Chemical bonding | Definition, Types, & Examples

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class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="684121"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-bonding">chemical bonding</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/science/chemical-bonding">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref43362"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding#ref43362">Historical review</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43363"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding#ref43363">Emergence of quantitative chemistry</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43364"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-law-of-conservation-of-mass">The law of conservation of mass</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43365"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-law-of-conservation-of-mass#ref43365">The law of definite proportions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43366"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-law-of-conservation-of-mass#ref43366">The law of multiple proportions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43367"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-law-of-conservation-of-mass#ref43367">Dalton’s atomic theory</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43368"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-law-of-conservation-of-mass#ref43368">Features of bonding</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43369"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-law-of-conservation-of-mass#ref43369">Valence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43370"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Ionic-and-covalent-compounds">Ionic and covalent compounds</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43371"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Ionic-and-covalent-compounds#ref43371">The periodic table</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43372"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Ionic-and-covalent-compounds#ref43372">Additional evidence of atoms</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43373"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Ionic-and-covalent-compounds#ref43373">Avogadro’s law</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43374"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Ionic-and-covalent-compounds#ref43374">Kinetic theory of gases</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43375"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Visual-images-of-atoms">Visual images of atoms</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43376"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Visual-images-of-atoms#ref43376">Molecular structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43377"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Visual-images-of-atoms#ref43377">Internal structure of atoms</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43378"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Discovery-of-the-electron">Discovery of the electron</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43379"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Discovery-of-the-electron#ref43379">Contributions of Lewis</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref43380"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Atomic-structure-and-bonding">Atomic structure and bonding</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43381"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Atomic-structure-and-bonding#ref43381">Atomic structure</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43382"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Atomic-structure-and-bonding#ref43382">The Bohr model</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43383" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Atomic-structure-and-bonding#ref43383">The quantum mechanical model</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43384"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Atomic-structure-and-bonding#ref43384">The location of the electron</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43385"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Atomic-structure-and-bonding#ref43385">Quantum numbers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43386"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Shapes-of-atomic-orbitals">Shapes of atomic orbitals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43387" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Shapes-of-atomic-orbitals#ref43387">The building-up principle</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref336555"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Shapes-of-atomic-orbitals#ref336555">Hydrogen and helium</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43388"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Shapes-of-atomic-orbitals#ref43388">Lithium through neon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43389"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Shapes-of-atomic-orbitals#ref43389">Sodium through argon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43390"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Shapes-of-atomic-orbitals#ref43390">Potassium through krypton</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43391"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Periodic-arrangement-and-trends">Periodic arrangement and trends</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43392"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Periodic-arrangement-and-trends#ref43392">Arrangement of the elements</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43393" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Periodic-arrangement-and-trends#ref43393">Periodic trends in properties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43394"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Periodic-arrangement-and-trends#ref43394">Atomic size</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43395"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Periodic-arrangement-and-trends#ref43395">Ionization energy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43396"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Electron-affinity">Electron affinity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43397"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Electron-affinity#ref43397">Electronegativity</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref43398"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Electron-affinity#ref43398">Bonds between atoms</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Electron-affinity#ref43399">The formation of ionic bonds</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43400"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Electron-affinity#ref43400">Lewis formulation of an ionic bond</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43401"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-Born-Haber-cycle">The Born-Haber cycle</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43402"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-Born-Haber-cycle#ref43402">Factors favouring ionic bonding</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43403"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Covalent-bonds">Covalent bonds</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43404"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Covalent-bonds#ref43404">Lewis formulation of a covalent bond</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43405" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Covalent-bonds#ref43405">Advanced aspects of Lewis structures</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43406"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Covalent-bonds#ref43406">Multiple bonds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43407"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Covalent-bonds#ref43407">Resonance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43408"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Hypervalence">Hypervalence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Hypervalence#ref43409">Incomplete-octet compounds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref43410"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Hypervalence#ref43410">Electron-deficient compounds</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43411"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Molecular-shapes-and-VSEPR-theory">Molecular shapes and VSEPR theory</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43412"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Molecular-shapes-and-VSEPR-theory#ref43412">Applying VSEPR theory to simple molecules</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43413"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Molecular-shapes-and-VSEPR-theory#ref43413">Molecules with multiple bonds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43414"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Molecules-with-no-central-atom">Molecules with no central atom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Molecules-with-no-central-atom#ref43415">Limitations of the VSEPR model</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43416"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-polarity-of-molecules">The polarity of molecules</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref43417"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-quantum-mechanics-of-bonding">The quantum mechanics of bonding</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43418"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-quantum-mechanics-of-bonding#ref43418">Valence bond theory</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43419"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Formation-of-s-and-p-bonds">Formation of σ and π bonds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43420"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Formation-of-s-and-p-bonds#ref43420">Promotion of electrons</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43421"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Formation-of-s-and-p-bonds#ref43421">Hybridization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43422"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Resonant-structures">Resonant structures</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43423"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Resonant-structures#ref43423">Molecular orbital theory</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43424"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Molecular-orbitals-of-H2-and-He2">Molecular orbitals of H<sub>2</sub> and He<sub>2</sub></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43425"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Molecular-orbitals-of-H2-and-He2#ref43425">Molecular orbitals of period-2 diatomic molecules</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43426"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Molecular-orbitals-of-polyatomic-species">Molecular orbitals of polyatomic species</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43427"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Molecular-orbitals-of-polyatomic-species#ref43427">The role of delocalization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref43428"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Molecular-orbitals-of-polyatomic-species#ref43428">Comparison of the VB and MO theories</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref43429"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Intermolecular-forces">Intermolecular forces</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43430"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Intermolecular-forces#ref43430">Repulsive force</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43431"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Intermolecular-forces#ref43431">Dipole–dipole interaction</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43432"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Intermolecular-forces#ref43432">Dipole–induced-dipole interaction</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43433"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/Intermolecular-forces#ref43433">Dispersion interaction</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43434"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-hydrogen-bond">The hydrogen bond</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref43435"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-hydrogen-bond#ref43435">Varieties of solids</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43436"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/chemical-bonding/The-hydrogen-bond#ref43436">Ionic solids</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref43437"><a 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Atkins</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Fellow of Lincoln College, University of Oxford; Lecturer in Physical Chemistry, University of Oxford. Coauthor of <em>Molecular Quantum Mechanics</em> and many others; author of <em>On Being</em> and...</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Peter W. 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They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-10-30T00:00:00CDT" >Oct 30, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-bonding/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Linus-Pauling" topicid="447161">Linus Pauling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Irving-Langmuir" topicid="329738">Irving Langmuir</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Walter-Kohn" topicid="321127">Walter Kohn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/William-Lipscomb-Jr" topicid="342987">William Nunn Lipscomb, Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Robert-S-Mulliken" topicid="396927">Robert Sanderson Mulliken</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/science/theory-of-resonance" topicid="499417">theory of resonance</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/chemical-association" topicid="108563">chemical association</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/electronegativity" topicid="183721">electronegativity</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/bond-energy" topicid="684111">bond energy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/intermolecular-forces" topicid="290472">intermolecular forces</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>On the Web: </dt> <dd><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-31036-6" target="_blank">Nature - Nature Communications - The role of references and the elusive nature of the chemical bond</a> (Oct. 30, 2024)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/chemical-bonding"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref478345"></span>chemical bonding</strong>, any of the interactions that account for the association of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/atom" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">atoms</a> into <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/molecule" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">molecules</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ion-physics" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ions</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/crystal" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">crystals</a>, and other stable species that make up the familiar substances of the everyday world. When atoms approach one another, their nuclei and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/electron" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">electrons</a> interact and tend to distribute themselves in space in such a way that the total <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/energy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">energy</a> is lower than it would be in any <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="alternative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alternative" data-type="MW">alternative</a> arrangement. If the total energy of a group of atoms is lower than the sum of the energies of the component atoms, they then bond together and the energy lowering is the bonding energy.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The ideas that helped to establish the nature of chemical bonding came to fruition during the early 20th century, after the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/electron" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">electron</a> had been discovered and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum-mechanics-physics" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">quantum mechanics</a> had provided a language for the description of the behaviour of electrons in atoms. However, even though chemists need <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="quantum" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/quantum" data-type="MW">quantum</a> mechanics to attain a detailed quantitative understanding of bond formation, much of their <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="pragmatic" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pragmatic" data-type="MW">pragmatic</a> understanding of bonds is expressed in simple intuitive models. These models treat bonds as primarily of two kinds—namely, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ionic-bond" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ionic</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/covalent-bond" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">covalent</a>. The type of bond that is most likely to occur between two atoms can be predicted on the basis of the location of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-element" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">elements</a> in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/periodic-table" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">periodic table</a>, and to some extent the properties of the substances so formed can be related to the type of bonding.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A key concept in a discussion of chemical bonding is that of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/molecule" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">molecule</a>. Molecules are the smallest units of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">compounds</a> that can exist. One feature of molecules that can be predicted with reasonable success is their shape. Molecular shapes are of considerable importance for understanding the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-reaction" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">reactions</a> that <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="compounds" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compounds" data-type="MW">compounds</a> can undergo, and so the link between chemical bonding and chemical reactivity is discussed briefly in this article.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="237813" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/193986-050-7B2DBB6A/ball-and-stick-model-structure-atoms.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/684121/237813"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/193986-050-7B2DBB6A/ball-and-stick-model-structure-atoms.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/193986-050-7B2DBB6A/ball-and-stick-model-structure-atoms.jpg?w=300" alt="molecular structure" data-width="1600" data-height="1172" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/193986-050-7B2DBB6A/ball-and-stick-model-structure-atoms.jpg" data-href="/media/1/684121/237813">molecular structure</a><span>A ball-and-stick model of molecular structure, showing atoms bonded together.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Although simple models of bonding are useful as rules of thumb for rationalizing the existence of compounds and the physical and chemical properties and structures of molecules, they need to be justified by appealing to more-sophisticated descriptions of bonding. Moreover, there are some aspects of molecular structure that are beyond the scope of the simple theories. To achieve this insight, it is necessary to resort to a fully <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">quantum</a> mechanical description. In practice, these descriptions entail heavy reliance on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/computer" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">computers</a>. Such numerical approaches to the chemical bond provide important information about bonding.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">This article begins by describing the historical evolution of the current understanding of chemical bonding and then discusses how modern theories of the formation of chemical bonds have emerged and developed into a powerful description of the structure of matter. After the historical introduction, qualitative models of bonding are discussed, with particular attention given to the formation of ionic and covalent bonds and the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="correlation" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/correlation" data-type="EB">correlation</a> of the latter with molecular shapes. The more-sophisticated quantum mechanical approaches to bond formation are then described, followed by a survey of a number of special cases that raise interesting problems or lead to important insights.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/facts-you-should-know-the-periodic-table-quiz" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/58/203458-131-D94E9327/periodic-table-concept.jpg" alt="Periodic Table of the elements concept image (chemistry)" class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">Facts You Should Know: The Periodic Table Quiz</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">For a detailed discussion of the structure and properties of atoms, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/atom" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">atom</a>. Chemical compounds are surveyed in the article <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">chemical compound</a>, and the elements are described in the article <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-element" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">chemical element</a>.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref43362"> <h2 class="h1">Historical review</h2> <section data-level="2" id="ref43363"> <h2 class="h2">Emergence of quantitative chemistry</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The early Greeks, most notably <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Democritus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Democritus</a>, argued that <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/matter" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">matter</a> is composed of fundamental particles called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/atom" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">atoms</a>. The views of the <span id="ref478346"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/atomism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">atomists</a>, however, lacked the authority that comes from experiment, and evidence of the existence of atoms was not forthcoming for two millennia until the emergence of quantitative, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="empirical" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/empirical" data-type="MW">empirical</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/science" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">science</a> in the 18th century.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; 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Chemical bonding | Definition, Types, & Examples | Britannica