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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinction_from_other_Athenian_democratic_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinction_from_other_Athenian_democratic_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Distinction from other Athenian democratic processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinction_from_other_Athenian_democratic_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purpose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purpose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Purpose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purpose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_into_disuse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern usage subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computer_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Computer networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Whistleblowing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Whistleblowing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Whistleblowing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Whistleblowing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qahr_and_ashti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qahr_and_ashti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Qahr and ashti</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qahr_and_ashti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ostracism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skerwegerig" title="Skerwegerig – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Skerwegerig" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="أوستراكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أوستراكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracismu" title="Ostracismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ostracismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakizm" title="Ostrakizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ostrakizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Астракізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Астракізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Астракізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Астракізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Остракизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Остракизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakism" title="Ostrakism – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Ostrakism" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracisme" title="Ostracisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ostracisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakismus" title="Ostrakismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ostrakismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostraciaeth" title="Ostraciaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ostraciaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakisme" title="Ostrakisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ostrakisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scherbengericht" title="Scherbengericht – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Scherbengericht" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakism" title="Ostrakism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ostrakism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Οστρακισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οστρακισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracismo" title="Ostracismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ostracismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracismo" title="Ostracismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ostracismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrazismo" title="Ostrazismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ostrazismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="استراسیزم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="استراسیزم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracisme_(Gr%C3%A8ce_antique)" title="Ostracisme (Grèce antique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ostracisme (Grèce antique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracismo" title="Ostracismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ostracismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%84%ED%8E%B8_%EC%B6%94%EB%B0%A9" title="도편 추방 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="도편 추방" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%BD%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Օստրակիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օստրակիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracizam" title="Ostracizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ostracizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracismo" title="Ostracismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ostracismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakisme" title="Ostrakisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ostrakisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracismo" title="Ostracismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ostracismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="אוסטרקיזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אוסטרקיזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Остракизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Остракизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Остракизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Остракизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracismus" title="Ostracismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ostracismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakisms" title="Ostrakisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ostrakisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakismos" title="Ostrakismos – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Ostrakismos" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cser%C3%A9pszavaz%C3%A1s" title="Cserépszavazás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Cserépszavazás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracisme" title="Ostracisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ostracisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%B6%E7%89%87%E8%BF%BD%E6%94%BE" title="陶片追放 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="陶片追放" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakisme" title="Ostrakisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ostrakisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakisme" title="Ostrakisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ostrakisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracisme" title="Ostracisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ostracisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracyzm" title="Ostracyzm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ostracyzm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracismo" title="Ostracismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ostracismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ostracism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Остракизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Остракизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakizmus" title="Ostrakizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ostrakizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakizem" title="Ostrakizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ostrakizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Остракизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Остракизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakizam" title="Ostrakizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ostrakizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakismos" title="Ostrakismos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ostrakismos" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ostracism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஆஸ்ட்ராசிசம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆஸ்ட்ராசிசம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrakismos" title="Ostrakismos – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ostrakismos" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Democratic procedure for expelling citizens</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ostracised" redirects here. 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Greece" title="Category:History of Greece">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">History of <span class="fn org label">Greece</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Greece,_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli;_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Greece, drawn in 1791 by William Faden, at the scale of 1,350,000"><img alt="Map of Greece, drawn in 1791 by William Faden, at the scale of 1,350,000" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg/250px-Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg/375px-Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg/500px-Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9411" data-file-height="6605" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Greece" title="Neolithic Greece">Neolithic Greece</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelasgians" title="Pelasgians">Pelasgians</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Aegean_civilization" title="Aegean civilization">Greek Bronze Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helladic_chronology" title="Helladic chronology">Helladic chronology</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_culture" title="Cycladic culture">Cycladic</a> <small>(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100–1000</span> BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a> <small>(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100–1100</span> BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenean</a> <small>(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1750–1050</span> BC)</small></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a> <small>(1100 BC–750 BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a> <small>(800 BC–480 BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a> <small>(500 BC–323 BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a> <small>(323 BC–31 BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Roman Greece</a> <small>(146 BC–330 AD)</small></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greece" title="Medieval Greece">Medieval Greece</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Byzantine Greece</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Frankish and Latin states</a> <small>(1204-1579)</small><br /></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern Greece</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Candia" title="Kingdom of Candia">Venetian Crete</a> <small>(1205-1667)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_rule_in_the_Ionian_Islands" title="Venetian rule in the Ionian Islands">Venetian Ionian Islands</a> <small>(1363-1797)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">Ottoman Greece</a> <small>(1371-1912)</small><br /></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_modern_Greece" title="History of modern Greece">Modern Greece</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septinsular_Republic" title="Septinsular Republic">Septinsular Republic</a> <small>(1800-1807)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">War of Independence</a> <small>(1821-1829)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Hellenic_Republic" title="First Hellenic Republic">First Hellenic Republic</a> <small>(1822-1832)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Kingdom of Greece</a> <small>(1832-1924, 1935-1973)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Schism" title="National Schism">National Schism</a> <small>(1914/15-1917)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Hellenic_Republic" title="Second Hellenic Republic">Second Hellenic Republic</a> <small>(1924-1935)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4th_of_August_Regime" title="4th of August Regime">4th of August Regime</a> <small>(1936-1941)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece" title="Axis occupation of Greece">Axis occupation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_State_(1941%E2%80%931944)" title="Hellenic State (1941–1944)">Collaborationist regime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="Political Committee of National Liberation">Free Greece</a>) <small>(1941-1944)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Civil War</a> <small>(1946-1949)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Military Junta</a> <small>(1967-1974)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Hellenic_Republic" title="Third Hellenic Republic">Third Hellenic Republic</a> <small>(1974-)</small><br /></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">History by topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="History of agriculture in Greece">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_art" title="Greek art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Greece#History" title="Church of Greece">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Greece" title="Constitutional history of Greece">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Greece_and_the_Greek_world" title="Economic history of Greece and the Greek world">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Greeks" title="Names of the Greeks">Ethnonyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greek" title="History of Greek">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greek_music" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Greek music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece" title="Military history of Greece">Military</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/16px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/24px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/32px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Greece" title="Portal:Greece">Greece portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Greece" title="Template:History of Greece"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Greece" title="Template talk:History of Greece"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Greece" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Greece"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ostracism</b> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">ὀστρακισμός</span>, <i>ostrakismos</i>) was an <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian democratic</a> procedure in which any <a href="/wiki/Citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizen">citizen</a> could be <a href="/wiki/Exile" title="Exile">expelled</a> from the <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> for ten years. While some instances clearly expressed popular anger at the citizen, ostracism was often used preemptively. It was used as a way of neutralizing someone thought to be a threat to the state or a potential <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a>, though in many cases popular opinion often informed the expulsion. The word "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ostracism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:ostracism">ostracism</a>" continues to be used for various forms of <a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">shunning</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Procedure">Procedure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Procedure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "ostracism" is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Sherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherd">pottery shards</a> that were used as voting tokens, called <i><a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostraka</a></i> (singular: <i>ostrakon</i> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὄστρακον</span></span>) in Greek.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Broken pottery, abundant and virtually free, served as a kind of scrap paper (in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, which was imported from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a> as a high-quality writing surface, and too costly to be disposable).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each year the Athenians were asked in the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">assembly</a> whether they wished to hold an ostracism. The question was put in the sixth of the <a href="/wiki/Attic_calendar#State_calendar" title="Attic calendar">ten months used for state business under the democracy</a> (January or February in the modern <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregorian Calendar">Gregorian Calendar</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsdyke_2005-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If they voted "yes", then an ostracism would be held two months later. In a section of the <a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">agora</a> set off and suitably barriered<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that was called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Perischoinisma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Perischoinisma (page does not exist)">perischoinisma</a> (περισχοίνισμα),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> citizens gave the name of those they wished to be ostracized to a scribe, as many of them were illiterate, and they then scratched the name on pottery shards. The shards were piled up facing down, so the votes would remain anonymous.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ostracism served as a political tool to eliminate rivals. It also helped to reflect the Athenians' belief in the importance of civic engagement and the power of collective decision making.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nine <i>Archontes</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">council of the five hundred</a> supervised the process<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the <i>Archontes</i> counted the <i>ostraka</i> submitted and sorted the names into separate piles.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The person whose pile contained the most <i>ostraka</i> would be banished, provided that a <a href="/wiki/Quorum" title="Quorum">quorum</a> was met. According to <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, the ostracism was considered valid if the total number of votes cast was at least 6,000;<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to a fragment of <a href="/wiki/Philochorus" title="Philochorus">Philochorus</a>, at least 6,000 votes had to be cast against the person who was to be banished.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plutarch's evidence for a quorum of 6,000 agrees with the number required for grants of citizenship in the following century and is generally preferred.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The person newly ostracised had ten days to leave the city.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If he attempted to return, the penalty was <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">death</a>. The property of the man banished was not confiscated and there was no loss of status. After ten years, he was allowed to return without stigma.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsdyke_2005-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was possible for the assembly to recall an ostracized person ahead of time; before the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Wars">Persian invasion</a> of 479 BC, an amnesty was declared under which at least two ostracised leaders—<a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a>' father, <a href="/wiki/Xanthippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthippus">Xanthippus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aristides" title="Aristides">Aristides</a> 'the Just'—are known to have returned. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Cimon" title="Cimon">Cimon</a>, ostracised in 461 BC, was recalled during an emergency.<sup id="cite_ref-lifesimon17_2_6_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lifesimon17_2_6-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ostracism was not in use throughout the entire period of Athenian democracy (circa 506–322 BC), but only occurred in the fifth century BC. The standard account, found in <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Athenians_(Aristotle)" title="Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)">Constitution of the Athenians</a> 22.3,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attributes the establishment to <a href="/wiki/Cleisthenes" title="Cleisthenes">Cleisthenes</a>, a pivotal reformer in the creation of the democracy. In that case, ostracism would have been in place from around 506 BC. The first victim of the practice was not expelled until 487 BC—nearly 20 years later. Over the course of the next 60 years some 12 or more individuals followed him. The list may not be complete.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The list of known ostracisms is as follows: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Athen_Stoa_Ostrakismos_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Athen_Stoa_Ostrakismos_2.jpg/260px-Athen_Stoa_Ostrakismos_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Athen_Stoa_Ostrakismos_2.jpg/390px-Athen_Stoa_Ostrakismos_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Athen_Stoa_Ostrakismos_2.jpg/520px-Athen_Stoa_Ostrakismos_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">Ostraca</a> from 482 BC voting in favor of ostracizing Themistocles</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>487 Hipparchos son of Charmos, a relative of the tyrant <a href="/wiki/Peisistratos_(Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peisistratos (Athens)">Peisistratos</a></li> <li>486 <a href="/wiki/Megacles" title="Megacles">Megacles</a> son of <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>; Cleisthenes' nephew (possibly ostracised twice)<sup id="cite_ref-Lysias_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lysias-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>485 <a href="/wiki/Kallixenos" class="mw-redirect" title="Kallixenos">Kallixenos</a> nephew of <a href="/wiki/Cleisthenes" title="Cleisthenes">Cleisthenes</a> (not known for certain)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>484 <a href="/wiki/Xanthippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthippus">Xanthippus</a> son of Ariphron, <a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a>' father</li> <li>482 <a href="/wiki/Aristides" title="Aristides">Aristides</a> son of Lysimachus</li> <li>471 <a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a> son of Neocles (last possible year)</li> <li>461 <a href="/wiki/Cimon" title="Cimon">Cimon</a> son of <a href="/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Miltiades the Younger">Miltiades</a></li> <li>460 Alcibiades, father of <a href="/wiki/Cleinias" title="Cleinias">Cleinias</a> (possibly ostracised twice)<sup id="cite_ref-Lysias_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lysias-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>457 Menon son of Meneclides (less certain)</li> <li>442 <a href="/wiki/Thucydides_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thucydides (politician)">Thucydides</a> son of Melesias</li> <li>440s Callias son of Didymos (less certain)</li> <li>440s <a href="/wiki/Damon_(ancient_Greek_musicologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Damon (ancient Greek musicologist)">Damon</a> son of Damonides (less certain)</li> <li>416 <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolus" title="Hyperbolus">Hyperbolus</a> son of Antiphanes (±1 year)</li></ul> <p>Around 12,000 political ostraka have been excavated in the Athenian agora and in the <a href="/wiki/Kerameikos" title="Kerameikos">Kerameikos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hesperia_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hesperia-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second victim, Cleisthenes' nephew Megacles, is named by 4647 of these, but for a second undated ostracism not listed above. The known ostracisms seem to fall into three distinct phases: the 480s BC, mid-century 461–443 BC and finally the years 417–415: this roughly correlates with the clustering of known expulsions, although Themistocles before 471 may count as an exception. This may suggest that ostracism fell in and out of fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last known ostracism was that of <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolus" title="Hyperbolus">Hyperbolus</a> in circa 417 BC. There is no sign of its use after the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, when democracy was restored after the <a href="/wiki/Oligarchic" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligarchic">oligarchic</a> coup of <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Tyrants" title="Thirty Tyrants">the Thirty</a> had collapsed in 403 BC. However, while ostracism was not an active feature of the fourth-century version of democracy, it remained; the question was put to the assembly each year, but they did not wish to hold one. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distinction_from_other_Athenian_democratic_processes">Distinction from other Athenian democratic processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Distinction from other Athenian democratic processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ostracism was crucially different from <a href="/wiki/Athenian_law_court_(classical_period)" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenian law court (classical period)">Athenian law</a> at the time; there was no charge and no defense could be mounted by the person expelled. The two stages of the procedure ran in the reverse order from that used under almost any trial system—it is as if a jury were first asked <i>"Do you want to find someone guilty?"</i>, and subsequently asked <i>"Whom do you wish to accuse?"</i>. The judicial framework is perhaps the institution's most peculiar feature: it can take place at most once a year, and only for one person. It resembles the Greek <i><a href="/wiki/Pharmakos" title="Pharmakos">pharmakos</a></i> or <a href="/wiki/Scapegoat" title="Scapegoat">scapegoat</a>—though in contrast, <i>pharmakos</i> generally ejected a lowly member of the community.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A further distinction between these two modes (and not obvious from a modern perspective) is that ostracism was an automatic procedure that required no initiative from any individual, with the vote simply occurring on the wish of the electorate—a diffuse exercise of power.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, an Athenian trial needed the initiative of a particular citizen-prosecutor. While prosecution often led to a counterattack (or was a counterattack itself), no such response was possible in the case of ostracism as responsibility lay with the polity as a whole. In contrast to a trial, ostracism generally reduced political tension rather than increased it.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although ten years of exile may have been challenging for Athenians, it was a lenient punishment compared to the sentences that courts could impose. When dealing with politicians held to be acting against the interests of the people, Athenian juries could inflict severe penalties such as death,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> unpayably large fines, confiscation of property, permanent exile, or loss of citizens' rights through <a href="/wiki/Atimia_(loss_of_citizen_rights)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atimia (loss of citizen rights)"><i>atimia</i></a>.<i><sup id="cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsdyke_2005-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> Further, the elite Athenians who suffered ostracism were rich or noble men who had connections or <a href="/wiki/Xenos_(guest-friend)" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenos (guest-friend)"><i>xenoi</i></a> in the wider Greek world and who, unlike genuine exiles, were able to access their income in <a href="/wiki/Attica" title="Attica">Attica</a> from abroad. In <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, following the anti-democratic thought common in elite sources, people might be recalled early, thus being an example of the inconsistency of <a href="/wiki/Majoritarianism" title="Majoritarianism">majoritarianism</a> characteristic of Athenian democracy. However, ten years of exile usually resolved whatever had prompted the expulsion. Ostracism was a pragmatic measure; the concept of serving out the full sentence did not apply as it was a preventive measure, not a punitive one.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsdyke_2005-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greece_from_the_Coming_of_the_Hellenes_to_AD._14,_page_109,_Themistocles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Greece_from_the_Coming_of_the_Hellenes_to_AD._14%2C_page_109%2C_Themistocles.jpg/220px-Greece_from_the_Coming_of_the_Hellenes_to_AD._14%2C_page_109%2C_Themistocles.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Greece_from_the_Coming_of_the_Hellenes_to_AD._14%2C_page_109%2C_Themistocles.jpg/330px-Greece_from_the_Coming_of_the_Hellenes_to_AD._14%2C_page_109%2C_Themistocles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Greece_from_the_Coming_of_the_Hellenes_to_AD._14%2C_page_109%2C_Themistocles.jpg/440px-Greece_from_the_Coming_of_the_Hellenes_to_AD._14%2C_page_109%2C_Themistocles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1415" data-file-height="2260" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a>, who was exiled via ostracism and fled to Argos around 471 or 472 BC, despite an impactful military career.</figcaption></figure> <p>An example of the practicalities of ostracism comes from the cache of 190 <a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostraka</a> discovered dumped in a well next to the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis,_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Acropolis, Athens">acropolis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the handwriting, they appear to have been written by fourteen individuals and bear the name of <a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a>, ostracised before 471 BC, and were evidently meant for distribution to voters.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsdyke_2005-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was not necessarily evidence of <a href="/wiki/Electoral_fraud" title="Electoral fraud">electoral fraud</a> (being no worse than modern voting instruction cards), but their being dumped in the well may suggest that their creators wished to hide them. If so, these ostraka provide an example of organized groups attempting to influence the outcome of ostracisms. The two-month gap between the first and second phases would have allowed for such a campaign.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There is another interpretation, however, according to which these ostraka were prepared beforehand by enterprising businessmen who offered them for sale to citizens who could not easily inscribe the desired names for themselves or who simply wished to save time.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two-month gap is a key feature in the institution, much as in <a href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">elections</a> under modern <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracies</a>. It prevented the candidate for expulsion being chosen out of immediate anger, although an Athenian general such as Cimon would have not wanted to lose a battle the week before such a second vote.<sup id="cite_ref-lifesimon17_2_6_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lifesimon17_2_6-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It opened a period for discussion (or perhaps agitation), whether informally in daily talk or <a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">public speeches</a> before the Athenian assembly or Athenian courts.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this process a consensus, or rival consensuses, might emerge. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose">Purpose</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Purpose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because ostracism was carried out by thousands of people over many decades of an evolving political situation and culture, it did not serve one monolithic purpose. Observations can be made about the outcomes, as well as the initial purpose for which it was created. </p><p>The first instance of people ostracized in the decade after the defeat of the first <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian</a> invasion at <a href="/wiki/Marathon,_Greece" title="Marathon, Greece">Marathon</a> in 490 BC were related or connected to the <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a> <a href="/wiki/Peisistratos" class="mw-redirect" title="Peisistratos">Peisistratos</a>, who had controlled Athens for 36 years up to 527 BC. After his son <a href="/wiki/Hippias_(tyrant)" title="Hippias (tyrant)">Hippias</a> was deposed with <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Spartan</a> help in 510 BC, the family sought refuge with the Persians. Nearly twenty years later Hippias landed with an invasion force at Marathon. <a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">Tyranny</a> and Persian aggression were paired threats facing the new democratic regime at Athens, and ostracism was used against both. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ostraka_for_Ostracism,_5th_century_BC,_Museum_of_the_Ancient_Agora,_Athens,_Greece_(13896440260).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Ostraka_for_Ostracism%2C_5th_century_BC%2C_Museum_of_the_Ancient_Agora%2C_Athens%2C_Greece_%2813896440260%29.jpg/220px-Ostraka_for_Ostracism%2C_5th_century_BC%2C_Museum_of_the_Ancient_Agora%2C_Athens%2C_Greece_%2813896440260%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Ostraka_for_Ostracism%2C_5th_century_BC%2C_Museum_of_the_Ancient_Agora%2C_Athens%2C_Greece_%2813896440260%29.jpg/330px-Ostraka_for_Ostracism%2C_5th_century_BC%2C_Museum_of_the_Ancient_Agora%2C_Athens%2C_Greece_%2813896440260%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Ostraka_for_Ostracism%2C_5th_century_BC%2C_Museum_of_the_Ancient_Agora%2C_Athens%2C_Greece_%2813896440260%29.jpg/440px-Ostraka_for_Ostracism%2C_5th_century_BC%2C_Museum_of_the_Ancient_Agora%2C_Athens%2C_Greece_%2813896440260%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3640" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Example of a Greek Ostracon, suggesting the Ostracization of <a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Stoa" title="Stoa">Stoà</a> of Attalus Museum (482 BC).</figcaption></figure> <p>Tyranny and democracy had arisen at Athens out of clashes between regional and factional groups organised around politicians, including Cleisthenes. As a reaction, in many of its features the democracy strove to reduce the role of factions as the focus of citizen loyalties. Ostracism may have been intended to work in the same to similar ends: by temporarily decapitating a faction, it could help defuse confrontations that threatened the order of the State.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In later decades when the threat of tyranny was remote, ostracism seems to have been used to decide between radically opposed policies. For instance, in 443 BC <a href="/wiki/Thucydides,_son_of_Melesias" title="Thucydides, son of Melesias">Thucydides, son of Melesias</a> (not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">the historian of the same name</a>) was ostracised. He led an <a href="/wiki/Aristocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristocratic">aristocratic</a> opposition to Athenian <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a> and in particular to <a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a>' building program on the acropolis, which was funded by taxes created for the wars against the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>. By expelling Thucydides the Athenian people sent a clear message about the direction of Athenian policy.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar but controversial claims have been made about the ostracism of <a href="/wiki/Cimon" title="Cimon">Cimon</a> in 461 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsdyke_2005-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The motives of individual voting citizens cannot be known. Many of the surviving ostraka name people otherwise unattested. They may well be just someone the submitter disliked, and voted for in a moment of private spite. Some ostraka bear the word "Limos" (hunger) instead of a human name.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, it may be seen as a secular, civic variant of Athenian <a href="/wiki/Curse_tablet" title="Curse tablet">curse tablets</a>, studied in scholarly literature under the Latin name <i>defixiones</i>, where small dolls were wrapped in lead sheets written with curses and then buried, sometimes stuck through with nails for good measure.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In one anecdote about Aristides, known as "the Just", who was ostracised in 482, an illiterate citizen, not recognising him, asked him to write the name Aristides on his ostrakon. When Aristides asked why, the man replied it was because he was sick of hearing him being called "the Just".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps merely the sense that someone had become too arrogant or prominent was enough to get someone's name onto an ostrakon. Ostracism rituals could have also been an attempt to dissuade people from covertly committing murder or assassination of intolerable or emerging individuals of power so as to create an open arena or outlet for those harbouring primal frustrations and urges or political motivations. The solution for murder, in Gregory H. Padowitz's theory, would then be "ostracism" which would ultimately be beneficial for all parties—the ostracised individual would live and get a second chance and society would be spared feuds, civil war, political tensions and/or murder. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fall_into_disuse">Fall into disuse</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fall into disuse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The last ostracism, that of <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbolos">Hyperbolos</a> in or near 417 BC, is narrated by Plutarch in three separate <i>lives</i>: Hyperbolos is pictured urging the people to expel one of his rivals, but they, <a href="/wiki/Nicias" title="Nicias">Nicias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alcibiades" title="Alcibiades">Alcibiades</a>, laying aside their hostility for a moment, use their influence to have him ostracised instead. According to Plutarch, the people then become disgusted with ostracism and abandoned the procedure forever. </p><p>In part ostracism lapsed as a procedure at the end of the fifth century because it was replaced by the <i><a href="/wiki/Graphe_paranomon" title="Graphe paranomon">graphe paranomon</a></i>, a regular court action under which a much larger number of politicians might be targeted, instead of just one a year as with ostracism, and with greater severity. </p><p>It may already seemed like an anachronism as factional alliances organised around important men became less significant and power was more specifically located in the interaction of the individual speaker with the power of the assembly and the courts. The threat to the democratic system in the late fifth century came not from <a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">tyranny</a> but from <a href="/wiki/Oligarchic" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligarchic">oligarchic</a> coups, threats of which became prominent after two brief seizures of power, in 411 BC by <a href="/wiki/Athenian_coup_of_411_BC" title="Athenian coup of 411 BC">"the Four Hundred"</a> and in 404 BC by <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Tyrants" title="Thirty Tyrants">"the Thirty"</a>, which were not dependent on single powerful individuals. Ostracism was not an effective defence against the oligarchic threat and it was not so used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analogues">Analogues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Analogues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other cities are known to have set up forms of ostracism on the Athenian model, namely <a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miletos" class="mw-redirect" title="Miletos">Miletos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese" title="Argos, Peloponnese">Argos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse, Sicily</a>. In the last of these it was referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Petalism" title="Petalism">petalismos</a></i>, because the names were written on <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a> leaves. Little is known about these institutions. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Sherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherd">pottery shards</a> identified as <i>ostraka</i> have been found in <a href="/wiki/Chersonesos_Taurica" class="mw-redirect" title="Chersonesos Taurica">Chersonesos Taurica</a>, leading historians to the conclusion that a similar institution existed there as well, in spite of the silence of the ancient records on that count.<sup id="cite_ref-Surikov_ch_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Surikov_ch-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar modern practice is the <a href="/wiki/Recall_election" title="Recall election">recall election</a>, in which the electoral body removes its representation from an elected officer. </p><p>Unlike under modern voting procedures, the Athenians did not have to adhere to a strict format for the inscribing of <i>ostraka</i>. Many extant <i>ostraka</i> show that it was possible to write expletives, short epigrams or cryptic injunctions beside the name of the candidate without invalidating the vote.<sup id="cite_ref-Surikov_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Surikov-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example: </p> <ul><li>Kallixenes, son of Aristonimos, "the traitor"</li> <li>Archen, "lover of foreigners"</li> <li>Agasias, "the donkey"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megacles" title="Megacles">Megacles</a>, "the adulterer"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_usage">Modern usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ostracism is evident in several animal species,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 10">: 10 </span></sup> as well as in modern human interactions. The social psychologist <a href="/wiki/Kipling_Williams" title="Kipling Williams">Kipling Williams</a> defines ostracism as "any act or acts of ignoring and excluding of an individual or groups by an individual or a group" without necessarily involving "acts of <a href="/wiki/Verbal_abuse" title="Verbal abuse">verbal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Physical_abuse" title="Physical abuse">physical</a> abuse".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Williams suggests that the most common form of ostracism is <a href="/wiki/Silent_treatment" title="Silent treatment">silent treatment</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page / location: 2
Quotation: "The silent treatment is one of many forms of ostracism, but it is the one that most of us have experienced."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">2</span> </sup> wherein refusing to communicate with a person effectively ignores and excludes them.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_networks">Computer networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Computer networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ostracism in the context of <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networks</a> (such as the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>) is termed "cyberostracism". In <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a> communication, in particular, it is relatively easy to engage in silent treatment, in the form of "unanswered emails"<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "ignored emails".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being ostracised on <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> is seen to be threatening to the fundamental human needs of <a href="/wiki/Belonging_needs" class="mw-redirect" title="Belonging needs">belonging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Locus_of_control" title="Locus of control">control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">meaningful</a> existence.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyber-<a href="/wiki/Social_rejection" title="Social rejection">rejection</a> (receiving "dislikes") caused more threat to the need of belonging and self-esteem, and lead to <a href="/wiki/Social_withdrawal" class="mw-redirect" title="Social withdrawal">social withdrawal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyber-ostracism (being ignored or receiving fewer "likes")<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> conversely lead to more <a href="/wiki/Prosocial_behavior" title="Prosocial behavior">prosocial behavior</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ostracism is thought to be associated with <a href="/wiki/Problematic_social_media_use" title="Problematic social media use">social media disorder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reactions">Reactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Williams and his colleagues have charted responses to ostracism in some five thousand cases, and found two distinctive patterns of response. The first is increased <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">group-conformity</a>, in a quest for re-admittance; the second is to become more provocative and hostile to the group, <a href="/wiki/Attention_seeking" title="Attention seeking">seeking attention</a> rather than acceptance.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (May 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age">Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Older adults report experiencing ostracism less frequently, with a particular dip being around the age of <a href="/wiki/Retirement" title="Retirement">retirement</a>. Regardless of age, ostracism is strongly associated with negative emotions, reduced life satisfaction and dysfunctional social behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Whistleblowing">Whistleblowing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Whistleblowing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research suggests that ostracism is a common retaliatory strategy used by organizations in response to <a href="/wiki/Whistleblowing" title="Whistleblowing">whistleblowing</a>. Kipling Williams, in a survey on US whistleblowers, found that all respondents reported post-whistleblowing ostracism.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 194–195">: 194–195 </span></sup> Alexander Brown similarly found that post-whistleblowing ostracism is a common response, and indeed describes ostracism as form of "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/covert" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:covert">covert</a>" reprisal, as it is normally so difficult to identify and investigate.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qahr_and_ashti">Qahr and ashti</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Qahr and ashti"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qahr and ashti is a culture-specific Iranian form of personal shunning, most frequently of another family member in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Limbert_2016_37_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Limbert_2016_37-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While modern Western concepts of ostracism are based upon enforcing conformity within a societally-recognized group, qahr is a private (batini), family-orientated affair of conflict or display of anger<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is never disclosed to the public at large, as to do so would be a breach of social etiquette.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Qahr</i> is avoidance of a lower-ranking family member who has committed a perceived insult. It is one of several ritualised social customs of Iranian culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Limbert_2016_37_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Limbert_2016_37-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Gozasht</i> means 'tolerance, understanding and a desire or willingness to forgive'<sup id="cite_ref-Iran_ppg_37-38_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iran_ppg_37-38-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is an essential component of Qahr and Ashti<sup id="cite_ref-Iran_ppg_37-38_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iran_ppg_37-38-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the psychological needs of <a href="/wiki/Closure_(psychology)" title="Closure (psychology)">closure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Need_for_cognition" title="Need for cognition">cognition</a>, as well as a culturally accepted source for practicing necessary religious requirements of <i>tawbah</i> <i>(repentance, see Koran 2:222)</i><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>du'a</i> (supplication).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contempt" title="Contempt">Contempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_to_facilitate_abuse" title="Isolation to facilitate abuse">Isolation to facilitate abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petalism" title="Petalism">Petalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relegatio" title="Relegatio">Relegatio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch-hunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch-hunt">Witch-hunt</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oration IV of <a href="/wiki/Andocides" title="Andocides">Andocides</a> purports itself to be speech urging the ostracism of Alcibiades in 415 BC, but it is probably not authentic.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:2-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBurckhardtBurckhardtUngern-Sternberg2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Burckhardt, Leonhard; Burckhardt, Leonhard Alexander; Ungern-Sternberg, Jürgen von (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_vb9vqionPwC"><i>Grosse Prozesse im antiken Athen</i></a> (in German). <a href="/wiki/C.H._Beck" class="mw-redirect" title="C.H. Beck">C.H. Beck</a>. pp. 68–77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-46613-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-46613-3"><bdi>3-406-46613-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grosse+Prozesse+im+antiken+Athen&rft.pages=68-77&rft.pub=C.H.+Beck&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=3-406-46613-3&rft.aulast=Burckhardt&rft.aufirst=Leonhard&rft.au=Burckhardt%2C+Leonhard+Alexander&rft.au=Ungern-Sternberg%2C+J%C3%BCrgen+von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_vb9vqionPwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/history/france/annales/1929/price-papyrus.htm">"The Price of Papyrus in Greek Antiquity, Gustave Glotz 1929"</a>. <i>www.marxists.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=The+Price+of+Papyrus+in+Greek+Antiquity%2C+Gustave+Glotz+1929&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Fhistory%2Ffrance%2Fannales%2F1929%2Fprice-papyrus.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkeat1995" class="citation journal cs1">Skeat, T.C. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41216910">"Was papyrus regarded as « cheap » or « expensive » in the ancient world?"</a>. <i>Aegyptus</i>. <b>75</b> (1/2): 75–93. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-9046">0001-9046</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41216910">41216910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aegyptus&rft.atitle=Was+papyrus+regarded+as+%C2%AB+cheap+%C2%BB+or+%C2%AB+expensive+%C2%BB+in+the+ancient+world%3F&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=75-93&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41216910%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0001-9046&rft.aulast=Skeat&rft.aufirst=T.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41216910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Forsdyke_2005-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forsdyke_2005_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForsdyke2005" class="citation book cs1">Forsdyke, Sara (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/355696355"><i>Exile, ostracism, and democracy : the politics of expulsion in ancient Greece</i></a>. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-2686-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-2686-5"><bdi>978-1-4008-2686-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/355696355">355696355</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exile%2C+ostracism%2C+and+democracy+%3A+the+politics+of+expulsion+in+ancient+Greece&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F355696355&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-2686-5&rft.aulast=Forsdyke&rft.aufirst=Sara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F355696355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to some sources, part of the <a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">agora</a> was roped-off, according to others it was temporarily immured with wooden planks.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://agora.ascsa.net/file?id=Agora%3AReport%3A2012%20Excavations&field=PDF&path=%2FAgora%2FPDFs%2FReports%2F2012%20Excavations.pdf">https://agora.ascsa.net/file?id=Agora%3AReport%3A2012%20Excavations&field=PDF&path=%2FAgora%2FPDFs%2FReports%2F2012%20Excavations.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> In Pollux, VIII. 20 (ed. Bethe, Leipzig, 1900–37) in the section on σκεύη δικαστικά—κιγκλίς, δρύφακτος κτλ.—we read περισχοινίσαντας (περισκηνήσαντας A) δέ τι τῆς ἀγορᾶς μέρος ἔδει φέρειν εἰς τὸν περιορισθέντα τόπον Ἀθηναίων τὸν βουλόμενον ὄστρακον ἐγγεγραμμένον τοὔνομα τοῦ μέλλοντος ἐξοστρακίƷεσθαι.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-hellenic-studies/article/abs/two-notes-on-athenian-topography/ABC18C0A9731A1EA63AA96A0E97EF0D2">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Perischoinisma : The roping off of an area outside a structure being used as a court. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/uploads/media/oa_ebooks/oa_agora/Agora_XXVIII.pdf">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2972/hesperia.84.3.0467">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://project.athens-agora.gr/index.php?view=page&sid=12&lang_id=en">[4]</a> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>The Life of Aristides</i>, and <i>The Life of Cimon</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Burckhardt, Leonhard; Burckhardt, Leonhard Alexander; Ungern-Sternberg, Jürgen von (2000), p.69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0007,024:7">"Plutarch, Aristides, chapter 7"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Plutarch%2C+Aristides%2C+chapter+7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Aabo%3Atlg%2C0007%2C024%3A7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.attalus.org/translate/philochorus.html">[5]</a> See n. 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeister2006" class="citation journal cs1">Meister, Klaus (Berlin) (October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e920850">"Philochorus"</a>. <i>Brill's New Pauly</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1574-9347_bnp_e920850">10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e920850</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brill%27s+New+Pauly&rft.atitle=Philochorus&rft.date=2006-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1574-9347_bnp_e920850&rft.aulast=Meister&rft.aufirst=Klaus+%28Berlin%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F1574-9347_bnp_e920850&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinclair,_R._K.1988" class="citation book cs1">Sinclair, R. K. (1988). <i>Democracy and Participation in Athens</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 114–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42389-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-42389-9"><bdi>0-521-42389-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Democracy+and+Participation+in+Athens&rft.pages=114-19&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-521-42389-9&rft.au=Sinclair%2C+R.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaveley,_E._S.1972" class="citation book cs1">Staveley, E. S. (1972). <i>Greek and Roman Voting and Elections</i>. <a href="/wiki/Thames_and_Hudson" class="mw-redirect" title="Thames and Hudson">Thames and Hudson</a>. pp. 89ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+and+Roman+Voting+and+Elections&rft.pages=89ff&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1972&rft.au=Staveley%2C+E.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStockton,_David1990" class="citation book cs1">Stockton, David (1990). <i>The Classical Athenian Democracy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 33ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814697-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814697-3"><bdi>0-19-814697-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Classical+Athenian+Democracy&rft.pages=33ff&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-19-814697-3&rft.au=Stockton%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOber,_Josiah1988" class="citation book cs1">Ober, Josiah (1988). <i>Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02864-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02864-8"><bdi>0-691-02864-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mass+and+Elite+in+Democratic+Athens&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-691-02864-8&rft.au=Ober%2C+Josiah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lifesimon17_2_6-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lifesimon17_2_6_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lifesimon17_2_6_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:text=Cim.:chapter=17"><i>Life of Cimon</i> 17.2–6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0046:chapter=22">"Aristotle, Athenian Constitution, chapter 22"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Aristotle%2C+Athenian+Constitution%2C+chapter+22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext.jsp%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0046%3Achapter%3D22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTridimas2016" class="citation journal cs1">Tridimas, George (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48719721">"Conflict, democracy and voter choice: a public choice analysis of the Athenian ostracism"</a>. <i>Public Choice</i>. <b>169</b> (1/2): 137–159. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0048-5829">0048-5829</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48719721">48719721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Choice&rft.atitle=Conflict%2C+democracy+and+voter+choice%3A+a+public+choice+analysis+of+the+Athenian+ostracism&rft.volume=169&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=137-159&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48719721%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0048-5829&rft.aulast=Tridimas&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48719721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lysias-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lysias_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lysias_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lysias 14.39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hesperia-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hesperia_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_P._Sickinger2017" class="citation journal cs1">James P. Sickinger (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2972/hesperia.86.3.0443">"New Ostraka from the Athenian Agora"</a>. <i>Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens</i>. <b>86</b> (3): 443–508. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2972%2Fhesperia.86.3.0443">10.2972/hesperia.86.3.0443</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2972/hesperia.86.3.0443">10.2972/hesperia.86.3.0443</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:194550340">194550340</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hesperia%3A+The+Journal+of+the+American+School+of+Classical+Studies+at+Athens&rft.atitle=New+Ostraka+from+the+Athenian+Agora&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=443-508&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A194550340%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.2972%2Fhesperia.86.3.0443%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2972%2Fhesperia.86.3.0443&rft.au=James+P.+Sickinger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.2972%2Fhesperia.86.3.0443&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Mabel_Lang" title="Mabel Lang">Mabel Lang</a>, (1990). <i>Ostraka</i>: 3–6, Athens.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch1914" class="citation journal cs1">Plutarch (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4159/dlcl.plutarch-lives_aristides.1914">"Lives. Aristides"</a>. <i>Digital Loeb Classical Library</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4159%2Fdlcl.plutarch-lives_aristides.1914">10.4159/dlcl.plutarch-lives_aristides.1914</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Digital+Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.atitle=Lives.+Aristides&rft.date=1914&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4159%2Fdlcl.plutarch-lives_aristides.1914&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4159%2Fdlcl.plutarch-lives_aristides.1914&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWęcowski2022" class="citation book cs1">Węcowski, Marek (15 December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/44884"><i>Athenian Ostracism and its Original Purpose: A Prisoner's Dilemma</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191882760" title="Special:BookSources/9780191882760"><bdi>9780191882760</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Athenian+Ostracism+and+its+Original+Purpose%3A+A+Prisoner%27s+Dilemma&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022-12-15&rft.isbn=9780191882760&rft.aulast=W%C4%99cowski&rft.aufirst=Marek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F44884&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch2018" class="citation book cs1">Plutarch (2018). <i>Life of Pericles With Introduction, Critical and Explanatory Notes and Indices</i>. Hansebooks GmbH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-337-41795-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-337-41795-6"><bdi>978-3-337-41795-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1129751693">1129751693</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+Pericles+With+Introduction%2C+Critical+and+Explanatory+Notes+and+Indices&rft.pub=Hansebooks+GmbH&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1129751693&rft.isbn=978-3-337-41795-6&rft.au=Plutarch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris,_Edward_Monroe2014" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Edward Monroe (2014). <i>Democracy and the rule of law in classical Athens : essays on law, society, and politics</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-45951-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-45951-9"><bdi>978-1-107-45951-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/894271876">894271876</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Democracy+and+the+rule+of+law+in+classical+Athens+%3A+essays+on+law%2C+society%2C+and+politics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F894271876&rft.isbn=978-1-107-45951-9&rft.au=Harris%2C+Edward+Monroe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroneer" class="citation journal cs1">Broneer, Oscar. "Excavations on the North Slope of the Acropolis, 1937". <i>Hesperia</i>. <b>1938</b>: 228–243.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hesperia&rft.atitle=Excavations+on+the+North+Slope+of+the+Acropolis%2C+1937&rft.volume=1938&rft.pages=228-243&rft.aulast=Broneer&rft.aufirst=Oscar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Surikov, pp. 284–294</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTridimas2016" class="citation journal cs1">Tridimas, George (October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11127-016-0379-7">"Conflict, democracy and voter choice: a public choice analysis of the Athenian ostracism"</a>. <i>Public Choice</i>. <b>169</b> (1–2): 137–159. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11127-016-0379-7">10.1007/s11127-016-0379-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0048-5829">0048-5829</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55062850">55062850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Choice&rft.atitle=Conflict%2C+democracy+and+voter+choice%3A+a+public+choice+analysis+of+the+Athenian+ostracism&rft.volume=169&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=137-159&rft.date=2016-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55062850%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0048-5829&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11127-016-0379-7&rft.aulast=Tridimas&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs11127-016-0379-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:text=Per.:chapter=11">Life of Pericles 11</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:text=Per.:chapter=11">12</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:text=Per.:chapter=14">14</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisherWees2015" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, Nick; Wees, Hans Van (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C_dODgAAQBAJ&pg=PA159"><i>Aristocracy in Antiquity: Redefining Greek and Roman Elites</i></a>. Classical Press of Wales. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1910589106" title="Special:BookSources/978-1910589106"><bdi>978-1910589106</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristocracy+in+Antiquity%3A+Redefining+Greek+and+Roman+Elites&rft.pub=Classical+Press+of+Wales&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1910589106&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft.au=Wees%2C+Hans+Van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC_dODgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:text=Arist.:chapter=7">Life of Aristides 7.7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Surikov_ch-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Surikov_ch_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see Surikov, pp. 121–122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Surikov-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Surikov_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see Surikov, pp. 73–80, and references therein.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2002" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Kipling D. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47443948"><i>Ostracism : the power of silence</i></a>. New York: Guilford Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57230-689-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-57230-689-0"><bdi>1-57230-689-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47443948">47443948</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ostracism+%3A+the+power+of+silence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Guilford+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47443948&rft.isbn=1-57230-689-0&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Kipling+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F47443948&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, K. (2001).<i>Ostracism: The Power of Silence</i>. New York: Guilford Press. pp. 2–18. See also Sherratt, S. (2021). Workplace ostracism in academia. <i>Australian Universities Review</i>, 63(2):35–43. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, K. 2008. 'Antisocial Communication on Electronic Mail and the Internet'. In: A. Konjin, M. Tanis, S. Utz, and S Barnes (eds.) <i>Mediated Interpersonal Communication</i>. (200–214). New York: Routledge. p. 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wesselmann, E. and Williams, K. 2013. 'Ostracism and Stages of Coping'. In: C. Dewall (ed.) <i>Oxford Handbook of Social Exclusion</i>. (20–30). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneiderZwillichBindlHopp2017" class="citation journal cs1">Schneider, Frank M.; Zwillich, Britta; Bindl, Melanie J.; Hopp, Frederic R.; Reich, Sabine; Vorderer, Peter (1 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0747563217302091">"Social media ostracism: The effects of being excluded online"</a>. <i>Computers in Human Behavior</i>. <b>73</b>: 385–393. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chb.2017.03.052">10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.052</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0747-5632">0747-5632</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computers+in+Human+Behavior&rft.atitle=Social+media+ostracism%3A+The+effects+of+being+excluded+online&rft.volume=73&rft.pages=385-393&rft.date=2017-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.chb.2017.03.052&rft.issn=0747-5632&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Frank+M.&rft.au=Zwillich%2C+Britta&rft.au=Bindl%2C+Melanie+J.&rft.au=Hopp%2C+Frederic+R.&rft.au=Reich%2C+Sabine&rft.au=Vorderer%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0747563217302091&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLutzSchneider2020" class="citation journal cs1">Lutz, Sarah; Schneider, Frank M. (11 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2020.1799409">"Is receiving Dislikes in social media still better than being ignored? The effects of ostracism and rejection on need threat and coping responses online"</a>. <i>Media Psychology</i>. <b>24</b> (6): 741–765. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15213269.2020.1799409">10.1080/15213269.2020.1799409</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1521-3269">1521-3269</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225424569">225424569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Media+Psychology&rft.atitle=Is+receiving+Dislikes+in+social+media+still+better+than+being+ignored%3F+The+effects+of+ostracism+and+rejection+on+need+threat+and+coping+responses+online&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=741-765&rft.date=2020-08-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225424569%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1521-3269&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F15213269.2020.1799409&rft.aulast=Lutz&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft.au=Schneider%2C+Frank+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F15213269.2020.1799409&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimeoRivaPaladino2020" class="citation journal cs1">Timeo, Susanna; Riva, Paolo; Paladino, Maria Paola (1 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0140197120300373">"Being liked or not being liked: A study on social-media exclusion in a preadolescent population"</a>. <i>Journal of Adolescence</i>. <b>80</b>: 173–181. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.adolescence.2020.02.010">10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.02.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-1971">0140-1971</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32151853">32151853</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:212650441">212650441</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Adolescence&rft.atitle=Being+liked+or+not+being+liked%3A+A+study+on+social-media+exclusion+in+a+preadolescent+population&rft.volume=80&rft.pages=173-181&rft.date=2020-04-01&rft.issn=0140-1971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A212650441%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32151853&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.adolescence.2020.02.010&rft.aulast=Timeo&rft.aufirst=Susanna&rft.au=Riva%2C+Paolo&rft.au=Paladino%2C+Maria+Paola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0140197120300373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErgunAlkan2020" class="citation journal cs1">Ergun, Gul; Alkan, Ali (June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7311140">"The Social Media Disorder and Ostracism in Adolescents: (OSTRACA- SM Study)"</a>. <i>The Eurasian Journal of Medicine</i>. <b>52</b> (2): 139–144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5152%2Feurasianjmed.2020.19076">10.5152/eurasianjmed.2020.19076</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1308-8734">1308-8734</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7311140">7311140</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32612421">32612421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Eurasian+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Social+Media+Disorder+and+Ostracism+in+Adolescents%3A+%28OSTRACA-+SM+Study%29&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=139-144&rft.date=2020-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7311140%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1308-8734&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32612421&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5152%2Feurasianjmed.2020.19076&rft.aulast=Ergun&rft.aufirst=Gul&rft.au=Alkan%2C+Ali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7311140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Rose, <i>The Literary Churchill</i> (Yale 2015) p. 233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaakobi2022" class="citation journal cs1">Yaakobi, Erez (11 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9131002">"Recovery From Ostracism Distress: The Role of Attribution"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>. <b>13</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2022.899564">10.3389/fpsyg.2022.899564</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9131002">9131002</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35645924">35645924</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Recovery+From+Ostracism+Distress%3A+The+Role+of+Attribution&rft.volume=13&rft.date=2022-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9131002%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35645924&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2022.899564&rft.aulast=Yaakobi&rft.aufirst=Erez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9131002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudertJankeGreifeneder2020" class="citation journal cs1">Rudert, Selma C.; Janke, Stefan; Greifeneder, Rainer (October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/dev0001096">"The experience of ostracism over the adult life span"</a>. <i>Developmental Psychology</i>. <b>56</b> (10): 1999–2012. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fdev0001096">10.1037/dev0001096</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-0599">1939-0599</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32686947">32686947</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220655977">220655977</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+experience+of+ostracism+over+the+adult+life+span.&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1999-2012&rft.date=2020-10&rft.issn=1939-0599&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220655977%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32686947&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fdev0001096&rft.aulast=Rudert&rft.aufirst=Selma+C.&rft.au=Janke%2C+Stefan&rft.au=Greifeneder%2C+Rainer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1037%2Fdev0001096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, A. J. (ed) 2008. Whistling While They Work. Canberra: ANU Press. p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Limbert_2016_37-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Limbert_2016_37_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Limbert_2016_37_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLimbert2016" class="citation book cs1">Limbert, John W. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rXS3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37"><i>Iran: At War With History</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-22012-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-22012-1"><bdi>978-1-317-22012-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran%3A+At+War+With+History&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-22012-1&rft.aulast=Limbert&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrXS3DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrody2009" class="citation book cs1">Brody, Leslie (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fSnJ070I7QgC&pg=PA83"><i>Gender, Emotion, and the Family</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02882-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02882-1"><bdi>978-0-674-02882-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender%2C+Emotion%2C+and+the+Family&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02882-1&rft.aulast=Brody&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfSnJ070I7QgC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170519233446/http://www.commisceo-global.com/country-guides/iran-guide">"Iran – Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette"</a>. <i>commisceo-global.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commisceo-global.com/country-guides/iran-guide">the original</a> on 19 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=commisceo-global.com&rft.atitle=Iran+%E2%80%93+Language%2C+Culture%2C+Customs+and+Etiquette&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.commisceo-global.com%2Fcountry-guides%2Firan-guide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iran_ppg_37-38-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iran_ppg_37-38_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iran_ppg_37-38_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Iran: At War with History</i>, by John Limbert, 1987 pp. 37–38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Repentance <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://sunnahonline.com/library/purification-of-the-soul/175-repentance">http://sunnahonline.com/library/purification-of-the-soul/175-repentance</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islam.ru/en/content/story/what-dua">"What is Dua?"</a>. <i>islam.ru</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=islam.ru&rft.atitle=What+is+Dua%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fislam.ru%2Fen%2Fcontent%2Fstory%2Fwhat-dua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostracism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ostracism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:ostracism">ostracism</a></b></i> or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ostracize" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:ostracize">ostracize</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell,_John_Malcolm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ostracism"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Ostracism">"Ostracism" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 360.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ostracism&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=360&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+John+Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOstracism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proscription" title="Proscription">Proscription</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Damnatio_memoriae" title="Damnatio memoriae">Damnatio memoriae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissident" title="Dissident">Dissident</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dissenter" title="Dissenter">Dissenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exile" title="Exile">Exile</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sacer" title="Homo sacer">Homo sacer</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ostracism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blacklisting" title="Blacklisting">Blacklisting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deplatforming" title="Deplatforming">Deplatforming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_death" title="Civil death">Civil death</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vogelfrei" title="Vogelfrei">Vogelfrei</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Persona_non_grata" title="Persona non grata">Persona non grata</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_enemy" title="Public enemy">Public enemy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_state" title="Enemy of the state">Enemy of the state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">Shunning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governmental pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Left-wing nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_conservatism" title="National conservatism">National conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Group pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">Brainwashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closure_(sociology)" title="Closure (sociology)">Closure (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_reality" title="Consensus reality">Consensus reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_shock" title="Culture shock">Culture shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">Dogma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_consensus_effect" title="False consensus effect">False consensus effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_missing_out" title="Fear of missing out">Fear of missing out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazing" title="Hazing">Hazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_mentality" title="Herd mentality">Herd mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identification_(psychology)" title="Identification (psychology)">Identification (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Mere exposure effect">Mere exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milieu_control" title="Milieu control">Milieu control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_(sociology)" title="Normalization (sociology)">Normalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_social_influence" title="Normative social influence">Normative social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(sociology)" title="Passing (sociology)">Passing (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_ignorance" title="Pluralistic ignorance">Pluralistic ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosocial" title="Psychosocial">Psychosocial issue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purity_spiral" title="Purity spiral">Purity spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">Operant conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rally_%27round_the_flag_effect" title="Rally 'round the flag effect">Rally 'round the flag effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contagion" title="Social contagion">Social contagion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_addiction" title="Behavioral addiction">Addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_contagion" title="Behavioral contagion">Behavioral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_Contagion_Models" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime Contagion Models">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterical_contagion" title="Hysterical contagion">Hysterical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copycat_suicide" title="Copycat suicide">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_contagion" title="Emotional contagion">Emotional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_of_silence" title="Spiral of silence">Spiral of silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teasing" title="Teasing">Teasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_positivity" title="Toxic positivity">Toxic positivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_personality" title="Authoritarian personality">Authoritarian personality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_leadership_style" title="Authoritarian leadership style">Authoritarian leadership style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_authoritarian_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-wing authoritarian personality">Right-wing authoritarian personality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_freak" title="Control freak">Control freak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder">Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conformity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compliance_(psychology)" title="Compliance (psychology)">Compliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_reinforcement" title="Communal reinforcement">Communal reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countersignaling" title="Countersignaling">Countersignaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creeping_normality" title="Creeping normality">Creeping normality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">Herd behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalization_(sociology)" title="Internalization (sociology)">Internalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_of_deviance" title="Normalization of deviance">Normalization of deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_falsification" title="Preference falsification">Preference falsification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_proof" title="Social proof">Social proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">Social reality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experiments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments" title="Asch conformity experiments">Asch conformity experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaching_experiment" title="Breaching experiment">Breaching experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford prison experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anticonformity_(psychology)" title="Anticonformity (psychology)">Anticonformity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-social_behaviour" title="Anti-social behaviour">Anti-social behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auto-segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Auto-segregation">Auto-segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_advocate" title="Devil's advocate">Devil's advocate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissent" title="Dissent">Dissent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissent" title="Political dissent">Political</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eccentricity_(behavior)" title="Eccentricity (behavior)">Eccentricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">Hermit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiosyncrasy" title="Idiosyncrasy">Idiosyncrasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insubordination" title="Insubordination">Insubordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_clown" title="Pueblo clown">Pueblo clown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_team" title="Red team">Red team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_value" title="Shock value">Shock value</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186240#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186240#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186240#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4075755-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ostracisme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12653133g">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ostracisme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12653133g">BnF data</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ostracisme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/050614312">IdRef</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved 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