CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns# fb: http://ogp.me/ns/fb# article: http://ogp.me/ns/article#"> <title>Religion in the Ancient World - World History Encyclopedia</title>   <link rel="preload" fetchpriority="high" href="/template/images/bg_timeline.png" as="image"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.consentmanager.net"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://b.delivery.consentmanager.net">  <link rel="preconnect" href="https://btloader.com"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://static.cloudflareinsights.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://tpc.googlesyndication.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://adservice.google.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://www.googleadservices.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://sb.scorecardresearch.co">  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, shrink-to-fit=no"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <meta name="theme-color" content="#082865" /> <meta name="msapplication-navbutton-color" content="#082865"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="#082865"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="description" content="Religion (from the Latin Religio, meaning 'restraint,' or Relegere, according to Cicero, meaning 'to repeat, to read again,' or, most likely, Religionem, 'to..."> <meta name="keywords" content="Religion,Aztec Sacrifice,Brahmanism,Christianity,Egypt,Egyptian Burial,Enheduanna,India,Jainism,Judaism"> <meta name="author" content="Joshua J. Mark"> <meta name="subjects" content="StatesCultures,ReligionMythology,DailyLife,ArtArchitecture"> <meta name="periods" content="Ancient,Medieval"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="ar" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/ar/1-131/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="fr" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/1-131/religion-dans-le-monde-antique/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="es" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/es/1-131/la-religion-en-la-antiguedad/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="tr" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/tr/1-131/antik-dunyada-din/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="en" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="x-default" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/" /> <meta property="push:bimage" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/750x750/2235.jpg"/> <meta http-equiv="Content-Security-Policy" content="upgrade-insecure-requests"> <meta name="impact-site-verification" value="-720600813" /> <meta name="p:domain_verify" content="b24695bfa00137b2e95cb4ca94c3f5dd"/> <meta property="twitter:account_id" content="4503599627388175" /> <meta name="flattr:id" content="62l7dn">  <meta property="og:type" content="article"> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="World History Encyclopedia"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x627/2235.jpg"> <meta property="og:title" content="Religion in the Ancient World"> <meta property="og:description" content="Religion (from the Latin Religio, meaning 'restraint,' or Relegere, according to Cicero, meaning 'to repeat, to read again,' or, most likely, Religionem, 'to show respect for what is sacred') is an..."> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook">  <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@whencyclopedia"> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Religion in the Ancient World"> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Religion (from the Latin Religio, meaning 'restraint,' or Relegere, according to Cicero, meaning 'to repeat, to read again,' or, most likely, Religionem, 'to show respect for what is sacred') is an..."> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@whencyclopedia"> <meta name="twitter:image:src" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x627/2235.jpg"> <meta name="twitter:domain" content="https://www.worldhistory.org">  <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/" />  <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Organization","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","brand":"World History Encyclopedia","legalName":"World History Publishing Ltd","name":"World History Encyclopedia","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org","sameAs":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/template/images/header/whe-logo-954x231px.png","duns":"218445829","address":{"@type":"PostalAddress","addressCountry":"United Kingdom","addressLocality":"Godalming","addressRegion":"Surrey","postalCode":"GU7 1HE","streetAddress":"Brook House, Mint Street"},"logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/template/images/header/whe-logo-318x77px.png","width":318,"height":77}} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org","potentialAction":{"@type":"SearchAction","target":"https://www.worldhistory.org/search/?q={search_term_string}","query-input":"required name=search_term_string"},"publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","name":"World History Encyclopedia"} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","about":{"@type":"Thing","name":"world religions","description":"five or more largest and most widespread religious movements","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q54073114"},"author":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/#person","name":"Joshua J. Mark","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG","description":"Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.","jobTitle":"Content Director","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"citation":[{"@type":"Book","name":"Philosophic Classics Volume I: Ancient Philosophy","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Baird, F. E. & Kaufmann, W"},"isbn":"B00N4JLYDG","datePublished":"2007","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Prentice Hall"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"The History of the Ancient World","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Bauer, S.W"},"isbn":"039305974X","datePublished":"2007","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"W. W. Norton & Company"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Black, J"},"isbn":"0292707940","datePublished":"1992","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"University of Texas Press"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Bulfinch's Mythology","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Bulfinch, T"},"isbn":"B002RKT4NA","datePublished":"2009","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Public Domain Books"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Lives of the Eminent Philosophers","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Diogenes Laertius & Yonge, C. D"},"isbn":"0190862173","datePublished":"2012","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Oxford University Press"}},{"@type":"WebPage","name":"Ghosts in the Ancient World by Joshua J. Mark","url":"https://www.ancient.eu/ghost/","lastReviewed":"2020-05-15T16:39:16+0000"},{"@type":"WebPage","name":"Greek Religion by Mark Cartwright","url":"https://www.ancient.eu/Greek_Religion/","lastReviewed":"2020-05-15T16:39:16+0000"},{"@type":"Book","name":"Asian Philosophies","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Koller, J.M"},"isbn":"0205168981","datePublished":"2004","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Routledge"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"The Ancient World: A Social and Cultural History","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Nagle, D. B"},"isbn":"0205637442","datePublished":"2009","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Pearson"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Egyptian Mythology","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Nardo, D"},"isbn":"076601407X","datePublished":"2001","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Enslow Publishers"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Exploring Cultural History - Living in Ancient Rome","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Nardo, D"},"isbn":"0737714565","datePublished":"2003","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Greenhaven Press"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Pinch, G"},"isbn":"0195170245","datePublished":"2004","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Oxford University Press"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"The Collected Dialogues of Plato","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Plato"},"isbn":"0691097186","datePublished":"2005","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Princeton University Press"}},{"@type":"WebPage","name":"Roman Household Spirits by Joshua J. Mark","url":"https://www.ancient.eu/article/34/","lastReviewed":"2020-05-15T16:39:16+0000"},{"@type":"Book","name":"The World's Religions","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Smith, H"},"isbn":"0061660183","datePublished":"2009","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Harper One Publishers"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"The Mysterious Maya","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Stuart, G.E"},"isbn":"0870442333","datePublished":"1977","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"National Geographic Society"}}],"copyrightNotice":"By: Joshua J. Mark - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creditText":"Joshua J. Mark (World History Encyclopedia, https://www.worldhistory.org, CC BY-NC-SA)","dateModified":"2024-04-17T07:57:40+0000","datePublished":"2018-03-23T08:05:33+0000","description":"Religion (from the Latin Religio, meaning 'restraint,' or Relegere, according to Cicero, meaning 'to repeat, to read again,' or, most likely, Religionem, 'to show respect for what is sacred') is an...","headline":"Religion in the Ancient World","image":["https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/2235.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1600x900/2235.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x900/2235.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/2235.jpg"],"inLanguage":{"@type":"Language","name":"English","alternateName":"en"},"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","keywords":"Aztec Sacrifice,Brahmanism,Christianity,Egypt,Egyptian Burial,Enheduanna,India,Jainism,Judaism,Mesopotamia,Mesopotamian Religion,Mithra,Moses,Mythology,Pazuzu,Pyramids,Religion","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/","mentions":[{"@type":"Thing","name":"Ancient Egypt","description":"Egyptian civilization from the 31st century BC to the 1st century BC","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11768"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Ancient Egyptian burial customs","description":"elaborate set of funerary practices","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830440"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Ancient India","description":"overview of and topical guide to ancient India","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3149991"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Brahmanism","description":"South Asian religion","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q889766"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Christianity","description":"Abrahamic monotheistic religion","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5043"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Enheduanna","description":"Sumerian high priestess of Inanna","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q232505"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Jainism","description":"Indian religion","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9232"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Mesopotamia","description":"area of the Tigris\u2013Euphrates river system","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11767"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Ancient Mesopotamian religion","description":"religion","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21028568"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Mitra","description":"Indo-Iranian divinity, later worshipped as the Zoroastrian Mithra (Q12614595) and the Roman mystery god Mithras (Q99743232)","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6497135"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Moses","description":"Abrahamic prophet said to have led the Israelites out of Egypt","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9077"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"mythology","description":"stories of gods and fairies and fantastic creatures","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9134"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Pazuzu","description":"Mesopotamian demon","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q732551"}],"publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","publishingPrinciples":"https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/","speakable":{"@type":"SpeakableSpecification","cssSelector":["h1","article"]},"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/"} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"FAQPage","mainEntity":[{"@type":"Question","name":"What is the oldest religion in the world?","acceptedAnswer":{"@type":"Answer","text":"Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world still practiced today. It was established c. 5500 BCE. "}},{"@type":"Question","name":"Where does the word religion come from and what does it mean?","acceptedAnswer":{"@type":"Answer","text":"The word religion comes from the Latin language and means either \"restraint\" or \"to repeat\" or \"to show respect for what is sacred\" or possibly all three at once. "}},{"@type":"Question","name":"Is Zoroastrianism still practiced today?","acceptedAnswer":{"@type":"Answer","text":"Zoroastrianism is still practiced today, primarily in Iran and India. "}},{"@type":"Question","name":"What is the most popular or widely practiced religion in the world? ","acceptedAnswer":{"@type":"Answer","text":"Christianity is the most popular and widely practiced religion in the world. "}}]} </script>  <script type="text/javascript"> window.AHE = {}; AHE.domain = 'worldhistory.org'; AHE.lastDeploy = '1732096425'; AHE.ayEntityID = 'rBndncCqbjkzwhcPC'; window.idleQueue = []; const coreScriptsLoadedEvent = new Event('coreScriptsReady'); </script>  <script>function async_load_js(script_url,cbfunc,defer){if(defer==undefined)defer=true;var s=document.createElement('script');s.src=script_url;if(defer){s.defer=true}else s.async=true;s.importance='low';s.fetchpriority='low';var x=document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0];x.parentNode.append(s);if(cbfunc)s.addEventListener('load',function(e){cbfunc(e)},{once:true});if(cbfunc)s.addEventListener('error',function(e){cbfunc(e)},{once:true})} function scheduleIdleQueue(){if(window.idleQueue.length>0)if(window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled){return}else{window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled=true;if('requestIdleCallback'in window){requestIdleCallback(processIdleQueue,{timeout:2e3})}else processIdleQueue()}} function processIdleQueue(deadline){window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled=false;if(typeof deadline==='undefined')deadline={timeRemaining:function(){return Number.MAX_VALUE}};while((deadline.timeRemaining()>0||deadline.didTimeout)&&window.idleQueue.length>0){var queueFunc=window.idleQueue.shift();queueFunc()};scheduleIdleQueue()} function jsQueue(func){window.idleQueue.push(func);if(window.pageIsReady)if(document.readyState=='complete'||document.readyState=='loaded'||document.readyState=='interactive')scheduleIdleQueue()} function getUrlParameter(url,name){name=name.replace(/[\[]/,'\\[').replace(/[\]]/,'\\]');var regex=new RegExp('[\\?&]'+name+'=([^&#]*)'),results=regex.exec(url);return results===null?'':decodeURIComponent(results[1].replace(/\+/g,' '))} function get_media_layout(){var width=document.documentElement.clientWidth;if(width<768){return"mobile"}else if(width<992){return"tablet"}else if(width<1200){return"desktop-narrow"}else return"desktop-wide"} function getCookie(c_name){var i,x,y,ARRcookies=document.cookie.split(";");for(i=0;i<ARRcookies.length;i++){x=ARRcookies[i].substr(0,ARRcookies[i].indexOf("="));y=ARRcookies[i].substr(ARRcookies[i].indexOf("=")+1);x=x.replace(/^\s+|\s+$/g,"");if(x==c_name)return unescape(y)}} function jsonStore(key,value){if(value){return localStorage.setItem(key,JSON.stringify(value))}else return JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem(key))}</script>  <script defer class="requiredJS ipJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/ajax/visitor-info.js.php?v=1732096425"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/jquery@3.6.1/dist/jquery.min.js"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/js/ahe-min.js?v=1732096425"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/analytics/pageview.js?v=1732096425"></script>  <script> var url_parts = window.location.href.split("/"); var is_member = 0; var subdomain = url_parts[2].split(".")[0]; var currentURL = window.location.href; </script>  <script> var requiredScripts = document.querySelectorAll('.requiredJS'); var loadedScripts = 0; const scriptsReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { requiredScripts.forEach(function(elem) { elem.addEventListener('load',function(elem) { loadedScripts++; if (loadedScripts == requiredScripts.length) { console.log('scriptsReady'); dispatchEvent(coreScriptsLoadedEvent); document.coreScriptsReady = true; resolve('scriptsLoaded'); } },false) }); }); const ipScriptReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.querySelector('.ipJS').addEventListener('load',function(elem) { console.log('ipScriptReady'); document.ipReady = true; resolve('ipScriptReady'); },false); }); const pageReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", function() { scriptsReady.then(function() { setTimeout(function() { window.pageIsReady = true; resolve('pageReady'); },50); }) }); }); const privacyReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { pageReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.isEU) { AHE.tcfConsentResolved = false; // CMP Listener Loop let cmpListenerInvterval = setInterval(()=>{ if (typeof window.__cmp == 'function') { AHE.consentStatus = __cmp('consentStatus'); AHE.consentData = __cmp('getCMPData'); if (typeof AHE.consentStatus == 'object' && AHE.consentStatus.userChoiceExists == true) { /* Purpose 1 - Store and/or access information on a device Purpose 2 - Select basic ads Purpose 3 - Create a personalized ads profile Purpose 4 - Select personalized ads Purpose 5 - Create a personalized content profile Purpose 6 - Select personalized content Purpose 7 - Measure ad performance Purpose 8 - Measure content performance Purpose 9 - Apply market research to generate audience insights Purpose 10 - Develop and improve products */ if (AHE.consentData.gdprApplies === true) { // EU Privacy Rules AHE.usPrivacyString = '1---'; if (typeof AHE.consentData.purposeConsents == 'object' && typeof AHE.consentData.purposeConsents[1] == 'boolean') { let purposes = AHE.consentData.purposeConsents; AHE.privacyAdConsent = (purposes[2] && purposes[3] && purposes[4] && purposes[7]) || false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = (purposes[5] && purposes[6] && purposes[8]) || false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = (purposes[8]) || false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } else if (AHE.consentStatus.userChoiceExists) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } } else if (AHE.consentData.gdprApplies === false) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = true; AHE.privacyContentConsent = true; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = true; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } } } if (AHE.tcfConsentResolved) { clearInterval(cmpListenerInvterval); console.log('Privacy consent (region | advertising | content | analytics):','EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } },100); // Fallback timeout setTimeout(()=>{ if (!AHE.tcfConsentResolved) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; clearInterval(cmpListenerInvterval); console.warn('Privacy consent TIMEOUT (region | advertising | content | analytics):','EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } },10000); } else { // No Privacy Rules AHE.privacyAdConsent = true; AHE.privacyContentConsent = true; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = true; console.log('Privacy consent (region | advertising | content | analytics):','non-EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } }); }); const deferredLoadedEvent = new Event('deferredLoaded'); const deferredReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.addEventListener('deferredLoaded',function(elem) { resolve('deferredReady'); }) }); </script>  <script type="text/javascript"> var tag = "religion"; var tags_json = ["Aztec_Sacrifice","Brahmanism","christianity","egypt","Egyptian_Burial","Enheduanna","india","jainism","judaism","Mesopotamia","Mesopotamian_Religion","Mithra","Moses","mythology","Pazuzu","pyramids","religion"]; var media_layout = get_media_layout(); var euCountries = ["at", "be", "bg", "cy", "cz", "de", "dk", "ee", "es", "fi", "fr", "gb", "gr", "hr", "hu", "ie", "it", "is", "lt", "lu", "lv", "mt", "nl", "pl", "pt", "ro", "se", "si", "sk"]; var USDGBP = 0.79815; var EURGBP = 0.83151; var is_admin = 0; var ci_title = "Religion in the Ancient World"; var forced_country = getUrlParameter(window.location.href,"country"); // A/B Testing let abParameter = getUrlParameter(window.location.href,"ab"); if (['a','b','c'].includes(abParameter)) { console.log('Set A/B test to ' + abParameter) AHE.ab = abParameter; } else if (getCookie('ahe_ab_group') == 'a' || getCookie('ahe_ab_group') == 'b') { AHE.ab = getCookie('ahe_ab_group'); } else if (Math.random() >= 0.5) { AHE.ab = 'a'; } else { AHE.ab = 'b'; } console.log('A/B group: ',AHE.ab); // Core Definitions AHE.contentLang = 'en'; AHE.siteName = 'World History Encyclopedia'; AHE.ci_id = "1-131"; AHE.ci_type_id = 1; AHE.ci_type = 'Definition'; AHE.ci_author = 'JPryst'; AHE.ci_author_id = '594'; AHE.ci_translator_id = ''; AHE.lang_rtl = 0; AHE.ci_trans = 0; AHE.ci_translator = ''; AHE.siteKeywords = 'history,ancient,antiquity,medieval,education,k12,university,travel,culture,heritage'; AHE.contentKeywords = ["Aztec Sacrifice","Brahmanism","Christianity","Egypt","Egyptian Burial","Enheduanna","India","Jainism","Judaism","Mesopotamia","Mesopotamian Religion","Mithra","Moses","Mythology","Pazuzu","Pyramids","Religion","Religion in the Ancient World"]; AHE.contentKeywords.push('History'); AHE.cattaxIAB = 6; AHE.siteIAB = [ '132', // Education '133', // Adult Education '135', // Secondary Education '137', // College Education '141', // Undergraduate Education '145', // Homeschooling '146', // Homework & Study '148', // Online Education '1001', // Editorial / Professional '1011', // Academic Research Content '1013', // Educational Content '1216', // Professionally Produced ]; AHE.contentTitle = ci_title; AHE.contentUrl = 'https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/'; AHE.canonicalPath = '/religion/'; AHE.contentIAB = Array.from(AHE.siteIAB); AHE.userLoggedin = '0'; AHE.digiTrustMemberID = 'Rk7R77ItMJ'; AHE.digiTrustSiteID = 'blvtF3tRZY'; AHE.userActivityTimeout = 120; AHE.categories = {"ci_subject_ids":[2,6,9,10],"ci_region_ids":[16],"ci_period_ids":[2,3],"ci_categories":[80]}; AHE.categoriesHuman = {"ci_subject_ids":["StatesCultures","ReligionMythology","DailyLife","ArtArchitecture"],"ci_region_ids":[""],"ci_period_ids":["Ancient","Medieval"],"ci_categories":["Featured"]}; AHE.media_layout = media_layout; AHE.is_admin = is_admin; AHE.is_member = AHE.is_member || 0; AHE.is_editor = 0; AHE.prebidAuctionRun = false; AHE.adLoadMethod = null; AHE.deferredLoaded = false; AHE.deferredTimeout = 5000; // milliseconds AHE.search_term = null; AHE.usPrivacyString = getCookie('usprivacy') || false; AHE.usPrivacyOptOut = false; AHE.pubcidOptout = getCookie('_pubcid_optout') || false; AHE.cmpLinkMoved = false; AHE.isEU = false; AHE.isUS = false; AHE.deviceType = (AHE.media_layout == 'mobile' || AHE.media_layout == 'tablet') ? 'mobile' : 'desktop'; AHE.idHashSha1 = null || getCookie('esh1') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'es1') || null; AHE.idHashSha256 = null || getCookie('esh') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'esh') || null; AHE.idHashSha256Clean = null || getCookie('esh-clean') || null; AHE.idHashMd5 = null || getCookie('emd') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'emd') || null; AHE.imageErrors = []; AHE.visitCount = Math.max(1, (getCookie("visitCount") || 0) * 1); AHE.pageViewCount = Math.max(1, (getCookie("pageViewCount") || 0) * 1); AHE.articleReadCount = (getCookie('articleReadCount') || 0) * 1; AHE.interestEmailOptIn = getCookie('interest_email_opt_in'); AHE.interestGroup = getCookie('interestGroup') || null; AHE.mcLists = getCookie('mcLists'); AHE.feedbackThanks = 'Thank you for your feedback!'; AHE.membershipPrices = {"co":{"price":12000,"cursymb":"COP","curticker":"COP","curname":"Colombian Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkpUk1JnvM","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkPcVXm37P"},"ph":{"price":140,"cursymb":"PHP","curticker":"PHP","curname":"Philippine Pisos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkEoLUtx27","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkOYQa1lvS"},"in":{"price":150,"cursymb":"\u20b9","curticker":"INR","curname":"Indian Rupees","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkDIggQ5Kk","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdFQe2TOl"},"ca":{"price":6,"cursymb":"CA$","curticker":"CAD","curname":"Canadian Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtk3h0ZzsHk","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtk8R6BfmDY"},"ar":{"price":300,"cursymb":"ARS","curticker":"ARS","curname":"Argentine Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkSgP1i7ry","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkmn9cSOWz"},"mx":{"price":60,"cursymb":"MX$","curticker":"MXN","curname":"Mexican Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkJuSy5Bu9","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkWWocq1D9"},"au":{"price":6.5,"cursymb":"A$","curticker":"AUD","curname":"Australian Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdjUrjeVm","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdDShq92X"},"eu":{"price":4,"cursymb":"\u20ac","curticker":"EUR","curname":"Euros","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkE9eS0s1w","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkaWNWJlaJ"},"gb":{"price":3.5,"cursymb":"\u00a3","curticker":"GBP","curname":"British Pounds","monthly":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkJP6XWDj7","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkWMIAjA35"},"us":{"price":5,"cursymb":"$","curticker":"USD","curname":"US Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkNDtNDiIi","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkYAGjycku"}}; AHE.userEngagement = 'none'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 0; AHE.userDevice = {}; AHE.userID = ''; AHE.appNexusUser = { language: navigator.language.substr(0,2) }; AHE.appNexusSupplyType = media_layout.includes('desktop') ? 'web' : 'mobile_web'; AHE.isHumanVerified = getCookie('whe_hv') || 0; AHE.isBot = navigator.webdriver || /bot|crawl|spider|googleother|google-extended|apis-google|mediapartners|baidu|bing|msn|teoma|slurp|yandex|anthropic|claude|chatgpt|cohere/i.test(navigator.userAgent); AHE.isIVT = false; AHE.IPv4 = null; AHE.IPv6 = null; AHE.cfTurnstileKey = '0x4AAAAAAAAwX90u0VMXFYiR'; AHE.gamTags = [].concat(tags_json); AHE.popupShown = null; AHE.cachebuster = Math.round(Math.random()*10000000); // JS-dependent definitions scriptsReady.then(function() { window.userLastActivity = Math.floor(Date.now() / 1000); AHE.privacyAdConsent = AHE.privacyAdConsent || getCookie('privacyAdConsent') || false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = AHE.privacyContentConsent || getCookie('privacyContentConsent') || false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent || getCookie('privacyAnalyticsConsent') || false; // Store A/B Test Cookie setCookie('ahe_ab_group',AHE.ab); // IP Information if (typeof clientIP == 'string') { if (clientIP.includes(':')) { AHE.IPv6 = clientIP; } else if (clientIP.includes('.')) { AHE.IPv4 = clientIP; } } // Engagement Categories if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 15 && AHE.articleReadCount >= 3 && AHE.visitCount >= 4) { AHE.userEngagement = 'veryhigh'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 4; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 7 && AHE.articleReadCount >= 2 && AHE.visitCount >= 3) { AHE.userEngagement = 'high'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 3; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 3 && AHE.visitCount >= 2) { AHE.userEngagement = 'medium'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 2; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 2) { AHE.userEngagement = 'low'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 1; } else { AHE.userEngagement = 'none'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 0; } if (!AHE.idHashMd5) { AHE.knownUser = 0; } else { AHE.knownUser = 1; } if (typeof AHE.mcLists == 'string') { AHE.mcLists = AHE.mcLists.split(','); } else { AHE.mcLists = []; } // Country-Specific JS adminLog("IP Country: " + ipCountry); if (forced_country) { console.log("ipCountry override: " + forced_country); ipCountry = forced_country; } AHE.ipCountry = ipCountry; if (euCountries.includes(ipCountry)) { // EU User AHE.isEU = true; } else if (ipCountry == 'us') { // US User AHE.isUS = true; } else { // Other Country } // Inline JS (if any) }); </script>   <script data-no-optimize="1" data-cfasync="false"> ipScriptReady.then(()=>{ console.log(AHE); if (AHE.is_member) { // Has Membership, Remove Ads console.log('Membership detected!'); pageReady.then(()=>{ handleMemberLayout(); }); } else { // No Membership, Show Ads (function(w, d) { w.adthrive = w.adthrive || {}; w.adthrive.cmd = w. adthrive.cmd || []; w.adthrive.plugin = 'adthrive-ads-manual'; w.adthrive.host = 'ads.adthrive.com';var s = d.createElement('script'); s.async = true; s.fetchPriority = 'high'; s.importance = 'high'; s.referrerpolicy='no-referrer-when-downgrade'; s.src = 'https://' + w.adthrive.host + '/sites/65a6e420255ef424515e267b/ads.min.js?referrer=' + w.encodeURIComponent(w.location.href) + '&cb=' + (Math.floor(Math.random() * 100) + 1); var n = d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; n.parentNode.insertBefore(s, n); })(window, document); try { window.adthrive.cmd.push(function() { window.adthrive.siteAds.targeting.push( {key: 'at_custom_1', value: (AHE.interestGroup || 'unknown')} ); }); window.adthrive.cmd.push(function() { window.adthrive.siteAds.targeting.push( {key: 'at_custom_2', value: (AHE.contentLang || 'en')} ); }); console.log('Raptive interest group & language set:',(AHE.interestGroup || 'unknown'),(AHE.contentLang || 'en')); } catch (e) { console.warn('Error setting Raptive user group!',e); } } }); </script>   <script> !function(){"use strict";function e(e){const t=e.match(/((?=([a-z0-9._!#$%+^&*()[\]<>-]+))\2@[a-z0-9._-]+\.[a-z0-9._-]+)/gi);return t?t[0]:""}function t(t){return e(a(t.toLowerCase()))}function a(e){return e.replace(/\s/g,"")}async function n(e){const t={sha256Hash:"",sha1Hash:""};if(!("msCrypto"in window)&&"https:"===location.protocol&&"crypto"in window&&"TextEncoder"in window){const a=(new TextEncoder).encode(e),[n,c]=await Promise.all([s("SHA-256",a),s("SHA-1",a)]);t.sha256Hash=n,t.sha1Hash=c}return t}async function s(e,t){const a=await crypto.subtle.digest(e,t);return Array.from(new Uint8Array(a)).map(e=>("00"+e.toString(16)).slice(-2)).join("")}function c(e){let t=!0;return Object.keys(e).forEach(a=>{0===e[a].length&&(t=!1)}),t}function i(e,t,a){e.splice(t,1);const n="?"+e.join("&")+a.hash;history.replaceState(null,"",n)}var o={checkEmail:e,validateEmail:t,trimInput:a,hashEmail:n,hasHashes:c,removeEmailAndReplaceHistory:i,detectEmails:async function(){const e=new URL(window.location.href),a=Array.from(e.searchParams.entries()).map(e=>`${e[0]}=${e[1]}`);let s,o;const r=["adt_eih","sh_kit"];if(a.forEach((e,t)=>{const a=decodeURIComponent(e),[n,c]=a.split("=");if("adt_ei"===n&&(s={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"url"}),r.includes(n)){o={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"sh_kit"===n?"urlhck":"urlh"}}}),s)t(s.value)&&n(s.value).then(e=>{if(c(e)){const t={value:e,created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(t)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",s.emsrc)}});else if(o){const e={value:{sha256Hash:o.value,sha1Hash:""},created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(e)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",o.emsrc)}s&&i(a,s.index,e),o&&i(a,o.index,e)},cb:"adthrive"};const{detectEmails:r,cb:l}=o;r()}(); </script>   <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ window.adthrive = window.adthrive || {}; window.adthrive.cmd = window.adthrive.cmd || []; if (AHE.idHashSha256 && AHE.domain) { window.adthrive.cmd.push(function () { let idHash = AHE.idHashSha256; if (AHE.idHashSha256Clean) { idHash = AHE.idHashSha256Clean; } window.adthrive.identityApi({ source: AHE.domain, sha256: idHash }, ({ success, data }) => { if (success) { // Identity API success! console.log(`Raptive Identity API success: ${data.message}`) } else { // Identity API error, check message console.error(`Error calling Raptive identity API: ${data.message}`) } }) }); } }); </script>   <link rel="stylesheet" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" type="text/css" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Karla:400,700|Libre+Baskerville:400,400i,700&subset=latin-ext&display=swap"> <style>aside .adthrive-ad.adthrive-sticky-sidebar{margin-top:40px !important}aside .adthrive-ad.adthrive-sticky-sidebar>div{top:20px !important}#primis_intext .adthrive-collapse-player{padding:0 !important}.adthrive-collapse-bottom-right{margin-right:10px !important}#footer .adthrive-footer-message{padding-bottom:40px}#footer .adthrive-footer-message>span{border-top:0;padding-top:5px;text-transform:none;color:#e0e0e0}.adthrive-device-phone #footer .adthrive-footer-message{margin-bottom:40px}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link{color:#e0e0e0 !important}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link a{color:#fff;text-decoration:none;border:1px solid #fff;border-radius:5px;padding:4px 8px;margin:10px;display:inline-block;font-weight:normal}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link a:hover{color:#293744;background-color:#fff}.ad_Mobile_Intext .adcontainer{min-height:250px}a.book_list_item:hover{text-decoration:none}a.book_list_item:hover .book_title{text-decoration:none;color:#b52600;transition:.25s}a.book_list_item{display:block;clear:both;min-height:115px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;padding:20px 0}a.book_list_item:first-of-type{border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3}.book_list_item .book_image{float:left;max-width:70px;height:auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.book_data{vertical-align:top;margin-left:120px}.book_list_item .book_title{font-size:18px;color:#000}.book_list_item .book_details{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%;font-weight:normal;color:#666}.book_list_item .book_pricing{margin:.33em 0}.book_pricing .amazon_icon,.book_pricing .bookdepository_icon{background-image:url("/images/amazon_icon.svg");width:16px;height:16px;display:inline-block;background-position:0 0;position:relative;top:4px;margin-right:2px;background-size:contain}.book_pricing .bookdepository_icon{background-position:10px 0;width:10px;margin-right:4px;top:3px}.book_list_item .book_price{color:#000;margin-right:1em}a.book_purchase_button{color:#000;display:inline-block;border:1px solid #222;border-radius:5px;padding:50px 15px 10px 15px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%;margin-right:20px;margin-bottom:10px;font-weight:normal;min-width:160px;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center 10px;text-align:center}a.book_purchase_button:hover{text-decoration:none;cursor:pointer;border:1px solid #000;background-color:#f3f3f3;transition:.25s}a.book_purchase_button.amazon{background-image:url('/images/amazon-logo.svg');background-size:100px;background-position:center 15px}a.book_purchase_button.bookshoporg{background-image:url('/images/bookshoporg-logo.svg');background-size:160px;background-position:center center}a.book_purchase_button.bookdepository{background-image:url('/images/book-depository-logo.svg');background-size:100px;background-position:center 7px}a.book_purchase_button.waterstones{background-image:url('/images/waterstones-logo.svg');background-size:60px;background-position:center 11px}a.book_purchase_button.betterworldbooks{background-image:url('/images/betterworldbooks-logo-150px.png');background-size:150px;background-position:center 10px}a.book_purchase_button .shipping{font-size:14px;color:#999}.book_purchase_buttons{margin:25px 0;background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:15px 20px;border-radius:5px;display:block}.book_purchase_buttons .purchase{text-transform:uppercase;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;margin-right:20px}.book_purchase_buttons .sym{color:#b52600;font-size:20px;position:relative;top:2px;margin-right:5px}.book_purchase_buttons .lp_download_wrapper{padding-left:28px;margin-top:5px}.book_purchase_affiliate_explainer{color:#999;font-family:Karla;font-size:14px;line-height:130%;margin-top:1em}.btn_book_blacklist{float:right}.headline_button,.content_button_tiny,.grey_button,.ci_rel_type{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#b52600;padding:0 10px;text-transform:uppercase;border-radius:5px;background-color:#f3f3f3;cursor:pointer}.content_button_tiny{top:0;float:right;margin-right:4px;padding:0 5px;line-height:160%;font-size:12px}a.ci_rel_type{font-weight:normal}.headline_button:hover,.content_button_tiny:hover,.grey_button:hover,.ci_rel_type:hover{background-color:#b52600;color:white;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}.outline_button{border:1px solid #222;padding:3px 10px;border-radius:3px;color:#222;font-family:Karla;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;cursor:pointer;font-weight:normal !important;white-space:nowrap}.outline_button:hover,.outline_button.selector:hover{color:#FFF !important;background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s;text-decoration:none;border:1px solid #222 !important}.outline_button.red{border:1px solid #b52600;color:#b52600}.outline_button.red:hover{border:1px solid #222;color:#FFF}.outline_button.selector{margin:5px 5px 0 0;display:inline-block;line-height:15px;text-transform:none;border:1px solid #999;color:#999}.outline_button.selected{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#b52600;color:white}.outline_button input{display:none}.ci_rel_type{display:inline-block;text-transform:none;cursor:pointer;margin:0 2px;top:auto}.ci_rel_type.selected,.grey_button.selected{background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.ci_rel_type.selected .ci_rel_type_count{color:#BBB}.ci_rel_type_count{display:none;margin-top:-11px;font-size:8pt;color:#666}.grey_button{float:none;line-height:15px;font-size:14px;white-space:pre;padding:7px 10px;margin:3px 7px 7px 0;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap}.grey_button.green{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14}.grey_button.green:hover{background-color:#6d9d14;color:white}.content_button,.link_button,input[type=submit],input[type=button],.link_button.external_link,.content_button.external_link{display:block;width:160px;overflow:hidden;color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:17px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;padding:6px 6px !important;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 0 5px 0;border-radius:5px;border:2px solid #b52600;background-color:white;position:relative;top:0;white-space:nowrap}input[type=submit].content_button,input[type=button].content_button{height:33px;top:-1px}.green_button{display:inline-block;color:#FFF;background-color:#1bb77d;font-weight:bold;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:17px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;padding:6px 12px !important;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 0 5px 0;border-radius:5px;border:2px solid #1bb77d;position:relative;top:-1px;white-space:nowrap}.green_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#1bca90;border-color:#1bca90;transition-duration:.25s}input[type=submit],input[type=button]{padding:8px inherit !important}.content_button:hover,.link_button:hover,input[type=submit]:hover,input[type=button]:hover{color:#FFF;text-decoration:none;background:#b52600;transition-duration:.25s}.content_button_narrow.inline,.content_button.inline{display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle}.content_button_narrow,.content_button.narrow{width:auto !important}.content_button.inline{display:inline-block;width:inherit;padding-left:20px !important;padding-right:20px !important}.content_button.red,.content_button.dark{display:inline-block;border:0;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;line-height:22px;width:auto;padding:6px 14px !important}.content_button.red:hover{background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.content_button.dark{background-color:#222}.content_button.dark:hover{background-color:#b52600;transition-duration:.25s}input[disabled],.content_button.disabled,.content_button_tiny.disabled,.content_button_narrow.disabled{color:silver !important;cursor:default !important}input[disabled].content_button,input[disabled].content_button_tiny,input[disabled].content_button_narrow,.content_button.disabled,.content_button_tiny.disabled,.content_button_narrow.disabled{border:2px solid silver !important}input[disabled]:hover,.content_button.disabled:hover,.content_button_tiny.disabled:hover,.content_button_narrow.disabled:hover{color:silver !important;background-color:white !important}.social_login_button{display:block;width:174px;height:35px;background-image:url('/images/social_signin_buttons.png');background-color:silver}.social_login_button:hover{opacity:.9;transition-duration:.25s}.social_login_button.google{background-position:0 0}.social_login_button.twitter{background-position:0 -36px}.social_login_button.facebook{background-position:0 71px}.social_login_button.patreon{background-position:0 35px}.big_red_button:hover{text-decoration:none;opacity:.9;transition-duration:.25s}.big_red_button{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:20px;background-color:#b52600;background-image:url("/template/images/big_red_button_bg.jpg");border-radius:5px;color:white;display:block;font-weight:bold;margin:20px auto 0;padding:5px 16px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;width:250px;cursor:pointer;white-space:nowrap}button.big_red_button{padding:6px 16px 7px;outline:0;border-style:none;font-size:13pt;font-family:hypatia-sans-pro;cursor:pointer}.simple_button{border:1px solid #222;color:#222;font-weight:normal;width:auto;padding:6px 14px !important;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:33px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 5px 5px 0;border-radius:5px;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap}.simple_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#444;border:1px solid #444;color:#EEE;transition-duration:.25s}.simple_button.red:hover{border:1px solid #222;background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.simple_button.red{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;font-weight:bold}.simple_button.disabled{border:1px solid silver;color:silver}.simple_button.disabled:hover{border:1px solid silver;color:silver;background:#fff;cursor:default}.ad_membership_notice{text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;position:relative;padding:0 10px;display:inline-block;border-radius:5px;float:right;background-color:#f3f3f3}.ad_membership_notice:hover{background-color:#b52600;color:white;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}.publish_link span{display:none}.publish_link.publish span.label_publish,.publish_link.unpublish span.label_unpublish,.publish_link.schedule span.label_schedule{display:inline}.content_button.schedule{background-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744;border-color:#293744}.content_button.schedule:hover{background-color:#293744;color:white}.content_button.schedule.inactive:hover{background-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744}.content_button.scheduled_label{background-color:#8cb2d6;border-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744;cursor:default}.content_button.unpublish{background-color:#ebbaa5;color:#983e18;border-color:#983e18}.content_button.publish{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14;border-color:#6d9d14}.content_button.publish:hover{background-color:#6d9d14;color:white}.content_button.unpublish:hover{background-color:#983e18;color:white}#qc-cmp2-ui button,#qc-cmp2-ui button *{cursor:pointer}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button:nth-child(2){background-color:#293744;color:#FFF}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button:nth-child(2):hover{background-color:#222;border-color:#222}.content_item{display:inline-block;margin:20px 0;padding:0;max-width:350px;vertical-align:top;position:relative}.content_item:hover h3{text-decoration:underline}.content_item:hover .ci_preview,.content_item:hover h3{color:#b52600 !important;transition:.5s}.content_item:hover{text-decoration:none;padding:0;transition:.5s;color:#b52600 !important}.content_item .ci_type_name{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;font-size:14px;margin-bottom:-10px;color:#999;position:relative;top:-2px}.content_item .ci_image{margin:0;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;max-width:100%;width:360px;height:auto}.content_item .ci_header h3{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:bold !important;text-transform:none;color:#b52600;margin-bottom:4px;line-height:120%;margin-top:6px}.content_item .ci_preview{color:#444;font-weight:normal;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;padding-left:30px;margin-top:-1px}.content_item .featured_ci_marker{float:left;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;padding:1px 15px}.ci_info{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-start;color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px;margin:0 0 5px 0;width:100%}.ci_info .block{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:6px}.ci_info .ci_author_image{width:50px;height:50px}.ci_author_image img{border-radius:50%}.ci_header .ci_info.wide{width:100%}.ci_header .rating_stars{margin-left:.5em}.ci_info.wide table{width:100%}.ci_author_and_copyright p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;color:#666}#ci_related_type_list{margin-bottom:30px;margin-top:10px}.filter_label{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;text-transform:uppercase;font-size:14px;display:block;margin:2px;margin-top:1em}.ci_type_icon{width:30px;height:30px;background-size:20px;background-color:white;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;border-radius:15px;position:absolute;top:7px;left:7px;opacity:.8}.content_item .ci_header{background:no-repeat left 1px;background-size:20px;padding-left:30px;min-height:21px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .ci_preview{font-size:14px}#ci_status_list_items{padding:0}#ci_status_list_items li{list-style-type:none;padding:.1em 0}*{-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased;text-rendering:optimizeLegibility;-moz-osx-font-smoothing:grayscale;font-display:swap !important}body{font-family:"Libre Baskerville","Palatino Linotype","Book Antiqua",Palatino,serif;font-display:auto;color:#333}h1#page_title_text{font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:60px;line-height:120%;color:#000;margin-bottom:-12px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin:0;padding-bottom:10px;break-after:avoid-page}#content h2{font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:30px;line-height:120%;color:#000;padding-bottom:10px;border-bottom:0;margin-bottom:10px;margin-top:60px;min-height:36px;break-after:avoid-page}h3{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:26px;line-height:130%;font-weight:normal;margin:20px 0 -10px 0;padding:0;color:#000;break-after:avoid-page}article h3 a{font-weight:normal}.link_nobold a{font-weight:normal}h4{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;color:#000;font-weight:bold;margin:20px 0 0 0}article th{text-align:left;background-color:#f3f3f3}article td,article th{border:1px solid #dadada}strong h3,b h3,h3 strong,h3 b{font-weight:normal !important}dfn{font-weight:bold}cite{font-style:normal}.ci_header h3{margin:4px 0 0 0}#content{font-size:16px;line-height:170%}a{color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;text-decoration:none}a:hover{text-decoration:underline}.messages{display:block;margin:0 auto;width:75%;padding:1em 1em 1em 1em;margin-top:50px}#result_error_messages,.registration_errors,#float_message.msg_error,.errors_in_doc{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#f1d1c9;color:#b52600}.errors_in_doc{border:0;border-radius:5px;font-size:18px}#result_messages_in_doc,.info_in_doc{background-color:#ffc600;color:#000;font-size:18px;border-radius:5px}.info_in_doc{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:.5em 1em;line-height:130%;margin:1em 0}#result_messages,#float_message{border:1px solid #999;background-color:#f8ecdd}.error_box{border:2px solid #b52600;background-color:#f1d1c9;padding:10px;margin:0 -12px}blockquote{font-size:16px;line-height:130%;color:grey;padding-left:5px;margin-bottom:0;padding:1px 1em 1px 80px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin-left:0;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:15px 15px}blockquote p{margin:.5em 0}.light{color:#999}.light.normal{font-weight:normal}textarea{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:.5em}input[type=text],input[type=url],input[type=number],select,input[type=password],input[type=email],#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=text],#ahe_dialogue_popup select,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=password],#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=email],#TB_window input[type=text],#TB_window select,#TB_window input[type=password],#TB_window input[type=email]{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#222;border:1px solid #dadada;border-radius:5px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);padding:6px 10px;position:relative;top:0}input[type=text]:focus,input[type=email]:focus,input[type=url]:focus,input[type=number]:focus,select:focus,input[type=password]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=text]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=email]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup select:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=password]:focus,#TB_window input[type=text]:focus,#TB_window select:focus,#TB_window input[type=password]:focus{border:1px solid #b52600;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(181,38,0,.1);color:#222;outline:0}#content textarea,#TB_window textarea,#ahe_dialogue_popup textarea{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#222;border:1px solid #dadada;border-radius:5px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);padding:6px 10px;max-width:95%}#content textarea:focus,#TB_window textarea:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup textarea:focus{border:1px solid #b52600;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(181,38,0,.1);color:#222;outline:0}.link_style{color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;cursor:pointer}.link_style:hover{text-decoration:underline}.teamprofiles tr{margin-bottom:2em}.teamprofiles td{font-size:10px;vertical-align:top;padding:17px 7px 30px 7px}.teamprofiles p{margin:0 0 1em 0}.team_member_details li{list-style-type:circle}.big_quote{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;float:right;background:url(/template/images/bg_quote.png) center 20px no-repeat;padding:76px 20px 30px;text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;font-size:26px;text-align:center;color:#b52600;margin:10px;display:block;width:300px}.big_quote .quote_author{font-size:16px;color:#e4ded7}.ahe-ad,.sovrn-onetag-ad,.ahe-ad h4,.ahe-promo h4{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:13px}.ahe-ad h4,.sovrn-onetag-ad{font-weight:normal;text-transform:uppercase;color:#999;margin-bottom:20px;margin-top:40px}.filter_count{color:#999}.partners_list p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:13px;line-height:21px}.statistics_table td{padding-left:.5em;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}label,.banner-caption{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}#search_filters li{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.breadcrumb_navigation{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding-top:5px;padding-bottom:5px;font-size:14px}.search_filters{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}input::placeholder{color:#999}.form_field_label{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:14px;color:#666;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:2px;margin-top:1em}.errors_in_doc{font-family:Karla;padding:10px 20px;display:inline-block;line-height:130%}.errors_in_doc p{margin:.5em 0}input[type=text]:read-only{opacity:.6}select{background-color:#fff}.error{background-color:orangered;color:white;border-radius:3px;padding:3px 6px}.error a{color:white !important;text-decoration:underline !important;font-weight:bold}.editorial_review_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;color:#666;line-height:18px;border-top:1px dotted #dadada;border-bottom:1px dotted #dadada;padding:1em 0}.editorial_review_header.translations{margin-top:.5em}.editorial_review_header{text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;color:#222;padding-right:.8em;display:block}.yellow_highlight{background-color:#ffc600;padding:2px 5px;border-radius:3px}.yellow_highlight_box{background-color:#ffc600;padding:5px 10px;border-radius:5px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.success{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14;border-radius:5px;padding:2px 4px;margin:-2px 0}.failure{background-color:#ebbaa5;color:#983e18;border-radius:5px;padding:2px 4px;margin:-2px 0}.affiliate_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;font-size:14px;color:#999;margin:1em 0}.sans{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}.ahe-ad .ad_header{font-weight:normal;text-transform:uppercase;color:#999;margin-bottom:20px;margin-top:40px}li .count,li a.count{font-weight:normal;color:#999}#header{position:relative}#header_ahe_logo{margin:40px;width:318px;height:77px}#header_donate_button{position:relative;float:right}.donate_button{display:inline-block;width:90px;height:32px;color:#FFF;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:17px;text-transform:uppercase;background:#b52600;border-radius:5px}.donate_button span{position:relative;top:8px}.donate_button span.hover{display:none}.donate_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.donate_button:hover span.base{display:none}.donate_button:hover span.hover{display:initial}#header_tools .patreon_button{color:white;background-color:#b52600;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;border-radius:5px;padding:6px 10px;float:right;margin-left:0;text-transform:uppercase}#header_tools .patreon_button:hover{background-color:#222;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}#header_wrapper{box-shadow:0 2px 6px silver}.header_sm_link{width:32px;height:32px;display:none;opacity:.25}.header_sm_link svg{width:32px;height:32px}.header_sm_link:hover{opacity:1}.header_sm_link.twitter{background-position:-32px 0;background-position-x:-32px}.header_sm_link.instagram{background-position:-96px 0;background-position-x:-96px}.header_sm_link.youtube{background-position:-128px 0;background-position-x:-128px}#mobile_sm_buttons{display:none}.sf-menu ul li:last-child a{border-bottom:0}a img{border:0}.body img,body.mceContentBody img,.image-wrapper .image img,.tag_definition_image,.tm-grid-item img,.avatar_image,.shadow_image,.in_text_image{margin:1em auto;display:block;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.image_page .copyright{font-size:75%}.image_page .description{margin-top:2em}.image-wrapper .description{margin-top:1em}.image-wrapper figure{margin:0;padding:0;width:100%}figure .image{text-align:center}figure.image_intext_wrapper{margin:1em 0}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption,figure.definition_image figcaption{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;text-align:center;margin-top:-7px}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption .figtitle,figure.definition_image figcaption .figtitle{color:#222;font-weight:normal}figure.image_intext_wrapper a:hover,figure.definition_image a:hover{text-decoration:none}figure.image_intext_wrapper a:hover figcaption .figtitle,figure.definition_image a:hover figcaption .figtitle{color:#b52600;transition:.5s}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption .figauthor,figure.definition_image figcaption .figauthor{font-size:14px;font-weight:normal;color:#999;display:block}img.tag_definition_image{max-width:300px;height:auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}figure.definition_image{float:right;margin:0 0 10px 10px;display:table;max-width:300px}.image_large{max-width:100%;height:auto}.round_image{box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;border-radius:50%;padding:3px;border:1px solid #e7e7e7}body{padding:0;margin:0;overflow-x:hidden}body.iframe{background-color:#FFF}a img{border:0}#page{background-color:#FFF;width:1101px;border-left:1px solid white;border-right:1px solid white;margin:0 auto}#content_wrapper{padding:40px;padding-top:22px}.left_3_column{float:left;width:681px}.right_1_column{float:left;width:300px;margin-left:40px}.left_1_column{float:left;width:300px}.right_3_column{float:left;width:681px;margin-left:40px}.left_2_column{float:left;width:490px}.right_2_column{float:left;width:490px;margin-left:40px}.right_narrow_column{float:left;width:250px;margin-left:40px}.left_narrow_column{float:left;width:160px}.middle_wide_column{float:left;width:531px;margin-left:40px}.middle_2_column{float:left;width:427px;margin-left:21px}.full_4_column{width:1021px}.clear{clear:both}.pagination{margin:10px auto;display:block;text-align:center;font-size:10px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.pagination a{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:5px 7px;margin:2px}.pagination a:hover{color:#FFF;background-color:#b52600;text-decoration:none}.pagination strong{border:1px solid #b52600;padding:5px 7px;margin:2px;background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.float_right{float:right}.hidden{display:none}.searchform input[type=text]{height:21px;margin-right:5px;border:1px solid #dadada}.left_1_column .searchform input[type=text]{width:145px;margin-left:-4px}.about_links,.left_menu{margin:0;padding:0;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3}.left_menu a,.about_link a{display:block;border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3;padding:.3em .3em;margin:0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.left_menu a:hover,.about_link a:hover{background-color:#f3f3f3;text-decoration:none}.index_alphabet{display:block;margin:0;width:682px;padding-left:20px;background-image:url('/template/images/index_alphabet_fadout_bg.png');clear:both;max-width:728px}#index_tags_container{display:block;min-height:700px;vertical-align:middle;max-width:400px}input.button_height{font-size:12px;padding:4px}input[type=radio],input[type=checkbox]{position:relative;margin-right:.5em}#content select{height:33px;padding:0 10px;top:0}.uvOverlay1{z-index:2000000001 !important}#delete_reason_wrapper{display:none}table{border-collapse:collapse;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}table th{text-align:left;background-color:#f3f3f3;color:#000}table td,table th{border-color:#f3f3f3}.team_member_details b{font-size:14px;line-height:20px}.team_member_details{padding-left:2.5em !important}.teamprofiles td img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}#mce-EMAIL{width:200px;margin-right:5px}.right_narrow_column #mce-EMAIL{width:122px}.right_1_column #mce-EMAIL{width:165px}#mc_embed_signup{background-color:#f3f3f3;margin-top:30px;min-height:436px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}#mc_embed_signup .mc-field-group{line-height:150%}#mc_embed_signup form{padding:1px 15px 12px 15px}#mc_embed_signup h3{background-color:#222;display:inline-block;font-size:14px;color:white;border-radius:3px;padding:3px 10px;margin:10px 0 0 0;font-weight:bold}img.newsletter_banner{border-bottom:1px solid #e4ded7}.bottom_float_bar{position:fixed;bottom:0;width:100%;background-color:#353535;left:0;border-top:3px solid #b52600;z-index:10}.youtube-embed-wrapper{max-width:100%;margin:0 auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}#content.video_page .youtube-embed-wrapper,#content.image3d_page .youtube-embed-wrapper{max-width:100% !important}.youtube-embed-container{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;max-width:100%;width:100%}.youtube-embed-container iframe,.youtube-embed-container object,.youtube-embed-container embed{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%}.ad_Flexi_TopRight{margin-bottom:100px;min-height:600px}.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight{margin:100px 0;min-height:250px}.ad_Flexi_LowerRight{margin:100px 0;min-height:600px}.ad_Flexi_BottomLeft{max-width:728px;margin:auto}.ad_Mobile_Intext{margin:2em 0;clear:both}@media(max-width:991px){.ad_Mobile_Intext{display:block}.ad_Mobile_Intext .innerwrapper{text-align:center}}@media(min-width:992px){.ad_Mobile_Intext{display:none}.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-3,.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-4,.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-5{display:block}}.sticky,.ahe-ad iframe.hstryFrame,.ahe-ad institutional_sub_promo{position:sticky;top:20px;display:block}#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky{position:sticky;top:20px;margin-top:100px}.right_1_column .shop_promo{margin:100px 0}.image3d_embed{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;max-width:100%}.image3d_embed iframe{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%}.contribute_page #tag_add_button{float:none}body.iframe{padding:2em}.map_section{margin-top:1em}.pre_article_section{margin:14px 0}.ci_audio_link,.translations_header{clear:both;margin:10px 0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px}.ci_audio_link img.headphones_icon{width:32px;height:32px;vertical-align:middle;padding-right:13px;position:relative;top:-1px}.translations_header{margin-bottom:6px}.translations_header img{width:32px;height:32px;vertical-align:top;padding-right:9px;position:relative;top:-7px}.translations_title{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;margin-right:.5em}.translations_links{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top}.inline{display:inline}.collection_contents .ci_listing{margin:2em 0}.collection_contents .ci_listing h3{margin-bottom:.5em}.timeline_outer_wrapper{margin:100px 0}.mosaicflow__column{float:left}.image-list img{float:left;display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.image-list .label{margin-left:170px}.image-list .preheader{font-family:Karla;color:#999;font-size:14px;margin-bottom:-8px}.image-list h3.header{margin:0}.image-list .image-list-item{margin:60px 0;min-height:150px;clear:both}.image-list-item .label-content p{margin:.6em 0}.image-list-cards img{display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;margin:0 auto}.image-list-cards .label{margin-top:15px}.image-list-cards .preheader{color:#999;font-size:14px}.image-list-cards h4{margin:0}.image-list-cards .image-list-item{margin:40px 40px 40px 0;min-height:150px;clear:both;max-width:300px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;position:relative}.image-list-cards .coming_soon{background-color:#ea5b3a;display:inline-block;padding:2px 0;color:#FFF;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;line-height:15px;border-radius:3px;position:absolute;top:137px;width:110px;left:95px;left:calc(50% - 55px);font-weight:bold}.image-list-cards .image-list-item .label-content p{margin:.3em 0;color:#999}.image-list-cards.small .image-list-item{max-width:200px;margin:20px 40px 20px 0}.image-list-cards.small img{max-width:100px}.image-list-cards.small .coming_soon{top:90px}.checkbox_wrapper input[type=checkbox]{margin-right:-20px;position:relative;top:-2px}.checkbox_wrapper label{margin-bottom:.5em !important;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;line-height:130%;margin-left:25px;float:right}.checkbox_wrapper{margin:.5em 0}.adcontainer>div{position:sticky;top:40px}.right_1_column .adcontainer{min-height:280px}.right_1_column .adcontainer>div{position:sticky;top:40px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_TopRight,#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_LowerRight{height:600px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MiddleRight{height:280px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft{min-height:90px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky{max-height:90px;overflow:hidden}.publication_status{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin:10px}.publication_status.is_published .published{display:block}.publication_status.is_published .suggested{display:none}.publication_status .published{display:none}.publication_status .suggested{display:block}.publication_status .suggested{color:#983e18}.publication_status .published{color:#6d9d14}.publication_status .sym{font-weight:bold}#footer_spacer{clear:both;height:1px}#footer .social svg{width:30px;height:30px;opacity:70%;filter:invert(1);margin-right:5px}#footer .social a:hover svg{opacity:100%}.clear{clear:both}.inline_block_section{display:inline-block;margin:1em 1em 1em 0}.inline_block_section .form_field_label{margin-top:0}#loadingOverlay{display:none;position:fixed;width:100%;height:100%;background-color:#222;z-index:29999999;opacity:.85}#loadingOverlayMessage{color:white;font-size:60px;font-family:Libre Baskerville;position:fixed;top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%,-50%)}.membership-below-block-wrapper{min-height:301px}#audio-frame-wrapper{display:none}.highlight_box{display:block;padding:15px;background-color:#f3f3f3;border-radius:5px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%}#float_message{display:none;position:fixed;top:0;left:50%;margin-right:-50%;transform:translate(-50%,0%);width:700px;padding:10px;border-top:0;font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;z-index:19999999}#float_message_close_wrapper{border-top:1px solid silver;display:block;font-size:10px;text-align:center;padding-top:8px;margin-top:12px}.msg_error #float_message_close_wrapper{border-top:1px solid rgba(181,38,0,.3)}#float_message .content_button{margin-right:10px !important}.membership_below_notice{background-color:#b52600;padding:7px;background-size:cover;background-position:right;margin:40px 0}.membership_below_notice_inner{padding:10px 310px 12px 20px;color:#FFF}#content .membership_below_notice h2{margin:10px 0;padding:0;color:#fff !important}.membership_below_notice p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}#content .membership_below_notice .content_button{display:inline-block;border:2px solid white;background-color:white;color:black;width:auto;padding:6px 17px !important}#content .membership_below_notice .content_button:hover{background-color:#ffc600;border-color:#ffc600}@media(max-width:1199px){.membership_below_notice_inner{padding:10px 10px 12px 20px}}.grey_box p{margin:.5em 0 1em 0;font-family:Karla;line-height:140%;font-size:16px !important}.grey_box p strong{background-color:#ffc600;padding:1px 3px;border-radius:3px}.grey_box{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;position:relative}h4.grey_box_title{position:absolute;top:0;margin-top:0;background-color:#222;color:#fff;padding:0 20px;left:0}h4.grey_box_title.red{background-color:#b52600}.editors_only{border-left:5px solid #dadada;padding-left:15px;margin-left:-20px;position:relative}.editors_only::before{content:"Editors Only";position:absolute;left:-108px;background-color:#dadada;color:#222;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:0 10px}.editors_only .editors_only:before{display:none}.right_1_column .grey_box{margin:40px 0 80px 0}.left_3_column .grey_box{margin:40px 0}.grey_box h2{padding:0;margin:0 !important;line-height:120% !important}#mobilenewsletter{display:none;margin:20px -30px;padding:20px 30px}#mobilenewsletter .headline{font-size:24px;font-weight:bold}#mobilenewsletter form{margin-top:-10px}#mobilenewsletter input[type="submit"]{display:inline-block;width:auto;color:#FFF;background-color:#222;border:0;line-height:21px;position:relative}.membership-intext-promo{background:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;position:relative;margin:1em 0;clear:both}.membership-intext-promo h5{font-size:20px;margin:0}.membership-intext-promo p{margin:.75em 0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.metricoolPixel{position:absolute;top:0;left:-1000px}footer{background-color:#f3f3f3}#membership_sidebar{position:fixed;left:-30px;bottom:100px;width:29px;height:133px;z-index:20}#membership_sidebar:hover{filter:grayscale(1)}.greystripe{background-color:#f3f3f3;box-shadow:0 0 0 100vmax #f3f3f3;clip-path:inset(0 -100vmax)}.right_1_column section{margin:60px 0}.pinterest_button{min-height:28px;position:relative;top:4px;float:right}#primis_intext{min-height:320px;margin-bottom:2em;clear:both;max-width:100%;overflow:hidden}#primis_intext .youtube_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;color:#fff;font-size:14px;background-color:#222;padding:3px 7px;position:relative;display:inline-block;margin-top:15px}#primis_intext .youtube_notice:hover{background-color:#b52600;text-decoration:none;color:#fff;transition-duration:.2s}#primis_intext .youtube_notice svg{height:30px;width:30px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle;margin-top:-2px;margin-right:3px;filter:invert(1)}#primis_intext .youtube_notice:hover svg{display:inline-block}.tooltip.help{cursor:help}.grid{display:grid;gap:20px}.grid.four_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr 1fr 1fr}.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr 1fr}hr.red_bar{width:15%;background-color:#b52600;height:3px;margin:0 auto;border:0}.ad_Flexi_MobileSticky{position:fixed;bottom:0;left:0;padding:0;width:100%;text-align:center;z-index:100;bottom:env(safe-area-inset-bottom)}.pre_article_buttons{margin:1em 0}.left_bar_highlight{border-left:5px solid #b52600;background-color:#B526000a;margin-left:-15px !important;padding-left:10px !important;padding-right:10px;padding-top:.5em;padding-bottom:.5em}.left_bar_highlight.yellow{border-left:5px solid #ffc600;background-color:#ffc6000f}.print_only{display:none}@media print{.print_only{display:unset}}aside .donate_message:first-child{margin-top:60px}.aws_book_item_short a{display:block;text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px solid silver;font-size:.8em;color:#000 !important;padding:2px}.aws_book_item_short .title{font-weight:bold}.aws_book_item_short a:hover{text-decoration:none !important;background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF !important}#title_search_response{display:block;float:right;width:350px}#references{margin-top:0;font-size:14px;line-height:130%}body.contribute #references{border-top:0}.ref_list.tag_definition{margin:1.5em 0}.lang_rtl #page,.lang_rtl .trans,.lang_rtl .original_article_link{direction:rtl}lang_rtl blockquote{background-position:right 15px;padding:1px 80px 1em 1px;margin-right:0}.lang_rtl .big_quote{float:left}.lang_rtl .ci_info .ci_author_image{float:right;margin-left:8px;top:7px}.lang_rtl .ci_info .ci_author{direction:rtl;float:right}.lang_rtl h2.trans_headline{text-align:right}.lang_rtl h1,.lang_rtl h2.trans_headline{text-align:right}.lang_rtl .left_3_column{float:right;padding-right:0}@media(max-width:1199px) and (min-width:992px){.right_1_column{margin-left:0;margin-right:40px}}.lang_rtl .headphones_icon{padding-left:13px;padding-right:0}.lang_rtl>#ahe_dialogue_popup{direction:rtl}#tag_index_wrapper{margin-top:0}#tag_edit_form p{margin:0}#tag_update_response{position:relative;top:2em}.related_pages ul{list-style-type:none;margin:0;padding:0}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper{width:430px;border:1px solid #DDD;padding:2px}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper img{padding:2px;cursor:pointer}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper .selected_tag_image{border:2px solid #b52600 !important;padding:0}#image_selector_ajax_loader{margin:34px}.tag_definition_image{margin-left:.5em}#tag_to_add{position:relative;top:1px;width:170px;margin-right:5px;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:10px}#tag_to_add:focus{color:#222}.ci_tag_item,.item_box{padding:5px 10px;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:#f3f3f3;border-radius:5px;margin:5px;display:inline-block;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;line-height:16px;position:relative;padding-right:30px}.ci_tag_item a,.item_box a{font-weight:normal}.ci_tag_item .remove_tag_link,.item_box .remove{margin-left:5px;background-color:#e0e0e0;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;line-height:26px;padding:0 7px;border-radius:5px}.ci_tag_item .remove_tag_link:hover,.item_box .remove:hover{color:#fff;background-color:#b52600;transition:.5s;text-decoration:none}#tag_index_wrapper{padding-top:.2em}#time_list{list-style-type:none;margin:0 0 -20px 0 !important;padding:0;width:100%;padding-right:20px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.timeline_entry{margin:1.9em 0}.timeline_entry:last-child{border-bottom:0}.timeline_entry .date{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:20px;margin:1em 0 .2em 0}#content .timeline_wrapper h2{margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0}#timeline_search_form select{padding:3px;border:1px solid #dadada}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td{vertical-align:top;padding-right:4em;width:300px;padding-left:1px}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td table{margin:0;padding:0;border-spacing:0}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td table td{width:auto;padding:0;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.tt_category_wrapper{white-space:nowrap;font-size:14px;display:block;width:150px;margin-bottom:2px}.tt_legend_wrapper{white-space:nowrap;font-size:14px;padding-right:4px;margin-right:4px}.tt_legend_wrapper input{display:none}.tt_legend_wrapper label{padding-left:2px}.visual_timeline_button{margin:0 auto !important}#form_timeline_search #txt_book_search_submit{position:relative;top:-5px}.timeline_search_section{width:300px;float:left}.timeline_page .right_1_column #timeline_search_form{min-height:1000px}.timeline_types_wrapper{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}#user_management_form small{line-height:12px;font-size:10px}#user_management_form input[type=text]{margin-bottom:.75em;width:200px}#user_management_form label{margin-bottom:.1em}#contact_user_message{width:95%;margin:1em 0}#user_navigation .link_button{float:none !important;display:block;clear:left !important;margin:6px 0}#image_result{margin-bottom:20px;position:relative}#image_result img{display:inline-block;border-radius:100%;width:50px;height:50px}#image_result span{position:absolute;display:inline-block;width:300px;bottom:35%;padding-left:10px}.user_short_bio{padding:15px 15px 15px 125px;min-height:100px;margin:10px 0}.user_short_bio img.avatar_image{float:left;margin-left:-125px;max-width:100px}.user_short_bio .user_name{font-size:20px;margin-bottom:5px}.sm_links{margin-top:10px}.user_biography{margin-left:200px}.user_biography .bio_image{float:left;margin-left:-200px;border-radius:50%}#lead_image_preview{max-width:300px;max-height:300px;width:auto;height:auto}.xres_headline{font-weight:bold}.xres_domain{color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px}.xres_preview{color:#444;font-size:14px;line-height:18px;margin-top:3px}.card .xres picture,.card .xres img{width:100%;height:auto}.card .xres{position:relative;max-width:100%;break-inside:avoid;margin-bottom:0;overflow:hidden;border-bottom:1px solid #dadada;padding-bottom:10px;padding-top:10px}.card .xres a{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}.card .xres .outline_button{position:absolute;right:10px;top:20px;z-index:2;background:white}.card .xres .xres_text{padding:10px 0}.card .xres .xres_domain{display:inline}.card .xres:hover{background-color:#f3f3f3}.card .xres picture{display:block;margin-bottom:-6px}.card .xres .editor_view_link.grey_button{display:none}.xres_categories .simple_button{clear:both}.xres_wrapper.card{margin-top:-20px}.xres_card_default_container .xres{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:10px 15px}.list .xres{margin:0;position:relative;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.list .xres:first-of-type{margin-top:1em}.list .xres .editor_view_link{position:absolute;top:11px;right:0;z-index:2;font-weight:normal}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button:not(:hover){background-color:white}.list .xres .xres_domain.external_link{display:inline;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;position:relative;top:-5px}.list .xres .grey_button,.xres.listitem .grey_button{float:right}.list .xres picture,.list .xres img{display:none}.list .xres .xres_preview{display:none}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button{display:none}.list .xres.listitem{margin:.3em 0}.xres .xres_domain{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}#moderate_ajax_container .xres.listitem .xres_domain{display:inline-block;position:relative;top:-8px}.xres.listitem .xres_headline,.xres.listitem a{font-weight:normal}.xres.listitem{margin:.2em 0}.xres_categories_dropdown_wrapper .selected_categories_wrapper_outside{border:1px solid #999;padding:10px;border-radius:5px;display:block;max-width:600px}.xres_categories_dropdown_wrapper .selected_categories_header{margin-bottom:5px;display:block}body{background-color:#fff}.img-responsive{height:auto;max-width:100%}.img-responsive-full{height:auto;width:100%}#header_wrapper{background:url('/template/images/header/subject_headers/mesopotamia_shadow.jpg') center bottom repeat-x;padding-bottom:163px}#header{width:930px;margin:0 auto;padding-left:30px;padding-right:30px;position:relative}#header_ahe_logo{margin:40px 40px 36px 0;float:left}#header_tools{float:right;padding-top:50px}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{text-align:right}#header_tools .follow_us{display:inline-block;float:left;padding-top:6px;color:#999;font-size:17px}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:220px !important}#header_follow_buttons .addthis_32x32_style span{border-radius:100% !important}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:40px}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right}#header_tools .follow_us{display:none}#title_bar{width:100%;padding-top:20px;min-height:108px}#title_bar .box_wrapper{padding-bottom:5px;margin-bottom:10px}#nav_bar{border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3;width:100%;text-align:center}.box_wrapper{width:930px;margin:0 auto}.v_spacing{padding:20px 0}#footer_wrapper #sponsors_box,#footer_wrapper #partners_list,#footer_wrapper #footer{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#sponsors_box{padding:25px 20px;margin:0}.sponsors_logos_wrapper a>img{display:inline-block;margin:15px}#page{width:990px;border:0 solid #FFF}#content_wrapper{padding:0 15px}#content{width:960px}.left_narrow_column{width:150px;padding:15px;margin:0}.right_narrow_column{width:250px;padding:15px;margin:0}.middle_wide_column{width:470px;padding:15px;margin:0}.left_3_column,.right_3_column{width:600px;padding:15px;margin:0}.right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px;padding:15px;margin:0}.left_2_column{width:435px;padding-right:15px;padding-left:15px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.right_2_column{width:435px;padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#map_container{width:100% !important}#grid_submissions{width:100%}#grid_submissions .item_1_col{min-height:335px}.item_1_col{width:21%;margin:0 1% 15px;float:left}.item_1_col img{width:100%;height:auto}.teamprofiles p{font-size:15px}.team_member{padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:20px}.team_member_details b{font-size:19px;line-height:27px}.team_pic{float:left;width:20%;margin:0;padding:0}.team_pic img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}.team_member_details{float:right;width:73%;margin-left:5%;margin:0;padding:0}.timeline_wrapper{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:20px}.timeline_entry{margin:12px 0;border-bottom:1px dashed #e3e3e3;padding:0 0 12px}.content_button_alphabet{display:inline-block;width:35px;height:35px;color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;padding:0;margin:0;margin-bottom:8px;cursor:pointer;border-radius:2px;border:1px solid #e3e3e3;line-height:35px;background:none;transition:all .25s;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.content_button_alphabet.selected{background-color:#222;color:#fff}.content_button_alphabet:hover{text-decoration:none !important;background-color:#b52600;border-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.index_alphabet{width:100%;padding-left:0;background-color:white;clear:both;z-index:1000 !important}.related_pages{margin-top:40px}.related_pages h2{margin-bottom:30px !important}.ci_author_image{float:left;width:32px;margin-right:10px}h3.highlight_box{font-size:20px}.registration_message_page{width:930px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}h2 i{color:#e5c357;font-size:31px}.section-team h3{text-align:center;letter-spacing:-1px;font-size:30px;text-transform:none;margin-bottom:15px}.tab-links{list-style:none;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin-bottom:60px;padding:0}.tab-links li{width:33%;float:left;text-align:center}.tab-links.two li{width:50%}.tab-links.three li{width:33%}.tab-links.four li{width:25%}.tab-links li a{display:block;font-weight:normal;font-size:20px;padding-bottom:20px}.tab-links li a.active{font-weight:bold;padding-bottom:16px;border-bottom:4px solid #c42f28}.tab-links li a:hover{text-decoration:none}.section-team.initial-on{display:block}.item-wrapper{padding:20px;background:#FFF;text-align:center}.tm-grid-item img{margin:0 auto 15px;float:none}.tm-grid-item img,.avatar_image{display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%}.tm-grid-item .tm-name{display:block;font-weight:bold;font-size:19px}.tm-grid-item .tm-studies{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:130%;margin-bottom:0}.tm-grid-item .tm-description{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:130%}.tm-grid-item .tm-position{font-size:15px}.tm-grid-item .tm-summary{color:#666;font-size:16px}.clearfix:before,.clearfix:after{content:'.';display:block;overflow:hidden;visibility:hidden;font-size:0;line-height:0;width:0;height:0}.clearfix:after{clear:both}.clr{clear:both;display:block;overflow:hidden;visibility:hidden;width:0;height:0}#accordion-home{border-radius:5px;box-shadow:0 8px 16px -12px #666;margin:0 15px 15px;height:280px}.kwicks{display:block;list-style-type:none;list-style:none;position:relative;margin:0;padding:0}.kwicks>*{display:block;overflow:hidden;padding:0;margin:0}.kwicks.kwicks-processed>*{margin:0;position:absolute}.kwicks-horizontal>*{float:left}.kwicks-horizontal>:first-child{margin-left:0}.kwicks-vertical>:first-child{margin-top:0}.kwicks{height:280px}.kwicks>li{height:280px}.kwicks>a{height:280px;width:125px;margin-left:5px;float:left}#panel-1{background:url('/template/images/accordion/encyclopedia.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-2{background:url('/template/images/accordion/education.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-3{background:url('/template/images/accordion/translation.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-4{background:url('/template/images/accordion/medialibrary.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-5{background:url('/template/images/accordion/books.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-6{background:url('/template/images/accordion/maps.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-7{background:url('/template/images/accordion/membership.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}.pagination strong,.pagination a{display:inline-block;width:auto;height:35px;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;padding:0 10px 0;margin:1px;cursor:pointer;font-size:17px;border-radius:2px;border:1px solid #e3e3e3;line-height:35px;transition:all .25s}.book_recommendation_list .book_detail.book_image.book_smallimage{left:15px;top:-45px}.book_recommendation_list h3{line-height:24px;margin:5px 0 0 75px;padding:0}.book_recommendation_list p{margin-top:20px}.content_main_full_width,#map_area{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px}.full_4_column{width:auto;padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px}.contribute_page td p{padding-right:20px}.tooltipster-default{border-radius:5px;border:1px solid #f3f3f3;background:#f3f3f3;color:#000}.tooltipster-default .tooltipster-content{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:16px;padding:8px 10px;overflow:hidden;max-width:350px}.tooltipster-icon{cursor:help;margin-left:4px}.tooltipster-base{padding:0;font-size:0;line-height:0;position:absolute;left:0;top:0;z-index:19999999;pointer-events:none;width:auto;overflow:visible}.tooltipster-base .tooltipster-content{overflow:hidden}.tooltipster-arrow{display:block;text-align:center;width:100%;height:100%;position:absolute;top:1px;left:0;z-index:-1}.tooltipster-arrow span,.tooltipster-arrow-border{display:block;width:0;height:0;position:absolute}.tooltipster-arrow-top span,.tooltipster-arrow-top-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-top-left span{border-left:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid transparent !important;border-top:8px solid;bottom:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-top .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-top-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-top-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-left:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid transparent !important;border-top:9px solid;bottom:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-bottom span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left span{border-left:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid;top:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-bottom .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-left:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid;top:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-top span,.tooltipster-arrow-top .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom .tooltipster-arrow-border{left:0;right:0;margin:0 auto}.tooltipster-arrow-top-left span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left span{left:6px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-left .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{left:5px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right span{right:6px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{right:5px}.tooltipster-arrow-left span,.tooltipster-arrow-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid transparent !important;border-left:8px solid;top:50%;margin-top:-7px;right:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid transparent !important;border-left:9px solid;margin-top:-8px}.tooltipster-arrow-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid;top:50%;margin-top:-7px;left:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid;margin-top:-8px}.tooltipster-fade{opacity:0}.tooltipster-fade-show{opacity:1}.tooltipster-grow{transform:scale(0,0);transition-property:transform}.tooltipster-grow-show{transform:scale(1,1);transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-swing{opacity:0;transform:rotateZ(4deg);transition-property:transform}.tooltipster-swing-show{opacity:1;transform:rotateZ(0deg);transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.230,.635,.495,2.4)}.tooltipster-fall{top:0;transition-property:top;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-fall.tooltipster-dying{transition-property:all;top:0 !important;opacity:0}.tooltipster-slide{left:-40px;transition-property:left;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-slide.tooltipster-dying{transition-property:all;left:0 !important;opacity:0}.tooltipster-content-changing{opacity:.5;transform:scale(1.1,1.1)}@media(min-width:992px) and (max-width:1199px){.right_3_column img,.left_3_column img{max-width:100%;height:auto}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{display:none}.left_1_column{width:200px}.right_3_column{width:700px}.right_3_column .content_item{max-width:320px}.right_3_column .content_item:nth-child(odd){margin-left:50px}.right_1_column{margin-left:40px}.left_3_column{width:560px}.left_3_column .content_item{max-width:255px}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:40px}#books_preview .booklistentry:nth-child(5){display:none}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{margin-right:40px;max-width:255px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:255px;height:143px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(2n){margin-right:0 !important}.xres_wrapper.card{column-count:2}}@media(min-width:992px){.right_1_column #time_list{max-height:500px;overflow:scroll;overflow-y:scroll;overflow-x:hidden}#nav_bar ul li.toplevel>a{padding-right:2.5em}.sf-arrows .sf-with-ul{padding-right:2.5em;*padding-right:1em;}.sf-arrows .sf-with-ul:after{content:'';position:absolute;top:50%;right:1em;margin-top:-3px;height:0;width:0;border:5px solid transparent;border-top-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows>li>.sf-with-ul:focus:after,.sf-arrows>li:hover>.sf-with-ul:after,.sf-arrows>.sfHover>.sf-with-ul:after{border-top-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows ul .sf-with-ul:after{margin-top:-5px;margin-right:-3px;border-color:transparent;border-left-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows ul li>.sf-with-ul:focus:after,.sf-arrows ul li:hover>.sf-with-ul:after,.sf-arrows ul .sfHover>.sf-with-ul:after{border-left-color:white}.ci_rel_type{margin-bottom:8px !important}#primis_video_mobile_container{display:none}}@media(max-height:800px){#header_wrapper{background-size:auto 80px;padding-bottom:70px !important}.sf-menu a{padding-top:15px !important;padding-bottom:15px !important}}@media(min-width:1200px){#header{width:1140px}#page{width:1200px}#content{width:1170px}.left_narrow_column{width:190px}.right_narrow_column{width:250px}.middle_wide_column{width:600px;padding:15px 35px 15px}.left_3_column{width:750px;padding-right:75px}.right_3_column{width:790px;padding-left:35px}.right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px}.box_wrapper{width:1140px}.first-menu-item{padding-left:0 !important}.index_alphabet{z-index:1000 !important;top:0 !important;padding-top:15px !important;background-color:#FFF}.left_2_column{width:540px;padding-right:30px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.right_2_column{width:540px;padding-left:30px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px}#header_donate_button{margin-left:60px}.header_sm_link{display:inline-block}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:100px !important}.membership-intext-promo p,.membership-intext-promo h5{margin:0;width:500px}.membership-intext-promo .content_button.red{position:absolute;right:30px;top:35px}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{padding-top:0}#header_tools .follow_us{display:none}#header_tools .patreon_button{margin-left:60px}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:300px !important}.registration_message_page{width:1140px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{display:none}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even),.right_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:70px}.left_3_column .content_item,.right_3_column .content_item{max-width:335px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:220px;height:123px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n+0){margin-right:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{max-width:220px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n){margin-right:0 !important}}@media screen{@media(max-width:767px){.left_1_column,#primis_intext{display:none}#audio-frame-close{top:60px}#mobile_sm_buttons{display:block}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_buttons{position:absolute;top:8px;left:15px;margin:0 !important;z-index:1000000}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_link{display:inline-block;margin-right:3px;filter:invert(1);opacity:1}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_buttons .pinterest{display:none}#mobile_sm_buttons strong{display:none}#nav_bar{display:none !important}#meanmenu{min-height:48px}a.meanmenu-reveal{display:none}h1#page_title_text{font-size:40px !important}.home_page .membership-below-block-wrapper{display:none}.pagination .pagination_page{display:none !important}.mean-container .mean-bar{float:left;width:100%;position:relative;background:#b52600;padding:4px 0 0;min-height:42px;z-index:999999;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.mean-container a.meanmenu-reveal{width:22px;height:22px;padding:13px 13px 11px 13px;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;cursor:pointer;color:#fff;text-decoration:none;font-size:16px;text-indent:-9999em;line-height:22px;font-size:1px;display:block;font-family:Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:700}.mean-container a.meanmenu-reveal span{display:block;background:#fff;height:3px;margin-top:3px}.mean-container .mean-nav{float:left;width:100%;background:#b52600;margin-top:44px}.mean-container .mean-nav ul{padding:0;margin:0;width:100%;list-style-type:none}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li{position:relative;float:left;width:100%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a{display:block;float:left;width:90%;padding:1em 5%;margin:0;text-align:left;color:#fff;border-top:1px solid #383838;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.5);text-decoration:none;text-transform:uppercase}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li a{width:80%;padding:1em 10%;border-top:1px solid #f1f1f1;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.25);opacity:.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);text-shadow:none !important;visibility:visible;text-transform:none}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li.mean-last a{border-bottom:0;margin-bottom:0}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li a{width:70%;padding:1em 15%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li li a{width:60%;padding:1em 20%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li li li a{width:50%;padding:1em 25%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a:hover{background:#252525;background:rgba(255,255,255,0.1)}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a.mean-expand{margin-top:1px;width:26px;height:25px;padding:12px !important;text-align:center;position:absolute;right:0;top:0;z-index:2;font-weight:700;background:rgba(255,255,255,0.1);border:0 !important;border-left:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.4) !important;border-bottom:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.2) !important}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a.mean-expand:hover{background:rgba(0,0,0,0.9)}.mean-container .mean-push{float:left;width:100%;padding:0;margin:0;clear:both}.mean-nav .wrapper{width:100%;padding:0;margin:0}.mean-container .mean-bar,.mean-container .mean-bar *{-webkit-box-sizing:content-box;-moz-box-sizing:content-box;box-sizing:content-box}.mean-remove{display:none !important}.ad img{box-shadow:none}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft{margin:auto;width:320px;min-height:50px !important}#page{margin-bottom:40px}#header{padding-left:0;padding-right:0;width:100%}#header_wrapper{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;padding-bottom:0 !important;background-image:none;box-shadow:none}#header_ahe_logo{float:none;display:block;text-align:center;margin:25px auto;padding-top:20px}.header_row_top{display:none}#header_tools{float:none;padding-top:0}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{text-align:center;float:none;margin-right:0}#title_bar{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;width:auto;padding-top:5px;text-align:center}.right_narrow_column{display:none}.home #title_bar,.index #title_bar{display:none}.index #page,.home #page{padding-top:30px}.box_wrapper{width:100%}.membership-intext-promo{margin-left:-100px;margin-right:-100px;padding-left:100px;padding-right:100px}.grid.four_col,.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr}.tab-links{margin-bottom:30px}.tab-links li{width:33%}.tab-links li a{display:block;font-weight:normal;font-size:18px;letter-spacing:-1px;padding-bottom:20px}.tab-links li a.active{font-weight:bold;border-bottom:4px solid #c42f28}.content_item{max-width:100%}.left_1_column,.right_3_column{width:100%;padding:15px 0;margin:0}.left_menu{display:none}.subscribe_button_container{display:block;width:90% !important;padding-left:5% !important;padding-right:5% !important}.content_button.subscribe_button{display:inline-block !important;margin:0 auto;width:80%;line-height:23px}.content_main_full_width{padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.benefit,.reason{width:45% !important;padding-left:1.25%;padding-right:1.25%;padding-top:30px;margin:0 !important}.reasons_list{margin-bottom:40px}.hide-in-mobile{display:none}#accordion-home{display:none}.left_narrow_column{display:none}.middle_wide_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#page{width:100%;min-width:320px;overflow:hidden !important}#content{width:100%}.left_3_column,.right_1_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.map_section{margin-top:40px}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{margin-bottom:30px}.ad_Flexi_BottomLeft{margin-top:30px}.footer_phrase{margin-top:1px;line-height:130%}#footer{padding-bottom:70px}#footer_contents{background-position:center 80px}.footer_section{margin-right:20px !important;margin-left:20px !important}.footer_section .center,.footer_section .right{margin:60px 0 !important;text-align:center;display:block !important;width:auto !important}.footer_section p{font-size:14px}.footer_section .partners img{margin:15px 15px}.shop_promo{margin-bottom:0 !important}#footer_spacer{height:1px;margin:0}#editor_tools,.gravity_widget_wrapper,.gravity_right_col,#middle_float_ad_container,.addthis-smartlayers-desktop,.visual_timeline_button,.ad_Flexi_TopRight,.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight,.ad_Flexi_LowerRight,#uvTab,#squinchpix_results,.share_this,#sponsors_box,#partners_list,.bottomRightStickySpacer,#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky{display:none}.search_page .ci_related_content_outer_wrapper{display:block !important}.ci_related_content_outer_wrapper #ci_related_type_list{display:none}.ci_two_cols .columns{column-count:1}#content .search_form_in_content{display:none !important}.search_results_page h2.search_header{display:none}.static_page .left_1_column{display:none}.user_biography .bio_image{float:none;margin:1em 0;display:block}.user_biography{margin-left:0}#txt_book_search.wide{width:100%;max-width:300px}#txt_book_search_submit{display:none}.reasons_list{padding-left:10px;padding-right:10px}.shop_sections_wrapper{text-align:center}.shop_section{margin-right:0}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper #time_list{margin-top:20px;margin-bottom:20px;overflow:initial}.book_purchase_buttons .lp_download_wrapper{padding-left:0}}@media(max-width:560px){.big_quote{float:none;padding:76px 5% 30px;margin:20px 0;display:block;width:90%}img.tag_definition_image{float:none}figure.definition_image{float:none;margin:0;display:block;width:100%;max-width:100%}.body img,img.tag_definition_image,img.in_text_image,.video_link img,figure.image_intext_wrapper{margin:1em -8px;width:100%;width:calc(100% + 16px) !important;max-width:calc(100% + 16px) !important;display:block;height:auto;max-height:none}.left_2_column,.right_2_column{padding-right:0;padding-left:0;width:100%;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.item-map{margin-bottom:25px;margin-top:10px}.benefit,.reason{width:100% !important;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.tm-lg-2{width:100%}.tm-lg-3{width:100%}.tm-lg-4{width:100%}.tm-lg-5{width:100%}.ci_audio_link img.soundcloud_icon{display:none}.book_review_text img.book_image.reviews_img{float:none;display:block;max-width:100%;height:auto}}@media(max-width:360px){.latest_content_items .content_item img.ci_image{margin:1em -15px;width:100%;width:calc(100% + 30px) !important;max-width:calc(100% + 30px) !important;display:block;height:auto;max-height:none}.featured_ci_marker{margin-left:-15px !important}}}@media screen{@media(max-width:991px){.print_button{display:none}#mc_embed_signup{background:none;min-height:auto}aside .newsletter_promo{display:none}.right_1_column .institutional_sub_promo{margin:0 !important;padding:0 !important;background-color:transparent}#header_tools .patreon_button{display:none}.mobile-band{margin-left:-40px !important;margin-right:-40px !important;padding-left:40px !important;padding-right:40px !important}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper #time_list{height:initial !important;max-height:initial !important}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper h2{display:block;margin-top:15px !important}.right_1_column .timeline_outer_wrapper{margin:80px 0}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper{background:transparent;padding:0}.right_1_column .timeline_entry{border-bottom:0;margin:0}.right_1_column #time_list{margin:0}.right_1_column .timeline_entry .date{background-color:#f3f3f3;display:inline-block;padding:5px 15px 5px 200px;margin-left:-200px}#mobilenewsletter{display:block;margin:20px -40px;padding:20px 40px}body.home .membership_below_notice,body.home .membership-below-block-wrapper,img.newsletter_banner,.latest_content_items.featured,.our_videos_wrapper,.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper .timeline_add,#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky,#primis_intext{display:none}}@media(min-width:768px){.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{margin:20px 40px 20px 0 !important}}@media(min-width:768px) and (max-width:991px){#header{width:708px}#page{width:768px}#content{width:738px}.left_narrow_column{display:none}.right_narrow_column{display:none}.middle_wide_column{width:708px}.left_3_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.left_1_column{display:none}.right_3_column{width:100%}.right_1_column{width:100%;padding:0}#accordion-home{display:none}.content_item.featured .ci_preview_content{padding-left:395px}.left_3_column .content_item{max-width:340px}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:50px}.left_3_column .content_item.featured:nth-child(even){margin-left:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(2n+0){margin-right:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{max-width:215px !important;margin-right:40px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:215px;height:121px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n){margin-right:0 !important}.video_embed .right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px}.box_wrapper{width:708px;padding-left:30px;padding-right:30px}.ci_info .ci_social_media_buttons{display:none}img.tag_definition_image{margin:20px 0 20px 20px}.follow_us{display:none !important}.right_3_column .big_quote,.left_3_column .big_quote{margin-left:0;margin-right:0;width:338px}.right_3_column img,.left_3_column img{max-width:100%;height:auto}#grid_submissions .item_1_col{min-height:382px}.item_1_col{width:46%;margin:0 2% 0;float:left}.team_member{padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:10px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin-bottom:10px}.team_pic{float:none;width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;padding-bottom:15px}.team_pic img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}.team_member_details{float:right;width:100%;margin-left:0;margin:0;padding:0}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:220px !important}#header_search_button_new,.common_search_button_new{left:234px !important}#header_tools{padding-top:46px}#footer_contents .footer_connect,#footer_contents .footer_about{width:12%}#footer_contents .footer_contribute{width:16%}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px;margin-right:0 !important}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:34px !important}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right !important}#header_follow_buttons{display:none !important}.registration_message_page{width:708px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}.visual_timeline_button,.ad_Flexi_TopRight,.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight,.ad_Flexi_LowerRight,#uvTab,.bottomRightStickySpacer{display:none}.grid.four_col,.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr}}@media(min-width:768px){header nav{min-height:60px}#nav_bar{border-top:0 solid #e3e3e3;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;background:url('/template/images/bg_timeline.png') left top repeat}.sf-menu{padding-top:0;margin:0 auto}.sf-menu a{padding:20px 1em}#header_wrapper{padding-bottom:156px}.sf-menu,.sf-menu *{margin:0;padding:0;list-style:none}.sf-menu li{position:relative}.sf-menu ul{position:absolute;display:none;top:100%;left:50%;z-index:99;width:180px;margin-left:-96px}.sf-menu>li{float:left}.sf-menu li:hover>ul,.sf-menu li.sfHover>ul{display:block}.sf-menu a{display:block;position:relative}.sf-menu ul ul{top:0;left:100%}.sf-menu{margin-bottom:1em;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin:0 auto;margin-bottom:-4px !important;display:inline-block;text-transform:uppercase}.sf-menu ul{box-shadow:2px 2px 6px rgba(0,0,0,.2);min-width:12em;*width:12em;padding-top:18px !important;background:url('/template/images/bg_nav_ul.png') top left no-repeat rgba(0,0,0,0) !important;border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-web-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1);box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1)}.sf-menu ul li{text-transform:none}.sf-menu a{text-decoration:none;zoom:1;transition:all .25s}.sf-menu a{color:#494949;cursor:pointer}.sf-menu li{white-space:nowrap;*white-space:normal;transition:background .25s}.sf-menu ul li{background:#FFF}.sf-menu ul li a{border-bottom:1px solid #f0f0f0;padding:11px 8px;transition:all .25s;margin-left:10px;margin-right:10px;font-size:14px}.sf-menu ul li a:hover{color:#b52600}.sf-menu li:hover,.sf-menu li.sfHover{transition:none}}}</style>  <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="World History Encyclopedia RSS Feed" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/rss2/?lang=en"> <link rel="image_src" href="/img/r/p/500x600/2235.jpg?v=1708893731" /> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-16px.png" sizes="16x16"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-32px.png" sizes="32x32"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-64px.png" sizes="64x64"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-96px.png" sizes="96x96"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-128px.png" sizes="128x128"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-192px.png" sizes="192x192"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-196px.png" sizes="196x196"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-120px.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-152px.png" sizes="152x152"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-167px.png" sizes="167x167"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-180px.png" sizes="180x180">  <script> jsQueue(function(){ wheAnalyticsPageview(); }); </script>   <script defer src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-DMCY1BLGCJ"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ // Consent Mode Defaults if (AHE.isEU) { if (AHE.is_member) { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied' }); } else { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied', 'wait_for_update': 2000 }); } } else { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'wait_for_update': 2000 }); } async_load_js('/js/ga4.js?v=1732096425'); }); }); </script>  <script> jsQueue(()=> { async_load_js('/js/deferred-min.js?v=1732096425',false,true); }); </script>  <script> window.addEventListener('load', () => { processIdleQueue(); }); </script> </head> <body class="tag adthrive-cat-aztec_sacrifice adthrive-cat-brahmanism adthrive-cat-christianity adthrive-cat-egypt adthrive-cat-egyptian_burial adthrive-cat-enheduanna adthrive-cat-india adthrive-cat-jainism adthrive-cat-judaism adthrive-cat-mesopotamia adthrive-cat-mesopotamian_religion adthrive-cat-mithra adthrive-cat-moses adthrive-cat-mythology adthrive-cat-pazuzu adthrive-cat-pyramids adthrive-cat-religion">  <img fetchpriority="low" src="https://tracker.metricool.com/c3po.jpg?hash=583da8995f3bf53448b13ddf790ada6c" class="metricoolPixel" /> <div id="mobile_sm_buttons"></div> <div id="meanmenu"></div> <header id="header_wrapper"> <div id="header"> <a href="/" id="logo_link"> <div id="header_ahe_logo" style="width: 318px; height: 77px; position: relative;"> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 496.06 120.11"><defs><style>.c{fill:#fff;}.d{fill:#b52600;}.e{fill:#231f20;}</style></defs><g id="a"><path class="e" d="m175.92,47.11h.15c.99-3.38,4.39-14.03,5.68-18.73.37-1.36.41-1.87.41-2.35,0-.66-.4-1.1-2.09-1.1-.18,0-.33-.11-.33-.26,0-.18.18-.26.62-.26,1.87,0,3.42.11,3.75.11.26,0,1.84-.11,2.98-.11.33,0,.52.07.52.22,0,.18-.11.3-.33.3-.15,0-.84.03-1.25.18-1.1.4-1.69,1.95-2.39,3.96-1.62,4.67-5.34,16.35-6.78,20.46-.96,2.72-1.14,3.16-1.55,3.16-.37,0-.59-.48-1.1-1.91l-7.18-20.44h-.07c-1.33,3.53-6.37,16.97-7.7,20.39-.59,1.54-.77,1.94-1.21,1.94-.37,0-.55-.4-1.28-2.9l-6.52-21.79c-.59-1.95-1.06-2.5-2.02-2.87-.47-.18-1.39-.22-1.65-.22-.18,0-.33-.04-.33-.26,0-.18.22-.26.59-.26,1.91,0,3.93.11,4.34.12.33,0,1.95-.11,3.78-.11.52,0,.66.11.66.26,0,.22-.18.26-.37.26-.3,0-.99,0-1.43.22-.22.11-.48.4-.48.88s.33,1.76.7,3.38c.55,2.35,4.36,15.84,4.91,17.79h.07l7.81-20.93c.55-1.5.7-1.69.92-1.69.26,0,.48.48.91,1.73l7.29,20.84Z"/><path class="e" d="m203.84,23.92c8.27,0,14.43,5.23,14.43,13.79,0,8.23-5.82,15.02-14.67,15.01-10.07,0-14.25-7.84-14.24-14.45,0-5.95,4.35-14.36,14.49-14.35Zm.75,27.41c3.31,0,10.14-1.9,10.15-12.59,0-8.82-5.35-13.56-11.16-13.57-6.14,0-10.73,4.03-10.74,12.08,0,8.56,5.13,14.07,11.74,14.08Z"/><path class="e" d="m226.05,35.1c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.12.4,0,3.2-.11,4.34-.11,2.32,0,4.78.22,6.72,1.62.92.66,2.53,2.47,2.53,5,0,2.72-1.14,5.44-4.45,8.48,3.01,3.86,5.5,7.13,7.63,9.41,1.98,2.09,3.56,2.5,4.48,2.65.7.11,1.21.11,1.43.11.18,0,.33.11.33.22,0,.22-.22.3-.88.29h-2.61c-2.06,0-2.98-.19-3.93-.7-1.58-.85-2.86-2.65-4.95-5.4-1.54-2.02-3.27-4.49-4-5.44-.15-.15-.26-.22-.48-.22l-4.52-.08c-.18,0-.26.11-.26.29v.88c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11-.04,0-2.35.11-3.45.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm2.93,3.2c0,.18.07.33.26.44.55.33,2.24.59,3.86.59.88,0,1.91-.11,2.76-.7,1.29-.88,2.24-2.86,2.25-5.65,0-4.59-2.42-7.35-6.35-7.35-1.1,0-2.09.11-2.46.22-.18.07-.3.22-.3.44v12.01Z"/><path class="e" d="m256.83,41.67c0,5.4.14,7.75.8,8.41.59.59,1.54.85,4.41.85,1.95,0,3.56-.04,4.45-1.1.48-.59.85-1.5.96-2.2.04-.3.11-.48.33-.48.18,0,.22.15.22.55,0,.4-.26,2.61-.56,3.67-.26.84-.37.99-2.32.99-5.29,0-7.71-.23-9.85-.23-.15,0-.77.04-1.5.03-.74.04-1.54.07-2.1.07-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.87-.11,3.97-.11c.41,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.77.04-1.21.11-1.07.18-1.36.81-1.44,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.21-.08,7.94v6.54Z"/><path class="e" d="m275.49,35.15c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.94-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11.44,0,2.76-.11,4.96-.11,3.64,0,10.36-.32,14.73,4.2,1.83,1.91,3.56,4.96,3.55,9.34,0,4.63-1.92,8.19-3.98,10.36-1.58,1.65-4.89,4.22-11.14,4.21-3.16,0-7.79-.45-8.16-.45-.18,0-2.5.11-3.6.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm3.08,3.97c0,3.89.03,7.27.07,7.97.04.92.11,2.39.4,2.79.48.7,1.91,1.47,6.24,1.48,3.42,0,6.58-1.24,8.75-3.41,1.91-1.87,2.94-5.4,2.95-8.78,0-4.67-2.01-7.68-3.52-9.26-3.45-3.64-7.64-4.16-12.01-4.16-.74,0-2.09.11-2.39.26-.33.15-.44.33-.44.74-.04,1.25-.04,5-.04,7.82v4.56Z"/><path class="e" d="m343.28,41.68c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.98.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.3-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.73-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-3.86c0-.15-.11-.22-.22-.22h-15.58c-.11-.01-.22.02-.22.2v3.86c0,3.53,0,6.43.17,7.97.11,1.07.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.3-2.02,0-4.34-.12-4.52-.12s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.94-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.17-.07,2.2-.08,7.93v.77c0,.18.11.22.22.22h15.58c.11.01.22-.02.22-.21v-.77c0-5.73,0-6.76-.06-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.29-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.29-.07-.29-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.29.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.2-.08,7.93v6.47Z"/><path class="e" d="m359.43,41.7c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.94-.07-1.25-.44-1.87-1.25-2.06-.4-.11-.88-.15-1.14-.15-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.21,0,3.53.11,3.71.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.29,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.21-.08,7.94v6.47Z"/><path class="e" d="m370.14,51.89c-.51-.26-.55-.4-.55-1.4,0-1.84.15-3.31.19-3.89.04-.4.11-.59.29-.59.22,0,.26.11.26.4,0,.33,0,.85.11,1.36.55,2.72,2.97,3.75,5.43,3.75,3.53,0,5.25-2.53,5.26-4.88,0-2.54-1.06-4.01-4.22-6.62l-1.65-1.36c-3.89-3.2-4.77-5.48-4.77-7.98,0-3.93,2.95-6.61,7.61-6.61,1.43,0,2.5.15,3.42.37.7.15.99.19,1.29.19s.37.07.37.26-.15,1.4-.15,3.89c0,.59-.07.85-.26.84-.22,0-.26-.18-.3-.48-.04-.44-.25-1.43-.47-1.84s-1.21-1.95-4.59-1.95c-2.54,0-4.52,1.58-4.52,4.26,0,2.09,1.02,3.34,4.48,6.18l1.03.81c4.34,3.42,5.36,5.7,5.36,8.64,0,1.51-.59,4.3-3.13,6.1-1.58,1.1-3.56,1.54-5.55,1.54-1.72,0-3.42-.26-4.92-1Z"/><path class="e" d="m401.26,41.74c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.07.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.3-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.96,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-15.54s-5.42.07-5.42.07c-2.28.04-3.16.29-3.75,1.17-.41.62-.52.88-.63,1.14-.11.3-.22.37-.37.37-.11,0-.18-.11-.18-.33,0-.37.74-3.52.81-3.82.07-.22.22-.7.37-.7.26,0,.62.37,1.62.45,1.06.11,2.46.19,2.9.19h13.78c1.18.01,2.02-.1,2.61-.17.55-.11.88-.18,1.03-.18.18,0,.18.22.18.44,0,1.1-.12,3.64-.12,4.04,0,.33-.11.48-.26.48-.18,0-.26-.11-.3-.63l-.04-.4c-.15-1.1-.99-1.95-4.52-2.02l-4.63-.08v15.54Z"/><path class="e" d="m428.03,24.13c8.27,0,14.43,5.23,14.43,13.79,0,8.23-5.82,15.02-14.67,15.01-10.07,0-14.25-7.84-14.24-14.45,0-5.95,4.35-14.36,14.49-14.35Zm.75,27.41c3.31,0,10.14-1.9,10.15-12.59,0-8.82-5.35-13.56-11.16-13.57-6.14,0-10.73,4.03-10.74,12.08,0,8.56,5.13,14.07,11.74,14.08Z"/><path class="e" d="m450.24,35.32c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.12,4.15.12.4,0,3.2-.11,4.34-.11,2.32,0,4.78.22,6.72,1.62.92.66,2.53,2.47,2.53,5,0,2.72-1.14,5.44-4.45,8.48,3.01,3.86,5.5,7.13,7.63,9.41,1.98,2.09,3.56,2.5,4.48,2.65.7.11,1.21.11,1.43.11.18,0,.33.11.33.22,0,.22-.22.3-.88.29h-2.61c-2.06,0-2.98-.19-3.93-.7-1.58-.85-2.86-2.65-4.95-5.4-1.54-2.02-3.27-4.49-4-5.44-.15-.15-.26-.22-.48-.22l-4.52-.08c-.18,0-.26.11-.26.29v.88c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11-.04,0-2.35.11-3.45.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm2.93,3.2c0,.18.07.33.26.44.55.33,2.24.59,3.86.59.88,0,1.91-.11,2.76-.7,1.29-.88,2.24-2.86,2.25-5.65,0-4.59-2.42-7.35-6.35-7.35-1.1,0-2.09.11-2.46.22-.18.07-.3.22-.3.44v12.01Z"/><path class="e" d="m481.28,42.95c0-1.98-.37-2.79-.84-3.86-.26-.59-5.17-8.68-6.46-10.59-.92-1.36-1.84-2.28-2.5-2.72-.55-.37-1.25-.59-1.58-.59-.18,0-.37-.07-.37-.26,0-.15.15-.26.48-.26.7,0,3.45.11,3.64.11.26,0,1.65-.11,3.09-.11.4,0,.48.11.48.26s-.22.18-.55.33c-.3.15-.48.37-.48.66,0,.44.18.88.48,1.43.59,1.07,6.09,10.55,6.75,11.62.7-1.54,5.37-9.58,6.11-10.8.48-.77.63-1.39.63-1.87,0-.51-.15-.92-.59-1.03-.33-.11-.55-.18-.55-.37,0-.15.22-.22.59-.22.95,0,2.13.11,2.42.11.22,0,2.87-.11,3.56-.11.26,0,.48.07.48.22,0,.18-.18.3-.48.3-.4,0-1.11.15-1.69.51-.74.44-1.14.88-1.95,1.87-1.22,1.47-6.37,10.1-7.03,11.68-.55,1.32-.55,2.46-.55,3.67v3.16c0,.59,0,2.13.1,3.67.07,1.06.4,1.87,1.5,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.3-2.02,0-4.34-.12-4.52-.12s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15,1.06-.95,1.14-2.02.11-1.54.11-3.09.11-3.67v-3.16Z"/><path class="e" d="m153.78,81.94c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.29,0,8.36,0,9.29-.03.77-.04,1.42-.12,1.74-.2.2-.04.37-.2.57-.2.12,0,.16.16.16.37,0,.28-.2.77-.33,1.9-.04.41-.12,2.19-.2,2.68-.04.2-.12.45-.29.45-.24,0-.32-.2-.32-.53,0-.28-.04-.97-.24-1.46-.28-.65-.69-1.13-2.88-1.38-.69-.08-5.11-.13-5.56-.13-.16,0-.24.12-.24.4v11.2c-.01.28.03.4.23.41.53,0,5.52,0,6.45-.07.97-.08,1.54-.16,1.91-.57.28-.32.45-.52.61-.52.12,0,.2.08.2.32s-.21.93-.33,2.27c-.08.81-.16,2.31-.16,2.6,0,.32,0,.77-.28.77-.2,0-.29-.16-.29-.37,0-.4,0-.81-.16-1.34-.16-.57-.52-1.26-2.11-1.42-1.09-.12-5.11-.21-5.8-.21-.2,0-.28.12-.28.28v3.57c0,1.38-.05,6.08,0,6.93.12,2.8.72,3.33,4.7,3.33,1.05,0,2.84,0,3.89-.44,1.06-.45,1.54-1.26,1.83-2.92.08-.45.16-.61.37-.61.24,0,.24.32.24.61,0,.32-.33,3.08-.53,3.93-.28,1.05-.61,1.05-2.19,1.05-6.13,0-8.84-.25-10.02-.25-.2,0-2.76.12-3.97.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m179.6,95.34c.08,3.33.48,4.38,1.58,4.71.77.2,1.66.24,2.03.24.2,0,.32.08.32.24,0,.24-.24.32-.73.32-2.31,0-3.93-.13-4.3-.13s-2.07.12-3.89.12c-.41,0-.65-.04-.65-.33,0-.16.12-.24.32-.24.32,0,1.05-.04,1.66-.24,1.01-.28,1.22-1.46,1.22-5.15l.06-23.24c0-1.58.12-2.03.45-2.03.32,0,1.01.89,1.42,1.3.61.69,6.65,7.22,12.88,13.92,4.01,4.3,8.43,9.26,9.72,10.59l-.43-20.6c-.04-2.64-.32-3.53-1.58-3.86-.73-.16-1.66-.21-1.99-.21-.28,0-.32-.12-.32-.28,0-.24.32-.28.81-.28,1.82,0,3.77.13,4.22.13s1.79-.12,3.45-.12c.45,0,.73.04.73.29,0,.16-.16.28-.45.28-.2,0-.49,0-.98.12-1.34.28-1.5,1.17-1.5,3.61l-.1,23.77c0,2.68-.08,2.88-.37,2.88-.33,0-.81-.45-2.96-2.6-.45-.41-6.28-6.37-10.58-11-4.7-5.07-9.28-10.19-10.57-11.65l.51,19.43Z"/><path class="e" d="m217.2,97.08c-3.93-3.53-4.9-8.15-4.9-12.01,0-2.72.94-7.46,4.55-11.07,2.44-2.43,6.13-4.33,12.37-4.33,1.62,0,3.89.12,5.88.49,1.54.29,2.84.53,4.14.61.45.04.52.2.52.45,0,.32-.12.81-.21,2.27-.08,1.34-.08,3.57-.12,4.18-.04.61-.12.85-.37.85-.28,0-.32-.28-.32-.85,0-1.58-.65-3.24-1.7-4.14-1.42-1.22-4.54-2.32-8.11-2.32-5.39,0-7.91,1.57-9.33,2.95-2.96,2.84-3.66,6.45-3.66,10.58,0,7.75,5.95,14.85,14.63,14.86,3.04,0,5.44-.36,7.06-2.02.85-.89,1.38-2.68,1.5-3.41.08-.45.16-.61.41-.61.2,0,.28.29.28.61,0,.28-.49,3.81-.9,5.19-.24.77-.32.85-1.05,1.18-1.62.65-4.71.93-7.3.92-6.08,0-10.18-1.51-13.38-4.39Z"/><path class="e" d="m254.67,90.43c0-2.19-.4-3.08-.93-4.26-.29-.65-5.71-9.58-7.13-11.69-1.01-1.5-2.02-2.52-2.76-3-.61-.41-1.38-.65-1.74-.65-.2,0-.41-.08-.41-.28,0-.16.16-.29.53-.29.77,0,3.81.13,4.02.13.28,0,1.82-.12,3.41-.12.45,0,.53.12.53.29s-.24.2-.61.36c-.33.16-.53.41-.53.73,0,.49.2.97.53,1.58.65,1.18,6.72,11.65,7.45,12.82.77-1.7,5.93-10.58,6.74-11.92.53-.85.69-1.54.69-2.07,0-.57-.16-1.02-.65-1.14-.37-.12-.61-.2-.61-.41,0-.16.24-.24.65-.24,1.05,0,2.35.12,2.68.12.24,0,3.16-.12,3.93-.12.28,0,.53.08.53.24,0,.2-.2.32-.53.32-.45,0-1.22.16-1.87.57-.81.49-1.26.97-2.15,2.07-1.34,1.62-7.03,11.15-7.76,12.89-.61,1.46-.61,2.72-.61,4.05v3.49c0,.65,0,2.35.11,4.06.08,1.18.44,2.07,1.66,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.83.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.32-.65.32-2.23,0-4.79-.13-4.99-.13s-2.76.12-3.98.12c-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.32,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.18-1.05,1.26-2.23.12-1.7.12-3.41.12-4.05v-3.49Z"/><path class="e" d="m276.58,97.14c-3.93-3.53-4.9-8.16-4.9-12.01,0-2.72.94-7.46,4.55-11.07,2.44-2.43,6.13-4.33,12.37-4.33,1.62,0,3.89.13,5.88.49,1.54.29,2.84.53,4.14.61.45.04.52.21.52.45,0,.32-.12.81-.2,2.27-.08,1.34-.08,3.57-.13,4.18-.04.61-.12.85-.37.85-.28,0-.32-.28-.32-.85,0-1.58-.65-3.24-1.7-4.14-1.42-1.22-4.54-2.32-8.11-2.32-5.39,0-7.91,1.57-9.33,2.95-2.96,2.84-3.66,6.44-3.66,10.58,0,7.75,5.95,14.85,14.63,14.86,3.04,0,5.44-.36,7.06-2.02.85-.89,1.38-2.68,1.5-3.41.08-.45.16-.61.41-.61.2,0,.28.28.28.61,0,.29-.49,3.81-.9,5.19-.24.77-.32.85-1.05,1.18-1.62.65-4.71.93-7.3.93-6.08,0-10.18-1.51-13.38-4.39Z"/><path class="e" d="m312.35,89.31c0,5.96.15,8.56.88,9.29.65.65,1.7.93,4.86.94,2.15,0,3.94-.04,4.91-1.21.53-.65.93-1.66,1.06-2.43.04-.33.12-.53.37-.53.2,0,.24.16.24.61s-.29,2.88-.61,4.05c-.29.93-.41,1.09-2.55,1.09-5.84,0-8.52-.25-10.87-.25-.16,0-.85.04-1.66.04-.81.04-1.7.08-2.31.08-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14c.01-6.33.01-7.46-.06-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13s3.16-.12,4.38-.12c.45,0,.65.08.65.32,0,.16-.16.24-.32.24-.28,0-.85.04-1.34.12-1.18.2-1.5.89-1.58,2.31-.08,1.3-.08,2.43-.09,8.76v7.22Z"/><path class="e" d="m343.36,69.79c9.12,0,15.93,5.77,15.92,15.22,0,9.08-6.42,16.58-16.2,16.57-11.11,0-15.73-8.65-15.72-15.95,0-6.57,4.8-15.85,16-15.84Zm.82,30.26c3.65,0,11.2-2.1,11.21-13.9,0-9.73-5.91-14.97-12.32-14.98-6.77,0-11.84,4.45-11.85,13.33,0,9.45,5.66,15.54,12.96,15.55Z"/><path class="e" d="m367.89,82.14c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.26.13,4.58.13.89,0,3.25-.12,5.11-.12,5.07,0,6.89,1.71,7.54,2.32.89.85,2.03,2.68,2.02,4.83,0,5.76-4.23,9.65-9.99,9.64-.2,0-.65,0-.85-.04-.2,0-.45-.08-.45-.28,0-.33.24-.37,1.09-.37,3.94,0,7.02-2.87,7.03-6.6,0-1.34-.12-4.06-2.27-6.25-2.15-2.19-4.62-2.03-5.55-2.03-.69,0-1.38.08-1.74.24-.24.08-.32.36-.32.77l-.02,16.67c0,3.89,0,7.1.2,8.8.12,1.18.36,2.07,1.58,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.82.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.32-.65.32-2.23,0-4.78-.13-4.99-.13-.12,0-2.68.12-3.89.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m393.32,82.17c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.29,0,8.36,0,9.29-.03.77-.04,1.42-.12,1.74-.2.2-.04.37-.2.57-.2.12,0,.16.16.16.37,0,.28-.2.77-.33,1.9-.04.41-.12,2.19-.2,2.68-.04.2-.12.45-.29.45-.24,0-.32-.2-.32-.53,0-.28-.04-.97-.24-1.46-.28-.65-.69-1.13-2.88-1.38-.69-.08-5.11-.13-5.56-.13-.16,0-.24.12-.24.4v11.2c-.01.28.03.41.23.41.53,0,5.52,0,6.45-.07.97-.08,1.54-.16,1.91-.57.28-.32.45-.52.61-.52.12,0,.2.08.2.32s-.21.93-.33,2.27c-.08.81-.16,2.31-.16,2.6,0,.32,0,.77-.28.77-.2,0-.29-.16-.29-.37,0-.4,0-.81-.16-1.34-.16-.57-.52-1.26-2.11-1.42-1.09-.12-5.11-.21-5.8-.21-.2,0-.28.12-.28.28v3.57c0,1.38-.05,6.08,0,6.93.12,2.8.72,3.33,4.7,3.33,1.05,0,2.84,0,3.89-.44,1.06-.45,1.54-1.26,1.83-2.92.08-.45.16-.61.37-.61.24,0,.24.32.24.61,0,.32-.33,3.08-.53,3.93-.28,1.05-.61,1.05-2.19,1.05-6.13,0-8.84-.25-10.02-.25-.08,0-.77.04-1.62.04-.81.04-1.74.08-2.35.08-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m418.06,82.19c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.49,0,3.04-.12,5.48-.12,4.02,0,11.44-.35,16.26,4.64,2.02,2.11,3.93,5.48,3.92,10.31,0,5.11-2.12,9.04-4.39,11.43-1.74,1.82-5.39,4.66-12.29,4.65-3.49,0-8.6-.49-9-.49-.2,0-2.76.12-3.97.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.32,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Zm3.4,4.38c0,4.3.03,8.03.07,8.8.04,1.01.12,2.63.45,3.08.52.77,2.1,1.62,6.89,1.63,3.77,0,7.26-1.37,9.66-3.76,2.11-2.07,3.25-5.96,3.25-9.69,0-5.15-2.22-8.48-3.88-10.22-3.81-4.02-8.43-4.59-13.26-4.6-.81,0-2.31.12-2.63.28-.37.16-.49.37-.49.81-.04,1.38-.04,5.52-.05,8.64v5.03Z"/><path class="e" d="m458.26,89.36c0,3.89,0,7.1.19,8.8.12,1.18.36,2.07,1.58,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.83.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.33-.65.32-2.23,0-4.79-.13-4.99-.13s-2.76.12-3.97.12c-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14c.01-6.33.01-7.46-.06-8.76-.08-1.38-.49-2.07-1.38-2.27-.45-.12-.97-.16-1.26-.16-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.34,0,3.89.13,4.1.13s2.76-.12,3.97-.12c.45,0,.65.08.65.32,0,.16-.16.24-.32.24-.29,0-.53.04-1.02.12-1.09.2-1.42.89-1.5,2.31-.08,1.3-.08,2.43-.09,8.76v7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m478.55,71.5c.49-1.34.65-1.58.89-1.58s.41.2.89,1.46c.61,1.54,6.96,18.3,9.43,24.46,1.45,3.61,2.63,4.26,3.48,4.5.61.21,1.22.24,1.62.25.24,0,.41.04.41.24,0,.24-.37.33-.81.32-.61,0-3.57,0-6.37-.09-.77-.04-1.22-.04-1.22-.29,0-.16.12-.24.29-.28.24-.08.49-.45.24-1.09l-3.76-9.98c-.08-.16-.16-.24-.37-.24h-8.72c-.2,0-.33.11-.41.31l-2.44,7.18c-.37,1.01-.57,1.99-.57,2.72,0,.81.85,1.18,1.54,1.18h.41c.28,0,.41.08.41.24,0,.24-.24.32-.61.32-.97,0-2.72-.13-3.16-.13s-2.68.12-4.58.12c-.53,0-.77-.08-.77-.33,0-.16.16-.24.37-.24.29,0,.85-.04,1.18-.08,1.87-.24,2.68-1.78,3.41-3.81l9.23-25.18Zm4.2,16.23c.2,0,.2-.12.16-.28l-3.84-10.95c-.2-.61-.4-.61-.61,0l-3.58,10.95c-.08.2,0,.28.12.28h7.75Z"/><path class="d" d="m15.26,0h89.58c8.42,0,15.26,6.84,15.26,15.26v89.59c0,8.42-6.84,15.26-15.26,15.26H15.25c-8.42,0-15.25-6.83-15.25-15.25V15.26C0,6.84,6.84,0,15.26,0Z"/><path class="c" d="m101.37,23.07c-1.15,2.45-2.13,5.56-2.94,9.32-.82,3.76-1.49,7.91-2.02,12.45-.53,4.54-.94,9.26-1.23,14.16-.29,4.91-.51,9.71-.67,14.41-.16,4.7-.31,9.12-.43,13.24-.12,4.13-.27,7.66-.43,10.61v1.72c0,.82-.04,1.64-.12,2.45-.08.82-.23,1.53-.43,2.15-.21.61-.47.92-.8.92-.25,0-.45-.33-.61-.98-.16-.65-.29-1.41-.37-2.27-.08-.86-.14-1.67-.18-2.45-.04-.78-.06-1.29-.06-1.53-.16-2.94-.31-6.48-.43-10.61-.12-4.13-.27-8.54-.43-13.24-.17-4.7-.41-9.5-.74-14.41-.33-4.91-.76-9.63-1.29-14.16-.53-4.54-1.19-8.71-1.96-12.51-.78-3.8-1.74-6.89-2.88-9.26-.41-.98-.96-1.96-1.66-2.94-.7-.98-1.53-2.04-2.51-3.19-.57-.65-.8-1.06-.67-1.23.12-.16.55-.16,1.29,0,1.47.17,2.72.72,3.74,1.66,1.02.94,2.1,1.86,3.25,2.76,2.13,1.55,3.96,2.33,5.52,2.33s3.39-.78,5.52-2.33c1.14-.9,2.23-1.82,3.25-2.76,1.02-.94,2.31-1.49,3.86-1.66.74-.08,1.16-.06,1.29.06.12.12-.1.51-.67,1.17-1.96,2.29-3.35,4.33-4.17,6.13Zm-63.61,78.59c-1.02,1.63-1.28,2.58-.77,2.82.51.25,1.74-.61,3.69-2.58l38.61-40.47c.62-.66.92-1.1.92-1.35s-.31-.7-.92-1.35L40.69,18.39c-1.85-1.88-3.05-2.74-3.61-2.58-.56.16-.33,1.1.69,2.82,3.79,6.46,7.1,11.87,9.92,16.25,2.82,4.37,5.15,8.09,7,11.16,1.85,3.07,3.26,5.66,4.23,7.79.98,2.13,1.46,4.17,1.46,6.13s-.49,4-1.46,6.13c-.97,2.13-2.41,4.74-4.31,7.85-1.9,3.11-4.23,6.87-7,11.28-2.77,4.41-6.05,9.89-9.84,16.43Zm-20.4-42.2c2.16.44,4.32.94,6.48,1.5,2.16.56,4.3,1.39,6.41,2.49,2.12,1.11,4.25,2.63,6.41,4.57,2.16,1.94,4.32,4.52,6.48,7.73.99,1.33,1.4,1,1.21-1-.09-1.66-.43-3.19-1.01-4.57-.58-1.38-1.21-2.74-1.89-4.07-.67-1.33-1.26-2.66-1.75-3.99-.49-1.33-.74-2.72-.74-4.16s.25-2.85.74-4.24c.5-1.38,1.08-2.74,1.75-4.07.67-1.33,1.31-2.69,1.89-4.07.59-1.39.92-2.85,1.01-4.41.09-1.22.02-1.86-.2-1.91-.22-.05-.56.19-1.01.75-2.25,3.22-4.43,5.79-6.55,7.73-2.11,1.94-4.23,3.47-6.34,4.57-2.11,1.11-4.25,1.94-6.41,2.49-2.16.56-4.32,1.05-6.48,1.5-.81.22-1.6.44-2.36.67-.76.22-1.15.56-1.15,1,0,.33.38.61,1.15.83.77.22,1.55.44,2.36.67Z"/></g><g id="b"><path d="m485.74,74.37c0-2.59,1.98-4.47,4.68-4.47s4.68,1.88,4.68,4.47-1.98,4.42-4.68,4.42-4.68-1.93-4.68-4.42Zm8.49-.05c0-2.19-1.63-3.66-3.81-3.66s-3.81,1.47-3.81,3.66,1.63,3.71,3.86,3.71,3.76-1.58,3.76-3.71Zm-5.54-.71c0-.76-.05-1.12-.05-1.37,0-.31-.15-.36-.56-.36-.05,0-.15-.05-.15-.1,0-.1.1-.15.25-.15h.25c.1,0,.51.05.66.05.46,0,.66-.05,1.07-.05.86,0,2.13.15,2.13,1.37,0,.51-.15.92-.91,1.52l.86,1.07c.66.81.86.86.97.86s.15.05.15.1c0,.1-.05.15-.36.15-.66,0-1.02.05-1.78-.97l-.71-.97h-.91v.46c0,1.02.05,1.07.1,1.12.1.05.36.1.51.1.1,0,.15,0,.15.1s-.1.15-.2.15h-.2c-.1,0-.56-.05-.81-.05-.15,0-.66.05-.76.05h-.25c-.1,0-.2,0-.2-.1s.1-.15.2-.15q.46,0,.51-.31c0-.25.05-.61.05-1.42v-1.12Zm.92.61c.15.1.46.15.76.15.15,0,.36-.05.51-.15.25-.15.46-.41.46-.91,0-.71-.46-1.22-1.27-1.22-.05,0-.36,0-.46.1v2.03Z"/></g></svg> </div> </a> <div id="header_tools"> <div class="header_row_top"> <span class="header_sm_buttons"> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook" rel="external" class="header_sm_link facebook"><svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path d="M24 12.073c0-6.627-5.373-12-12-12s-12 5.373-12 12c0 5.99 4.388 10.954 10.125 11.854v-8.385H7.078v-3.47h3.047V9.43c0-3.007 1.792-4.669 4.533-4.669 1.312 0 2.686.235 2.686.235v2.953H15.83c-1.491 0-1.956.925-1.956 1.874v2.25h3.328l-.532 3.47h-2.796v8.385C19.612 23.027 24 18.062 24 12.073z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/twitter" rel="external" class="header_sm_link twitter"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.066 9.645c.183 4.04-2.83 8.544-8.164 8.544-1.622 0-3.131-.476-4.402-1.291 1.524.18 3.045-.244 4.252-1.189-1.256-.023-2.317-.854-2.684-1.995.451.086.895.061 1.298-.049-1.381-.278-2.335-1.522-2.304-2.853.388.215.83.344 1.301.359-1.279-.855-1.641-2.544-.889-3.835 1.416 1.738 3.533 2.881 5.92 3.001-.419-1.796.944-3.527 2.799-3.527.825 0 1.572.349 2.096.907.654-.128 1.27-.368 1.824-.697-.215.671-.67 1.233-1.263 1.589.581-.07 1.135-.224 1.649-.453-.384.578-.87 1.084-1.433 1.489z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/instagram" rel="external" class="header_sm_link instagram"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.829 6.302c-.738-.034-.96-.04-2.829-.04s-2.09.007-2.828.04c-1.899.087-2.783.986-2.87 2.87-.033.738-.041.959-.041 2.828s.008 2.09.041 2.829c.087 1.879.967 2.783 2.87 2.87.737.033.959.041 2.828.041 1.87 0 2.091-.007 2.829-.041 1.899-.086 2.782-.988 2.87-2.87.033-.738.04-.96.04-2.829s-.007-2.09-.04-2.828c-.088-1.883-.973-2.783-2.87-2.87zm-2.829 9.293c-1.985 0-3.595-1.609-3.595-3.595 0-1.985 1.61-3.594 3.595-3.594s3.595 1.609 3.595 3.594c0 1.985-1.61 3.595-3.595 3.595zm3.737-6.491c-.464 0-.84-.376-.84-.84 0-.464.376-.84.84-.84.464 0 .84.376.84.84 0 .463-.376.84-.84.84zm-1.404 2.896c0 1.289-1.045 2.333-2.333 2.333s-2.333-1.044-2.333-2.333c0-1.289 1.045-2.333 2.333-2.333s2.333 1.044 2.333 2.333zm-2.333-12c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.958 14.886c-.115 2.545-1.532 3.955-4.071 4.072-.747.034-.986.042-2.887.042s-2.139-.008-2.886-.042c-2.544-.117-3.955-1.529-4.072-4.072-.034-.746-.042-.985-.042-2.886 0-1.901.008-2.139.042-2.886.117-2.544 1.529-3.955 4.072-4.071.747-.035.985-.043 2.886-.043s2.14.008 2.887.043c2.545.117 3.957 1.532 4.071 4.071.034.747.042.985.042 2.886 0 1.901-.008 2.14-.042 2.886z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube" rel="external" class="header_sm_link youtube"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm4.441 16.892c-2.102.144-6.784.144-8.883 0-2.276-.156-2.541-1.27-2.558-4.892.017-3.629.285-4.736 2.558-4.892 2.099-.144 6.782-.144 8.883 0 2.277.156 2.541 1.27 2.559 4.892-.018 3.629-.285 4.736-2.559 4.892zm-6.441-7.234l4.917 2.338-4.917 2.346v-4.684z"/></svg></a> </span> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-button&utm_campaign=membership" class="donate_button membership no_external" id="header_donate_button" rel="nofollow"> <span class="base">Membership</span> <span class="hover">No ads</span> </a> <div class="clr"></div> </div> <div class="header_row_bottom"> <search> <form accept-charset="utf-8" action="/search/"> <div class="search_wrapper"> <input name="q" size="" class="autocomplete_tags_readable ancient_search_btn common_search_field" type="text" value="" placeholder="Search..."> </div> </form> </search> <div class="media_search_clear"></div> <script type="text/javascript"> jsQueue(()=>{ $(".ci_type_filter_checkbox").change(function(e) { var ci_types_list = []; $(".ci_type_filter_checkbox").each(function() { if (this.checked) { ci_types_list.push(this.value); } }); var ci_types_string = ci_types_list.join(','); console.log("CI types selected: " + ci_types_string); $("#ci_types_filter").val(ci_types_string); }); }); </script> <style> .media_search_type_filters { clear: both; position: relative; margin-bottom: 1em; } .search_checkbox input[type=checkbox] { position: relative; top: -1px; } .half_column { display: inline-block; width: 300px; } </style> <div class="clr"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clr"></div> <nav> <div id="nav_bar"> <ul class="sf-menu" id="example"> <li class="toplevel"> <a class="first-menu-item" href="/index/">Encyclopedia</a> <ul> <li><a href="/index/">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/timeline/">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/mapselect/">Maps</a></li> <li><a href="/books/">Book Reviews</a></li> <li><a href="/measure/">Weights & Measures</a></li> <li><a href="/trans/">Translations</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/edu/">Education</a> <ul> <li><a href="/edu/teaching-resources/">Teaching Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/xres/">Link Database</a></li> <li><a href="/type/11/1/">Quizzes</a></li> <li><a href="/category/100/1/">Primary Sources</a></li> <li><a href="/edu/collections/">Collections</a></li> <li><a href="/edu/subscription/?utm_campaign=institutional_subscription&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-nav" id="institutional-sub-header-link">School Subscription</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/medialibrary/">Media</a> <ul> <li><a href="/medialibrary/">Media Library</a></li> <li><a href="/audio/">Audio Articles</a></li> <li><a href="https://experts.worldhistory.org">Podcast</a></li> <li><a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube">Youtube Channel</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="hide-in-mobile toplevel"> <a href="/contribute/">Contribute</a> <ul> <li><a href="/contribute/">Submissions</a></li> <li><a href="/static/needed/">Needed Content</a></li> <li><a href="/static/style_guide/">Style Guide</a></li> <li><a href="/static/legal_terms/">Terms & Conditions</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.worldhistory.foundation/volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/donate/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-nav&utm_campaign=donate_en" rel="nofollow">Donate</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/shop/" title="Ancient History Shop">Shop</a> <ul> <li><a href="/books/">Books</a></li> <li><a href="https://worldhistory.store/#!/wall+prints+map+posters?q=P180-map">Map Posters</a></li> <li><a href="/shop/magazines/">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/shop/posters/" rel="nofollow">Wall Charts</a></li> <li><a href="https://worldhistory.store/">Clothing</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/static/about/">About</a> <ul> <li><a href="/static/about/">About</a></li> <li><a href="/team/">Our Team</a></li> <li><a href="/static/editorial-policy/">Editorial Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/static/reports/">Annual Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_campaign=membership&utm_medium=header-nav">Membership</a></li> <li><a href="/static/contact/">Contact</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/login/" class="login_link">Login</a> <ul> <li><a href="/login/?ui_lang=en" title="Login" class="login_link">Login</a></li> <li><a href="/register/?ui_lang=en" title="Registration" class="login_link">Register</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </nav> </header> <div id="title_bar"> <div class="box_wrapper v_spacing"> <h1 id="page_title_text" class="trans">Religion in the Ancient World</h1> </div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="content_wrapper"> <div id="content" class="religion_page">  <script> function darkMode() { let css = document.createElement("link"); css.id = 'darkCSS'; css.setAttribute("rel", "stylesheet") css.setAttribute("type", "text/css") css.setAttribute("media","screen"); css.setAttribute("href", "/template/css/exclude/dark.css?v=1732096425"); document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(css) document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-white-r.svg">'; } function lightMode() { document.getElementById('darkCSS').remove(); document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-r.svg">'; } if (localStorage.getItem('darkMode') == 'dark') { darkMode(); } </script>  <main class="left_3_column" id="main_content"> <nav id="toc_wrapper" style="display: none;"> <div id="toc"> <h2 class="no_toc">Contents</h2> <div id="toc_contents"></div> <p class="toc_buttons"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Aztec_Sacrifice+Brahmanism+christianity+egypt+Egyptian_Burial+Enheduanna+india+jainism+judaism+Mesopotamia+Mesopotamian_Religion+Mithra+Moses+mythology+Pazuzu+pyramids+religion" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/2235.jpg" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/" data-pin-description="Religion (from the Latin Religio, meaning 'restraint,' or Relegere, according to Cicero, meaning 'to repeat, to read again,' or, most likely, Religionem, 'to show respect for what is sacred') is an organized system of beliefs and practices revolving around, or leading to, a transcendent spiritual..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> <br/> published on 23 March 2018 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/ar/1-131/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Arabic</a>, <a href="/trans/fr/1-131/religion-dans-le-monde-antique/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/es/1-131/la-religion-en-la-antiguedad/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Spanish</a>, <a href="/trans/tr/1-131/antik-dunyada-din/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Turkish</a></div> </div> <style> .podcastco_wrapper { margin: 15px 0px -5px -5px; } </style> <div class="podcastco_wrapper"> <div class="podcastdotco-wrapper"><iframe data-target="ancient-history-encyclopedia/religion-in-the-ancient-world" src="https://play.pod.co/ancient-history-encyclopedia/religion-in-the-ancient-world?mini=true" frameborder="0" width="100%" scrolling="no" style="overflow:hidden;max-width:none;height:40px;"class="podcastdotco-player podcastdotco-player--mini"></iframe><script defer src="https://play.pod.co/embed/frame-v1.js"></script></div> </div> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Aztec_Sacrifice+Brahmanism+christianity+egypt+Egyptian_Burial+Enheduanna+india+jainism+judaism+Mesopotamia+Mesopotamian_Religion+Mithra+Moses+mythology+Pazuzu+pyramids+religion" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/2235/sumerian-worshipper-statue/" title="Sumerian Worshipper Statue"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2235.jpg.webp?v=1731512117 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2235.jpg.webp?v=1731512117 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2235.jpg?v=1731512117 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2235.jpg?v=1731512117 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2235.jpg?v=1731512117" width="300" height="453" alt="Sumerian Worshipper Statue (by Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin, Copyright)" title="Sumerian Worshipper Statue (by Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin, Copyright)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Sumerian Worshipper Statue</div><div class="figauthor">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2235/sumerian-worshipper-statue/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2235/sumerian-worshipper-statue/","caption":"A statue of a Sumerian worshipper. Marble, early dynastic period, 2800-2300 BCE, Mesopotamia, Sulaimaniya Museum, Iraq.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/2235.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/#person","name":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-OsamaSMAmin.jpg","description":"Associate Professor of Neurology and lover of the Cradle of Civilization, Mesopotamia. I'm very interested in Mesopotamian history and always try to take photos of archaeological sites and artifacts in museums, both in Iraq and around the world.","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:39:17+0000","datePublished":"2014-01-23T06:21:26+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Sumerian Worshipper Statue","height":4288,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2235/sumerian-worshipper-statue/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2235/sumerian-worshipper-statue/","width":2848} </script> <p>Religion (from the Latin <em>Religio</em>, meaning 'restraint,' or <em>Relegere</em>, according to <a href="/Cicero/">Cicero</a>, meaning 'to repeat, to read again,' or, most likely, <em>Religionem</em>, 'to show respect for what is sacred') is an organized system of beliefs and practices revolving around, or leading to, a transcendent spiritual experience. There is no <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a> in human history that has not practiced some form of religion.</p> <p>In ancient times, religion was indistinguishable from what is known as '<a href="/mythology/">mythology</a>' in the present day and consisted of regular rituals based on a belief in higher supernatural entities who created and continued to maintain the world and surrounding cosmos. These entities were anthropomorphic and behaved in ways which mirrored the values of the culture closely (as in <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a>) or sometimes engaged in acts antithetical to those values (as one sees with the gods of <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>).</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>Religion, then and now, concerns itself with the spiritual aspect of the human condition, gods and goddesses (or a single personal <a href="/God/">god</a> or goddess), the creation of the world, a human being's place in the world, life after <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a>, eternity, and how to escape from suffering in this world or in the next; and every nation has created its own god in its own image and resemblance. The <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> philosopher <a href="/Xenophanes_of_Colophon/">Xenophanes of Colophon</a> (l. c. 570-478 BCE) writes:</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <blockquote> <p>Mortals suppose that the gods are born and have clothes and voices and shapes like their own. But if oxen, horses and lions had hands or could paint with their hands and fashion works as men do, horses would paint horse-like images of gods and oxen oxen-like ones, and each would fashion bodies like their own. The Ethiopians consider the gods flat-nosed and black; the Thracians blue-eyed and red-haired. (Diogenes Laertius, <em>Lives</em>)</p> </blockquote> <p>Xenophanes believed there was "one god, among gods and men the greatest, not at all like mortals in body or mind" but he was in the minority. Monotheism did not make sense to the ancient people aside from the visionaries and prophets of <a href="/disambiguation/judaism/">Judaism</a>. Most people, at least as far as can be discerned from the written and archaeological record, believed in many gods, each of whom had a special sphere of influence. In one's personal life there is not just one other person who provides for one's needs; one interacts with many different kinds of people in order to achieve wholeness and maintain a living.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <div class="big_quote">Ancient people felt that no single god could possibly take care of all the needs of an individual.</div> <p>In the course of one's life in the present day, one will interact with one's parents, siblings, teachers, friends, lovers, employers, doctors, gas station attendants, plumbers, politicians, veterinarians, and so on. No one single person can fill all these roles or supply all of an individual's needs – just as it was in ancient times.</p> <p>In this same way, the ancient people felt that no single god could possibly take care of all the needs of an individual. Just as one would not go to a plumber with one's sick dog, one would not go to a god of <a href="/war/">war</a> with a problem concerning love. If one were suffering heartbreak, one went to the goddess of love; if one wanted to win at combat, only then would one consult the god of war.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>The many gods of the religions of the ancient world fulfilled this function as specialists in their respective areas. In some cultures, a certain god or goddess would become so popular that he or she would transcend the cultural understanding of multiplicity and assume a position so powerful and all-encompassing as to almost transform a polytheistic culture to henotheistic.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="3302"> <a href="/image/3302/west-pediment-of-the-parthenon-reconstruction/" title="West Pediment of the Parthenon (Reconstruction)" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3302.jpg.webp?v=1682006763 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/3302.jpg.webp?v=1682006763 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/3302.jpg.webp?v=1682006763 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/3302.jpg.webp?v=1682006763 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3302.jpg?v=1682006763 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/3302.jpg?v=1682006763 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/3302.jpg?v=1682006763 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/3302.jpg?v=1682006763 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/3302.jpg?v=1682006763" alt="West Pediment of the Parthenon (Reconstruction)" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="147" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">West Pediment of the Parthenon (Reconstruction)</div><div class="figauthor">Tilemahos Efthimiadis (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3302/west-pediment-of-the-parthenon-reconstruction/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3302/west-pediment-of-the-parthenon-reconstruction/","caption":"A reconstruction of the west pediment of the Parthenon where Athena and Poseidon battle for the favour of the Athenians flanked by the ancient kings of Athens, including Kekrops.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/3302.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Tilemahos Efthimiadis - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Tilemahos Efthimiadis"},"creditText":"Tilemahos Efthimiadis / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:39:17+0000","datePublished":"2014-12-09T15:35:14+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"West Pediment of the Parthenon (Reconstruction)","height":740,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reconstruction_of_the_west_pediment_of_the_Parthenon_1.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3302/west-pediment-of-the-parthenon-reconstruction/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3302/west-pediment-of-the-parthenon-reconstruction/","width":3792} </script> </p> <p>While polytheism means the worship of many gods, henotheism means the worship of one god in many forms. This shift in understanding was extremely rare in the ancient world, and the goddess <a href="/isis/">Isis</a> and god <a href="/amun/">Amun</a> of Egypt are probably the best examples of the complete ascendancy of a deity from one-among-many to the supreme creator and sustainer of the universe recognized in different forms.</p> <p>As noted, every ancient culture practiced some form of religion, but where religion began cannot be pinpointed with any certainty. The argument over whether <a href="/Mesopotamian_Religion/">Mesopotamian religion</a> inspired that of the Egyptians has gone on for over a century now and is no closer to being resolved than when it began. It is most probable that every culture developed its own belief in supernatural entities to explain natural phenomena (day and night, the <a href="/Horae/">seasons</a>) or to help make sense of their lives and the uncertain state humans find themselves in daily.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>While it may be an interesting exercise in cultural exchange to attempt tracing the origins of religion, it does not seem a very worthwhile use of one's time when it seems fairly clear that the religious impulse is simply a part of the human condition and different cultures in different parts of the world could have come to the same conclusions about the meaning of life independently.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="2460"> <a href="/image/2460/queen-of-the-night-or-burneys-relief-mesopotamia/" title="Queen of the Night or Burney's Relief, Mesopotamia" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2460.jpg.webp?v=1725328686-1663571676 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2460.jpg.webp?v=1725328686-1663571676 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2460.jpg?v=1725328686-1663571676 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2460.jpg?v=1725328686-1663571676 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2460.jpg?v=1725328686-1663571676" alt="Queen of the Night or Burney's Relief, Mesopotamia" class="in_text_image" width="333" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Queen of the Night or Burney's Relief, Mesopotamia</div><div class="figauthor">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2460/queen-of-the-night-or-burneys-relief-mesopotamia/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2460/queen-of-the-night-or-burneys-relief-mesopotamia/","caption":"The figure could be an aspect of the goddess Ishtar, the Mesopotamian goddess of sexual love and war, or Ishtar's sister and rival, the goddess Ereshkigal who ruled over the Underworld, or the demoness Lilitu, known in the Bible as Lilith. The plaque probably stood in a shrine.\r\n\r\nOld Babylonian era, 1800-1750 BCE, from southern Iraq (place of excavation is unknown), Mesopotamia, Iraq.\r\n\r\nThe British Museum, London.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/2460.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/#person","name":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-OsamaSMAmin.jpg","description":"Associate Professor of Neurology and lover of the Cradle of Civilization, Mesopotamia. I'm very interested in Mesopotamian history and always try to take photos of archaeological sites and artifacts in museums, both in Iraq and around the world.","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2022-09-19T07:14:36+0000","datePublished":"2014-03-31T08:11:46+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Queen of the Night or Burney's Relief, Mesopotamia","height":4288,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2460/queen-of-the-night-or-burneys-relief-mesopotamia/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2460/queen-of-the-night-or-burneys-relief-mesopotamia/","width":2848} </script> </p> <h3>Religion in Ancient <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a></h3> <p>As with many cultural advancements and inventions, the 'cradle of <a href="/civilization/">civilization</a>' Mesopotamia has been cited as the birthplace of religion. When religion developed in Mesopotamia is unknown, but the first written records of religious practice date to c. 3500 BCE from <a href="/sumer/">Sumer</a>. Mesopotamian religious beliefs held that human beings were co-workers with the gods and labored with them and for them to hold back the forces of chaos which had been checked by the supreme deities at the beginning of time. Order was created out of chaos by the gods and one of the most popular myths illustrating this principle told of the great god <a href="/Marduk/">Marduk</a> who defeated <a href="/Tiamat/">Tiamat</a> and the forces of chaos to create the world. Historian D. Brendan Nagle writes:</p> <blockquote> <p>Despite the gods' apparent victory, there was no guarantee that the forces of chaos might not recover their strength and overturn the orderly creation of the gods. Gods and humans alike were involved in the perpetual struggle to restrain the powers of chaos, and they each had their own role to play in this dramatic <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a>. The responsibility of the dwellers of Mesopotamian <a href="/city/">cities</a> was to provide the gods with everything they needed to run the world. (11)</p> </blockquote> <div class="big_quote">The gods repaid humans for their service by taking care of their daily needs in life.</div> <p>Humans were created, in fact, for this very purpose: to work with and for the gods toward a mutually beneficial end. The claim of some historians that the Mesopotamians were slaves to their gods is untenable because it is quite clear that the people understood their position as co-workers. The gods repaid humans for their service by taking care of their daily needs in life (such as supplying them with <a href="/Beer/">beer</a>, the drink of the gods) and maintaining the world in which they lived. These gods intimately knew the needs of the people because they were not distant entities who lived in the heavens but dwelt in homes on earth built for them by their people; these homes were the temples which were raised in every Mesopotamian <a href="/city/">city</a>.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p><a href="/temple/">Temple</a> complexes, dominated by the towering <a href="/ziggurat/">ziggurat</a>, were considered the literal homes of the gods and their statues were fed, bathed, and clothed daily as the priests and priestesses cared for them as one would a king or queen. In the case of Marduk, for example, his statue was carried out of his temple during the festival honoring him and through the city of <a href="/babylon/">Babylon</a> so that he could appreciate its beauty while enjoying the fresh air and sunshine.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="2701"> <a href="/image/2701/ishtar/" title="Ishtar" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2701.jpg.webp?v=1682006883 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2701.jpg.webp?v=1682006883 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2701.jpg?v=1682006883 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2701.jpg?v=1682006883 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2701.jpg?v=1682006883" alt="Ishtar" class="in_text_image" width="260" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Ishtar</div><div class="figauthor">Fae (Public Domain)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2701/ishtar/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2701/ishtar/","caption":"Goddess Ishtar, Mesopotamia, Babylonian, c. 2000 BCE, Terracotta. The Phil Berg Collection, Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA).","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/2701.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Fae - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Fae"},"creditText":"Fae / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:39:17+0000","datePublished":"2014-06-19T23:55:37+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Ishtar","height":2100,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ishtar#mediaviewer/File:Ishtar_LACMA_M.71.73.13.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2701/ishtar/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2701/ishtar/","width":1092} </script> </p> <p><a href="/Inanna/">Inanna</a> was another powerful deity who was greatly revered as the goddess of love, sex, and war, and whose priests and priestesses cared for her statue and temple faithfully. Inanna is considered one of the earliest examples of the dying-and-reviving god figure who goes down into the underworld and returns to life, bringing fertility and abundance to the land. She was so popular her worship spread across all of Mesopotamia from the southern region of Sumer. She became <a href="/ishtar/">Ishtar</a> of the Akkadians (and later the Assyrians), <a href="/astarte/">Astarte</a> of the <a href="/phoenicia/">Phoenicians</a>, <a href="/Sauska/">Sauska</a> of the <a href="/Hurrians/">Hurrians</a>-<a href="/hittite/">Hittites</a>, and was associated with <a href="/Aphrodite/">Aphrodite</a> of the Greeks, Isis of the Egyptians, and <a href="/venus/">Venus</a> of the Romans.</p> <p>The temples were the center of the city's life throughout Mesopotamian history from the <a href="/akkad/">Akkadian Empire</a> (c. 2334-2150 BCE) to the Assyrian (c. 1900-612 BCE) and afterwards. The temple served in multiple capacities: the clergy dispensed grain and surplus goods to the poor, counseled those in need, provided medical services, and sponsored the grand festivals which honored the gods. Although the gods took great care of humans while they lived, the Mesopotamian afterlife was a dreary underworld, located beneath the far mountains, where souls drank stale water from puddles and ate dust for eternity in the 'land of no return.' This bleak view of their eternal home was markedly different from that of the Egyptians as well as of their neighbors the Persians.</p><div class="intext_6"></div> <h3><a href="/Ancient_Persian_Religion/">Ancient Persian Religion</a></h3> <p>The early religion of the Persians arrived on the Iranian Plateau with the migrations of the <a href="/Aryan/">Aryans</a> (properly understood as Indo-Iranians) some time prior to the third millennium BCE. The early faith was polytheistic with a supreme god, <a href="/Ahura_Mazda/">Ahura Mazda</a>, presiding over lesser deities. Among the most popular of these was Atar (god of fire), <a href="/Mithra/">Mithra</a> (god of the rising sun and covenants), Hvar Khshsata (god of the full sun), and <a href="/Anahita/">Anahita</a> (goddess of fertility, water, health and healing, and wisdom). These gods stood for the forces of goodness and order against the evil spirits of disorder and chaos.</p> <p>At some point between 1500-1000 BCE, the prophet and visionary <a href="/zoroaster/">Zoroaster</a> (also given as <a href="/zoroaster/">Zarathustra</a>) claimed a revelation from Ahura Mazda through which he understood that this god was the one supreme being, creator of the universe, and maintainer of order, who needed no other gods beside him. Zoroasters's vision would become the religion of <a href="/zoroastrianism/">Zoroastrianism</a> – one of the oldest in the world still practiced in the present day.</p> <p>According to this belief, the purpose of human life is to choose between following Ahura Mazda and the way of truth and order (<em>Asha</em>) or following his eternal adversary, Angra Mainyu (also given as <a href="/Ahriman/">Ahriman</a>) and the path of lies and chaos (<em>Druj</em>). Humans were considered inherently good and possessing of free will to choose between these two paths; whichever one a person chose would inform that person's life and their destination after death. When a person died, they crossed the <a href="/Chinvat_Bridge/">Chinvat Bridge</a> where they were judged.</p><div id="mobilenewsletter" class="grey_box mobilenewsletter"> <div class="headline">Love History?</div> <p>Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!</p> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mailchimp-mobile-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL-mobile" style="width:60%;" required> <input type="submit" value="Sign Up" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-mobile" style="margin-top: 10px;">  <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> </form> </div> <p>Those who had lived a good life in accordance with the precepts of Ahura Mazda were rewarded by continued life in the paradise of the House of Song, while those who had allowed themselves to be deceived by Angra Mainyu were dropped into the hell of the House of Lies (<em>druj-demana</em>) where they were tortured relentlessly and, even though surrounded by other suffering souls, would feel eternally alone.</p> <p>Although scholars often characterize Zoroastrianism as a dualistic religion, it seems clear Zoroaster founded a monotheistic faith focused on an all-powerful single deity. The dualistic aspects of the religion appeared later in the so-called heresy of <a href="/Zorvanism/">Zorvanism</a> which made Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu brothers, the sons of Zorvan (time) and time itself became the supreme power through which all things came into being and passed away.</p> <p>Zoroastrianism also held that a messiah would come at some future date (known as the <em>Saoshyant</em> – One Who Brings Benefit) to redeem humanity in an event known as the <em>Frashokereti</em> which was the end of time and brought reunion with Ahura Mazda. These concepts would influence the later religions of Judaism, <a href="/christianity/">Christianity</a>, and <a href="/islam/">Islam</a>. The belief in a single god, unlike human beings and all-powerful, may have also influenced <a href="/Egyptian_Religion/">Egyptian religion</a> during the <a href="/Amarna_Period_of_Egypt/">Amarna Period</a> in which the <a href="/pharaoh/">pharaoh</a> <a href="/Akhenaten/">Akhenaten</a> (r. 1353-1336 BCE) abolished traditional <a href="/disambiguation/Egyptian/">Egyptian</a> rituals and practices and replaced them with a monotheistic system focused on the one god Aten.</p><div class="intext_7"></div> <h3>Religion in Egypt</h3> <p>Egyptian religion was similar to Mesopotamian belief, however, in that human beings were co-workers with the gods to maintain order. The principle of harmony (known to the Egyptians as <em><a href="/Ma'at/">ma'at</a></em>) was of the highest importance in Egyptian life (and in the afterlife), and their religion was fully integrated into every aspect of existence. Egyptian religion was a combination of magic, mythology, <a href="/science/">science</a>, <a href="/disambiguation/medicine/">medicine</a>, psychiatry, spiritualism, herbology, as well as the modern understanding of 'religion' as belief in a higher power and a life after death. The gods were the friends of human beings and sought only the best for them by providing them with the most perfect of all lands to live in and an eternal home to enjoy when their lives on earth were done.</p> <p>This belief system would continue, with various developments, throughout Egypt's long history, only interrupted by Akhenaten's religious reforms during his reign. After his death, the old religion was restored by his son and successor <a href="/Tutankhamun/">Tutankhamun</a> (r. c. 1336 to c. 1327 BCE) who reopened the temples and revived the ancient rituals and customs.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="3524"> <a href="/image/3524/chain-of-ankhs/" title="Chain of Ankhs" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3524.jpg.webp?v=1715617563 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/3524.jpg.webp?v=1715617563 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/3524.jpg.webp?v=1715617563 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/3524.jpg.webp?v=1715617563 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3524.jpg?v=1715617563 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/3524.jpg?v=1715617563 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/3524.jpg?v=1715617563 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/3524.jpg?v=1715617563 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/3524.jpg?v=1715617563" alt="Chain of Ankhs" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="380" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Chain of Ankhs</div><div class="figauthor">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3524/chain-of-ankhs/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3524/chain-of-ankhs/","caption":"Gold chain of ankhs (signs of life; also known as key of life, the key of the Nile, or crux ansata). From the treasure of the Nubian queen Amanishakheto, pyramid N6, Meroe, modern-day northern Sudan. Meroitic period, around 1 CE. (State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich, Germany).","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/3524.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/#person","name":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-OsamaSMAmin.jpg","description":"Associate Professor of Neurology and lover of the Cradle of Civilization, Mesopotamia. I'm very interested in Mesopotamian history and always try to take photos of archaeological sites and artifacts in museums, both in Iraq and around the world.","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:39:17+0000","datePublished":"2015-01-04T19:33:27+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Chain of Ankhs","height":2029,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3524/chain-of-ankhs/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3524/chain-of-ankhs/","width":4015} </script> </p> <p>The first written records of Egyptian religious practice come from around 3400 BCE in the <a href="/Predynastic_Period_in_Egypt/">Predynastic Period in Egypt</a> (c. 6000 to c. 3150 BCE). Deities such as Isis, <a href="/osiris/">Osiris</a>, Ptah, <a href="/Hathor/">Hathor</a>, Atum, Set, <a href="/Nephthys/">Nephthys</a>, and <a href="/Horus/">Horus</a> were already established as potent forces to be recognized fairly early on. The Egyptian Creation Myth is similar to the beginning of the Mesopotamian story in that originally there was only chaotic, slow-swirling waters. This ocean was without bounds, depthless, and silent until, upon its surface, there rose a hill of earth (known as the <em>ben-ben</em>, the primordial mound, which, it is thought, the <a href="/pyramid/">pyramids</a> symbolize) and the great god Atum (the sun) stood upon the <em>ben-ben</em> and spoke, giving birth to the god Shu (of the air), the goddess Tefnut (of moisture), the god Geb (of earth), and the goddess Nut (of sky). Alongside Atum stood <a href="/Heka/">Heka</a>, the personification of magic, and magic (<em>heka</em>) gave birth to the universe.</p> <div class="big_quote">Osiris later served as the Supreme Judge of the souls of the dead in the Hall of Truth.</div> <p>Atum had intended Nut as his bride but she fell in love with Geb. Angry with the lovers, Atum separated them by stretching Nut across the sky high away from Geb on the earth. Although the lovers were separated during the day, they came together at night and Nut bore three sons, Osiris, Set, and Horus, and two daughters, Isis and Nephthys.</p> <p>Osiris, as eldest, was announced as 'Lord of all the Earth' when he was born and was given his sister Isis as a wife. Set, consumed by jealousy, hated his brother and killed him to assume the throne. Isis then embalmed her husband's body and, with powerful charms, resurrected Osiris who returned from the dead to bring life to the people of Egypt. Osiris later served as the Supreme Judge of the souls of the dead in the Hall of Truth and, by weighing the heart of the soul in the balances, decided who was granted eternal life.</p> <p>The Egyptian afterlife was known as the <a href="/Field_of_Reeds/">Field of Reeds</a> and was a mirror-image of life on earth down to one's favorite tree and stream and dog. Those that one loved in life would either be waiting when one arrived or would follow after. The Egyptians viewed earthly existence as simply one part of an eternal journey and were so concerned about passing easily to the next phase that they created their elaborate tombs (the pyramids), temples, and funerary inscriptions (the <em><a href="/pyramid/">Pyramid</a> Texts</em>, <em><a href="/article/1021/the-coffin-texts/">Coffin Texts</a></em>, and <em>The <a href="/Egyptian_Book_of_the_Dead/">Egyptian Book of the Dead</a></em>) to help the soul's passage from this world to the next.</p> <p>The gods cared for one after death just as they had in life from the beginning of time. The goddess <a href="/Qebhet/">Qebhet</a> brought water to the thirsty souls in the land of the dead and other goddesses such as <a href="/Serket/">Serket</a> and Nephthys cared for and protected the souls as they journeyed to the Field of Reeds. An ancient Egyptian understood that, from birth to death and even after death, the universe had been ordered by the gods and everyone had a place in that order.</p> <div class="youtube-embed-wrapper"><div class="youtube-embed-container"><iframe data-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QvZxqD4e4iU?autoplay=0&cc_lang_pref=en" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen title="Ancient Egyptian Religion: How were the Ancient Egyptian Gods and Goddesses Worshipped?"></iframe></div></div> <h3>Religion in <a href="/china/">China</a> & <a href="/india/">India</a></h3> <p>This principle of order is also paramount in the world's oldest religion still being practiced today: <a href="/hinduism/">Hinduism</a> (known to adherents as <em>Sanatan Dharma</em>, 'Eternal Order', thought to have been founded as early as 5500 BCE but certainly by c. 2300 BCE). Although often viewed as a polytheistic faith, Hinduism is actually henotheistic. There is only one supreme god in Hinduism, <a href="/Brahma/">Brahma</a>, and all other deities are his aspects and reflections. Since Brahma is too immense a concept for the human mind to comprehend, he presents himself in the many different versions of himself which people recognize as deities such as <a href="/Vishnu/">Vishnu</a>, <a href="/shiva/">Shiva</a>, and the many others. The <a href="/hinduism/">Hindu</a> belief system includes 330 million gods and these range from those who are known at a national level (such as <a href="/Krishna/">Krishna</a>) to lesser-known local deities.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="3877"> <a href="/image/3877/vishnu-as-varaha-udayagiri-caves/" title="Vishnu as Varaha, Udayagiri Caves" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3877.jpg.webp?v=1728648366 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/3877.jpg.webp?v=1728648366 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3877.jpg?v=1728648366 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/3877.jpg?v=1728648366 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3877.jpg?v=1728648366" alt="Vishnu as Varaha, Udayagiri Caves" class="in_text_image" width="334" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Vishnu as Varaha, Udayagiri Caves</div><div class="figauthor">Jean-Pierre DalbÃ©ra (CC BY)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3877/vishnu-as-varaha-udayagiri-caves/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3877/vishnu-as-varaha-udayagiri-caves/","caption":"A sculpted panel at the Gupta-period (4th-6th century CE) caves of Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh, India. The caves are rock-cut Hindu shrines and this panel shows Vishnu as the boar-headed incarnation Varaha. The god rises from the cosmic waters, defeating the primeval serpent monster, and rescuing the goddess Bhudevi (earth), who hangs from his tusk.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/3877.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Jean-Pierre Dalb\u00c3\u00a9ra - CC BY - This license lets others distribute, remix, tweak, and build upon your work, even commercially, as long as they credit you for the original creation. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Jean-Pierre Dalb\u00c3\u00a9ra"},"creditText":"Jean-Pierre Dalb\u00c3\u00a9ra / Flickr","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:39:17+0000","datePublished":"2015-05-20T08:23:38+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Vishnu as Varaha, Udayagiri Caves","height":1024,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://www.flickr.com/photos/dalbera/16638815613/in/photolist-fZwsmh-nedvZn-nedvS8-hS2KaH-hS3f6Q-hS3kSs-7ziux4-hS3kqf-RXFuD-rZMJEX-rmjhcg-hS3FwB-hS3qrh-hS3jsq-hS2NQZ-hS2NtB-hS3oZu-hS3E5D-hS3DFn-hS3geG-hS3fLC-hS3Cu4-7ziuEc-RXFt4-2tivWA-sh6soj-seWZQb-f3SCSY-f3Ciw2-f3SurU-f3Coen-f3SA79-f3SzDs-f3Ckrx-f3SxqG-f3SvnG-f3CfgF-2te3BA-322MFf-322KGC-gP1Rrt-gP2HQn-31WTXR-6owyxA-31WAmc-31X8P6-5fzDjy-7Pt1qN-c7GoRj-2ijur1"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3877/vishnu-as-varaha-udayagiri-caves/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3877/vishnu-as-varaha-udayagiri-caves/","width":683} </script> </p> <p>The primary understanding of Hinduism is that there is an order to the universe and every individual has a specific place in that order. Each person on the planet has a duty (<em>dharma</em>) which only they can perform. If one acts rightly (<em><a href="/Karma/">karma</a></em>) in the performance of that duty, then one is rewarded by moving closer to the supreme being and eventually becoming one with god; if one does not, then one is reincarnated as many times as it takes to finally understand how to live and draw closer to union with the supreme soul.</p> <p>This belief was carried over by <a href="/Siddhartha_Gautama/">Siddhartha Gautama</a> when he became the <a href="/Siddhartha_Gautama/">Buddha</a> and founded the religion known as <a href="/buddhism/">Buddhism</a>. In Buddhism, however, one is not seeking union with a god but with one's higher nature as one leaves behind the illusions of the world which generate suffering and cloud the mind with the fear of loss and death. Buddhism became so popular that it traveled from India to China where it enjoyed equal success.</p> <div class="big_quote">In ancient China, religion is thought to have developed as early as c. 4500 BCE as evidenced by designs on ceramics.</div> <p>In ancient China, religion is thought to have developed as early as c. 4500 BCE as evidenced by designs on ceramics found at the <a href="/Neolithic/">Neolithic</a> site of <a href="/Banpo_Village/">Banpo Village</a>. This early belief structure may have been a mix of animism and mythology as these images include recognizable animals and pig-dragons, precursors to the famous Chinese dragon.</p> <p>By the time of the <a href="/Xia_Dynasty/">Xia Dynasty</a> (2070-1600 BCE), there were many anthropomorphic gods worshiped with a chief god, Shangti, presiding over all. This belief continued, with modifications, during the period of the <a href="/Shang_Dynasty/">Shang Dynasty</a> (1600-1046 BCE) which developed the practice of ancestor worship.</p> <p>The people believed that Shangti had so many responsibilities that he had become too busy to handle their needs. It was thought that when a person died, they went to live with the gods and became intermediaries between the people and those gods. Ancestor worship influenced the two great Chinese belief systems of <a href="/Confucianism/">Confucianism</a> and <a href="/Taoism/">Taoism</a>, both of which made ancestor worship core tenets of their practices. In time, Shangti was replaced with the concept of <em>Tian</em> (heaven), a paradise where the dead would reside eternally in peace.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="4502"> <a href="/image/4502/chinese-oracle-bone/" title="Chinese Oracle Bone" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4502.jpg.webp?v=1705996267 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4502.jpg.webp?v=1705996267 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4502.jpg?v=1705996267 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4502.jpg?v=1705996267 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4502.jpg?v=1705996267" alt="Chinese Oracle Bone" class="in_text_image" width="325" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Chinese Oracle Bone</div><div class="figauthor">BabelStone (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4502/chinese-oracle-bone/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4502/chinese-oracle-bone/","caption":"Oracle bone from the reign of King Wu Ding (late Shang dynasty).","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4502.jpg","copyrightNotice":"BabelStone - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"BabelStone"},"creditText":"BabelStone / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:39:17+0000","datePublished":"2016-01-25T10:26:28+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Chinese Oracle Bone","height":599,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4502/chinese-oracle-bone/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4502/chinese-oracle-bone/","width":389} </script> </p> <p>In order to pass from one's earthly life into heaven, one had to cross the bridge of forgetfulness over an abyss and, after looking back on one's life for the last time, drink from a cup which purged all memory. At the bridge, one was either judged worthy of heaven – and so passed on – or unworthy – and slipped from the bridge into the abyss to be swallowed up in hell. Other versions of this same scenario claim the soul was reincarnated after drinking from the cup. Either way, the living were expected to remember the dead who had passed over the bridge to the other side and to honor their memory.</p> <h3>Religion in Mesoamerica</h3> <p>Remembrance of the dead and the part they still play in the lives of those on earth was an important component of all ancient religions, including the belief system of the <a href="/disambiguation/Maya/">Maya</a>. The gods were involved in every aspect of the life of the Maya. As with other cultures, there were many different deities (over 250), all of whom had their own special sphere of influence. They controlled the weather, the harvest, they dictated one's mate, presided over every birth, and were present at one's death.</p> <p>The Mayan afterlife was similar to the Mesopotamian in that it was a dark and dreary place, but the Maya imagined an even worse fate where one was constantly under threat of attack or deception by the demon lords who inhabited the underworld (known as <a href="/Xibalba/">Xibalba</a> or Metnal). The dread of the journey through Xibalba was such a potent cultural force that the Maya are the only known ancient culture to honor a goddess of suicide (Ixtab) because suicides were thought to bypass Xibalba and go straight to paradise (as did those who died in childbirth or in battle). The Maya believed in the cyclical nature of life, that all things which seem to die simply are transformed, and considered human life just another part of the kind of pattern they saw all around them in nature. They felt death was a natural progression after life and feared the very unnatural possibility that the dead could return to haunt the living.</p> <p>It was possible that a person would hang on to life for any of a number of reasons (the chief being improper <a href="/burial/">burial</a>), and so ceremonies were performed to remember the dead and honor their spirit. This belief was also held by Mesoamerican cultures other than the Maya such as the <a href="/Aztec_Civilization/">Aztec</a> and Tarascan. In time, it developed into the holiday known today as The Day of the Dead (<em>El Dia de los Muertos</em>), in which people celebrate the lives of those who have passed on and remember their names.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="4090"> <a href="/image/4090/zapotec-priest-figure/" title="Zapotec Priest Figure" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4090.jpg.webp?v=1709346609 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4090.jpg.webp?v=1709346609 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4090.jpg?v=1709346609 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4090.jpg?v=1709346609 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4090.jpg?v=1709346609" alt="Zapotec Priest Figure" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="468" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Zapotec Priest Figure</div><div class="figauthor">James Blake Wiener (CC BY-NC-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4090/zapotec-priest-figure/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4090/zapotec-priest-figure/","caption":"A ceramic figure-vessel representing a priest of the Zapotec civilization. Oaxaca, Mexico, 250-600 CE. The figure wears a mask, feathered headdress, and a medallion which represents a maize field. (St. Louis Art Museum, Missouri)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4090.jpg","copyrightNotice":"James Blake Wiener - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"James Blake Wiener"},"creditText":"James Blake Wiener / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:39:17+0000","datePublished":"2015-10-02T08:50:51+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Zapotec Priest Figure","height":2283,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4090/zapotec-priest-figure/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4090/zapotec-priest-figure/","width":2444} </script> </p> <p>It was not only people who were to be remembered and honored, however, but also a very important deity scholars refer to as the Maize God. The Maize God is a dying-and-reviving god figure in the form of <a href="/Huns/">Hun</a> Hunahpu who was killed by the Lords of Xibalba, brought back to life by his sons, the Hero Twins, and emerges from the underworld as corn. The 'Tonsured' Maize God or 'Foliated' Maize God are common images found in Maya iconography. He is always pictured as eternally young and handsome with an elongated head like a corncob, long, flowing hair like corn <a href="/Silk/">silk</a>, and ornamented with jade to symbolize the corn stalk. He was considered so important by the Maya that mothers would bind the heads of their young sons to flatten the forehead and elongate their heads to resemble him.</p> <p>The Maize God remained an important deity to the Maya even when eclipsed by the greatest and most popular of the gods Gucumatz (also known as <a href="/Kukulcan/">Kukulcan</a> and <a href="/Quetzalcoatl/">Quetzalcoatl</a>) whose <a href="/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza/">great pyramid</a> at <a href="/Chichen_Itza/">Chichen Itza</a> is still visited by millions of people every year in the present day. On the twin equinoxes of every year, the sun casts a shadow on the stairs of the pyramid structure which seems to resemble a great serpent descending from the top to the bottom; this is thought to be the great Kukulcan returning from the heavens to earth to impart his blessings. Even today, people gather at Chichen Itza to witness this event at the equinoxes and to remember the past and hope for the future.</p> <h3>Greek & <a href="/Roman_Religion/">Roman Religion</a></h3> <p>The importance of remembrance of the dead as part of one's religious devotions was integral to the beliefs of the Greeks as well. Continued remembrance of the dead by the living kept the soul of the deceased alive in the afterlife. The Greeks, like the other cultures mentioned, believed in many gods who often cared for their human charges but, just as often, pursued their own pleasure.</p> <div class="big_quote"><a href="/plato/">Plato</a> consistently criticized the Greek concept of the gods & <a href="/Critias/">Critias</a> claimed they were simply created by men to control other men.</div> <p>The capricious nature of the gods may have contributed to the development of <a href="/philosophy/">philosophy</a> in Greece as philosophy can only develop in a culture where religion is not providing for the people's spiritual needs. Plato consistently criticized the Greek concept of the gods and Critias claimed they were simply created by men to control other men. Xenophanes, as noted above, claimed the Greek view was completely wrong and God was unimaginable.</p> <p>Still, to the majority of the Greeks – and central to the function of society – the gods were to be honored and so were those who had passed over into their realm. Just because a person was no longer living on earth did not mean that person was to be forgotten any more than one would forget to honor the invisible gods. As with other ancient cultures, religion in Greece was fully integrated into one's daily life and routine.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="943"> <a href="/image/943/the-parthenon/" title="The Parthenon" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/943.jpg.webp?v=1730899865 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/943.jpg.webp?v=1730899865 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/943.jpg.webp?v=1730899865 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/943.jpg.webp?v=1730899865 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/943.jpg?v=1730899865 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/943.jpg?v=1730899865 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/943.jpg?v=1730899865 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/943.jpg?v=1730899865 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/943.jpg?v=1730899865" alt="The Parthenon" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="344" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Parthenon</div><div class="figauthor">Andrew Griffith (CC BY-NC-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/943/the-parthenon/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/943/the-parthenon/","caption":"A view from Filoppappos Hill of the Parthenon in Athens (447-432 BCE) built to house the giant statue of the goddess Athena, patron of the city.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/943.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Andrew Griffith - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Andrew Griffith"},"creditText":"Andrew Griffith / Flickr","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:39:17+0000","datePublished":"2012-10-25T10:01:49+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"The Parthenon","height":"1783","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.flickr.com/photos/waldenpond/3153092952/"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/943/the-parthenon/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/943/the-parthenon/","width":"3888"} </script> </p> <p>The Greeks consulted the gods on matters ranging from affairs of state to personal decisions regarding love, marriage, or one's job. An ancient story tells of how the writer <a href="/xenophon/">Xenophon</a> (430 to c. 354 BCE) went to <a href="/socrates/">Socrates</a> asking whether the philosopher thought he should join the army of <a href="/disambiguation/Cyrus/">Cyrus</a> the Younger on campaign to <a href="/Persia/">Persia</a>. Socrates sent him to ask the question of the god at <a href="/delphi/">Delphi</a>. Instead of asking his original question, Xenophon asked the god of Delphi which of the many gods was best to court favor with to ensure a successful venture and safe return. He appears to have gotten the correct answer since he survived the disastrous campaign of Cyrus and not only returned to <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a> but saved the bulk of the army.</p> <p>The religion of <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> followed the same paradigm as that of Greece. The <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> religion most likely began as a kind of animism and developed as they came into contact with other cultures. The Greeks had the most significant impact on Roman religion, and many of the Roman gods are simply Greek deities with Roman names and slightly altered attributes.</p> <p>In Rome, the worship of the gods was intimately tied to affairs of state and the stability of the society was thought to rest on how well the people revered the gods and participated in the rituals which honored them. The <a href="/Vestal_Virgin/">Vestal Virgins</a> are one famous example of this belief in that these <a href="/disambiguation/women/">women</a> were counted on to maintain the vows they had taken and perform their duties responsibly in order to continually honor <a href="/Vesta/">Vesta</a> and all the goddess gave to the people.</p> <p>Although the Romans had imported their primary gods from Greece, once the Roman religion was established and linked to the welfare of the state, no foreign gods were welcomed. When worship of the popular Egyptian goddess Isis was brought to Rome, Emperor <a href="/augustus/">Augustus</a> forbade any temples to be built in her honor or public rites observed in her worship because he felt such attention paid to a foreign deity would undermine the authority of the government and established religious beliefs. To the Romans, the gods had created everything according to their will and maintained the universe in the best way possible and a human being was obligated to show them honor for their gifts.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="3106"> <a href="/image/3106/vestal-virgin-by-canova/" title="Vestal Virgin by Canova" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3106.jpg.webp?v=1682006769 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/3106.jpg.webp?v=1682006769 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3106.jpg?v=1682006769 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/3106.jpg?v=1682006769 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3106.jpg?v=1682006769" alt="Vestal Virgin by Canova" class="in_text_image" width="376" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Vestal Virgin by Canova</div><div class="figauthor">Getty Museum (CC BY-NC-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3106/vestal-virgin-by-canova/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3106/vestal-virgin-by-canova/","caption":"Antonio Canova (Italian, 1757 - 1822 CE)\r\nHerm of a Vestal Virgin, 1821 - 1822, Marble\r\nObject: H: 49.8 x W: 31.9 x D: 24.1 cm (1 ft. 7 5/8 in. x 1 ft. 9/16 in. x 9 1/2 in.)\r\nThe J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/3106.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Getty Museum - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Getty Museum"},"creditText":"Getty Museum / Getty Museum","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:39:17+0000","datePublished":"2014-10-06T14:34:20+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Vestal Virgin by Canova","height":2665,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=1318"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3106/vestal-virgin-by-canova/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3106/vestal-virgin-by-canova/","width":2000} </script> </p> <p>This was true not only for the 'major' gods of the Roman <a href="/Pantheon/">pantheon</a> but also for the spirits of the home. The <em>penates</em> were earth spirits of the pantry who kept one's home safe and harmonious. One was expected to be thankful for their efforts and remember them upon entering or leaving one's house. Statues of the <em>penates</em> were taken out of the cupboard and set on the table during meals to honor them, and sacrifices were left by the hearth for their enjoyment. If one were diligent in appreciating their efforts, one was rewarded with continued health and happiness and, if one forgot them, one suffered for such ingratitude. Although the religions of other cultures did not have precisely these same kinds of spirits, the recognition of spirits of place – and especially the home – was common.</p> <h3>Common Themes in Ancient Religion & Their Continuance</h3> <p>The religions of the ancient world shared many of the same patterns with each other even though the cultures may never have had any contact with each other. The spiritual iconography of the Mayan and Egyptian pyramids has been recognized since the Maya were first brought to the world's attention by John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood in the 19th century, but the actual belief structures, stories, and most significant figures in ancient mythology are remarkably similar from culture to culture.</p> <p>In every culture, one finds the same or very similar patterns, which the people found resonant and which gave vitality to their beliefs. These patterns include the existence of many gods who take a personal interest in the lives of people; creation by a supernatural entity who speaks it, fashions it, or commands it into existence; other supernatural beings emanating from the first and greatest one; a supernatural explanation for the creation of the earth and human beings; a relationship between the created humans and their creator god requiring worship and sacrifice.</p> <div class="big_quote">There is the repetition of the figure known as the Dying and Reviving God, often a powerful entity himself, who dies & comes back to life for the good of his people.</div> <p>There is also the repetition of the figure known as the Dying and Reviving God, often a powerful entity himself, who is killed or dies and comes back to life for the good of his people: Osiris in Egypt, Krishna in India, the Maize God in Mesoamerica, <a href="/Bacchus/">Bacchus</a> in Rome, Attis in Greece, Tammuz in Mesopotamia. There is often an afterlife similar to an earthly existence (Egypt and Greece), antithetical to life on earth (Mesoamerica and Mesopotamia), or a combination of both (China and India).</p> <p>The resonant spiritual message of these different religions is repeated in texts from <a href="/phoenicia/">Phoenicia</a> (2700 BCE) to Sumer (2100 BCE) to <a href="/palestine/">Palestine</a> (1440 BCE) to Greece (800 BCE) to Rome (c. 100 CE) and went on to inform the beliefs of those who came later. This motif is even touched on in Judaism in the figure of Joseph (Genesis 37, 39-45) who is sold by his brothers into slavery in Egypt, goes down into prison following the accusations of Potiphar's wife, and is later released and restored. Although he does not actually die, after his symbolic 'resurrection' he saves the country from famine, providing for the people in the same way as other regenerative figures.</p> <p>The Phoenician tale of the great god <a href="/baal/">Baal</a> who dies and returns to life to battle the chaos of the god <a href="/Yamm/">Yamm</a> was already old in 2750 BCE when the city of <a href="/Tyre/">Tyre</a> was founded (according to <a href="/herodotus/">Herodotus</a>) and the Greek story of the dying-and-reviving god <a href="/Adonis/">Adonis</a> (c. 600 BCE) was derived from earlier Phoenician tales based on Tammuz which was borrowed by the <a href="/Sumerians/">Sumerians</a> (and later the Persians) in the famous <em>Descent of </em><em>Inanna</em> myth.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="514"> <a href="/image/514/baal-statue/" title="Baal Statue" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/514.jpg.webp?v=1729776429 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/514.jpg.webp?v=1729776429 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/514.jpg?v=1729776429 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/514.jpg?v=1729776429 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/514.jpg?v=1729776429" alt="Baal Statue" class="in_text_image" width="261" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Baal Statue</div><div class="figauthor">Jastrow (Public Domain)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/514/baal-statue/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/514/baal-statue/","caption":"Baal, right arm raised. Bronze figurine, 14th-12th centuries, found in Ras Shamra (ancient Ugarit).","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/514.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Jastrow - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Jastrow"},"creditText":"Jastrow / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:39:17+0000","datePublished":"2012-04-26T07:45:12+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Baal Statue","height":1725,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17330.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/514/baal-statue/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/514/baal-statue/","width":900} </script> </p> <p>This theme of life-after-death and life coming from death and, of course, the judgment after death, gained the greatest fame through the evangelical efforts of St. <a href="/disambiguation/Paul/">Paul</a> who spread the word of the dying-and-reviving god <a href="/Jesus_Christ/">Jesus Christ</a> throughout ancient Palestine, <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Asia Minor</a>, Greece, and Rome (c. 42-62). Paul's vision of the figure of <a href="/Jesus_Christ/">Jesus</a>, the anointed son of God who dies to redeem humanity, was drawn from the earlier belief systems and informed the understanding of the scribes who would write the books which make up the <a href="/bible/">Bible</a>.</p> <p>The religion of Christianity made standard a belief in an afterlife and set up an organized set of rituals by which an adherent could gain everlasting life. In so doing, the early Christians were simply following in the footsteps of the Sumerians, the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Romans all of whom had their own stylized rituals for the worship of their gods.</p> <p>After the Christians, the Muslim interpreters of the Koran instituted their own rituals for understanding the supreme deity which, though vastly different in form from those of Christianity, Judaism or any of the older 'pagan' religions, served the same purpose as the rituals once practiced in worship of the Egyptian pantheon over 5,000 years ago: to provide human beings with the understanding that they are not alone in their struggles, suffering, and triumphs, that they can restrain their baser urges, and that death is not the end of existence. The religions of the ancient world provided answers to people's questions about life and death and, in this regard, are no different than those faiths practiced in the world today.</p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Aztec_Sacrifice+Brahmanism+christianity+egypt+Egyptian_Burial+Enheduanna+india+jainism+judaism+Mesopotamia+Mesopotamian_Religion+Mithra+Moses+mythology+Pazuzu+pyramids+religion" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__d7b718f020de1bc3636fe8b73d6e82fc"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B00N4JLYDG/" rel="sponsored">Baird, F. E. & Kaufmann, W. <i>Philosophic Classics Volume I: Ancient Philosophy.</i> Prentice Hall, 2007.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__50e7341643176bae0c3bfe6e6d6b6744"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/039305974X/" rel="sponsored">Bauer, S.W. <i>The History of the Ancient World.</i> W. W. Norton & Company, 2007.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__126801a61153d58417767383fcdb43fe"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0292707940/" rel="sponsored">Black, J. <i>Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia.</i> University of Texas Press, 1992.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__39937f3ae3f35e00c3ab8f6b2d6e422b"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B002RKT4NA/" rel="sponsored">Bulfinch, T. <i>Bulfinch's Mythology.</i> Public Domain Books, 2009.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__3327c75d9f9cb39da0678c21c2038c43"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0190862173/" rel="sponsored">Diogenes Laertius & Yonge, C. D. <i>Lives of the Eminent Philosophers.</i> Oxford University Press, 2012.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__154b53ff1000a290b0c0455f7f94569d"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://www.ancient.eu/ghost/" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="Ghosts in the Ancient World by Joshua J. Mark">Ghosts in the Ancient World by Joshua J. Mark</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 15 May 2020.</span></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__166d7f046cbf939a58dd4755eb1c2c95"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://www.ancient.eu/Greek_Religion/" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="Greek Religion by Mark Cartwright">Greek Religion by Mark Cartwright</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 15 May 2020.</span></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__46963b1693e643f0c9dbe85a696720fb"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0205168981/" rel="sponsored">Koller, J.M. <i>Asian Philosophies.</i> Routledge, 2004.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__5700328b784ab7e599b7253ab6441cb8"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0205637442/" rel="sponsored">Nagle, D. B. <i>The Ancient World: A Social and Cultural History.</i> Pearson, 2009.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__63e6d55b2e6229fc61b5f7195147122f"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/076601407X/" rel="sponsored">Nardo, D. <i>Egyptian Mythology.</i> Enslow Publishers, 2001.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__2cb1bf15442bd0f9ab7df9e981438881"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0737714565/" rel="sponsored">Nardo, D. <i>Exploring Cultural History - Living in Ancient Rome.</i> Greenhaven Press, 2003.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__5d93562640285596ad32456afc576d64"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0195170245/" rel="sponsored">Pinch, G. <i>Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt.</i> Oxford University Press, 2004.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__83b55660be57da8512a82922c87ffd22"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0691097186/" rel="sponsored">Plato. <i>The Collected Dialogues of Plato.</i> Princeton University Press, 2005.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__0e31d31dc9801df6ba53504530e1712f"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://www.ancient.eu/article/34/" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="Roman Household Spirits by Joshua J. Mark">Roman Household Spirits by Joshua J. Mark</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 15 May 2020.</span></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__e0dce4c80d391129146193ac25ea2385"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0061660183/" rel="sponsored">Smith, H. <i>The World's Religions.</i> Harper One Publishers, 2009.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__57f6da2bba50de644d6b783dd604b434"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0870442333/" rel="sponsored">Stuart, G.E. <i>The Mysterious Maya.</i> National Geographic Society, 1977.</a></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to this author</a> <h2>About the Author</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="nofollow" title="Joshua J. Mark"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG?v=1459726565" width="100" height="100" alt="Joshua J. Mark" class="avatar_image" /></a> <div class="user_name"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany. </div> <div class="sm_links"> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339" title="Joshua J. Mark" class="sm_tiny_sprite linkedin no_external"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="translations_notice"> <h2 class="translations">Translations</h2> <a href="/trans/ar/1-131/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">Arabic</a> <a href="/trans/fr/1-131/religion-dans-le-monde-antique/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">French</a> <a href="/trans/es/1-131/la-religion-en-la-antiguedad/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">Spanish</a> <a href="/trans/tr/1-131/antik-dunyada-din/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">Turkish</a> <p>We want people all over the world to learn about history. Help us and <a href="/trans/x/1-131/edit/" class="translation_add_button" rel="nofollow">translate this definition</a> into another language!</p> </div> <div class="faq"> <h2>Questions & Answers</h2> <dl> <dt><h4>What is the oldest religion in the world?</h4></dt> <dd>Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world still practiced today. It was established c. 5500 BCE.</dd> <dt><h4>Where does the word religion come from and what does it mean?</h4></dt> <dd>The word religion comes from the Latin language and means either "restraint" or "to repeat" or "to show respect for what is sacred" or possibly all three at once.</dd> <dt><h4>Is Zoroastrianism still practiced today?</h4></dt> <dd>Zoroastrianism is still practiced today, primarily in Iran and India.</dd> <dt><h4>What is the most popular or widely practiced religion in the world?</h4></dt> <dd>Christianity is the most popular and widely practiced religion in the world.</dd> </dl> </div> <style> .faq h4 { font-family: "Libre Baskerville", "Palatino Linotype", "Book Antiqua", Palatino, serif; } .faq { margin-bottom: 40px; } </style> <div id="ci_related_wrapper"> <div class="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" id="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper"> <h2>Related Content</h2> <div id="ci_related_type_list"> <span class="filter_label">Filters:</span> <div rel="0" class="ci_type_0 ci_rel_type selected">All<span class="ci_rel_type_count"> </span></div> <div rel="1" class="ci_type_1 ci_rel_type ">Definitions<span class="ci_rel_type_count">44</span></div> <div rel="2" class="ci_type_2 ci_rel_type ">Articles<span class="ci_rel_type_count">47</span></div> <div rel="3" class="ci_type_3 ci_rel_type ">Images<span class="ci_rel_type_count">2</span></div> <div rel="6" class="ci_type_6 ci_rel_type ">Videos<span class="ci_rel_type_count">3</span></div> <div rel="9" class="ci_type_9 ci_rel_type ">Collections<span class="ci_rel_type_count">2</span></div> <div rel="10" class="ci_type_10 ci_rel_type ">Teaching Materials<span class="ci_rel_type_count">1</span></div> </div> <div id="ci_related_content"> <div class="ci_related_content_wrapper ci_two_cols three_cols"> <div class="columns"> <a href="/Brahmanism/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-15129"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5591.jpg.webp?v=1727185695 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5591.jpg.webp?v=1727185695 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5591.jpg?v=1727185695 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5591.jpg?v=1727185695 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5591.jpg?v=1727185695" width="360" height="202" alt="Brahmanism" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Brahmanism</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Brahmanism (also known as Vedic Religion) is the belief system... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Moses/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-14009"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5740.jpg.webp?v=1727835306 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5740.jpg.webp?v=1727835306 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5740.jpg?v=1727835306 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5740.jpg?v=1727835306 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5740.jpg?v=1727835306" width="360" height="202" alt="Moses" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Moses</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Moses (c. 1400 BCE) is considered one of the most important religious... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Mithra/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-10029"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11872.jpg.webp?v=1694706483 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/11872.jpg.webp?v=1694706483 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11872.jpg?v=1694706483 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/11872.jpg?v=1694706483 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11872.jpg?v=1694706483" width="360" height="202" alt="Mithra" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Mithra</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Mithra is the Persian god of the rising sun, contracts, covenants... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Pazuzu/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-13320"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/6315.jpg.webp?v=1724657385-1724657397 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/6315.jpg.webp?v=1724657385-1724657397 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/6315.jpg?v=1724657385-1724657397 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/6315.jpg?v=1724657385-1724657397 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/6315.jpg?v=1724657385-1724657397" width="360" height="202" alt="Pazuzu" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Pazuzu</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Pazuzu is an Assyrian/Babylonian demonic god who was most popular... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Parthian_Religion/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-19009"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12415.jpg.webp?v=1682007066 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/12415.jpg.webp?v=1682007066 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12415.jpg?v=1682007066 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/12415.jpg?v=1682007066 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12415.jpg?v=1682007066" width="360" height="202" alt="Parthian Religion" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Parthian Religion</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Parthian religion might be best described with two words: inclusive... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Enheduanna/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-10021"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/93.jpg.webp?v=1732114872 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/93.jpg.webp?v=1732114872 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/93.jpg?v=1732114872 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/93.jpg?v=1732114872 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/93.jpg?v=1732114872" width="360" height="202" alt="Enheduanna" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Enheduanna</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The Akkadian poet Enheduanna (l. 2285-2250 BCE) is the world's... </div> </div> </a> </div> <nav class="pagination"> <strong class="pagination_page">1</strong> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="2" rel="next ">2</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="3" rel="">3</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="4" rel="">4</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="5" rel="">5</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="6" rel="">6</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="7" rel="">7</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="8" rel="">8</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="9" rel="">9</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="10" rel="">10</a> <a href="#" data-page="2" rel="next">Next &rsaquo;</a> <a href="#" data-page="17" rel="">Last »</a> </nav> </div> </div> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> var wrapper_selector_prefix = '#ci_related_wrapper '; var pag = 1; var cit = "0"; var cist = ""; function handle_related_pagination_click() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper .pagination a").off().one("click",function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var newpage = $(this).attr("data-page"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=religion+in+the+ancient+world+aztec+sacrifice+brahmanism+christianity+egypt+egyptian+burial+enheduanna+india+jainism+judaism+mesopotamia+mesopotamian+religion+mithra+moses+mythology+pazuzu+pyramids+religion&caching=1&ci_id=1-131&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-131%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + newpage + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); if (document.getElementById('ci_related_type_list')) { var eTop = $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '#ci_related_type_list').offset().top; } else if (document.getElementById('ci_related_content_outer_wrapper')) { var eTop = $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper').offset().top; } if (eTop > 0) { $(window).scrollTop(eTop); } updateBrowserURL(cit,newpage,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); } function updateBrowserURL(cit,page,cist) { let urlComponents = []; let url = ''; if (cit) { urlComponents.push('type:'+cit); } if (page) { urlComponents.push('page:'+page); } if (cist) { urlComponents.push('subtype:'+cist); } url = '#ci_related_filters=' + urlComponents.join('&'); window.location = url; } function applyBrowserURLFilters() { if (window.location.hash) { let filters = window.location.hash.match(/ci_related_filters=type:([0-9]+)&page:([0-9]+)(&subtype:([0-9]+))?/); if (filters) { let type = filters[1] ?? 0; let page = filters[2] ?? 0; let subtype = filters[4] ?? 0; if (type || page || subtype) { console.log('Applying filters!'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=religion+in+the+ancient+world+aztec+sacrifice+brahmanism+christianity+egypt+egyptian+burial+enheduanna+india+jainism+judaism+mesopotamia+mesopotamian+religion+mithra+moses+mythology+pazuzu+pyramids+religion&caching=1&ci_id=1-131&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-131%22%7D&cit=" + type + "&lim=6&pag=" + page + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + subtype,function() { jsQueue(()=>{ // Change UI selection $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").removeClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '.ci_type_'+type).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector").removeClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector[data-subtype-id=2]").addClass("selected"); }); jsQueue(()=>{ handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); } } } } jsQueue(()=>{ applyBrowserURLFilters(); }); jsQueue(()=>{ handle_related_pagination_click(); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").click(function() { cit = $(this).attr('rel'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + "#ci_related_type_current_selection").html(null); $(this).clone().appendTo("#ci_related_type_current_selection"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").removeClass("selected"); $(this).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=religion+in+the+ancient+world+aztec+sacrifice+brahmanism+christianity+egypt+egyptian+burial+enheduanna+india+jainism+judaism+mesopotamia+mesopotamian+religion+mithra+moses+mythology+pazuzu+pyramids+religion&caching=1&ci_id=1-131&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-131%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + pag + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); updateBrowserURL(cit,pag,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '.ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector').click(function() { cist = $(this).attr('data-subtype-id'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector").removeClass("selected"); $(this).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=religion+in+the+ancient+world+aztec+sacrifice+brahmanism+christianity+egypt+egyptian+burial+enheduanna+india+jainism+judaism+mesopotamia+mesopotamian+religion+mithra+moses+mythology+pazuzu+pyramids+religion&caching=1&ci_id=1-131&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-131%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + pag + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); updateBrowserURL(cit,pag,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); }); </script> <div class="membership-below-block-wrapper"> <div class="membership_below_notice"> <div class="membership_below_notice_inner"> <h2 class="no_toc">Free for the World, Supported by You</h2> <p class="a"> World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. For only <span class="mem_monthly_price">$5</span> per month you can become a member and support our mission to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. </p> <p class="b"> World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. Please support free history education for millions of learners worldwide for only <span class="mem_monthly_price">$5</span> per month by becoming a member. Thank you! </p> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=below-content-a&utm_campaign=membership" class="content_button member-button" rel="nofollow">Become a Member</a>   <a href="/donate/?utm_campaign=donation&utm_medium=below_content_a&utm_source=membership_block_en" class="content_button donate-button" rel="nofollow">Donate</a> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> var membership_below_block_bg = '/template/images/membership-below-block-bg-princess.jpg'; pageReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.ab == 'b') { $('.membership_below_notice .member-button').attr('href',$('.membership_below_notice .member-button').attr('href').replace('below-content-a','below-content-b')); $('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').attr('href',$('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').attr('href').replace('below_content_a','below_content_b')); $('.membership_below_notice p.a').hide(); $('.membership_below_notice p.b').show(); // A/B Testing Code Below // A/B Testing Code End } observedElementInView('.membership_below_notice',function() { $('.membership_below_notice').attr("style","background-image: url('"+membership_below_block_bg+"');"); }); observedElementInView('.membership_below_notice',()=>{ ga4Event('membership-below-block-viewed','version-' + AHE.ab); },0,true); $('.membership_below_notice .member-button').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var targetUrl = this.href; console.log("Link clicked: " + targetUrl); window.setTimeout(function() { console.log("Google Analytics timeout!"); top.window.location.href = targetUrl; },2000); ga4Event('membership-below-block-clicked','version-' + AHE.ab,targetUrl,()=>{ top.window.location.href = targetUrl; }); }); $('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var targetUrl = this.href; console.log("Link clicked: " + targetUrl); window.setTimeout(function() { console.log("Google Analytics timeout!"); top.window.location.href = targetUrl; },2000); ga4Event('membership-below-block-clicked','version-' + AHE.ab,targetUrl,()=>{ top.window.location.href = targetUrl; }); }); $('.membership_below_notice .mem_monthly_price').html(getMembershipPriceMonthly()); }); </script> <style> .membership_below_notice p.b { display: none; } </style> </div> <div class="xres_list_wrapper"> <a href="/xres/add/ci_id:1-131/" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Add External Link</a> <h2>External Links</h2> <div class="xres_wrapper list"> <div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://www.theoi.com/" title="THEOI GREEK MYTHOLOGY" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">THEOI GREEK MYTHOLOGY </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> theoi.com </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="http://listverse.com/2013/10/04/10-forgotten-ancient-religions/" title="10 Forgotten Ancient Religions" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">10 Forgotten Ancient Religions </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> listverse.com </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ancient-rome/ancient-rome-and-religion/" title="Ancient Rome and Religion" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Ancient Rome and Religion </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> historylearningsite.co.uk </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://www.penn.museum/sites/greek_world/religion.html" title="column" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">column </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> penn.museum </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="http://www.smspromotions.org/mesopotamian-religion.html" title="Learning about Ancient Mesopotamian Religion and Culture" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Learning about Ancient Mesopotamian Religion and Culture </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> smspromotions.org </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190168/" title="Religion in the Lives of the Ancient Egyptians" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Religion in the Lives of the Ancient Egyptians </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> lib.uchicago.edu </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://asiasociety.org/chinese-religions-and-philosophies" title="Chinese Religions and Philosophies" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Chinese Religions and Philosophies </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> asiasociety.org </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Reln270/Berling-Confucianism.htm" title="Confucianism" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Confucianism </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> kenyon.edu </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="http://www.livescience.com/41781-the-maya.html" title="The Maya: History, Culture & Religion" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">The Maya: History, Culture & Religion </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> livescience.com </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://www.culturalindia.net/indian-history/ancient-india/ancient-religion.html" title="Religion In Ancient India" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Religion In Ancient India </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> culturalindia.net </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="http://listverse.com/2007/08/13/10-weird-religious-practices/" title="10 Weird Religious Practices" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">10 Weird Religious Practices </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> listverse.com </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grlg/hd_grlg.htm" title="Greek Gods and Religious Practices | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Greek Gods and Religious Practices | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> metmuseum.org </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="citation_info"> <h2>Cite This Work</h2> <div class="citation_apa"> <h4>APA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Mark, J. J. (2018, March 23). <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/" class="no_external">Religion in the Ancient World</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/ </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Chicago Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/" class="no_external">Religion in the Ancient World</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Last modified March 23, 2018. https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/. </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>MLA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/" class="no_external">Religion in the Ancient World</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 23 Mar 2018. Web. 23 Nov 2024. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, published on 23 March 2018. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. <span class="no_print">Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.</span></p> </div> </main> <aside class="right_1_column"> <div id="editor_tools"> </div> <div class="timeline_outer_wrapper"> <div class="timeline_wrapper"> <h2>Timeline</h2> <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/login/" title="Add Timeline Entry" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Add Event</a> <a href="/ajax/ajax_print_visual_timeline.php?tag=religion&width=950&height=600" rel="nofollow" class="thickbox outline_button visual_timeline_button" title="Visual Timeline">Visual Timeline</a> <ul id="time_list"> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_514" title=""> <div class="date">c. 4000 BCE</div> Earliest <a href="/disambiguation/Egyptian/">Egyptian</a> Myths Recorded. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1031" title=""> <div class="date">c. 3500 BCE</div> First written evidence of <a href="/religion/">religion</a> in the world recorded on <a href="/Sumerians/">Sumerian</a> tablets. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_532" title=""> <div class="date">c. 3000 BCE</div> <a href="/Hathor/">Hathor</a>, known as Mistress of Dendera, cult center flourishes in the <a href="/city/">city</a> of Dendera. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_515" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2500 BCE</div> <a href="/osiris/">Osiris</a> as Dying and Reviving <a href="/God/">God</a> and God of the Dead appears in <a href="/pyramid/">Pyramid</a> Texts. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_69" title=""> <div class="date">2100 BCE</div> Ziggurats in use in <a href="/Sumerians/">Sumerian</a> <a href="/city/">cities</a> of <a href="/eridu/">Eridu</a>, <a href="/uruk/">Uruk</a>, <a href="/ur/">Ur</a>, <a href="/disambiguation/nippur/">Nippur</a> and elsewhere </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1835" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1500 BCE - 1100 BCE</div> The Rig <a href="/The_Vedas/">Veda</a> written, mentioning the <a href="/God/">god</a> Rudra (<a href="/shiva/">Shiva</a>) and goddess <a href="/Tara_(Goddess)/">Tara</a> (among others) for the first time. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1820" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1500 BCE - c. 500 BCE</div> The Vedic Period in <a href="/india/">India</a> after a greater migration of the Indo-<a href="/Aryan/">Aryans</a> from Central Asia </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1775" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1500 BCE - c. 500 BCE</div> Indian scholars of the so-called Vedic Period commit <a href="/The_Vedas/">the Vedas</a> to written form; basic tenets of <a href="/hinduism/">Hinduism</a> are established. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_519" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1120 BCE</div> Extant copy of the <a href="/Sumerians/">Sumerian</a> Enuma Elish (creation story) is made from much older text. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4264" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1000 BCE</div> Emergence of Yahwism. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_520" title=""> <div class="date">c. 700 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> poet <a href="/hesiod/">Hesiod</a> writes his <i><a href="/Theogony/">Theogony</a></i> and <i><a href="/Works_and_Days/">Works and Days</a></i>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2008" title=""> <div class="date">c. 600 BCE</div> Development of the <a href="/Charvaka/">Charvaka</a> school of <a href="/philosophy/">philosophy</a> in <a href="/india/">India</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2006" title=""> <div class="date">c. 599 BCE - c. 527 BCE</div> Traditional dating of the life of <a href="/Vardhamana/">Vardhamana</a>, according to Jain tradition. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2605" title=""> <div class="date">566 BCE - 486 BCE</div> The life of <a href="/Siddhartha_Gautama/">Siddhartha Gautama</a> according to the Corrected long chronology. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1983" title=""> <div class="date">563 BCE</div> <a href="/Siddhartha_Gautama/">Siddhartha Gautama</a> is born in <a href="/Lumbini/">Lumbini</a> (present day Nepal). </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1769" title=""> <div class="date">c. 563 BCE - c. 483 BCE</div> The life of <a href="/Siddhartha_Gautama/">Siddhartha Gautama</a> according to modern scholarly consensus. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_6499" title=""> <div class="date">c. 515 BCE - 70 CE</div> The Second <a href="/temple/">Temple</a> Period; <a href="/disambiguation/judaism/">Judaism</a> is revised, scriptures canonized, <a href="/Yahweh/">Yahweh</a> becomes sole deity, monotheism established. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_396" title=""> <div class="date">c. 6 BCE - c. 30 CE</div> Life of <a href="/Jesus_Christ/">Jesus Christ</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_398" title=""> <div class="date">1 CE - 100 CE</div> <a href="/Mithraic_Mysteries/">Mithraism</a> spreads in the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1781" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1 CE - c. 100 CE</div> The Mahayana movement begins in <a href="/india/">India</a> with its belief in bodhisattva - saintly souls who helped the living. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_400" title=""> <div class="date">42 CE - 62 CE</div> <a href="/Paul_the_Apostle/">Paul the Apostle</a> goes on missionary journeys across <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>, and <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_402" title=""> <div class="date">64 CE</div> Unofficial persecution of Christians in <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_524" title=""> <div class="date">c. 65 CE - c. 100 CE</div> The tales of the life and work of <a href="/Jesus_Christ/">Jesus</a> (<a href="/The_Gospels/">gospels</a>) composed. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1934" title=""> <div class="date">132 CE</div> Septuagint (<a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> translation of the <a href="/bible/">Bible</a>) composed at <a href="/alexandria/">Alexandria</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_416" title=""> <div class="date">224 CE</div> <a href="/zoroastrianism/">Zoroastrianism</a> becomes Persian state <a href="/religion/">religion</a> under the <a href="/Sasanian_Empire/">Sassanian Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_424" title=""> <div class="date">312 CE</div> <a href="/Roman_Emperor/">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/Constantine_I/">Constantine I</a> tolerates <a href="/christianity/">Christianity</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_423" title=""> <div class="date">c. 314 CE</div> <a href="/armenia/">Armenia</a> adopts <a href="/christianity/">Christianity</a> as the state <a href="/religion/">religion</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1782" title=""> <div class="date">c. 500 CE - c. 600 CE</div> In <a href="/india/">India</a> the Tantric expands the number of deities to include helpful demons, contactable through ritual. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_446" title=""> <div class="date">503 CE</div> <a href="/Clovis_I/">Clovis I</a> converts to <a href="/christianity/">Christianity</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3267" title=""> <div class="date">570 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a> is born in Mecca. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4263" title=""> <div class="date">c. 600 CE</div> Babylonian Talmud is compiled. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3268" title=""> <div class="date">610 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a> receives his first revelation on Mount Hira. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3269" title=""> <div class="date">622 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a> undertakes the Hegira (Hijra), the migration from Mecca to Medina, establishing the start of the Islamic calendar. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3270" title=""> <div class="date">624 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Badr: <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a>'s forces win, resulting in a turning point for <a href="/islam/">Islam</a> against the ruling Quraysh tribe. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3271" title=""> <div class="date">625 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Uhud: Quraysh tribe defeats the Muslims. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3272" title=""> <div class="date">627 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of the Trench: Quraysh troops attempt to siege Medina (then called Yathrib), but lose to the Muslim force. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3273" title=""> <div class="date">627 CE</div> Siege of Bani Qurayzah: Muslims capture the Jewish stronghold. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3274" title=""> <div class="date">628 CE</div> Treaty of Hudaybiyyah: A peace agreement is signed between <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a>'s Muslims and the people of Mecca. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3275" title=""> <div class="date">628 CE</div> <a href="/warfare/">Conquest</a> of Khaybar oasis: Jews barricade themselves in a fort at Khaybar oasis and are allowed to remain living there if they pay the Muslims one third of their produce. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3276" title=""> <div class="date">629 CE</div> First Pilgrimage ("lesser" pilgrimage or "umrah") made by <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a> and his Muslims to Mecca after migrating to Medina. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3277" title=""> <div class="date">629 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Mu'tah: Muslims attempt to capture the village east of the <a href="/Jordan/">Jordan</a> River from the <a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Byzantine Empire</a> to show their expanding dominance, resulting in a Muslim defeat. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3278" title=""> <div class="date">630 CE</div> Non-violent <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> of Mecca: The Quraysh realize that the Muslims now greatly outnumber them and allow the Muslims to capture their <a href="/city/">city</a>, Mecca, and rule it as they please. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3279" title=""> <div class="date">630 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Hunayn: Ending in a decisive victory for the Muslims over the Bedouin tribe of Hawazin. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3280" title=""> <div class="date">630 CE</div> Attempted Siege of Ta'if: <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a>'s forces are initially unable to siege Ta'if and convert its people to <a href="/islam/">Islam</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3281" title=""> <div class="date">632 CE</div> "Farewell Hajj Pilgrimage": This is the only Hajj pilgrimage in which <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a> participates. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3282" title=""> <div class="date">632 CE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a> dies in Medina, not clearly naming a successor to lead the Muslim people. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3305" title=""> <div class="date">632 CE - 634 CE</div> <a href="/Abu_Bakr/">Abu Bakr</a> becomes the first caliph (successor to <a href="/disambiguation/Muhammad/">Muhammad</a>) of the <a href="/Rashidun_Caliphate/">Rashidun Caliphate</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3306" title=""> <div class="date">634 CE - 644 CE</div> <a href="/Umar/">Umar</a> ibn al-Khattab succeeds <a href="/Abu_Bakr/">Abu Bakr</a>, becoming the second caliph of the <a href="/Rashidun_Caliphate/">Rashidun Caliphate</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3307" title=""> <div class="date">644 CE - 656 CE</div> <a href="/Uthman/">Uthman</a> ibn 'Affan succeeds <a href="/Umar/">Umar</a> to become the third caliph of the <a href="/Rashidun_Caliphate/">Rashidun Caliphate</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3308" title=""> <div class="date">656 CE - 661 CE</div> <a href="/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib/">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a> succeeds <a href="/Uthman/">Uthman</a> to become the fourth and final caliph of the <a href="/Rashidun_Caliphate/">Rashidun Caliphate</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1840" title=""> <div class="date">712 CE</div> The <a href="/Kojiki/">Kojiki</a> is written, a collection of oral myths forming the basis of the <a href="/collection/43/the-shinto-religion/">Shinto religion</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1839" title=""> <div class="date">720 CE</div> The <a href="/Nihon_Shoki/">Nihon Shoki</a> is written, a collection of oral myths forming the basis of the <a href="/collection/43/the-shinto-religion/">Shinto religion</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1841" title=""> <div class="date">c. 807 CE</div> Imibe-no-Hironari writes the Kogoshui, a collection of oral myths forming the basis of the <a href="/collection/43/the-shinto-religion/">Shinto religion</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2106" title=""> <div class="date">1122 CE</div> Construction begins of the <a href="/hinduism/">Hindu</a> <a href="/temple/">temple</a> at <a href="/Angkor_Wat/">Angkor Wat</a>. </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <img loading="lazy" data-src="/template/images/newsletter-header-red.jpg" class="newsletter_banner" width="300" height="106" alt="Weekly Newsletter"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <p>History delivered to you once a week:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Are you a...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"> <input type="radio" value="1" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-0" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-0">History Enthusiast</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="2" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-1" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-1">Teacher</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="4" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-2" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-2">Student</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="8" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-3" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-3">Librarian</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div>  <input type="hidden" name="tags" value="40497"> <input type="submit" value="Subscribe" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </form> </div>  </aside> <p id="footer_spacer"> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ad_Flexi_MobileSticky ahe-ad">  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky" class="adcontainer"></div> </div> <div class="worldhistory_sticky_dynamic"></div> <a href="/membership/?utm_campaign=membership&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidetab_heart_en" id="membership_sidebar" title="Membership"> <img src="/template/images/membership/membership-sidetab-en.svg?v=1732096425" width="29" height="133" alt="Membership" /> </a> <footer> <div class="print_membership_notice no_membership_only print_only"> <p>World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization publishing free history content that has been carefully researched and reviewed. If you liked this content, please consider donating at <strong>www.worldhistory.org/donate/</strong>. To remove this message from printouts, you can become a supporting member at <strong>www.worldhistory.org/membership/</strong>. Thank you for supporting our work! </p> </div> <div id="footer_wrapper"> <div id="recommended_list"> <div class="box_wrapper"> <p> Numerous educational institutions recommend us, including <a href="https://www.conted.ox.ac.uk/about/curious-minds-explore">Oxford University</a>. Our publication has been reviewed for educational use by <a href="https://www.commonsense.org/education/website/world-history-encyclopedia">Common Sense Education</a>, <a href="https://scout.wisc.edu/report/2017/1020">Internet Scout (University of Wisconsin)</a>, <a href="https://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewCompositeReview.htm?id=1270309">Merlot (California State University)</a>, <a href="https://www.oercommons.org/courses/world-history-encyclopedia">OER Commons</a> and the <a href="https://www.slj.com/?detailStory=unbury-the-past-apps-and-websites-for-exploring-ancient-worlds-mix-it-up">School Library Journal</a>. Please note that some of these recommendations are listed under our old name, Ancient History Encyclopedia. </p> </div> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="box_wrapper"> <div id="footer_contents"> <div class="footer_section top"> <div class="mission center"> <strong>Our Mission</strong> Our mission is to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. </div> <div class="social right"> <strong>Follow Us</strong> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook" class="footer_sm_link facebook no_external" title="Follow us on Facebook" rel="me"><svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path d="M24 12.073c0-6.627-5.373-12-12-12s-12 5.373-12 12c0 5.99 4.388 10.954 10.125 11.854v-8.385H7.078v-3.47h3.047V9.43c0-3.007 1.792-4.669 4.533-4.669 1.312 0 2.686.235 2.686.235v2.953H15.83c-1.491 0-1.956.925-1.956 1.874v2.25h3.328l-.532 3.47h-2.796v8.385C19.612 23.027 24 18.062 24 12.073z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/twitter" class="footer_sm_link twitter no_external" title="Follow us on Twitter" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.066 9.645c.183 4.04-2.83 8.544-8.164 8.544-1.622 0-3.131-.476-4.402-1.291 1.524.18 3.045-.244 4.252-1.189-1.256-.023-2.317-.854-2.684-1.995.451.086.895.061 1.298-.049-1.381-.278-2.335-1.522-2.304-2.853.388.215.83.344 1.301.359-1.279-.855-1.641-2.544-.889-3.835 1.416 1.738 3.533 2.881 5.92 3.001-.419-1.796.944-3.527 2.799-3.527.825 0 1.572.349 2.096.907.654-.128 1.27-.368 1.824-.697-.215.671-.67 1.233-1.263 1.589.581-.07 1.135-.224 1.649-.453-.384.578-.87 1.084-1.433 1.489z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/pinterest" class="footer_sm_link pinterest no_external" title="Follow us on Pinterest" rel="me"><?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <svg enable-background="new 0 0 24 24" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xml:space="preserve" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path d="m12 0c-6.6 0-12 5.4-12 12 0 5.1 3.2 9.4 7.6 11.2-0.1-0.9-0.2-2.4 0-3.4 0.2-0.9 1.4-6 1.4-6s-0.3-0.8-0.3-1.8c0-1.7 1-2.9 2.2-2.9 1 0 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.7 0 1-0.7 2.6-1 4-0.3 1.2 0.6 2.2 1.8 2.2 2.1 0 3.8-2.2 3.8-5.5 0-2.9-2.1-4.9-5-4.9-3.4 0-5.4 2.6-5.4 5.2 0 1 0.4 2.1 0.9 2.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3-0.1 0.4-0.3 1.2-0.3 1.4-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.3-0.4 0.2-1.5-0.7-2.4-2.9-2.4-4.6 0-3.8 2.7-7.3 7.9-7.3 4.2 0 7.4 3 7.4 6.9 0 4.1-2.6 7.5-6.2 7.5-1.2 0-2.4-0.6-2.8-1.4l-0.7 2.9c-0.3 1-1 2.3-1.5 3.1 1 0.3 2.2 0.5 3.4 0.5 6.6 0 12-5.4 12-12s-5.4-12-12-12"/> </svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/linkedin" class="footer_sm_link instagram no_external" title="Follow us on Linkedin" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm-2 16h-2v-6h2v6zm-1-6.891c-.607 0-1.1-.496-1.1-1.109 0-.612.492-1.109 1.1-1.109s1.1.497 1.1 1.109c0 .613-.493 1.109-1.1 1.109zm8 6.891h-1.998v-2.861c0-1.881-2.002-1.722-2.002 0v2.861h-2v-6h2v1.093c.872-1.616 4-1.736 4 1.548v3.359z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/instagram" class="footer_sm_link instagram no_external" title="Follow us on Instagram" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.829 6.302c-.738-.034-.96-.04-2.829-.04s-2.09.007-2.828.04c-1.899.087-2.783.986-2.87 2.87-.033.738-.041.959-.041 2.828s.008 2.09.041 2.829c.087 1.879.967 2.783 2.87 2.87.737.033.959.041 2.828.041 1.87 0 2.091-.007 2.829-.041 1.899-.086 2.782-.988 2.87-2.87.033-.738.04-.96.04-2.829s-.007-2.09-.04-2.828c-.088-1.883-.973-2.783-2.87-2.87zm-2.829 9.293c-1.985 0-3.595-1.609-3.595-3.595 0-1.985 1.61-3.594 3.595-3.594s3.595 1.609 3.595 3.594c0 1.985-1.61 3.595-3.595 3.595zm3.737-6.491c-.464 0-.84-.376-.84-.84 0-.464.376-.84.84-.84.464 0 .84.376.84.84 0 .463-.376.84-.84.84zm-1.404 2.896c0 1.289-1.045 2.333-2.333 2.333s-2.333-1.044-2.333-2.333c0-1.289 1.045-2.333 2.333-2.333s2.333 1.044 2.333 2.333zm-2.333-12c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.958 14.886c-.115 2.545-1.532 3.955-4.071 4.072-.747.034-.986.042-2.887.042s-2.139-.008-2.886-.042c-2.544-.117-3.955-1.529-4.072-4.072-.034-.746-.042-.985-.042-2.886 0-1.901.008-2.139.042-2.886.117-2.544 1.529-3.955 4.072-4.071.747-.035.985-.043 2.886-.043s2.14.008 2.887.043c2.545.117 3.957 1.532 4.071 4.071.034.747.042.985.042 2.886 0 1.901-.008 2.14-.042 2.886z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube" class="footer_sm_link youtube no_external" title="Follow us on YouTube" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm4.441 16.892c-2.102.144-6.784.144-8.883 0-2.276-.156-2.541-1.27-2.558-4.892.017-3.629.285-4.736 2.558-4.892 2.099-.144 6.782-.144 8.883 0 2.277.156 2.541 1.27 2.559 4.892-.018 3.629-.285 4.736-2.559 4.892zm-6.441-7.234l4.917 2.338-4.917 2.346v-4.684z"/></svg></a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="links"> <a href="/static/about/">About</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/contact/">Contact</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/advertise/">Advertise</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/privacy/">Privacy Policy</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/partners/">Partners</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/supporters/">Supporters</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/newsletter/">Newsletter</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/config/en/">Settings</a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="centered"> <p> <a href="/static/contact/">World History Publishing</a> is a non-profit company registered in the United Kingdom.<br> <a href="/static/contact/">World History Foundation</a> is a non-profit organization registered in Canada. </p>  <p> Some Rights Reserved (2009-2024) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. </p> <p> The World History Encyclopedia logo is a <a href="https://trademarks.ipo.gov.uk/ipo-tmcase/page/Results/1/UK00003762855">registered trademark</a>. </p> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="centered partners"> <strong>Featured Partner</strong> <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/archives" title="UNESCO Digital Archives" rel="nofollow"><img src="/images/partners/unesco_archives_white.png" width="216" height="125" alt="UNESCO Archives" loading="lazy"></a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section ccpa"> <div class="centered"> <div id="ccpa_message"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section exec"> <div class="centered"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div>  </footer> <div id="float_message"></div>  <script type="text/javascript" async src="https://btloader.com/tag?o=5698917485248512&upapi=true&domain=worldhistory.org"></script> <script>!function(){"use strict";var e;e=document,function(){var t,n;function r(){var t=e.createElement("script");t.src="https://cafemedia-com.videoplayerhub.com/galleryplayer.js",e.head.appendChild(t)}function a(){var t=e.cookie.match("(^|[^;]+)\s*__adblocker\s*=\s*([^;]+)");return t&&t.pop()}function c(){clearInterval(n)}return{init:function(){var e;"true"===(t=a())?r():(e=0,n=setInterval((function(){100!==e&&"false" !== t || c(), "true" === t && (r(), c()), t = a(), e++}), 50))}}}().init()}(); </script>   <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" importance="low" fetchpriority="low" href="/template/css/exclude/deferred.css?v=1732096425" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" importance="low" fetchpriority="low" href="/template/css/exclude/print.css?v=1732096425" media="print"> <script> document.querySelectorAll('img, picture').forEach(function(imgItem) { imgItem.addEventListener('error',function(e) { AHE.imageErrors.push(this.src); }); }); </script> <script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'8e7b8d755c024017',t:'MTczMjQ3Mzg5MC4wMDAwMDA='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.nonce='';a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script></body> </html>