 2025.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In Cairo, Egypt, Saudi real estate funding skyscraper project powered by hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkey">Turkey</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Turkey">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Energy_and_Natural_Resources_(Turkey)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey)">Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources</a> and the <a href="/wiki/UNIDO" class="mw-redirect" title="UNIDO">United Nations Industrial Development Organization</a> created the <a href="/wiki/International_Centre_for_Hydrogen_Energy_Technologies" title="International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies">International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies</a> (UNIDO-ICHET) in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> in 2004 and it ran to 2012.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> In 2023 the ministry published a Hydrogen Technologies Strategy and Roadmap.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> started a fuel cell pilot program in January 2004, the program ran two Fuel cell buses on route 25 in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> until December 2005, and switched to route RV1 until January 2007.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The Hydrogen Expedition is currently working to create a hydrogen fuel cell-powered ship and using it to circumnavigate the globe, as a way to demonstrate the capability of hydrogen fuel cells.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> In August 2021 the UK Government claimed it was the first to have a Hydrogen Strategy and produced a document.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> In August 2021, Chris Jackson quit as chair of the UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association, a leading hydrogen industry association, claiming that UK and Norwegian oil companies had intentionally inflated their cost projections for blue hydrogen in order to maximize future <a href="/wiki/Transfer_payment" title="Transfer payment">technology support payments</a> by the UK government.<a href="#cite_note-ambrose-2021-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> Several domestic <a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Automotive industry in the United States">U.S. automobile companies</a> have developed vehicles using hydrogen, such as GM and Toyota.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> However, as of February 2020, infrastructure for hydrogen was underdeveloped except in some parts of California.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> have their own <a href="/wiki/United_States_Hydrogen_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Hydrogen Policy">hydrogen policy</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A joint venture between <a href="/wiki/NREL" class="mw-redirect" title="NREL">NREL</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xcel_Energy" title="Xcel Energy">Xcel Energy</a> is combining wind power and hydrogen power in the same way in Colorado.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador_Hydro" title="Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro">Hydro</a> in <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a> are converting the current <a href="/wiki/Wind-Diesel_Hybrid_Power_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind-Diesel Hybrid Power Systems">wind-diesel Power System</a> on the remote island of <a href="/wiki/Ramea" title="Ramea">Ramea</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Wind-Hydrogen_Hybrid_Power_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind-Hydrogen Hybrid Power Systems">Wind-Hydrogen Hybrid Power Systems</a> facility.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Five pump station hubs being delivered to heavy-duty H2 trucks in Texas.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Hydrogen City built Green by Hydrogen International (GHI), to planning open in 2026.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> In 2006, Florida’s infrastructure project was commissioned.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> First opened Orlando as public bus transportation, Ford Motor Company announced putting a fleet of hydrogen-fueled Ford E-450.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Liquidated hydrogen mobile system was constructed at Titusville.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> An FPL’s pilot clean hydrogen facility operated in Okeechobee County.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> A similar pilot project on <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Island_(Washington)" title="Stuart Island (Washington)">Stuart Island</a> uses <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a>, instead of <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a>, to generate electricity. When excess electricity is available after the batteries are fully charged, hydrogen is generated by electrolysis and stored for later production of electricity by fuel cell.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> The US also have a large natural gas pipeline system already in place.<a href="#cite_note-Hydrogen_transport_&_distribution-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vietnam">Vietnam</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Vietnam">edit</a>]</div> Việt Nam Energy Association have included green hydrogenation support.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Australian clean energy company Pure Hydrogen Corporation Limited announced on July 22 that it has signed an MoU with Vietnam public transportation.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel" title="Alternative fuel">Alternative fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biohydrogen" title="Biohydrogen">Biohydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle_hydrogen_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle hydrogen power plant">Combined cycle hydrogen power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_damage" title="Hydrogen damage">Hydrogen damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel_cell_power_plant" title="Hydrogen fuel cell power plant">Hydrogen fuel cell power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehicle" title="Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle">Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_aircraft" title="Hydrogen-powered aircraft">Hydrogen-powered aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_ship" title="Hydrogen-powered ship">Hydrogen-powered ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen prize">Hydrogen prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_tanker" title="Hydrogen tanker">Hydrogen tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_train" title="Hydrogen train">Hydrogen train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lolland_Hydrogen_Community" title="Lolland Hydrogen Community">Lolland Hydrogen Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methane_pyrolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Methane pyrolysis">Methane pyrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020%E2%80%93present#Hydrogen_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present">Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present#Hydrogen energy</a></li></ul> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 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.reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free 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IRENA. p. 227. Retrieved 2023-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IRENA&rft.atitle=World+Energy+Transitions+Outlook+1-5C+Pathway+2022+edition&rft.pages=227&rft.date=2022-03-29&rft.au=International+Renewable+Energy+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irena.org%2Fpublications%2F2022%2Fmar%2Fworld-energy-transitions-outlook-2022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrogen+economy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYapMcLellan2023" class="citation journal cs1">Yap, Jiazhen; McLellan, Benjamin (6 January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fenvironments10010011">"A Historical Analysis of Hydrogen Economy Research, Development, and Expectations, 1972 to 2020"</a>. 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Retrieved 2021-01-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Are+hydrogen+fuel+cell+vehicles+the+future+of+autos%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FBusiness%2Fhydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-future-autos%2Fstory%3Fid%3D74583475&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrogen+economy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiddiqui" class="citation news cs1">Siddiqui, Faiz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/02/26/hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars/">"The plug-in electric car is having its moment. But despite false starts, Toyota is still trying to make the fuel cell happen"</a>. Washington Post. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210119142059/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/02/26/hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-19. 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South Florida Tech Hub. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240709014526/https://techhubsouthflorida.org/fpl-announces-completion-of-florida-first-ever-clean-hydrogen-hub-of-its-kind/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-07-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+Florida+Tech+Hub&rft.atitle=FPL+announces+completion+of+Florida%27s+first+ever+clean+hydrogen+hub+of+its+kind&rft.date=2024-02-28&rft.aulast=Kurzner&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft.au=Cabus%2C+Nikki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechhubsouthflorida.org%2Ffpl-announces-completion-of-florida-first-ever-clean-hydrogen-hub-of-its-kind%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrogen+economy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.siei.org">"Stuart Island Energy Initiative"</a>. siei.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130618081052/http://siei.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-06-18. Retrieved 2008-05-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=siei.org&rft.atitle=Stuart+Island+Energy+Initiative&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.siei.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrogen+economy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vietnamnews.vn/economy/1068281/hydrogen-production-project-promotes-green-energy-transition-in-viet-nam.html">"Hydrogen production project promotes green energy transition in Việt Nam"</a>. vietnamnews.vn. Retrieved 2024-08-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=vietnamnews.vn&rft.atitle=Hydrogen+production+project+promotes+green+energy+transition+in+Vi%E1%BB%87t+Nam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvietnamnews.vn%2Feconomy%2F1068281%2Fhydrogen-production-project-promotes-green-energy-transition-in-viet-nam.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrogen+economy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://news.finclear.tradecentre.io/asx/document/20240722/02830030.pdf">https://news.finclear.tradecentre.io/asx/document/20240722/02830030.pdf</a> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs">bare URL PDF</a>] </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUKCCC_H22018" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Hydrogen-in-a-low-carbon-economy.pdf">Hydrogen in a low-carbon economy</a> (PDF). UK <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Climate_Change" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee on Climate Change">Committee on Climate Change</a>. 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hydrogen+in+a+low-carbon+economy&rft.pub=UK+Committee+on+Climate+Change&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theccc.org.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F11%2FHydrogen-in-a-low-carbon-economy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrogen+economy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIEA_H22019" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-hydrogen">The Future of Hydrogen</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a>. 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Hydrogen&rft.pub=International+Energy+Agency&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iea.org%2Freports%2Fthe-future-of-hydrogen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrogen+economy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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center;">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_wind_turbine" title="Airborne wind turbine">Airborne wind turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_photosynthesis" title="Artificial photosynthesis">Artificial photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">Carbon-neutral fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">Concentrated solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_fuel_cell" title="Home fuel cell">Home fuel cell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydrogen economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol_economy" title="Methanol economy">Methanol economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten salt reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_rectenna" title="Optical rectenna">Nantenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_pavement" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic pavement">Photovoltaic pavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-based solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vortex_engine" title="Vortex engine">Vortex engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Storage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compressed-air_energy_storage" title="Compressed-air energy storage">Compressed-air energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flywheel_energy_storage" title="Flywheel energy storage">Flywheel energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">Lithium iron phosphate battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_battery" title="Molten-salt battery">Molten-salt battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries" title="Research in lithium-ion batteries">Research in lithium-ion batteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Silicon–air battery">Silicon–air battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">Thermal energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercapacitor" title="Supercapacitor">Ultracapacitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle" title="Battery electric vehicle">Battery electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">Hybrid electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_power_transfer" title="Wireless power transfer">Wireless power</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alternative_fuel_vehicles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alternative_propulsion" title="Template:Alternative propulsion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alternative_propulsion" title="Template talk:Alternative propulsion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alternative_propulsion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alternative propulsion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alternative_fuel_vehicles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell_vehicle" title="Fuel cell vehicle">Fuel cell vehicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_power" title="Human power">Human power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_bicycle" title="Electric bicycle">Electric bicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedelec" title="Pedelec">Pedelec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_aircraft" title="Solar-powered aircraft">Solar-powered aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar-powered_boats" title="List of solar-powered boats">boats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_bus" title="Solar bus">Solar bus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prototype_solar-powered_cars" title="List of prototype solar-powered cars">List of prototypes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat" title="Electric boat">Electric boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_motor" title="Pneumatic motor">Compressed-air engine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compressed-air_car" title="Compressed-air car">Compressed-air car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressed-air_vehicle" title="Compressed-air vehicle">Compressed-air vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tesla_turbine" title="Tesla turbine">Tesla turbine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Electric battery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">motor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_locomotive#Battery_locomotive" title="Electric locomotive">Battery-electric locomotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_multiple_unit" title="Battery electric multiple unit">Battery electric multiple unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_bicycle" title="Electric bicycle">Electric bicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedelec" title="Pedelec">Pedelec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat" title="Electric boat">Electric boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_bus" title="Electric bus">Electric bus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_bus" title="Battery electric bus">Battery electric bus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_car" title="Electric car">Electric car</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_electric_vehicles" title="List of battery electric vehicles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_truck" title="Electric truck">Electric truck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_platform_truck" title="Electric platform truck">Electric platform truck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">Electric vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle" title="Battery electric vehicle">Battery electric vehicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motorcycles_and_scooters" title="Electric motorcycles and scooters">Electric motorcycles and scooters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_kick_scooter" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric kick scooter">Electric kick scooter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell_vehicle" title="Fuel cell vehicle">Fuel cell vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentinel_Waggon_Works#The_Gyro_locomotive" title="Sentinel Waggon Works">Gyro flywheel locomotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">Hybrid electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_train" title="Hybrid train">Hybrid train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neighborhood_Electric_Vehicle" title="Neighborhood Electric Vehicle">Neighborhood Electric Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_electric_vehicle" title="Plug-in electric vehicle">Plug-in electric vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_electric_vehicles" title="List of battery electric vehicles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid" title="Plug-in hybrid">Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_aircraft" title="Solar-powered aircraft">aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_bus" title="Solar bus">Solar bus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">ICE</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_fuel" title="Alcohol fuel">Alcohol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiesel" title="Biodiesel">Biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butanol_fuel" title="Butanol fuel">Butanol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogasoline" title="Biogasoline">Biogasoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">Common ethanol fuel mixtures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E85" title="E85">E85</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicle" title="Flexible-fuel vehicle">Flexible-fuel vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol_economy" title="Methanol economy">Methanol economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol_fuel" title="Methanol fuel">Methanol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_gas" title="Wood gas">Wood gas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell_vehicle" title="Fuel cell vehicle">Fuel cell vehicle</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydrogen economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_aircraft" title="Hydrogen-powered aircraft">Hydrogen-powered aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_ship" title="Hydrogen-powered ship">Hydrogen-powered ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_train" title="Hydrogen train">Hydrogen train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle" title="Hydrogen vehicle">Hydrogen vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_internal_combustion_engine_vehicle" title="Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle">Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autogas" title="Autogas">Autogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">Hybrid electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen_engine" title="Liquid nitrogen engine">Liquid nitrogen vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_vehicle" title="Natural gas vehicle">Natural gas vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">Propane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple-fuel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bi-fuel_vehicle" title="Bi-fuel vehicle">Bi-fuel vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicle" title="Flexible-fuel vehicle">Flexible-fuel vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">Hybrid electric vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_train" title="Hybrid train">Hybrid train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle">Hybrid vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multifuel" title="Multifuel">Multifuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid" title="Plug-in hybrid">Plug-in hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_bus" title="Solar bus">Solar bus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat" title="Electric boat">Electric boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Who_Killed_the_Electric_Car%3F" title="Who Killed the Electric Car?">Who Killed the Electric Car?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/What_Is_the_Electric_Car%3F" title="What Is the Electric Car?">What Is the Electric Car?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenge_of_the_Electric_Car" title="Revenge of the Electric Car">Revenge of the Electric Car</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maglev" title="Maglev">Maglev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_air_turbine" title="Ram air turbine">Ram air turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vactrain" title="Vactrain">Vactrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power_ship" title="Wave power ship">Wave power ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windmill_ship" title="Windmill ship">Windmill ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind-powered_vehicle" title="Wind-powered vehicle">Wind-powered vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-emissions_vehicle" title="Zero-emissions vehicle">Zero-emissions vehicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&oldid=1259087852#Uses">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen_economy&oldid=1259087852#Uses</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fuel_technology" title="Category:Fuel technology">Fuel technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hydrogen_economy" title="Category:Hydrogen economy">Hydrogen economy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hydrogen_technologies" title="Category:Hydrogen 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