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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-District_court_opinion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supreme_Court_arguments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supreme_Court_arguments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Supreme Court arguments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Supreme_Court_arguments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Supreme Court arguments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Supreme_Court_arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consensus_building" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consensus_building"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Consensus building</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consensus_building-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supreme_Court_decision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supreme_Court_decision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Supreme Court decision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supreme_Court_decision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Reaction and aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reaction_and_aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reaction and aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reaction_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deep_South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deep_South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Deep South</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deep_South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upper_South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upper_South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Upper South</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upper_South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>North</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topeka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topeka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Topeka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topeka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_criticism_and_praise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_criticism_and_praise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Legal criticism and praise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_criticism_and_praise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brown_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brown_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span><i>Brown II</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brown_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brown_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brown_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span><i>Brown III</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brown_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_comments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_comments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Other comments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_comments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B6%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85" title="قضية براون ضد مجلس التعليم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قضية براون ضد مجلس التعليم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_protiv_Odbora_za_obrazovanje" title="Brown protiv Odbora za obrazovanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Brown protiv Odbora za obrazovanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_contra_el_Consell_d%27Educaci%C3%B3" title="Brown contra el Consell d'Educació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Brown contra el Consell d'Educació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_vs._%C5%A1koln%C3%AD_rada_Topeky" title="Brown vs. školní rada Topeky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Brown vs. školní rada Topeky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Brown v. Board of Education" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caso_Brown_contra_el_Consejo_de_Educaci%C3%B3n" title="Caso Brown contra el Consejo de Educación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Caso Brown contra el Consejo de Educación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%AA_%D8%A2%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%B4" title="براون در برابر هیئت آموزش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="براون در برابر هیئت آموزش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Brown v. Board of Education" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B8%8C%EB%9D%BC%EC%9A%B4_%EB%8C%80_%ED%86%A0%ED%94%BC%EC%B9%B4_%EA%B5%90%EC%9C%A1%EC%9C%84%EC%9B%90%ED%9A%8C_%EC%9E%AC%ED%8C%90" title="브라운 대 토피카 교육위원회 재판 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="브라운 대 토피카 교육위원회 재판" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Brown v. Board of Education" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_contro_l%27ufficio_scolastico_di_Topeka" title="Brown contro l'ufficio scolastico di Topeka – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Brown contro l'ufficio scolastico di Topeka" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%A7_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%93_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9A" title="פסק דין בראון נגד מועצת החינוך – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פסק דין בראון נגד מועצת החינוך" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%AD%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%A6%E1%83%9B%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%92" title="ბრაუნი განათლების საბჭოს წინააღმდეგ – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბრაუნი განათლების საბჭოს წინააღმდეგ" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Brown v. Board of Education" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A6%E3%83%B3%E5%AF%BE%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E4%BC%9A%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4" title="ブラウン対教育委員会裁判 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ブラウン対教育委員会裁判" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_mot_skolestyret" title="Brown mot skolestyret – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Brown mot skolestyret" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_kontra_urz%C4%85d_edukacji_w_Topeka" title="Brown kontra urząd edukacji w Topeka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Brown kontra urząd edukacji w Topeka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caso_Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Caso Brown v. Board of Education – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Caso Brown v. Board of Education" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8E" title="Браун против Совета по образованию – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Браун против Совета по образованию" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Brown v. 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Board of Education" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8_%D0%B7_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Браун проти Ради з питань освіти – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Браун проти Ради з питань освіти" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_ki%E1%BB%87n_H%E1%BB%99i_%C4%91%E1%BB%93ng_Gi%C3%A1o_d%E1%BB%A5c" title="Brown kiện Hội đồng Giáo dục – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Brown kiện Hội đồng Giáo dục" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%97%E8%A3%81%E6%B1%BA" title="布朗裁決 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="布朗裁決" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%97%E8%A8%B4%E6%89%98%E7%9A%AE%E5%8D%A1%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%B1%80%E6%A1%88" title="布朗訴托皮卡教育局案 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="布朗訴托皮卡教育局案" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q875738#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Brown_v._Board_of_Education" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brown_v._Board_of_Education&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
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class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected due to vandalism"><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1954 United States Supreme Court case</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox scotus" style="line-height: 1.4em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #99c0ff; padding: 0.2em; line-height: 1.4em; font-size:125%; font-style: italic">Brown v. Board of Education</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Seal of the United States Supreme Court"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding-top: 0.5em; font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Argued December 9, 1952<br />Reargued December 8, 1953<br />Decided May 17, 1954</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Full case name</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Brown_(American_activist)" title="Oliver Brown (American activist)">Oliver Brown</a>, et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, et al.</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citations</th><td class="infobox-data">347 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/us/347/483/case.html">483</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">more</a></i>)<div>74 S. Ct. 686; 98 <a href="/wiki/Lawyers%27_Edition" title="Lawyers' Edition">L. Ed.</a> 873; 1954 <a href="/wiki/LexisNexis" title="LexisNexis">U.S. LEXIS</a> 2094; 53 Ohio Op. 326; 38 <a href="/wiki/American_Law_Reports" title="American Law Reports">A.L.R.2d</a> 1180</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Decision</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep347/usrep347483/usrep347483.pdf">Opinion</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case history</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prior</th><td class="infobox-data">Judgment for defendants, 98 <a href="/wiki/F._Supp." class="mw-redirect" title="F. Supp.">F. Supp.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/98/797/1899646/">797</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Kansas" title="United States District Court for the District of Kansas">D. Kan.</a> 1951); probable jurisdiction noted, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_344" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 344">344</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/344/1/">1</a> (1952).</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subsequent</th><td class="infobox-data">Judgment on relief, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_349" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 349">349</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/349/294/">294</a> (1955) (<i>Brown II</i>); on remand, 139 <a href="/wiki/F._Supp." class="mw-redirect" title="F. Supp.">F. Supp.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/139/468/2373421/">468</a> (D. Kan. 1955); motion to intervene granted, 84 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_Decisions" title="Federal Rules Decisions">F.R.D.</a> 383 (D. Kan. 1979); judgment for defendants, 671 <a href="/wiki/F._Supp." class="mw-redirect" title="F. Supp.">F. Supp.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/671/1290/2595170/">1290</a> (D. Kan. 1987); reversed, 892 <a href="/wiki/F.2d" class="mw-redirect" title="F.2d">F.2d</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/892/851/72610/">851</a> (<a href="/wiki/10th_Cir." class="mw-redirect" title="10th Cir.">10th Cir.</a> 1989); vacated, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_503" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 503">503</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/503/978/">978</a> (1992) (<i>Brown III</i>); judgment reinstated, 978 <a href="/wiki/F.2d" class="mw-redirect" title="F.2d">F.2d</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/978/585/183141/">585</a> (10th Cir. 1992); judgment for defendants, 56 <a href="/wiki/F._Supp._2d" class="mw-redirect" title="F. Supp. 2d">F. Supp. 2d</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp2/56/1212/2449313/">1212</a> (D. Kan. 1999)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Holding</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Segregation of students in <a href="/wiki/Public_school_(government_funded)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public school (government funded)">public schools</a> violates the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>, because separate facilities are inherently unequal. <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Kansas" title="United States District Court for the District of Kansas">District Court of Kansas</a> reversed.</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Court membership</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><dl style="margin:0; padding:0.1em 0.5em; text-align:center; line-height:1.3em;"> <dt style="margin:0;">Chief Justice</dt> <dd style="margin:0 0 0.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> </dd> <dt style="margin:0;">Associate Justices</dt> <dd style="margin:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Stanley F. Reed</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hitz_Burton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Hitz Burton">Harold H. Burton</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Tom C. Clark</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton" title="Sherman Minton">Sherman Minton</a> </dd></dl></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case opinion</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Majority</th><td class="infobox-data">Warren, joined by a unanimous court</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Laws applied</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">U.S. Const. amend. XIV</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="background-color: green; color: white; font-weight: bold">This case overturned a previous ruling or rulings</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896) (in part)<br /><i><a href="/wiki/Cumming_v._Richmond_County_Board_of_Education" title="Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education">Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education</a></i> (1899)<br /><i><a href="/wiki/Berea_College_v._Kentucky" title="Berea College v. Kentucky">Berea College v. Kentucky</a></i> (1908)</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka</b></i>, 347 U.S. 483 (1954),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a <a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States" title="List of landmark court decisions in the United States">landmark</a> decision of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> that ruled that <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> laws establishing <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> in <a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">public schools</a> are unconstitutional, even if the segregated schools are otherwise equal in quality. The decision partially overruled the Court's 1896 decision <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which had held that racial segregation laws did not violate the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a> as long as the facilities for each race were equal in quality, a doctrine that had come to be known as "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>". The Court's unanimous decision in <i>Brown</i>, and its related cases, paved the way for <a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">integration</a> and was a major victory of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a model for many future <a href="/wiki/Impact_litigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact litigation">impact litigation</a> cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Schuck_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuck-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The case began in 1951 when the public school system in <a href="/wiki/Topeka,_Kansas" title="Topeka, Kansas">Topeka, Kansas</a>, refused to enroll the daughter of local <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">black</a> resident <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Brown_(American_activist)" title="Oliver Brown (American activist)">Oliver Brown</a> at the school closest to their home, instead requiring her to ride a bus to a segregated black school farther away. The Browns and twelve other local black families in similar situations filed a <a href="/wiki/Class_action" title="Class action">class-action</a> lawsuit in U.S. federal court against the Topeka Board of Education, alleging its segregation policy was unconstitutional. A special three-judge court of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Kansas" title="United States District Court for the District of Kansas">U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas</a> heard the case and ruled against the Browns, relying on the precedent of <i>Plessy</i> and its "separate but equal" doctrine. The Browns, represented by <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> chief counsel <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, appealed the ruling directly to the Supreme Court. </p><p>In May 1954, the Supreme Court issued a unanimous 9–0 decision in favor of the Browns. The Court ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," and therefore laws that impose them violate the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> of the U.S. Constitution. However, the decision's 14 pages did not spell out any sort of method for ending racial segregation in schools, and the Court's second decision in <i><a href="#Brown_II">Brown II</a></i> (1955) only ordered states to desegregate "with all deliberate speed". </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a>, the reaction to <i>Brown</i> among most <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white people</a> was "noisy and stubborn", especially in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a> where racial segregation was deeply entrenched in society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCloskey2010144_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCloskey2010144-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Southern governmental and political leaders embraced a plan known as "<a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">massive resistance</a>", created by Senator <a href="/wiki/Harry_F._Byrd" title="Harry F. Byrd">Harry F. Byrd</a>, in order to frustrate attempts to force them to de-segregate their school systems. Four years later, in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i>, the Court reaffirmed its ruling in <i>Brown</i>, and explicitly stated that state officials and legislators had no power to nullify its ruling. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg/350px-Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg/525px-Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg/700px-Educational_separation_in_the_US_prior_to_Brown_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>Educational segregation in the US prior to <i>Brown</i>. Racial segregation was required throughout the states in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> (in red). Kansas where Topeka is located allowed a local option for school districts to enforce segregation (blue).</figcaption></figure> <p>For much of the 60 years preceding the <i>Brown</i> case, <a href="/wiki/Race_relations" title="Race relations">race relations</a> in the United States had been dominated by <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a>. Such state policies had been endorsed by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> ruling in <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896), which held that as long as the separate facilities for separate races were equal, state segregation did not violate the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>'s Equal Protection Clause ("no State shall ... deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws").<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 <a href="/wiki/U.S._State" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. State">states</a> that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Beginning in the 1930s, a legal strategy was pursued, led by scholars at <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a> and activists at the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>, that sought to undermine states' public education segregation by first focusing on the <a href="/wiki/Graduate_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate school">graduate school</a> setting.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to success in the cases of <i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i>, 339 U.S. 629 (1950) and <i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i>, 339 U.S. 637 (1950), suggesting that racial segregation was inherently unequal (at least in some settings), which paved the way for <i>Brown</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Plaintiffs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plaintiffs">plaintiffs</a> in <i>Brown</i> asserted that the system of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial separation</a> in all schools, while masquerading as providing separate but equal treatment of both white and black Americans, instead perpetuated inferior accommodations, services, and treatment for black Americans. <i>Brown</i> was influenced by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>'s 1950 Statement, signed by a wide variety of internationally renowned scholars, titled <i><a href="/wiki/The_Race_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="The Race Question">The Race Question</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Prins_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prins-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This declaration denounced previous <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">attempts at scientifically justifying racism</a> as well as morally condemning racism. Another work that the Supreme Court cited was <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Gunnar Myrdal</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/An_American_Dilemma:_The_Negro_Problem_and_Modern_Democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy">An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy</a></i> (1944).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration. </p><p>The United States and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> were both at the height of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> during this time, and U.S. officials, including Supreme Court justices, were highly aware of the harm that segregation and racism were doing to America's international image. When Justice <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a> traveled to <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> in 1950, the first question he was asked was, "Why does America tolerate the lynching of Negroes?" Douglas later wrote that he had learned from his travels that "the attitude of the United States toward its colored minorities is a powerful factor in our relations with India." Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>, nominated to the Supreme Court by President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>, echoed Douglas's concerns in a 1954 speech to the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a>, proclaiming that "Our American system like all others is on trial both at home and abroad, ... the extent to which we maintain the spirit of our constitution with its Bill of Rights, will in the long run do more to make it both secure and the object of adulation than the number of hydrogen bombs we stockpile."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="District_court_case">District court case</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Filing_and_arguments">Filing and arguments</h3></div> <p>In 1951, a <a href="/wiki/Class-action" class="mw-redirect" title="Class-action">class-action</a> lawsuit was filed against the Board of Education of the City of <a href="/wiki/Topeka,_Kansas" title="Topeka, Kansas">Topeka, Kansas</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Kansas" title="United States District Court for the District of Kansas">United States District Court for the District of Kansas</a>. The plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The suit called for the school district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The Topeka Board of Education operated separate elementary schools due to a 1879 Kansas law, which permitted (but did not require) districts to maintain separate elementary school facilities for black and white students in 12 communities with populations over 15,000. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>. Notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman <a href="/wiki/McKinley_Burnett" title="McKinley Burnett">McKinley Burnett</a>; Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter; and <a href="/wiki/Lucinda_Todd" title="Lucinda Todd">Lucinda Todd</a>. </p><p>The named African-American plaintiff, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Brown_(plaintiff)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver Brown (plaintiff)">Oliver Brown</a>, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the <a href="/wiki/Atchison,_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway" title="Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway">Santa Fe Railroad</a>, as well as an assistant pastor at his local church.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was convinced to join the lawsuit by a childhood friend, Charles Scott. Brown's daughter <a href="/wiki/Linda_Carol_Brown" title="Linda Carol Brown">Linda Carol Brown</a>, a third grader, had to walk six blocks to her school bus stop to ride to <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education_National_Historical_Park" title="Brown v. Board of Education National Historical Park">Monroe Elementary</a>, her segregated black school one mile (1.6 km) away, while <a href="/wiki/Sumner_Elementary_School" title="Sumner Elementary School">Sumner Elementary</a>, a white school, was seven blocks from her house.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and redirected to the segregated schools. </p><p>The case "Oliver Brown et al. v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas" was named after Oliver Brown as a legal strategy to have a man at the head of the roster. The lawyers, and the National Chapter of the NAACP, also felt that having Mr. Brown at the head of the roster would be better received by the U.S. Supreme Court justices. The 13 plaintiffs were: Oliver Brown, Darlene Brown, Lena Carper, Sadie Emmanuel, Marguerite Emerson, Shirley Fleming, <a href="/wiki/Zelma_Henderson" title="Zelma Henderson">Zelma Henderson</a>, Shirley Hodison, Maude Lawton, Alma Lewis, Iona Richardson, Vivian Scales, and Lucinda Todd.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last surviving plaintiff, Zelma Henderson, died in Topeka, on May 20, 2008, at age 88.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="District_court_opinion">District court opinion</h3></div> <p>The District Court ruled in favor of the Board of Education, citing the U.S. Supreme Court precedent set in <i>Plessy v. Ferguson</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Judge <a href="/wiki/Walter_Huxman" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Huxman">Walter Huxman</a> wrote the opinion for the three-judge District Court panel, including nine "findings of fact," based on the evidence presented at trial. Although finding number eight stated that segregation in public education has a detrimental effect on <a href="/wiki/Negro" title="Negro">negro</a> children, the court denied relief on the ground that the negro and white schools in Topeka were substantially equal with respect to buildings, transportation, curricula, and educational qualifications of teachers.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This finding would be specifically cited in the subsequent Supreme Court opinion of this case.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Supreme_Court_arguments">Supreme Court arguments</h2></div> <p>The case of <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i> as heard before the Supreme Court combined five cases: <i>Brown</i> itself, <i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i> (filed in <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>), <i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County</a></i> (filed in <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>), <i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i> (filed in <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>), and <i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i> (filed in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>). </p><p>All were NAACP-sponsored cases. The <i>Davis</i> case, the only case of the five originating from a student protest, began when 16-year-old <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a> organized and led a 450-student walkout of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Russa_Moton_Museum" title="Robert Russa Moton Museum">Moton High School</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Gebhart</i> case was the only one where a trial court, affirmed by the <a href="/wiki/Delaware_Supreme_Court" title="Delaware Supreme Court">Delaware Supreme Court</a>, found that discrimination was unlawful; in all the other cases the plaintiffs had lost as the original courts had found discrimination to be lawful. </p><p>The Kansas case was unique among the group in that there was no contention of gross inferiority of the segregated schools' physical plant, curriculum, or staff. The district court found substantial equality as to all such factors. The lower court, in its opinion, noted that, in Topeka, "the physical facilities, the curricula, courses of study, qualification and quality of teachers, as well as other educational facilities in the two sets of schools [were] comparable."<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_v_pp._797,_798_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown_v_pp._797,_798-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lower court observed that "colored children in many instances are required to travel much greater distances than they would be required to travel could they attend a white school" but also noted that the school district "transports colored children to and from school free of charge" and that "no such service [was] provided to white children."<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_v_pp._797,_798_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown_v_pp._797,_798-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Delaware case the district court judge in <i>Gebhart</i> ordered that the black students be admitted to the white high school due to the substantial harm of segregation and the differences that made the separate schools unequal. </p><p>Under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers</a> donated $75,000 to help pay for the NAACP's efforts at the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NAACP's chief counsel, <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>—who was later appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1967—argued the case before the Supreme Court for the plaintiffs. Assistant attorney general Paul Wilson—later distinguished emeritus professor of law at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kansas" title="University of Kansas">University of Kansas</a>—conducted the state's ambivalent defense in his first appellate argument. </p><p>In December 1952, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Justice Department</a> filed an <i><a href="/wiki/Amicus_curiae" title="Amicus curiae">amicus curiae</a></i> ("friend of the court") brief in the case. The brief was unusual in its heavy emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign-policy</a> considerations of the <a href="/wiki/Truman_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Truman administration">Truman administration</a> in a case ostensibly about domestic issues. Of the seven pages covering "the interest of the United States," five focused on the way school segregation hurt the United States in the Cold War competition for the friendship and allegiance of non-white peoples in countries then gaining independence from colonial rule. Attorney General <a href="/wiki/James_P._McGranery" title="James P. McGranery">James P. McGranery</a> noted that "the existence of discrimination against minority groups in the United States has an adverse effect upon our relations with other countries. Racial discrimination furnishes grist for the Communist propaganda mills."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brief also quoted a letter by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/Dean_Acheson" title="Dean Acheson">Dean Acheson</a> lamenting that "the United States is under constant attack in the foreign press, over the foreign radio, and in such international bodies as the United Nations because of various practices of discrimination in this country."<sup id="cite_ref-amphilsoc.org_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amphilsoc.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British barrister and parliamentarian <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Lester,_Baron_Lester_of_Herne_Hill" title="Anthony Lester, Baron Lester of Herne Hill">Anthony Lester</a> has written that "Although the Court's opinion in <i>Brown</i> made no reference to these considerations of foreign policy, there is no doubt that they significantly influenced the decision."<sup id="cite_ref-amphilsoc.org_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amphilsoc.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consensus_building">Consensus building</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Court_1953.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Warren_Court_1953.jpg/220px-Warren_Court_1953.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Warren_Court_1953.jpg/330px-Warren_Court_1953.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Warren_Court_1953.jpg/440px-Warren_Court_1953.jpg 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>The members of the U.S. Supreme Court that on May 17, 1954, ruled unanimously that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.</figcaption></figure> <p>In spring 1953, the court heard the case, but was unable to decide the issue and asked to rehear the case in fall 1953, with special attention to whether the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause prohibited the operation of separate public schools for whites and blacks.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The court reargued the case at the behest of Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a>, who used reargument as a stalling tactic, to allow the court to gather a consensus around a <i>Brown</i> opinion that would outlaw segregation. The justices in support of desegregation spent much effort convincing those who initially intended to dissent to join a unanimous opinion. Although the legal effect would be same for a majority rather than unanimous decision, it was felt that dissent could be used by segregation supporters as a legitimizing counter-argument.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (May 2024)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Brown_v._Board_of_Education#Dubious" title="Talk:Brown v. Board of Education">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Conference notes and draft decisions illustrate the division of opinions before the decision was issued.<sup id="cite_ref-nyorker_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyorker-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justices <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hitz_Burton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Hitz Burton">Harold Hitz Burton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton" title="Sherman Minton">Sherman Minton</a> were predisposed to overturn <i>Plessy</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-nyorker_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyorker-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a> noted that Congress had not adopted desegregation legislation; <a href="/wiki/Stanley_F._Reed" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley F. Reed">Stanley F. Reed</a> discussed incomplete <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">cultural assimilation</a> and <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a>, and was inclined to the view that segregation worked to the benefit of the African-American community; <a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Tom C. Clark</a> wrote that "we had led the states on to think segregation is OK and we should let them work it out."<sup id="cite_ref-nyorker_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyorker-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> disapproved of segregation, but were also opposed to <a href="/wiki/Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">judicial activism</a> and expressed concerns about the proposed decision's enforceability.<sup id="cite_ref-nyorker_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyorker-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chief Justice Vinson had been a key stumbling block. After Vinson died in September 1953, President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> appointed <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> as Chief Justice.<sup id="cite_ref-nyorker_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyorker-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warren had supported the integration of Mexican-American students in California school systems following <i><a href="/wiki/Mendez_v._Westminster" title="Mendez v. Westminster">Mendez v. Westminster</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 165">: 165 </span></sup> However, Eisenhower invited Earl Warren to a <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> dinner, where the president told him: "These [southern whites] are not bad people. All they are concerned about is to see that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the Justice Department sided with the African-American plaintiffs.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While all but one justice personally rejected segregation, the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">judicial restraint</a> faction questioned whether the Constitution gave the court the power to order its end. The activist faction believed the Fourteenth Amendment did give the necessary authority and were pushing to go ahead. Warren, who held only a <a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">recess appointment</a>, held his tongue until the Senate confirmed his appointment. </p><p>Warren convened a meeting of the justices, and presented to them the simple argument that the only reason to sustain segregation was an honest belief in the inferiority of Negroes. Warren further submitted that the court must overrule <i>Plessy</i> to maintain its legitimacy as an institution of liberty, and it must do so unanimously to avoid massive <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a> resistance. He began to build a unanimous opinion. Although most justices were immediately convinced, Warren spent some time after this famous speech convincing everyone to sign onto the opinion. Justice Jackson dropped his concurrence and Reed finally decided to drop his dissent. The final decision was unanimous. Warren drafted the basic opinion and kept circulating and revising it until he had an opinion endorsed by all the members of the court.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reed was the last holdout and reportedly cried during the reading of the opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Supreme_Court_decision">Supreme Court decision</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earl_Warren.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/220px-Earl_Warren.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/330px-Earl_Warren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/440px-Earl_Warren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="773" /></a><figcaption>Chief justice Earl Warren, the author of the Supreme Court's unanimous opinion in <i>Brown</i></figcaption></figure> <p>On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court issued a unanimous 9–0 decision in favor of the Brown family and the other plaintiffs. The decision consists of a single opinion written by <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">chief justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>, which all the justices joined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._764_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._764-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Court's opinion began by discussing whether the Fourteenth Amendment, adopted in 1868, was meant to abolish segregation in public education. The Court said that it had been unable to reach a conclusion on the question, even after hearing a second round of oral arguments from the parties' lawyers specifically on the historical sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._764_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._764-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Reargument was largely devoted to the circumstances surrounding the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868. It covered exhaustively consideration of the Amendment in Congress, ratification by the states, then-existing practices in racial segregation, and the views of proponents and opponents of the Amendment. This discussion and our own investigation convince us that, although these sources cast some light, it is not enough to resolve the problem with which we are faced. At best, they are inconclusive.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Brown</i>, 347 U.S. at 489.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The Court said the question was complicated by the major social and governmental changes that had taken place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It observed that public schools had been uncommon in the American South in the late 1860s. At that time, Southern white children whose families could afford schooling usually attended private schools, while the education of Southern black children was "almost nonexistent", to the point that in some Southern states the education of black people was forbidden by law.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court contrasted this with the situation in 1954: "Today, education is perhaps the most important function of our local and state governments."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court concluded that, in making its ruling, it would have to "consider public education in light of its full development and its present place in American life throughout the Nation."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the segregation era, it was common for black schools to have fewer resources and poorer facilities than white schools despite the equality required by the "separate but equal" doctrine. The <i>Brown</i> Court did not address this issue, however, probably because some of the school districts involved in the case had improved their black schools in order to "equalize" them with the quality of the white schools.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._764_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._764-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This prevented the Court from finding a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> in "measurable inequalities" between all white and black schools and forced the Court to look to the effects of segregation itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENowakRotunda2012§_18.8(d)(ii)(2)_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowakRotunda2012§_18.8(d)(ii)(2)-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court therefore framed the case around the more general question of whether the principle of "separate but equal" was constitutional when applied to public education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_pp._764–65_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_pp._764–65-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We come then to the question presented: Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities?</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Brown</i>, 397 U.S. at 493.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In answer, the Court held that it did.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court ruled that state-mandated segregation, even if implemented in schools of otherwise equal quality, is inherently unequal because of its psychological impact upon the segregated children.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To separate [black children] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to ever be undone.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Brown</i>, 347 U.S. at 494.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The Court supported this conclusion with citations—in a footnote, not the main text of the opinion—to several psychological studies concluding that segregating black children made them feel inferior and interfered with their learning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These studies included those of <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_and_Mamie_Clark" title="Kenneth and Mamie Clark">Kenneth and Mamie Clark</a>, whose experiments in the 1940s had suggested that black American children from segregated environments <a href="/wiki/Doll_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Doll test">preferred white dolls over black dolls</a>. </p><p>The Court then concluded its relatively short opinion by declaring that segregated public education was inherently unequal, violated the Equal Protection Clause, and therefore was unconstitutional: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Brown</i>, 397 U.S. at 495.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The Court did not close with an order to implement the integration of the schools of the various jurisdictions. Instead, it requested the parties re-appear before the Court the following Term to hold arguments on what the appropriate remedy should be.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This became the case known as <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown II">Brown II</a></i>, described below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reaction_and_aftermath">Reaction and aftermath</h2></div> <p>Americans mostly cheered the Court's decision in <i>Brown</i>, but most white Southerners decried it. Many white Southerners viewed <i>Brown</i> as "a day of catastrophe—a <a href="/wiki/Black_Monday" title="Black Monday">Black Monday</a>—a day something like <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Rabby_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rabby-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the face of entrenched Southern opposition, progress on integrating American schools was slow. The American political historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_G._McCloskey" title="Robert G. McCloskey">Robert G. McCloskey</a> described: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The reaction of the white South to this judicial onslaught on its institutions was noisy and stubborn. Certain "border states," which had formerly maintained segregated school systems, did integrate, and others permitted the token admission of a few Negro students to schools that had once been racially unmixed. However, the Deep South made no moves to obey the judicial command, and in some districts there can be no doubt that the Desegregation decision hardened resistance to integration proposals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCloskey2010144_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCloskey2010144-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In Virginia, Senator <a href="/wiki/Harry_F._Byrd" title="Harry F. Byrd">Harry F. Byrd</a> organized the <a href="/wiki/Massive_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Massive Resistance">Massive Resistance</a> movement that included the closing of schools rather than desegregating them.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For several decades after the <i>Brown</i> decision, African-American teachers, principals, and other school staff who worked in segregated Black schools were fired or laid off as Southerners sought to create a system of integrated schools with White leadership. According to historian Michael Fultz, "In many ways the South moved faster, with more 'deliberate speed' in displacing Black educators than it did in desegregating schools."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deep_South">Deep South</h3></div> <p>Texas Attorney General <a href="/wiki/John_Ben_Shepperd" title="John Ben Shepperd">John Ben Shepperd</a> organized a campaign to generate legal obstacles to the implementation of desegregation.<sup id="cite_ref-Howell_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howell-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 1957, <a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a> governor <a href="/wiki/Orval_Faubus" title="Orval Faubus">Orval Faubus</a> called out the <a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Army_National_Guard" title="Arkansas Army National Guard">Arkansas Army National Guard</a> to block the entry of nine black students, later known as the "<a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a>" after the desegregation of <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Central_High_School" title="Little Rock Central High School">Little Rock Central High School</a>. President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> responded by asserting federal control over the Arkansas National Guard and deploying troops from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a>'s <a href="/wiki/101st_Airborne_Division" title="101st Airborne Division">101st Airborne Division</a> stationed at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Campbell" title="Fort Campbell">Fort Campbell</a> to ensure the black students could safely register for and attend classes.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also in 1957, Florida's response was mixed. Its legislature passed an <a href="/wiki/Interposition" title="Interposition">Interposition</a> Resolution denouncing the decision and declaring it null and void. But <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor of Florida">Florida Governor</a> <a href="/wiki/LeRoy_Collins" title="LeRoy Collins">LeRoy Collins</a>, though joining in the protest against the court decision, refused to sign it, arguing that the attempt to overturn the ruling must be done by legal methods. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, fear of violence prevented any plaintiff from bringing a school desegregation suit for the next nine years.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a> sued in 1963 to desegregate schools in <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi" title="Jackson, Mississippi">Jackson, Mississippi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Citizens%27_Councils" title="Citizens' Councils">White Citizens Council</a> member <a href="/wiki/Byron_De_La_Beckwith" title="Byron De La Beckwith">Byron De La Beckwith</a> murdered him.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two subsequent trials resulted in hung juries. Beckwith was not convicted of the murder until 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 1963, <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> governor <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a> personally blocked the door to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama" title="University of Alabama">University of Alabama</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Foster_Auditorium" title="Foster Auditorium">Foster Auditorium</a> to prevent the enrollment of two black students in what became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a>" incident.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wallace sought to uphold his "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever" promise he had given in his 1963 inaugural address. Wallace moved aside only when confronted by General <a href="/wiki/Henry_V._Graham" title="Henry V. Graham">Henry V. Graham</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Alabama_National_Guard" title="Alabama National Guard">Alabama National Guard</a>, whom President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> had ordered to intervene. </p><p>Native American communities were also heavily impacted by segregation laws with native children also being prohibited from attending white institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-kingcreek_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kingcreek-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Native American children considered light-complexioned were allowed to ride school buses to previously all white schools, while dark-skinned Native children from the same band were still barred from riding the same buses.<sup id="cite_ref-kingcreek_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kingcreek-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tribal leaders, having learned about <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>'s desegregation campaign in Birmingham, Alabama, contacted him for assistance. King promptly responded to the tribal leaders and through his intervention the problem was quickly resolved.<sup id="cite_ref-kingcreek_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kingcreek-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Upper_South">Upper South</h3></div> <p>In North Carolina, there was often a strategy of nominally accepting <i>Brown</i>, but tacitly resisting it. On May 18, 1954, the <a href="/wiki/Greensboro,_North_Carolina" title="Greensboro, North Carolina">Greensboro, North Carolina</a> school board declared that it would abide by the <i>Brown</i> ruling. This was the result of the initiative of D. E. Hudgins Jr., a former Rhodes Scholar and prominent attorney, who chaired the school board. This made Greensboro the first, and for years the only, city in the South, to announce its intent to comply. However, others in the city resisted integration, putting up legal obstacles<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Please clarify the preceding statement or statements with a good explanation from a reliable source. (March 2015)">how?</span></a></i>]</sup> to the actual implementation of school desegregation for years afterward, and in 1969, the federal government found the city was not in compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Transition to a fully integrated school system did not begin until 1971, after numerous local lawsuits and both nonviolent and violent demonstrations. Historians have noted the irony that Greensboro, which had heralded itself as such a progressive city, was one of the last holdouts for school desegregation.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Moberly,_Missouri" title="Moberly, Missouri">Moberly, Missouri</a>, the schools were desegregated, as ordered. However, after 1955, the African-American teachers from the local "negro school" were not retained; this was ascribed to poor performance. They appealed their dismissal in <i>Naomi Brooks et al., Appellants, v. School District of City of Moberly, Missouri, Etc., et al.</i>; but it was upheld, and SCOTUS declined to hear a further appeal.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Virginia had one of the companion cases in <i>Brown</i>, involving the Prince Edward County schools. Significant opposition to the <i>Brown</i> verdict included U.S. Senator <a href="/wiki/Harry_F._Byrd" title="Harry F. Byrd">Harry F. Byrd</a>, who led the Byrd Organization and promised a strategy of <a href="/wiki/Massive_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Massive Resistance">Massive Resistance</a>. Governor <a href="/wiki/Thomas_B._Stanley" title="Thomas B. Stanley">Thomas Stanley</a>, a member of the Byrd Organization, appointed the <a href="/wiki/Gray_Commission" title="Gray Commission">Gray Commission</a>, 32 Democrats led by state senator <a href="/wiki/Garland_Gray" title="Garland Gray">Garland Gray</a>, to study the issue and make recommendations. The commission recommended giving localities "broad discretion" in meeting the new judicial requirements. However, in 1956, a special session of the Virginia legislature adopted a legislative package which allowed the governor to simply close all schools under desegregation orders from federal courts. In early 1958, newly elected Governor <a href="/wiki/J._Lindsay_Almond" title="J. Lindsay Almond">J. Lindsay Almond</a> closed public schools in Charlottesville, Norfolk, and Warren County rather than comply with desegregation orders, leaving 10,000 children without schools despite efforts of various parent groups. However, he reconsidered when on the Lee-Jackson state holiday, the Virginia Supreme Court ruled the closures violated the state constitution, and a panel of federal judges ruled they violated the U.S. Constitution. In early February 1959, both the Arlington County (also subject to an NAACP lawsuit, and which had lost its elected school board pursuant to other parts of the Stanley Plan) and Norfolk schools desegregated peacefully. Soon, all counties reopened and integrated with the exception of Prince Edward County that took the extreme step of choosing not to appropriate any funding for its school system, thus forcing all its public schools to close, although Prince Edward County provided tuition grants for all students, regardless of their race, to use for private, nonsectarian education. Since no private schools existed for blacks within the county, black children in the county either had to leave the county to receive any education between 1959 and 1963, or received no education. All private schools in the region remained racially segregated. This lasted until 1964, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled Prince Edward County's decision to provide tuition grants for private schools that only admitted whites violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Griffin_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North">North</h3></div> <p>Many Northern cities also had <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#United_States" title="Racial segregation">de facto segregation</a> policies, which resulted in a vast gulf in educational resources between black and white communities. In <a href="/wiki/Harlem_(Manhattan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlem (Manhattan)">Harlem</a>, New York, for example, not a single new school had been built since the turn of the century, nor did a single nursery school exist, even as the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a> caused overcrowding of existing schools. Existing schools tended to be dilapidated and staffed with inexperienced teachers. Northern officials were in denial of the segregation, but <i>Brown</i> helped stimulate activism among African-American parents like <a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a> who, with support of the NAACP, initiated a successful lawsuit against the city and State of New York on <i>Brown</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'s</span> principles. Mallory and thousands of other parents bolstered the pressure of the lawsuit with a school boycott in 1959. During the boycott, some of the first <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a> of the period were established. The city responded to the campaign by permitting more open transfers to high-quality, historically white schools. (New York's African-American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now found themselves contending with the problem of <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a>, however.)<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topeka">Topeka</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Judgment,_Brown_v._Board_of_Education,_05311955.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Judgment%2C_Brown_v._Board_of_Education%2C_05311955.gif/220px-Judgment%2C_Brown_v._Board_of_Education%2C_05311955.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Judgment%2C_Brown_v._Board_of_Education%2C_05311955.gif/330px-Judgment%2C_Brown_v._Board_of_Education%2C_05311955.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Judgment%2C_Brown_v._Board_of_Education%2C_05311955.gif/440px-Judgment%2C_Brown_v._Board_of_Education%2C_05311955.gif 2x" data-file-width="770" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption>Judgment and order of the Supreme Court for the case</figcaption></figure> <p>The Topeka junior high schools had been integrated since 1941. Topeka High School was integrated from its inception in 1871 and its sports teams from 1949 onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kansas law permitting segregated schools allowed them only "below the high school level".<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soon after the district court decision, election outcomes and the political climate in Topeka changed. The Board of Education of Topeka began to end segregation in the Topeka elementary schools in August 1953, integrating two attendance districts. All the Topeka elementary schools were changed to neighborhood attendance centers in January 1956, although existing students were allowed to continue attending their prior assigned schools at their option.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plaintiff Zelma Henderson, in a 2004 interview, recalled that no demonstrations or tumult accompanied desegregation in Topeka's schools: "They accepted it ... It wasn't too long until they integrated the teachers and principals."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Topeka Public Schools administration building is named in honor of <a href="/wiki/McKinley_Burnett" title="McKinley Burnett">McKinley Burnett</a>, NAACP chapter president who organized the case.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education_National_Historical_Park" title="Brown v. Board of Education National Historical Park">Monroe Elementary</a> was designated a <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Site_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historic Site (United States)">National Historic Site</a> under the National Park Service on October 26, 1992, and redesignated a National Historical Park on May 12, 2022. </p><p>The intellectual roots of <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i>, the landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> in 1896 under the doctrine of "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" were, in part, tied to the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> of the era.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the popular support for the decision was more likely a result of the racist beliefs held by many whites at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-rlac_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rlac-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In deciding <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i>, the Supreme Court rejected the ideas of scientific racists about the need for segregation, especially in schools. The court buttressed its holding by citing (in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=347&invol=483#f11">footnote 11</a>) social science research about the harms to black children caused by segregated schools. </p><p>Both scholarly and popular ideas of <a href="/wiki/Hereditarianism" title="Hereditarianism">hereditarianism</a> played an important role in the attack and backlash that followed the <i>Brown</i> decision.<sup id="cite_ref-rlac_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rlac-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Mankind_Quarterly" title="Mankind Quarterly">Mankind Quarterly</a></i> was founded in 1960, in part in response to the <i>Brown</i> decision.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jackson_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_criticism_and_praise">Legal criticism and praise</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brown_V._Board_of_Education_Exhibit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Brown_V._Board_of_Education_Exhibit.jpg/220px-Brown_V._Board_of_Education_Exhibit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Brown_V._Board_of_Education_Exhibit.jpg/330px-Brown_V._Board_of_Education_Exhibit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Brown_V._Board_of_Education_Exhibit.jpg/440px-Brown_V._Board_of_Education_Exhibit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">U.S. circuit judges</a> (from left to right) <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Katzmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Katzmann">Robert A. Katzmann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damon_J._Keith" class="mw-redirect" title="Damon J. Keith">Damon J. Keith</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</a> at a 2004 exhibit on the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, and <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> wrote a memo titled "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases" when he was a law clerk for Justice <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> in 1952, during early deliberations that led to the <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i> decision. In his memo, Rehnquist argued: "I realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which I have been excoriated by 'liberal' colleagues but I think <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> was right and should be reaffirmed." Rehnquist continued, "To the argument ... that a majority may not deprive a minority of its constitutional right, the answer must be made that while this is sound in theory, in the long run it is the majority who will determine what the constitutional rights of the minorities are."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rehnquist also argued for <i>Plessy</i> with other law clerks.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, during his 1971 confirmation hearings, Rehnquist said, "I believe that the memorandum was prepared by me as a statement of Justice Jackson's tentative views for his own use." Jackson had initially planned to join a dissent in <i>Brown</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, at his 1986 hearings for the slot of Chief Justice, Rehnquist put further distance between himself and the 1952 memo: "The bald statement that Plessy was right and should be reaffirmed, was not an accurate reflection of my own views at the time."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any event, while serving on the Supreme Court, Rehnquist made no effort to reverse or undermine the <i>Brown</i> decision, and frequently relied upon it as precedent.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chief Justice Warren's reasoning was broadly criticized by contemporary legal academics with Judge <a href="/wiki/Learned_Hand" title="Learned Hand">Learned Hand</a> decrying that the Supreme Court had "assumed the role of a third legislative chamber"<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Wechsler" title="Herbert Wechsler">Herbert Wechsler</a> finding <i>Brown</i> impossible to justify based on neutral principles.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some aspects of the <i>Brown</i> decision are still debated. Notably, Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a>, himself an African American, wrote in <i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Jenkins" title="Missouri v. Jenkins">Missouri v. Jenkins</a></i> (1995) that at the very least, <i>Brown I</i> has been misunderstood by the courts. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Brown I</i> did not say that "racially isolated" schools were inherently inferior; the harm that it identified was tied purely to de jure segregation, not de facto segregation. Indeed, <i>Brown I</i> itself did not need to rely upon any psychological or social-science research in order to announce the simple, yet fundamental truth that the Government cannot discriminate among its citizens on the basis of race. ... </p><p>Segregation was not unconstitutional because it might have caused psychological feelings of inferiority. Public school systems that separated blacks and provided them with superior educational resources making blacks "feel" superior to whites sent to lesser schools—would violate the Fourteenth Amendment, whether or not the white students felt stigmatized, just as do school systems in which the positions of the races are reversed. Psychological injury or benefit is irrelevant ... </p><p> Given that desegregation has not produced the predicted leaps forward in black educational achievement, there is no reason to think that black students cannot learn as well when surrounded by members of their own race as when they are in an integrated environment. (...) Because of their "distinctive histories and traditions," black schools can function as the center and symbol of black communities, and provide examples of independent black leadership, success, and achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Some Constitutional <a href="/wiki/Originalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Originalists">originalists</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Berger" title="Raoul Berger">Raoul Berger</a> in his influential 1977 book "Government by Judiciary," make the case that <i>Brown</i> cannot be defended by reference to the original understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a>. They support this reading of the 14th Amendment by noting that the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a> did not ban segregated schools and that the same Congress that passed the 14th Amendment also voted to segregate schools in the District of Columbia. Other originalists, including <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._McConnell" title="Michael W. McConnell">Michael W. McConnell</a>, a federal judge on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Tenth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit</a>, in his article "Originalism and the Desegregation Decisions," argue that the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era of the United States">Radical Reconstructionists</a> who spearheaded the 14th Amendment were in favor of desegregated southern schools.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence supporting this interpretation of the 14th Amendment has come from archived Congressional records showing that proposals for federal legislation which would enforce school integration were debated in Congress a few years following the amendment's ratification.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to Michael McConnell's research, Raoul Berger argued that the Congressmen and Senators who were advocating in favor of school desegregation in the 1870s were trying to rewrite the 14th Amendment in order to make the 14th Amendment fit their political agenda and that the actual understanding of the 14th Amendment from 1866 to 1868 (which is when the 14th Amendment was actually passed and ratified) does, in fact, permit <a href="/wiki/US_states" class="mw-redirect" title="US states">US states</a> to have segregated schools.<sup id="cite_ref-berger_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berger-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Berger criticized McConnell for being unable to find any reference to school segregation—let alone any reference to a desire to prohibit it—among supporters of the 14th Amendment in the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Globe">congressional history</a> of this amendment (specifically in the recordings of the <a href="/wiki/39th_United_States_Congress" title="39th United States Congress">39th United States Congress</a>, since that was the US Congress that actually passed the 14th Amendment) and also criticized McConnell's view that the 1954 view of "civil rights" should be decisive in interpreting the 14th Amendment as opposed to the 1866 view of "civil rights."<sup id="cite_ref-berger_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berger-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Berger also argues that McConnell failed to provide any evidence that the <a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislatures</a> who ratified the 14th Amendment understood it at the time as prohibiting school segregation and that whenever the question of school segregation's compatibility with the US Constitution (as opposed to the separate question of school segregation's compatibility with US state law and/or <a href="/wiki/US_state_constitutions" class="mw-redirect" title="US state constitutions">US state constitutions</a>, where courts have often ruled against school segregation) reached the judiciary in the couple of decades after the passage and ratification of the 14th Amendment (whether in <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a>, or <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>), courts have always affirmed the constitutionality of school segregation—as did <a href="/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court" title="Michigan Supreme Court">Michigan Supreme Court</a> <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Justice">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_M._Cooley" title="Thomas M. Cooley">Thomas M. Cooley</a> in his 1880 <a href="/wiki/Treatise" title="Treatise">treatise</a> <i>The General Principles of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Law">Constitutional Law</a> in the United States of America</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-berger_91-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berger-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, Berger argues that the views of the draftsmen of the 14th Amendment in 1866 are decisive—as opposed to the views of later readers of the 14th Amendment (including the views of supporters of the 14th Amendment after this amendment's passage and ratification due to the fact that even their views and beliefs about the meaning and scope of this Amendment could and sometimes did change over time—like with <a href="/wiki/Nevada_U.S._Senator" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevada U.S. Senator">Nevada U.S. Senator</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Morris_Stewart" class="mw-redirect" title="William Morris Stewart">William Morris Stewart</a>, who initially opposed school desegregation but later changed his mind and supported it).<sup id="cite_ref-berger_91-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berger-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To back up his view about original intent being decisive, Berger cites—among other things—an 1871 quote by <a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">James A. Garfield</a> to <a href="/wiki/John_Bingham" title="John Bingham">John Bingham</a> where Garfield challenged Bingham's recollection of a statement that Bingham had previously made in 1866—with Garfield telling Bingham that he can make but not unmake history.<sup id="cite_ref-berger_91-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berger-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The case also has attracted some criticism from more liberal authors, including some who say that Chief Justice Warren's reliance on psychological criteria to find a harm against segregated blacks was unnecessary. For example, <a href="/wiki/Drew_S._Days_III" title="Drew S. Days III">Drew S. Days III</a> has written:<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "we have developed criteria for evaluating the constitutionality of racial classifications that do not depend upon findings of psychic harm or social science evidence. They are based rather on the principle that 'distinctions between citizens solely because of their ancestry are by their very nature odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality,' <i><a href="/wiki/Hirabayashi_v._United_States" title="Hirabayashi v. United States">Hirabayashi v. United States</a></i>, 320 U.S. 81 (1943). . . ." </p><p>In his book <i>The Tempting of America</i> (page 82), <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a> endorsed the <i>Brown</i> decision as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>By 1954, when Brown came up for decision, it had been apparent for some time that segregation rarely if ever produced equality. Quite aside from any question of psychology, the physical facilities provided for blacks were not as good as those provided for whites. That had been demonstrated in a long series of cases ... The Court's realistic choice, therefore, was either to abandon the quest for equality by allowing segregation or to forbid segregation in order to achieve equality. There was no third choice. Either choice would violate one aspect of the original understanding, but there was no possibility of avoiding that. Since equality and segregation were mutually inconsistent, though the ratifiers did not understand that, both could not be honored. When that is seen, it is obvious the Court must choose equality and prohibit state-imposed segregation. The purpose that brought the fourteenth amendment into being was equality before the law, and equality, not separation, was written into the law.</p></blockquote> <p>In June 1987, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Elman" title="Philip Elman">Philip Elman</a>, a civil rights attorney who served as an associate in the Solicitor General's office during Harry Truman's term, claimed he and Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter were mostly responsible for the Supreme Court's decision, and stated that the NAACP's arguments did not present strong evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-HLR_June_1987_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HLR_June_1987-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elman has been criticized for offering a self-aggrandizing history of the case, omitting important facts, and denigrating the work of civil rights attorneys who had laid the groundwork for the decision over many decades.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Frankfurter was also known for being one of court's most outspoken advocates of the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">judicial restraint</a> philosophy of basing court rulings on existing law rather than personal or political considerations.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public officials in the United States today are nearly unanimous in lauding the ruling. In May 2004, the fiftieth anniversary of the ruling, President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> spoke at the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education_National_Historical_Park" title="Brown v. Board of Education National Historical Park"><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i> National Historic Site</a>, calling <i>Brown</i> "a decision that changed America for the better, and forever."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Senators and Representatives issued press releases hailing the ruling. </p><p>In a 2016 article in <a href="/wiki/Townhall" title="Townhall">Townhall.com</a>, an outlet of the <a href="/wiki/Salem_Media_Group" title="Salem Media Group">Salem Media Group</a>, economist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a> argued that when Chief Justice Earl Warren declared in the landmark 1954 case of <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i> that racially separate schools were "inherently unequal," <a href="/wiki/Dunbar_High_School_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Dunbar High School (Washington, D.C.)">Dunbar High School</a> was a living refutation of that assumption. And it was within walking distance of the Supreme Court." In Sowell's estimation, "Dunbar, which had been accepting outstanding black students from anywhere in the city, could now accept only students from the rough ghetto neighborhood in which it was located" as a detrimental consequence of the SCOTUS decision.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Brown_II"><i>Brown II</i></h2></div> <p>In 1955, the Supreme Court considered arguments by the schools requesting relief concerning the task of desegregation. In their decision, which became known as "<i>Brown II</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the court delegated the task of carrying out school desegregation to district courts with orders that desegregation occur "with all deliberate speed," a phrase traceable to <a href="/wiki/Francis_Thompson" title="Francis Thompson">Francis Thompson</a>'s poem "<a href="/wiki/The_Hound_of_Heaven" title="The Hound of Heaven">The Hound of Heaven</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Supporters of the earlier decision were displeased with this decision. The language "all deliberate speed" was seen by critics as too ambiguous to ensure reasonable haste for compliance with the court's instruction. Many Southern states and school districts interpreted <i>Brown II</i> as legal justification for resisting, delaying, and avoiding significant integration for years—and in some cases for a decade or more—using such tactics as closing down school systems, using state money to finance segregated "private" schools, and "token" integration where a few carefully selected black children were admitted to former white-only schools but the vast majority remained in underfunded, unequal black schools.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, based on <i>Brown II</i>, the U.S. District Court ruled that <a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_County,_Virginia" title="Prince Edward County, Virginia">Prince Edward County, Virginia</a> did not have to desegregate immediately. When faced with a court order to finally begin desegregation in 1959 the county board of supervisors stopped appropriating money for public schools, which remained closed for five years, from 1959 to 1964. </p><p>White students in the county were given assistance to attend white-only "private academies" that were taught by teachers formerly employed by the public school system, while black students had no education at all unless they moved out of the county. But the public schools reopened after the Supreme Court overturned <i>Brown II</i> in <i><a href="/wiki/Griffin_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County</a></i>, declaring that "...the time for mere 'deliberate speed' has run out" and that the county must provide a public school system for all children regardless of race.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Brown_III"><i>Brown III</i></h2></div> <p>In 1978, Topeka attorneys Richard Jones, Joseph Johnson and Charles Scott Jr. (son of the original <i>Brown</i> team member), with assistance from the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a>, persuaded Linda Brown Smith—who now had her own children in Topeka schools—to be a plaintiff in reopening <i>Brown</i>. They were concerned that the Topeka Public Schools' policy of "open enrollment" had led to and would lead to further segregation. They also believed that with a choice of open enrollment, white parents would shift their children to "preferred" schools that would create both predominantly African-American and predominantly European-American schools within the district. The district court reopened the <i>Brown</i> case after a 25-year hiatus, but denied the plaintiffs' request finding the schools "unitary". In 1989, a three-judge panel of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Tenth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit">Tenth Circuit</a> on a 2–1 vote found that the vestiges of segregation remained with respect to student and staff assignment.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1993, the Supreme Court denied the appellant School District's request for <i><a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</a></i> and returned the case to District Court Judge Richard Rodgers for implementation of the Tenth Circuit's mandate. </p><p>After a 1994 plan was approved and a bond issue passed, additional elementary magnet schools were opened and district attendance plans redrawn, which resulted in the Topeka schools meeting court standards of racial balance by 1998. Unified status was eventually granted to <a href="/wiki/Topeka_Unified_School_District_No._501" class="mw-redirect" title="Topeka Unified School District No. 501">Topeka Unified School District No. 501</a> on July 27, 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the new <a href="/wiki/Magnet_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnet schools">magnet schools</a> is named after the Scott family attorneys for their role in the <i>Brown</i> case and civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_comments">Other comments</h2></div> <p>A PBS film called <i>Simple Justice</i> retells the story of the <i>Brown vs. Board of Education</i> case, beginning with the work of the NAACP's Legal Defense Fund's efforts to combat 'separate but equal' in graduate school education and culminating in the historical 1954 decision. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Linda_Carol_Brown" title="Linda Carol Brown">Linda Brown Thompson</a> later recalled the experience of being refused enrollment:<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...we lived in an integrated neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school and the school looked so big to a smaller child. And I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out ... to sit outside with the secretary. And while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on. And then he immediately came out of the office, took me by the hand and we walked home from the school. I just couldn't understand what was happening because I was so sure that I was going to go to school with Mona and Guinevere, Wanda, and all of my playmates.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Linda Brown died on March 25, 2018, at the age of 75.<sup id="cite_ref-death_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-death-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a>, the first black child to attend an all-white elementary school in the South</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">History of African Americans in Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubey_Mosley_Hulen" title="Rubey Mosley Hulen">Rubey Mosley Hulen</a>, federal judge who made a similar ruling in an earlier case</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_court_cases_involving_the_Fourteenth_Amendment" title="List of United States court cases involving the Fourteenth Amendment">List of United States court cases involving the Fourteenth Amendment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lum_v._Rice" title="Lum v. Rice">Lum v. Rice</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Ole Miss riot of 1962</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Runyon_v._McCrary" title="Runyon v. McCrary">Runyon v. McCrary</a></i> (1976), bars segregation in private schools whereas Brown only applies to public schools</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">Timeline of the civil rights movement</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Supreme Court has never explicitly overruled <i>Plessy v. Ferguson</i> in its entirety, although <i>Brown</i> and a series of later Supreme Court decisions have severely weakened <i>Plessy</i> to the point that it is usually considered to be <i>de facto</i> overruled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchauer1997280_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchauer1997280-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">One source gives Eisenhower's quote as saying "big black bucks" instead of "big overgrown Negroes".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/483/">483</a> (1954)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchauer1997280-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchauer1997280_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchauer1997">Schauer (1997)</a>, p. 280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHartford" class="citation web cs1">Hartford, Bruce. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis54.htm#1954bvbe">"Brown v. Board of Education Decision (May)"</a>. <i>Civil Rights Movement Archive</i>. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1954. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230608185754/https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis54.htm#1954bvbe">Archived</a> from the original on June 8, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=brownvboard.org&rft.atitle=Plaintiffs+%26+Attorneys+in+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrownvboard.org%2Fcontent%2Fplaintiffs-attorneys-brown-v-board-education&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nyt_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox2008" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Margalit_Fox" title="Margalit Fox">Fox, Margalit</a> (May 22, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090425010305/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/22/us/22henderson.html">"Zelma Henderson, Who Aided Desegregation, Dies at 88"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. Archived from the original on April 25, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 6,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Zelma+Henderson%2C+Who+Aided+Desegregation%2C+Dies+at+88&rft.date=2008-05-22&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Margalit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F05%2F22%2Fus%2F22henderson.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080524231336/http://www.twincities.com/national/ci_9333780?nclick_check=1">"Last surviving Brown v. Board plaintiff dies at 88 - TwinCities.com"</a>. May 24, 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.twincities.com/national/ci_9333780">the original</a> on May 24, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Last+surviving+Brown+v.+Board+plaintiff+dies+at+88+-+TwinCities.com&rft.date=2008-05-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.twincities.com%2Fnational%2Fci_9333780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061101110358/http://www.cjonline.com/stories/031604/loc_brown10.shtml">"School facilities for Negroes here held comparable"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Topeka_Capital-Journal" title="The Topeka Capital-Journal">The Topeka State Journal</a></i>. August 3, 1951. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cjonline.com/stories/031604/loc_brown10.shtml">the original</a> on November 1, 2006 – via CJOnline.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Topeka+State+Journal&rft.atitle=School+facilities+for+Negroes+here+held+comparable&rft.date=1951-08-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cjonline.com%2Fstories%2F031604%2Floc_brown10.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/98/797/1899646/">98 F. Supp. 797</a> (D. Kan. 1951), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180516014938/https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/98/797/1899646/">archived</a> from the original.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter_A._Huxman1951" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_A._Huxman" title="Walter A. Huxman">Walter A. Huxman</a> (August 3, 1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.famous-trials.com/brownvtopeka/658-brownhuxman">"District Court Opinion: Brown et al. v Board of Education of Topeka, Shawnee County, kansas et al"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Doug_Linder" title="Doug Linder">Famous Trials</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211114222626/https://www.famous-trials.com/brownvtopeka/658-brownhuxman">Archived</a> from the original on November 14, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 9,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Famous+Trials&rft.atitle=District+Court+Opinion%3A+Brown+et+al.+v+Board+of+Education+of+Topeka%2C+Shawnee+County%2C+kansas+et+al.&rft.date=1951-08-03&rft.au=Walter+A.+Huxman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.famous-trials.com%2Fbrownvtopeka%2F658-brownhuxman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html">"Separate Is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History" title="National Museum of American History">National Museum of American History</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190820181923/https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 20, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 9,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Separate+Is+Not+Equal%3A+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famericanhistory.si.edu%2Fbrown%2Fhistory%2F5-decision%2Fcourts-decision.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartford" class="citation web cs1">Hartford, Bruce. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis51.htm#1951ssmh">"Student Strike at Moton High (VA) (April, 1951)"</a>. <i>Civil Rights Movement Archive</i>. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1951–1953. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230608190209/https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis51.htm#1951ssmh">Archived</a> from the original on June 8, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Civil+Rights+Movement+Archive&rft.atitle=Student+Strike+at+Moton+High+%28VA%29+%28April%2C+1951%29&rft.aulast=Hartford&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmvet.org%2Ftim%2Ftimhis51.htm%231951ssmh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown_v_pp._797,_798-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brown_v_pp._797,_798_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brown_v_pp._797,_798_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Brown</i>, 98 F. Supp. at 798.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyle1995" class="citation book cs1">Boyle, Kevin (November 21, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mt4ZDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA120"><i>The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945–1968</i></a>. Cornell University Press. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-1327-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-1327-9"><bdi>978-1-5017-1327-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+UAW+and+the+Heyday+of+American+Liberalism%2C+1945%E2%80%931968&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1995-11-21&rft.isbn=978-1-5017-1327-9&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmt4ZDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeier2014" class="citation web cs1">Neier, Aryeh (May 14, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140716195401/http://blogs.reuters.com/great-debate/2014/05/14/brown-v-board-of-ed-key-cold-war-weapon/">"Brown v. Board of Ed: Key Cold War weapon"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.reuters.com/great-debate/2014/05/14/brown-v-board-of-ed-key-cold-war-weapon/">the original</a> on July 16, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brown+v.+Board+of+Ed%3A+Key+Cold+War+weapon&rft.date=2014-05-14&rft.aulast=Neier&rft.aufirst=Aryeh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.reuters.com%2Fgreat-debate%2F2014%2F05%2F14%2Fbrown-v-board-of-ed-key-cold-war-weapon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amphilsoc.org-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amphilsoc.org_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amphilsoc.org_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150501080744/http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/proceedings/480405.pdf">"Anthony Lester, "Brown v. Board of Education Overseas" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Vol. 148, No. 4, December 2004"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/proceedings/480405.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on May 1, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anthony+Lester%2C+%22Brown+v.+Board+of+Education+Overseas%22+Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society+Vol.+148%2C+No.+4%2C+December+2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amphilsoc.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fproceedings%2F480405.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanhistory.si.edu/Brown/history/index.html">Smithsonian, <i>Separate is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150630105121/http://americanhistory.si.edu/Brown/history/index.html">Archived</a> June 30, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyorker-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyorker_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyorker_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyorker_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyorker_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyorker_31-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunstein2004" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cass_R._Sunstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Cass R. Sunstein">Sunstein, Cass R.</a> (May 3, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150713084954/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2004/05/03/did-brown-matter">"Did Brown Matter?"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>. Archived from <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/05/03/040503crbo_books">the original</a></span> on July 13, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 22,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=Did+Brown+Matter%3F&rft.date=2004-05-03&rft.aulast=Sunstein&rft.aufirst=Cass+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Farchive%2F2004%2F05%2F03%2F040503crbo_books&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGill_Robinson_HickmanRichard_A._Couto2006" class="citation book cs1">Gill Robinson Hickman; Richard A. Couto (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yoSpyA152NQC&pg=PT183">"Causality, change and leadership"</a>. In George R. Goethals; Georgia Jones Sorenson (eds.). <i>The quest for a general theory of leadership</i>. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar_Publishing" title="Edward Elgar Publishing">Edward Elgar Publishing</a>. pp. 152–187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84542-541-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84542-541-8"><bdi>978-1-84542-541-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Causality%2C+change+and+leadership&rft.btitle=The+quest+for+a+general+theory+of+leadership&rft.pages=152-187&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84542-541-8&rft.au=Gill+Robinson+Hickman&rft.au=Richard+A.+Couto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyoSpyA152NQC%26pg%3DPT183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Donnell2018" class="citation web cs1">O'Donnell, Michael (March 9, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/04/commander-v-chief/554045/">"When Eisenhower and Warren Squared Off Over Civil Rights"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201031235758/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/04/commander-v-chief/554045/">Archived</a> from the original on October 31, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 30,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=When+Eisenhower+and+Warren+Squared+Off+Over+Civil+Rights&rft.date=2018-03-09&rft.aulast=O%27Donnell&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2018%2F04%2Fcommander-v-chief%2F554045%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=1120">"Digital History"</a>. <i>www.digitalhistory.uh.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150110013024/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=1120">Archived</a> from the original on January 10, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 9,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.digitalhistory.uh.edu&rft.atitle=Digital+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhistory.uh.edu%2Fdisp_textbook.cfm%3FsmtID%3D3%26psid%3D1120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeschloss2014" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Beschloss, Michael</a> (November 15, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141117022333/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/upshot/the-gang-that-always-liked-ike.html">"The Gang That Always Liked Ike"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. Archived from <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/upshot/the-gang-that-always-liked-ike.html">the original</a></span> on November 17, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Gang+That+Always+Liked+Ike&rft.date=2014-11-15&rft.aulast=Beschloss&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F11%2F16%2Fupshot%2Fthe-gang-that-always-liked-ike.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren1977" class="citation book cs1">Warren, Earl (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memoirsofearlwar0000warr/page/291"><i>The Memoirs of Earl Warren</i></a>. New York: Doubleday & Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memoirsofearlwar0000warr/page/291">291</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0385128355" title="Special:BookSources/0385128355"><bdi>0385128355</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Memoirs+of+Earl+Warren&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=291&rft.pub=Doubleday+%26+Company&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0385128355&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=Earl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmemoirsofearlwar0000warr%2Fpage%2F291&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_T._Patterson_(historian)" title="James T. Patterson (historian)">Patterson, James T.</a> (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brownvboardofedu2001patt"><i>Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-515632-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-515632-3"><bdi>0-19-515632-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brown+v.+Board+of+Education%3A+A+Civil+Rights+Milestone+and+Its+Troubled+Legacy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-19-515632-3&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=James+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrownvboardofedu2001patt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaro2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Caro" title="Robert Caro">Caro, Robert A.</a> (2002). <i><a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Senate" title="Master of the Senate">Master of the Senate</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Vintage_Books" title="Vintage Books">Vintage Books</a>. p. 696. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394720951" title="Special:BookSources/9780394720951"><bdi>9780394720951</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Master+of+the+Senate&rft.pages=696&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780394720951&rft.aulast=Caro&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._764-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._764_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._764_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._764_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChemerinsky2019">Chemerinsky (2019)</a>, § 9.3.3.1, p. 764.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in <a href="#CITEREFChemerinsky2019">Chemerinsky (2019)</a>, § 9.3.3.1, p. 764.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Brown</i>, 347 U.S. at 490.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Brown</i>, 347 U.S. at 493.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChemerinsky2019">Chemerinsky (2019)</a>, § 9.3.3.1, p. 764 (quoting <i>Brown</i>, 347 U.S. at 492–93).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENowakRotunda2012§_18.8(d)(ii)(2)-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENowakRotunda2012§_18.8(d)(ii)(2)_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNowakRotunda2012">Nowak & Rotunda (2012)</a>, § 18.8(d)(ii)(2).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_pp._764–65-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_pp._764–65_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChemerinsky2019">Chemerinsky (2019)</a>, § 9.3.3.1, pp. 764–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in <a href="#CITEREFChemerinsky2019">Chemerinsky (2019)</a>, § 9.3.3.1, pp. 764–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChemerinsky2019§&nbsp;9.3.3.1,_p._765_48-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChemerinsky2019">Chemerinsky (2019)</a>, § 9.3.3.1, p. 765.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in part in <a href="#CITEREFChemerinsky2019">Chemerinsky (2019)</a>, § 9.3.3.1, p. 765.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rabby-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rabby_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabby1999" class="citation book cs1">Rabby, Glenda Alice (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zKw0ltL5VaQC"><i>The Pain and the Promise: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Tallahassee, Florida</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_Press" title="University of Georgia Press">University of Georgia Press</a>. p. 201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/082032051X" title="Special:BookSources/082032051X"><bdi>082032051X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pain+and+the+Promise%3A+The+Struggle+for+Civil+Rights+in+Tallahassee%2C+Florida&rft.pages=201&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=082032051X&rft.aulast=Rabby&rft.aufirst=Glenda+Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzKw0ltL5VaQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartford" class="citation web cs1">Hartford, Bruce. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis54.htm#1954mr">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Massive Resistance" to Integration"</a>. <i>Civil Rights Movement Archive</i>. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1954. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230608185754/https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis54.htm#1954mr">Archived</a> from the original on June 8, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Civil+Rights+Movement+Archive&rft.atitle=%22Massive+Resistance%22+to+Integration&rft.aulast=Hartford&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmvet.org%2Ftim%2Ftimhis54.htm%231954mr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFultz2004" class="citation journal cs1">Fultz, Michael (Spring 2004). "The Displacement of Black Educators Post-Brown: An Overview and Analysis". <i>History of Education Quarterly</i>. <b>44</b> (1): 14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1748-5959.2004.tb00144.x">10.1111/j.1748-5959.2004.tb00144.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143127021">143127021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Displacement+of+Black+Educators+Post-Brown%3A+An+Overview+and+Analysis&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=14&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1748-5959.2004.tb00144.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143127021%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Fultz&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Howell-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Howell_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howell, Mark C., John Ben Shepperd, Attorney General of the State of Texas: His Role in the Continuation of Segregation in Texas, 1953–1957, Master's Thesis, The University of Texas of the Permian Basin, Odessa, Texas, July 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartford" class="citation web cs1">Hartford, Bruce. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis57.htm#1957lrsd">"The Little Rock Nine"</a>. <i>Civil Rights Movement Archive</i>. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1957. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230608173602/https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis57.htm#1957lrsd">Archived</a> from the original on June 8, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Civil+Rights+Movement+Archive&rft.atitle=The+Little+Rock+Nine&rft.aulast=Hartford&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmvet.org%2Ftim%2Ftimhis57.htm%231957lrsd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Klarman" title="Michael Klarman">Michael Klarman</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/vol127_klarman.pdf"><i>The Supreme Court, 2012 Term – Comment: Windsor and Brown: Marriage Equality and Racial Equality</i> 127 Harv. L. Rev. 127, 153 (2013).</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325210536/http://cdn.harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/vol127_klarman.pdf">Archived</a> March 25, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Id.</i> citing Klarman, <i>From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality</i> at 352–354 (2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12874973081779579326">"De La Beckwith v. State, 707 So. 2d 547 – Miss: Supreme Court 1997 – Google Scholar"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230604210523/https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12874973081779579326">Archived</a> from the original on June 4, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 30,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=De+La+Beckwith+v.+State%2C+707+So.+2d+547+%E2%80%93+Miss%3A+Supreme+Court+1997+%E2%80%93+Google+Scholar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar_case%3Fcase%3D12874973081779579326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartford" class="citation web cs1">Hartford, Bruce. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963tuscaloosa">"Standing In the Schoolhouse Door (June)"</a>. <i>Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement</i>. Civil Rights Movement History 1963 (January–June). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230610154010/https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963tuscaloosa">Archived</a> from the original on June 10, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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September 24, 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.topeka.k12.ks.us/pc/Schools/Administrative/Burnett_Center/mckinnley_burnett.html">the original</a> on September 24, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 5,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Topeka+Public+Schools+%E2%80%93+About+McKinley+Burnett&rft.date=2006-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.topeka.k12.ks.us%2Fpc%2FSchools%2FAdministrative%2FBurnett_Center%2Fmckinnley_burnett.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarat1997" class="citation book cs1">Sarat, Austin (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm2I6LNZ7-cC&pg=PA55"><i>Race, Law, and Culture: Reflections on Brown v. Board of Education</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510622-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510622-0"><bdi>978-0-19-510622-0</bdi></a>. <q>What lay behind <i>Plessy v. Ferguson</i>? There were, perhaps, some important intellectual roots; this was the era of scientific racism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Law%2C+and+Culture%3A+Reflections+on+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510622-0&rft.aulast=Sarat&rft.aufirst=Austin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTm2I6LNZ7-cC%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLofgren1988" class="citation book cs1">Lofgren, Charles A. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fuXX4wQXYlsC&pg=PA184"><i>The Plessy Case</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505684-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505684-6"><bdi>978-0-19-505684-6</bdi></a>. <q>But he [ <a href="/wiki/Henry_Billings_Brown" title="Henry Billings Brown">Henry Billings Brown</a> ] at minimum established popular sentiment and practice, along with legal and scientific testimony on race, as a link in his train of reasoning.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Plessy+Case&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505684-6&rft.aulast=Lofgren&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfuXX4wQXYlsC%26pg%3DPA184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rlac-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rlac_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rlac_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Race, Law, and Culture: Reflections on Brown v. Board of Education</i> By Austin Sarat. Page 55 and 59. 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-510622-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-510622-9">0-19-510622-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaffer2007" class="citation journal cs1">Schaffer, Gavin (2007). ""'Scientific' Racism Again?": Reginald Gates, the <i>Mankind Quarterly</i> and the Question of "Race" in Science after the Second World War". <i>Journal of American Studies</i>. <b>41</b> (2): 253–278. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021875807003477">10.1017/S0021875807003477</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145322934">145322934</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Studies&rft.atitle=%22%27Scientific%27+Racism+Again%3F%22%3A+Reginald+Gates%2C+the+Mankind+Quarterly+and+the+Question+of+%22Race%22+in+Science+after+the+Second+World+War&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=253-278&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021875807003477&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145322934%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schaffer&rft.aufirst=Gavin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jackson-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jackson_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case Against Brown v. Board of Education</i>. By John P. Jackson. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-4271-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-4271-8">0-8147-4271-8</a> Page 148</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Rehnquist, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://a255.g.akamaitech.net/7/255/2422/26sep20051215/www.gpoaccess.gov/congress/senate/judiciary/sh99-1067/324-325.pdf">"A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070615154055/http://a255.g.akamaitech.net/7/255/2422/26sep20051215/www.gpoaccess.gov/congress/senate/judiciary/sh99-1067/324-325.pdf">Archived</a> June 15, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, S. Hrg. 99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States (July 29, 30, 31, and August 1, 1986).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Peter S. Canellos,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080829190736/https://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2005/08/23/memos_may_not_hold_robertss_opinions/">"Memos may not hold Roberts's opinions"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Boston_Globe" title="The Boston Globe">The Boston Globe</a></i>. August 23, 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2005/08/23/memos_may_not_hold_robertss_opinions/">the original</a> on August 29, 2008. <q>Rehnquist: I thought <i>Plessy</i> had been wrongly decided at the time, that it was not a good interpretation of the equal protection clause to say that when you segregate people by race, there is no denial of equal protection. But <i>Plessy</i> had been on the books for 60 years; Congress had never acted, and the same Congress that had promulgated the 14th Amendment had required segregation in the District schools. . . . I saw factors on both sides. . . . I did not agree then, and I certainly do not agree now, with the statement that <i>Plessy against Ferguson</i> is right and should be reaffirmed. I had ideas on both sides, and I do not think I ever really finally settled in my own mind on that. . . . [A]round the lunch table I am sure I defended it. . . . I thought there were good arguments to be made in support of it. (S. Hrg. 99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States, July 29, 30, 31, and August 1, 1986)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Globe&rft.atitle=Memos+may+not+hold+Roberts%27s+opinions&rft.date=2005-08-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Fnation%2Farticles%2F2005%2F08%2F23%2Fmemos_may_not_hold_robertss_opinions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz1997" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Bernard (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5cUCl4hSWUC&pg=PA96"><i>Decision: How the Supreme Court Decides Cases</i></a>. Oxford University Press USA. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511800-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511800-1"><bdi>978-0-19-511800-1</bdi></a>. <q>Justice <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a> wrote: "In the original conference there were only four who voted that segregation in the public schools was unconstitutional. Those four were Black, Burton, Minton, and myself."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decision%3A+How+the+Supreme+Court+Decides+Cases&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+USA&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511800-1&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY5cUCl4hSWUC%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <p>Likewise, Justice <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a> wrote: "I have no doubt that if the segregation cases had reached decision last term, there would have been four dissenters—Vinson, Reed, Jackson, and Clark." Id. Justice Jackson's longtime legal secretary had a different view, calling Rehnquist's Senate testimony an attempt to "smear the reputation of a great justice."<br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDershowitz2005" class="citation web cs1">Dershowitz, Alan (September 4, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190402133328/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/telling-the-truth-about-c_b_6844">"Telling the Truth About Chief Justice Rehnquist"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/telling-the-truth-about-c_b_6844">the original</a> on April 2, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Telling+the+Truth+About+Chief+Justice+Rehnquist&rft.date=2005-09-04&rft.aulast=Dershowitz&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffpost.com%2Fentry%2Ftelling-the-truth-about-c_b_6844&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span> </p> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2005" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Liptak" title="Adam Liptak">Liptak, Adam</a> (September 11, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145711/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/11/weekinreview/the-memo-that-rehnquist-wrote-and-had-to-disown.html">"The Memo That Rehnquist Wrote and Had to Disown"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. Archived from the original on April 12, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 6,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Memo+That+Rehnquist+Wrote+and+Had+to+Disown&rft.date=2005-09-11&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F09%2F11%2Fweekinreview%2Fthe-memo-that-rehnquist-wrote-and-had-to-disown.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://a255.g.akamaitech.net/7/255/2422/26sep20051215/www.gpoaccess.gov/congress/senate/judiciary/sh99-1067/303-305.pdf">Cases where Justice Rehnquist has cited <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i> in support of a proposition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070615154053/http://a255.g.akamaitech.net/7/255/2422/26sep20051215/www.gpoaccess.gov/congress/senate/judiciary/sh99-1067/303-305.pdf">Archived</a> June 15, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, S. Hrg. 99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States (July 29, 30, 31, and August 1, 1986).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen2005" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Rosen_(legal_academic)" title="Jeffrey Rosen (legal academic)">Rosen, Jeffery</a> (April 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200504/rosen/2">"Rehnquist the Great?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Monthly">Atlantic Monthly</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100104034014/http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200504/rosen/2">Archived</a> from the original on January 4, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2017</span>. <q>Rehnquist ultimately embraced the Warren Court's Brown decision, and after he joined the Court he made no attempt to dismantle the civil-rights revolution, as political opponents feared he would.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atlantic+Monthly&rft.atitle=Rehnquist+the+Great%3F&rft.date=2005-04&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Jeffery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fdoc%2F200504%2Frosen%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Klarman" title="Michael Klarman">Michael Klarman</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/vol127_klarman.pdf"><i>The Supreme Court, 2012 Term – Comment: Windsor and Brown: Marriage Equality and Racial Equality</i>, 127 Harv. L. Rev. 127, 142 (2013)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325210536/http://cdn.harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/vol127_klarman.pdf">Archived</a> March 25, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> citing Learned Hand, The Bill of Rights at 55 (Oliver Wendell Holmes Lecture, 1958).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Id.</i>, <a href="/wiki/Pamela_Karlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamela Karlan">Pamela Karlan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1395&context=dlj"><i>What Can Brown Do For You: Neutral Principles and the Struggle Over the Equal Protection Clause</i>, 58 DUKE L.J. 1049 (2008)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051411/http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1395&context=dlj">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> citing Herbert Wechsler, <i>Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law,</i> 73 HARV. L. REV. 1 (Oliver Wendell Holmes Lecture, 1959).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Jenkins" title="Missouri v. Jenkins">Missouri v. Jenkins</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_515" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 515">515</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/515/70/#120-22">70, 120-22</a> (1995) (Thomas, J., concurring).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcConnell1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_W._McConnell" title="Michael W. McConnell">McConnell, Michael W.</a> (May 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/journal_articles/8723">"Originalism and the desegregation decisions"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Law_Review" title="Virginia Law Review">Virginia Law Review</a></i>. <b>81</b> (4): 947–1140. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1073539">10.2307/1073539</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073539">1073539</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200604090639/https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/journal_articles/8723/">Archived</a> from the original on June 4, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 10,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Originalism+and+the+desegregation+decisions&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=947-1140&rft.date=1995-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1073539&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1073539%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=McConnell&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchicagounbound.uchicago.edu%2Fjournal_articles%2F8723&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span> <dl><dd><ul><li><i>Response to McConnell:</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlarman1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Klarman" title="Michael Klarman">Klarman, Michael J.</a> (October 1995). "<i>Response</i>: <i>Brown</i>, originalism, and constitutional theory: a response to Professor Mcconnell". <i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Law_Review" title="Virginia Law Review">Virginia Law Review</a></i>. <b>81</b> (7): 1881–1936. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1073643">10.2307/1073643</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073643">1073643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Response%3A+Brown%2C+originalism%2C+and+constitutional+theory%3A+a+response+to+Professor+Mcconnell&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1881-1936&rft.date=1995-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1073643&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1073643%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Klarman&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><i>Response to Klarman:</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcConnell1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_W._McConnell" title="Michael W. McConnell">McConnell, Michael W.</a> (October 1995). "<i>Reply</i>: The originalist justification for Brown: a reply to Professor Klarman". <i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Law_Review" title="Virginia Law Review">Virginia Law Review</a></i>. <b>81</b> (7): 1937–1955. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1073644">10.2307/1073644</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073644">1073644</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Reply%3A+The+originalist+justification+for+Brown%3A+a+reply+to+Professor+Klarman&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1937-1955&rft.date=1995-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1073644&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1073644%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=McConnell&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></dd></dl></dd></dl> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2009" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Liptak" title="Adam Liptak">Liptak, Adam</a> (November 9, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150630034910/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/10/us/10bar.html">"From 19th-Century View, Desegregation Is a Test"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 6,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=From+19th-Century+View%2C+Desegregation+Is+a+Test&rft.date=2009-11-09&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F11%2F10%2Fus%2F10bar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-berger-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-berger_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-berger_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-berger_91-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-berger_91-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-berger_91-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Berger" title="Raoul Berger">Berger, Raoul</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/illlr91&div=10&id=&page=">"Original Intent-As Perceived by Michael McConnell 91 Northwestern University Law Review 1996–1997"</a>. <i>Northwestern University Law Review</i>. <b>91</b>. Heinonline.org: 242. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502001650/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/illlr91&div=10&id=&page=">Archived</a> from the original on May 2, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Northwestern+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Original+Intent-As+Perceived+by+Michael+McConnell+91+Northwestern+University+Law+Review+1996%E2%80%931997&rft.volume=91&rft.pages=242&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Raoul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FLandingPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Filllr91%26div%3D10%26id%3D%26page%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDays,_III2001" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Drew_S._Days_III" title="Drew S. Days III">Days, III, Drew S.</a> (2001), "Days, J., concurring", in Balkan, Jack; <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Ackerman" title="Bruce Ackerman">Ackerman, Bruce A.</a> (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gL1YYW3MOyAC&pg=RA1-PA97"><i>What 'Brown v. Board of Education' should have said</i></a>, New York: New York University Press, p. 97, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814798904" title="Special:BookSources/9780814798904"><bdi>9780814798904</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Days%2C+J.%2C+concurring&rft.btitle=What+%27Brown+v.+Board+of+Education%27+should+have+said&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780814798904&rft.aulast=Days%2C+III&rft.aufirst=Drew+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgL1YYW3MOyAC%26pg%3DRA1-PA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HLR_June_1987-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HLR_June_1987_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Harvard Law Review</i>, Vol. 100, No. 8 (June 1987), pp. 1938–1948</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Randall Kennedy. "A Reply to Philip Elman." <i>Harvard Law Review</i> 100 (1987):1938–1948.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Justice for All</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Kim_Isaac_Eisler" title="Kim Isaac Eisler">Kim Isaac Eisler</a>, page 11; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-76787-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-76787-9">0-671-76787-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/rights/robes_frankfurter.html">"Supreme Court History: Expanding civil rights, biographies of the robes: Felix Frankfurter"</a>. <i>pbs.org/wnet</i>. Educational Broadcasting Corp., PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170830005505/https://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/rights/robes_frankfurter.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 30, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pbs.org%2Fwnet&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+History%3A+Expanding+civil+rights%2C+biographies+of+the+robes%3A+Felix+Frankfurter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwnet%2Fsupremecourt%2Frights%2Frobes_frankfurter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBush2004" class="citation web cs1">Bush, George W. (May 17, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/05/20040517-4.html">"President Speaks at Brown v Board of Education National Historic Site"</a>. <i>georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171005000858/https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/05/20040517-4.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 5, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov&rft.atitle=President+Speaks+at+Brown+v+Board+of+Education+National+Historic+Site&rft.date=2004-05-17&rft.aulast=Bush&rft.aufirst=George+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgeorgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov%2Fnews%2Freleases%2F2004%2F05%2F20040517-4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowell2016" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell, Thomas</a> (October 4, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190524045313/https://townhall.com/columnists/thomassowell/2016/10/04/dunbar-high-school-after-100-years-n2227261">"Dunbar High School After 100 Years"</a>. <i>townhall.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://townhall.com/columnists/thomassowell/2016/10/04/dunbar-high-school-after-100-years-n2227261">the original</a> on May 24, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=townhall.com&rft.atitle=Dunbar+High+School+After+100+Years&rft.date=2016-10-04&rft.aulast=Sowell&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftownhall.com%2Fcolumnists%2Fthomassowell%2F2016%2F10%2F04%2Fdunbar-high-school-after-100-years-n2227261&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education_of_Topeka_(349_U.S._294)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (349 U.S. 294)">Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_349" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 349">349</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/349/294/">294</a> (1955)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jim_Chen" title="Jim Chen">Chen, James Ming</a> (May 3, 2012) [2007]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=778884">"Poetic Justice"</a>. <i>Cardozo Law Review</i>. University of Louisville School of Law Legal Studies Research Paper Series No. 2007-01. <b>29</b>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240511170508/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=778884">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 23,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cardozo+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Poetic+Justice&rft.volume=29&rft.date=2012-05-03&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=James+Ming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D778884&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartford" class="citation web cs1">Hartford, Bruce. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis55.htm#1955ads">"The <i>Brown II</i> 'All Deliberate Speed' Decision"</a>. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1955. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Brown+II+%27All+Deliberate+Speed%27+Decision&rft.series=Civil+Rights+Movement+History+%26+Timeline%2C+1955&rft.pub=Civil+Rights+Movement+Archive&rft.aulast=Hartford&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmvet.org%2Ftim%2Ftimhis55.htm%231955ads&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1965" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Bob (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theyclosedtheirs00smit"><i>They Closed Their Schools</i></a></span>. University of North Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=They+Closed+Their+Schools&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheyclosedtheirs00smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/892/851/72610/">892 F.2d 851</a> (10th Cir. 1989).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Brown v. Unified School Dist. No. 501</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp2/56/1212/2449313/">56 F. Supp. 2d 1212</a> (D. Kan. 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180516015146/https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp2/56/1212/2449313/">archived</a> from the original.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.topeka.k12.ks.us/scott/history.htm"><i>Topeka Public Schools Desegregation History: "The Naming of Scott Computer Technology Magnet"</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071001021319/https://www2.topeka.k12.ks.us/scott/history.htm">Archived</a> October 1, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140509020854/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law-jan-june04-brown_05-12/">"Brown v. Board of Education"</a>. PBS NewsHour. May 9, 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law-jan-june04-brown_05-12/">the original</a> on May 9, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brown+v.+Board+of+Education&rft.pub=PBS+NewsHour&rft.date=2014-05-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fnewshour%2Fbb%2Flaw-jan-june04-brown_05-12%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050910014053/http://brownvboard.org/video/blackwhitebrown/">"Black/White and Brown: Brown versus the Board of Education of Topeka"</a>. <i>KTWU Channel 11</i>. transcript of program produced by KTWU Channel 11 in Topeka, Kansas. Originally aired May 3, 2004.: KTWU Video. September 10, 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brownvboard.org/video/blackwhitebrown/">the original</a> on September 10, 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=KTWU+Channel+11&rft.atitle=Black%2FWhite+and+Brown%3A+Brown+versus+the+Board+of+Education+of+Topeka&rft.date=2005-09-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbrownvboard.org%2Fvideo%2Fblackwhitebrown%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-death-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-death_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomo2018" class="citation web cs1">Romo, Vanessa (March 26, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/03/26/597154953/linda-brown-who-was-at-center-of-brown-v-board-of-education-dies">"Linda Brown, Who Was At Center Of Brown v. Board Of Education, Dies"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180326235410/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/03/26/597154953/linda-brown-who-was-at-center-of-brown-v-board-of-education-dies">Archived</a> from the original on March 26, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linda+Brown%2C+Who+Was+At+Center+Of+Brown+v.+Board+Of+Education%2C+Dies&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2018-03-26&rft.aulast=Romo&rft.aufirst=Vanessa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthetwo-way%2F2018%2F03%2F26%2F597154953%2Flinda-brown-who-was-at-center-of-brown-v-board-of-education-dies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChemerinsky2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Chemerinsky" title="Erwin Chemerinsky">Chemerinsky, Erwin</a> (2019). <i>Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies</i> (6th ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4548-9574-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4548-9574-9"><bdi>978-1-4548-9574-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law%3A+Principles+and+Policies&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-4548-9574-9&rft.aulast=Chemerinsky&rft.aufirst=Erwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLofgren1987" class="citation book cs1">Lofgren, Charles A. (1987). <i>The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505684-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505684-6"><bdi>978-0-19-505684-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Plessy+Case%3A+A+Legal-Historical+Interpretation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505684-6&rft.aulast=Lofgren&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCloskey2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_G._McCloskey" title="Robert G. McCloskey">McCloskey, Robert G.</a> (2010). <i>The American Supreme Court</i>. Revised by <a href="/wiki/Sanford_Levinson" title="Sanford Levinson">Sanford Levinson</a> (5th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-55686-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-55686-4"><bdi>978-0-226-55686-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Supreme+Court&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-226-55686-4&rft.aulast=McCloskey&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNowakRotunda2012" class="citation book cs1">Nowak, John E.; Rotunda, Ronald D. (2012). <i>Treatise on Constitutional Law: Substance and Procedure</i> (5th ed.). Eagan, MN: West Thomson/Reuters. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/798148265">798148265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treatise+on+Constitutional+Law%3A+Substance+and+Procedure&rft.place=Eagan%2C+MN&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=West+Thomson%2FReuters&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F798148265&rft.aulast=Nowak&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft.au=Rotunda%2C+Ronald+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchauer1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Schauer" title="Frederick Schauer">Schauer, Frederick</a> (1997). "Generality and Equality". <i>Law and Philosophy</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 279–297. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3504874">10.2307/3504874</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3504874">3504874</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+and+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Generality+and+Equality&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=279-297&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3504874&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3504874%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Schauer&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?181736-1/deliberate-speed-brown-v-board-education"><i>Booknotes</i> interview with Charles Ogletree on <i>All Deliberate Speed</i>, May 9, 2004</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Keppel, Ben. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brownvboardtrans0000kepp">Brown v. Board and the Transformation of American Culture</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/LSU_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="LSU Press">LSU Press</a>, 2016). xiv, 225 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKluger1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kluger" title="Richard Kluger">Kluger, Richard</a> (1975). <a href="/wiki/Simple_Justice" title="Simple Justice"><i>Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality</i></a>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394472898" title="Special:BookSources/9780394472898"><bdi>9780394472898</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Simple+Justice%3A+The+History+of+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education+and+Black+America%27s+Struggle+for+Equality&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9780394472898&rft.aulast=Kluger&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgletree2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Ogletree" title="Charles Ogletree">Ogletree, Charles J. Jr.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alldeliberatespe00ogle"><i>All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education</i></a>. New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393058970" title="Special:BookSources/9780393058970"><bdi>9780393058970</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+Deliberate+Speed%3A+Reflections+on+the+First+Half+Century+of+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780393058970&rft.aulast=Ogletree&rft.aufirst=Charles+J.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falldeliberatespe00ogle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_T._Patterson_(historian)" title="James T. Patterson (historian)">Patterson, James T.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_W._Freehling" title="William W. Freehling">William W. Freehling</a>. <i>Brown v. Board of Education: A civil rights milestone and its troubled legacy</i> (<a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2001).</li> <li>Raffel, Jeffrey. <i>Historical dictionary of school segregation and desegregation: The American experience</i> (Bloomsbury, 1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2a7OEAAAQBAJ&dq=HISTORICAL+DICTIONARY+OF+SCHOOL+SEGREGATION+AND+DESEGREGATION&pg=PR7">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTushnet2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Tushnet" title="Mark Tushnet">Tushnet, Mark V.</a>, ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/idissentgreatopp0000unse/page/132/mode/2up">"Chapter 11: 'Our decision does not end but begins the struggle over segregation': <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i>, 1954: Justice Robert H. Jackson"</a>. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/idissentgreatopp0000unse/"><i>I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases</i></a></span>. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 133–150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807000366" title="Special:BookSources/9780807000366"><bdi>9780807000366</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+%27Our+decision+does+not+end+but+begins+the+struggle+over+segregation%27%3A+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education%2C+1954%3A+Justice+Robert+H.+Jackson&rft.btitle=I+Dissent%3A+Great+Opposing+Opinions+in+Landmark+Supreme+Court+Cases&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=133-150&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780807000366&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fidissentgreatopp0000unse%2Fpage%2F132%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li>Whitman, Mark, ed. <i>Brown v. Board of Education : a documentary history</i> (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brownvboardofedu0000unse_p4m4">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Brown_v._Board_of_Education" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education_of_Topeka_(347_U.S._483)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (347 U.S. 483)"><i>Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka</i> (347 U.S. 483)</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Text of <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 483 (1954) is available from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483">Cornell</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/105221/brown-v-board-of-education/">CourtListener</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12120372216939101759">Google Scholar</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/483/">Justia</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep347/usrep347483/usrep347483.pdf">Library of Congress</a> </li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education_of_Topeka_(349_U.S._294)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (349 U.S. 294)"><i>Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (Brown II)</i> (349 U.S. 294)</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Text of <i>Brown v. Board of Education (Brown II)</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_349" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 349">349</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 294 (1955) is available from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/349/294">Cornell</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/105312/brown-v-board-of-education/">CourtListener</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=13102254740887304967&q=brown+v.+Board+of+Education+of+Topeka+(349+U.S.+294)">Google Scholar</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/349/294/">Justia</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep349/usrep349294/usrep349294.pdf">Library of Congress</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/349us294">Oyez (oral argument audio)</a> </li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Justice_Jackson%27s_Unpublished_Opinion_in_Brown_v._Board_of_Education_of_Topeka" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Justice Jackson's Unpublished Opinion in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka">Justice Jackson's Unpublished Opinion in <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090201172837/http://www.lawnix.com/cases/brown-board-education.html">Case Brief for <i>Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka</i> at Lawnix.com</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060504025917/http://curiae.law.yale.edu/search/casedetail?casecitation=347+U.S.+483">Case information and transcripts on The Curiae Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/brvb/"><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i> National Historical Park</a> (US Park Service)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111215110137/http://www.floridamemory.com/exhibits/floridahighlights/collins/page10.php">A copy of Florida's 1957 Interposition Resolution in Response to the <i>Brown</i> decision, with Gov. Collin's handwritten rejection of it.</a> Made available for public use by the State Archives of Florida.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eisenhower.archives.gov/Research/Finding_Aids/U.html">U.S. District Court of Kansas: Records of <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i>, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502001657/http://eisenhower.archives.gov/Research/Finding_Aids/U.html">Archived</a> May 2, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/research/online-documents/civil-rights-brown-vs-board-education">Online documents relating to <i>Brown vs. Board of Education</i>, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clearinghouse.net/detail.php?id=5479">Documents from the district court, including the original complaint and trial transcript, at the Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130119042231/http://knowledgenetwork.alumni.msu.edu/msu-excellence-in-diversity-through-artistic-expression/6050program60thanniversaryofbrownvstopekaboardofeducation.html">60th Anniversary of <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></a> curated by Michigan State University's Diversity of Excellence through Artistic Expression</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brown.oyez.org/"><i>Brown</i> Revisited</a>, a commemoration of the 70th Anniversary of the decision in the first set of cases created by the Oyez.org team</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crdl.usg.edu/events/brown_vs_boe/"><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></a>, Civil Rights Digital Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://landmarkcases.c-span.org/Case/8/Brown-v-Board-of-Education">"Supreme Court Landmark Case <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i>"</a> from <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Landmark_Cases:_Historic_Supreme_Court_Decisions" title="Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions">Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions</a></i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalloway1989" class="citation journal cs1">Galloway, Russell W. Jr. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1787&context=lawreview">"Basic Equal Protection Analysis"</a>. <i>Santa Clara Law Review</i>. <b>29</b> (1)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 8,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Santa+Clara+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Basic+Equal+Protection+Analysis&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Galloway&rft.aufirst=Russell+W.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.law.scu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1787%26context%3Dlawreview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABrown+v.+Board+of+Education" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output 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title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events<br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Chestnut, Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement<br />songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted<br />historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Fourteenth_Amendment_case_law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US14thAmendment" title="Template:US14thAmendment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US14thAmendment" title="Template talk:US14thAmendment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US14thAmendment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US14thAmendment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Fourteenth_Amendment_case_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">United States Fourteenth Amendment</a> case law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Citizenship_Clause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases" title="Slaughter-House Cases">Slaughter-House Cases</a></i> (1873)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minor_v._Happersett" title="Minor v. Happersett">Minor v. Happersett</a></i> (1875)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark" title="United States v. Wong Kim Ark">United States v. Wong Kim Ark</a></i> (1898)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mackenzie_v._Hare" title="Mackenzie v. Hare">Mackenzie v. Hare</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perez_v._Brownell" title="Perez v. Brownell">Perez v. Brownell</a></i> (1958)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Afroyim_v._Rusk" title="Afroyim v. Rusk">Afroyim v. Rusk</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rogers_v._Bellei" title="Rogers v. Bellei">Rogers v. Bellei</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saenz_v._Roe" title="Saenz v. Roe">Saenz v. Roe</a></i> (1999)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Due_Process_Clause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Economic substantive<br />due process</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mugler_v._Kansas" title="Mugler v. Kansas">Mugler v. Kansas</a></i> (1887)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Allgeyer_v._Louisiana" title="Allgeyer v. Louisiana">Allgeyer v. Louisiana</a></i> (1897)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Holden_v._Hardy" title="Holden v. Hardy">Holden v. Hardy</a></i> (1898)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muller_v._Oregon" title="Muller v. Oregon">Muller v. Oregon</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coppage_v._Kansas" title="Coppage v. Kansas">Coppage v. Kansas</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i> (1917)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adams_v._Tanner" title="Adams v. Tanner">Adams v. Tanner</a></i> (1917)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/O%27Gorman_%26_Young,_Inc._v._Hartford_Fire_Insurance_Co." title="O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.">O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.</a></i> (1931)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish</a></i> (1937)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">Right to privacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Meyer_v._Nebraska" title="Meyer v. Nebraska">Meyer v. Nebraska</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pierce_v._Society_of_Sisters" title="Pierce v. Society of Sisters">Pierce v. Society of Sisters</a></i> (1925)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Doe_v._Bolton" title="Doe v. Bolton">Doe v. Bolton</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bowers_v._Hardwick" title="Bowers v. Hardwick">Bowers v. Hardwick</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Webster_v._Reproductive_Health_Services" title="Webster v. Reproductive Health Services">Webster v. Reproductive Health Services</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whole_Woman%27s_Health_v._Hellerstedt" title="Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt">Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Vuitch" title="United States v. Vuitch">United States v. Vuitch</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Doe_v._Bolton" title="Doe v. Bolton">Doe v. Bolton</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_of_Central_Missouri_v._Danforth" title="Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth">Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellotti_v._Baird_(1976)" title="Bellotti v. Baird (1976)">Bellotti v. Baird I</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colautti_v._Franklin" title="Colautti v. Franklin">Colautti v. Franklin</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellotti_v._Baird_(1979)" title="Bellotti v. Baird (1979)">Bellotti v. Baird II</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/H._L._v._Matheson" title="H. L. v. Matheson">H. L. v. Matheson</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Akron_v._Akron_Center_for_Reproductive_Health" title="City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health">City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thornburgh_v._American_College_of_Obstetricians_%26_Gynecologists" title="Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists">Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Webster_v._Reproductive_Health_Services" title="Webster v. Reproductive Health Services">Webster v. Reproductive Health Services</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hodgson_v._Minnesota" title="Hodgson v. Minnesota">Hodgson v. Minnesota</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohio_v._Akron_Center_for_Reproductive_Health&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health (page does not exist)">Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leavitt_v._Jane_L.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leavitt v. Jane L. (page does not exist)">Leavitt v. Jane L.</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lambert_v._Wicklund&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lambert v. Wicklund (page does not exist)">Lambert v. Wicklund</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mazurek_v._Armstrong" title="Mazurek v. Armstrong">Mazurek v. Armstrong</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stenberg_v._Carhart" title="Stenberg v. Carhart">Stenberg v. Carhart</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ayotte_v._Planned_Parenthood_of_Northern_New_England" title="Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England">Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._Carhart" title="Gonzales v. Carhart">Gonzales v. Carhart</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whole_Woman%27s_Health_v._Hellerstedt" title="Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt">Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Azar_v._Garza" title="Azar v. Garza">Azar v. Garza</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Box_v._Planned_Parenthood_of_Indiana_and_Kentucky,_Inc." title="Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.">Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/June_Medical_Services,_LLC_v._Russo" title="June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo">June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Litigation under<br /><a href="/wiki/Revised_Statutes_of_the_United_States" title="Revised Statutes of the United States">R.S. </a><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Enforcement Act of 1871">§ 1979 (42 U.S.C. 1983)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Monroe_v._Pape" title="Monroe v. Pape">Monroe v. Pape</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i>McNeese v. Board of Education</i> (1963)</li> <li><i>Pierson v. Ray</i> (1967)</li> <li><i>Jenkins v. McKeithen</i> (1969)</li> <li><i>Scheuer v. Rhodes</i> (1974)</li> <li><i>Wood v. Strickland</i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/O%27Connor_v._Donaldson" title="O'Connor v. Donaldson">O'Connor v. Donaldson</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paul_v._Davis" title="Paul v. Davis">Paul v. Davis</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imbler_v._Pachtman" title="Imbler v. Pachtman">Imbler v. Pachtman</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monell_v._Department_of_Social_Services_of_the_City_of_New_York" title="Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York">Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i>Procunier v. Navarette</i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Owen_v._City_of_Independence" title="Owen v. City of Independence">Owen v. City of Independence</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlow_v._Fitzgerald" title="Harlow v. Fitzgerald">Harlow v. Fitzgerald</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Felder_v._Casey" title="Felder v. Casey">Felder v. Casey</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Will_v._Michigan_Department_of_State_Police" title="Will v. Michigan Department of State Police">Will v. Michigan Department of State Police</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gonzaga_University_v._Doe" title="Gonzaga University v. Doe">Gonzaga University v. Doe</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inyo_County_v._Paiute-Shoshone_Indians_of_the_Bishop_Community" title="Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community">Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Rancho_Palos_Verdes_v._Abrams" title="City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams">City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fitzgerald_v._Barnstable_School_Committee" title="Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee">Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ashcroft_v._Iqbal" title="Ashcroft v. Iqbal">Ashcroft v. Iqbal</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_v._Humphries" title="Los Angeles County v. Humphries">Los Angeles County v. Humphries</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Connick_v._Thompson" title="Connick v. Thompson">Connick v. Thompson</a></i> (2011)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Jacobson_v._Massachusetts" title="Jacobson v. Massachusetts">Jacobson v. Massachusetts</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zucht_v._King" title="Zucht v. King">Zucht v. King</a></i> (1922)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" title="Buck v. Bell">Buck v. Bell</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Powell_v._Alabama" title="Powell v. Alabama">Powell v. Alabama</a></i> (1932)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mullane_v._Central_Hanover_Bank_%26_Trust_Co." title="Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co.">Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co.</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Alabama" title="NAACP v. Alabama">NAACP v. Alabama</a></i> (1958)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hoyt_v._Florida" title="Hoyt v. Florida">Hoyt v. Florida</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oyler_v._Boles" title="Oyler v. Boles">Oyler v. Boles</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epperson_v._Arkansas" title="Epperson v. Arkansas">Epperson v. Arkansas</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_re_Winship" title="In re Winship">In re Winship</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Board_of_Education_v._LaFleur" title="Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur">Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arnett_v._Kennedy" title="Arnett v. Kennedy">Arnett v. Kennedy</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taylor_v._Louisiana" title="Taylor v. Louisiana">Taylor v. Louisiana</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goss_v._Lopez" title="Goss v. Lopez">Goss v. Lopez</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mathews_v._Eldridge" title="Mathews v. Eldridge">Mathews v. Eldridge</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moore_v._City_of_East_Cleveland" title="Moore v. City of East Cleveland">Moore v. City of East Cleveland</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Duren_v._Missouri" title="Duren v. Missouri">Duren v. Missouri</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parham_v._J.R." title="Parham v. J.R.">Parham v. J.R.</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parratt_v._Taylor" title="Parratt v. Taylor">Parratt v. Taylor</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Logan_v._Zimmerman_Brush_Co." title="Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co.">Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co.</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kolender_v._Lawson" title="Kolender v. Lawson">Kolender v. Lawson</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hudson_v._Palmer" title="Hudson v. Palmer">Hudson v. Palmer</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Board_of_Education_v._Loudermill" title="Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill">Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._Aguillard" title="Edwards v. Aguillard">Edwards v. Aguillard</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turner_v._Safley" title="Turner v. Safley">Turner v. Safley</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/DeShaney_v._Winnebago_County" title="DeShaney v. Winnebago County">DeShaney v. Winnebago County</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Michael_H._v._Gerald_D." title="Michael H. v. Gerald D.">Michael H. v. Gerald D.</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cruzan_v._Director,_Missouri_Department_of_Health" title="Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health">Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_v._Glucksberg" title="Washington v. Glucksberg">Washington v. Glucksberg</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Troxel_v._Granville" title="Troxel v. Granville">Troxel v. Granville</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Caperton_v._A.T._Massey_Coal_Co." title="Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.">Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Pennsylvania" title="Williams v. Pennsylvania">Williams v. Pennsylvania</a></i> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Equal_Protection_Clause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Race</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pace_v._Alabama" title="Pace v. Alabama">Pace v. Alabama</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo v. Hopkins</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cumming_v._Richmond_County_Board_of_Education" title="Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education">Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lum_v._Rice" title="Lum v. Rice">Lum v. Rice</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_v._Texas_(1940)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Smith v. Texas (1940) (page does not exist)">Smith v. Texas</a></i> (1940)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hirabayashi_v._United_States" title="Hirabayashi v. United States">Hirabayashi v. United States</a></i> (1943)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a></i> (1944)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sipuel_v._Board_of_Regents_of_the_University_of_Oklahoma" title="Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma">Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer" title="Shelley v. Kraemer">Shelley v. Kraemer</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perez_v._Sharp" title="Perez v. Sharp">Perez v. Sharp</a></i> (Cal. 1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954) <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lucy_v._Adams" title="Lucy v. Adams">Lucy v. Adams</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (M.D. Ala. 1956)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anderson_v._Martin" title="Anderson v. Martin">Anderson v. Martin</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Griffin_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaughlin_v._Florida" title="McLaughlin v. Florida">McLaughlin v. Florida</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reitman_v._Mulkey" title="Reitman v. Mulkey">Reitman v. Mulkey</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lee_v._Washington" title="Lee v. Washington">Lee v. Washington</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hunter_v._Erickson" title="Hunter v. Erickson">Hunter v. Erickson</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hadnott_v._Amos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hadnott v. Amos (page does not exist)">Hadnott v. Amos</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Montgomery_County_Board_of_Education" title="United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education">United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_v._Holmes_County_Board_of_Education" title="Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education">Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Swann_v._Charlotte-Mecklenburg_Board_of_Education" title="Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education">Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=McDaniel_v._Barresi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="McDaniel v. Barresi (page does not exist)">McDaniel v. Barresi</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palmer_v._Thompson" title="Palmer v. Thompson">Palmer v. Thompson</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coit_v._Green" title="Coit v. Green">Coit v. Green</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guey_Heung_Lee_v._Johnson" title="Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson">Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jefferson_v._Hackney&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jefferson v. Hackney (page does not exist)">Jefferson v. Hackney</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keyes_v._School_District_No._1,_Denver" title="Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver">Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norwood_v._Harrison" title="Norwood v. Harrison">Norwood v. Harrison</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Milliken_v._Bradley" title="Milliken v. Bradley">Milliken v. Bradley</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Village_of_Arlington_Heights_v._Metropolitan_Housing_Development_Corp." title="Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.">Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dayton_Bd._of_Ed._v._Brinkman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman (page does not exist)">Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Regents of the University of California v. Bakke</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Washington_v._Seattle_School_Dist._No._1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1 (page does not exist)">Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crawford_v._Los_Angeles_Board_of_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education (page does not exist)">Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palmore_v._Sidoti" title="Palmore v. Sidoti">Palmore v. Sidoti</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hunter_v._Underwood" title="Hunter v. Underwood">Hunter v. Underwood</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wygant_v._Jackson_Board_of_Education" title="Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education">Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Richmond_v._J.A._Croson_Co." title="City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.">City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Education_of_Oklahoma_City_v._Dowell" title="Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell">Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Freeman_v._Pitts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Freeman v. Pitts (page does not exist)">Freeman v. Pitts</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Fordice" title="United States v. Fordice">United States v. Fordice</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Fla._Chapter,_Associated_Gen._Contractors_of_America_v._Jacksonville&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville (page does not exist)">Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Jenkins" title="Missouri v. Jenkins">Missouri v. Jenkins</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Texas_v._Lesage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Texas v. Lesage (page does not exist)">Texas v. Lesage</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gratz_v._Bollinger" title="Gratz v. Bollinger">Gratz v. Bollinger</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grutter_v._Bollinger" title="Grutter v. Bollinger">Grutter v. Bollinger</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Johnson_v._California_(2005)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johnson v. California (2005) (page does not exist)">Johnson v. California</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parents_Involved_in_Community_Schools_v._Seattle_School_District_No._1" title="Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1">Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._University_of_Texas_(2013)" title="Fisher v. University of Texas (2013)">Fisher v. University of Texas I</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schuette_v._Coalition_to_Defend_Affirmative_Action" class="mw-redirect" title="Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action">Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._University_of_Texas_(2016)" title="Fisher v. University of Texas (2016)">Fisher v. University of Texas II</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._President_and_Fellows_of_Harvard_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College">Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College</a></i> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sex</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Breedlove_v._Suttles" title="Breedlove v. Suttles">Breedlove v. Suttles</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goesaert_v._Cleary" title="Goesaert v. Cleary">Goesaert v. Cleary</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reed_v._Reed" title="Reed v. Reed">Reed v. Reed</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moritz_v._Commissioner" title="Moritz v. Commissioner">Moritz v. Commissioner</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kahn_v._Shevin" title="Kahn v. Shevin">Kahn v. Shevin</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geduldig_v._Aiello" title="Geduldig v. Aiello">Geduldig v. Aiello</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stanton_v._Stanton" title="Stanton v. Stanton">Stanton v. Stanton</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._Healy" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwards v. Healy">Edwards v. Healy</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Craig_v._Boren" title="Craig v. Boren">Craig v. Boren</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orr_v._Orr" title="Orr v. Orr">Orr v. Orr</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parham_v._Hughes" title="Parham v. Hughes">Parham v. Hughes</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Caban_v._Mohammed" title="Caban v. Mohammed">Caban v. Mohammed</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Personnel_Administrator_of_Massachusetts_v._Feeney" title="Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney">Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wengler_v._Druggists_Mut._Ins._Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co. (page does not exist)">Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co.</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kirchberg_v._Feenstra" title="Kirchberg v. Feenstra">Kirchberg v. Feenstra</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Michael_M._v._Superior_Court_of_Sonoma_County" title="Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County">Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_University_for_Women_v._Hogan" title="Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan">Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lehr_v._Robertson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lehr v. Robertson (page does not exist)">Lehr v. Robertson</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/J.E.B._v._Alabama_ex_rel._T.B." title="J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.">J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Virginia" title="United States v. Virginia">United States v. Virginia</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Skrmetti" title="United States v. Skrmetti">United States v. Skrmetti</a></i> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sexual orientation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bowers_v._Hardwick" title="Bowers v. Hardwick">Bowers v. Hardwick</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Romer_v._Evans" title="Romer v. Evans">Romer v. Evans</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alienage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Patsone_v._Pennsylvania" title="Patsone v. Pennsylvania">Patsone v. Pennsylvania</a></i> (1914)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truax_v._Raich" title="Truax v. Raich">Truax v. Raich</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heim_v._McCall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heim v. McCall (page does not exist)">Heim v. McCall</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crane_v._New_York&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crane v. New York (page does not exist)">Crane v. New York</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terrace_v._Thompson" title="Terrace v. Thompson">Terrace v. Thompson</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Porterfield_v._Webb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Porterfield v. Webb (page does not exist)">Porterfield v. Webb</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Webb_v._O%27Brien" title="Webb v. O'Brien">Webb v. O'Brien</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frick_v._Webb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frick v. Webb (page does not exist)">Frick v. Webb</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohio_ex_rel._Clark_v._Deckebach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach (page does not exist)">Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Takahashi_v._Fish_and_Game_Comm%27n" class="mw-redirect" title="Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n">Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Graham_v._Richardson" title="Graham v. Richardson">Graham v. Richardson</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sugarman_v._Dougall" title="Sugarman v. Dougall">Sugarman v. Dougall</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_re_Griffiths&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="In re Griffiths (page does not exist)">In re Griffiths</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Examining_Board_v._Flores_de_Otero" title="Examining Board v. Flores de Otero">Examining Board v. Flores de Otero</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nyquist_v._Mauclet" title="Nyquist v. Mauclet">Nyquist v. Mauclet</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foley_v._Connelie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foley v. Connelie (page does not exist)">Foley v. Connelie</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ambach_v._Norwick" title="Ambach v. Norwick">Ambach v. Norwick</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cabell_v._Chavez-Salido" title="Cabell v. Chavez-Salido">Cabell v. Chavez-Salido</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plyler_v._Doe" title="Plyler v. Doe">Plyler v. Doe</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bernal_v._Fainter" title="Bernal v. Fainter">Bernal v. Fainter</a></i> (1984)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Residency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shapiro_v._Thompson" title="Shapiro v. Thompson">Shapiro v. Thompson</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arlington_County_Board_v._Richards" title="Arlington County Board v. Richards">Arlington County Board v. Richards</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Life_Insurance_Co._v._Ward" title="Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward">Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward</a></i> (1985)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i> (1876)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_County_v._Southern_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.">Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quaker_City_Cab_Co._v._Commonwealth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth (page does not exist)">Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth</a></i> (1928)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Breedlove_v._Suttles" title="Breedlove v. Suttles">Breedlove v. Suttles</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skinner_v._Oklahoma" title="Skinner v. Oklahoma">Skinner v. Oklahoma</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oyama_v._California" title="Oyama v. California">Oyama v. California</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oyler_v._Boles" title="Oyler v. Boles">Oyler v. Boles</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rinaldi_v._Yeager&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rinaldi v. Yeager (page does not exist)">Rinaldi v. Yeager</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Levy_v._Louisiana" title="Levy v. Louisiana">Levy v. Louisiana</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Rhodes" title="Williams v. Rhodes">Williams v. Rhodes</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oregon_v._Mitchell" title="Oregon v. Mitchell">Oregon v. Mitchell</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boddie_v._Connecticut" title="Boddie v. Connecticut">Boddie v. Connecticut</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eisenstadt_v._Baird" title="Eisenstadt v. Baird">Eisenstadt v. Baird</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lehnhausen_v._Lake_Shore_Auto_Parts_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co. (page does not exist)">Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co.</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/San_Antonio_Independent_School_District_v._Rodriguez" title="San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez">San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Richardson_v._Ramirez" title="Richardson v. Ramirez">Richardson v. Ramirez</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Village_of_Belle_Terre_v._Boraas" title="Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas">Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Board_of_Retirement_v._Murgia" title="Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia">Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trimble_v._Gordon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trimble v. Gordon (page does not exist)">Trimble v. Gordon</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zablocki_v._Redhail" title="Zablocki v. Redhail">Zablocki v. Redhail</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Transit_Authority_v._Beazer" title="New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer">New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mills_v._Habluetzel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mills v. Habluetzel (page does not exist)">Mills v. Habluetzel</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Cleburne_v._Cleburne_Living_Center,_Inc." title="City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.">City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clark_v._Jeter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clark v. Jeter (page does not exist)">Clark v. Jeter</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kadrmas_v._Dickinson_Public_Schools&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools (page does not exist)">Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gregory_v._Ashcroft" title="Gregory v. Ashcroft">Gregory v. Ashcroft</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vacco_v._Quill" title="Vacco v. Quill">Vacco v. Quill</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Armour_v._Indianapolis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Armour v. Indianapolis (page does not exist)">Armour v. Indianapolis</a></i> (2012)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Enforcement_Clause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Enforcement Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._Morgan" title="Katzenbach v. Morgan">Katzenbach v. Morgan</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fitzpatrick_v._Bitzer" title="Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer">Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dellmuth_v._Muth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dellmuth v. Muth (page does not exist)">Dellmuth v. Muth</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Boerne_v._Flores" title="City of Boerne v. Flores">City of Boerne v. Flores</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_Prepaid_Postsecondary_Education_Expense_Board_v._College_Savings_Bank" title="Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank">Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kimel_v._Florida_Board_of_Regents" title="Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents">Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Morrison" title="United States v. Morrison">United States v. Morrison</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Trustees_of_the_University_of_Alabama_v._Garrett" title="Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett">Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Department_of_Human_Resources_v._Hibbs" title="Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs">Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_v._Lane" title="Tennessee v. Lane">Tennessee v. Lane</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Georgia" title="United States v. Georgia">United States v. Georgia</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder" title="Shelby County v. Holder">Shelby County v. Holder</a></i> (2013)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gold_Clause_Cases" title="Gold Clause Cases">Gold Clause Cases</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Anderson" title="Trump v. Anderson">Trump v. Anderson</a></i> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" 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