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influences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formative_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Islamic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Islamic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Early Islamic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_Islamic_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early Islamic philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Islamic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kalam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kalam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span><i>Kalam</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kalam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Falsafa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Falsafa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span><i>Falsafa</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Falsafa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_classical_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_classical_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>End of the classical period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_classical_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Logic</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Logic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Logic subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Logic_in_Islamic_law_and_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logic_in_Islamic_law_and_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Logic in Islamic law and theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logic_in_Islamic_law_and_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aristotelian_logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotelian_logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Aristotelian logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotelian_logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avicennian_logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avicennian_logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Avicennian logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avicennian_logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metaphysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Metaphysics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Metaphysics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Metaphysics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cosmological_and_ontological_arguments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmological_and_ontological_arguments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Cosmological and ontological arguments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmological_and_ontological_arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Essence_and_existence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Essence_and_existence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Essence and existence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Essence_and_existence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resurrection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resurrection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Resurrection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resurrection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soul_and_spirit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soul_and_spirit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Soul and spirit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soul_and_spirit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thought_experiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thought_experiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Thought experiments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thought_experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Truth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Truth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Truth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Truth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_will_and_predestination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_will_and_predestination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Free will and predestination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_will_and_predestination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Natural philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Natural_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Natural philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Natural_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atomism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Atomism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Cosmology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Struggle_for_existence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Struggle_for_existence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Struggle for existence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Struggle_for_existence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmutation_of_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmutation_of_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2</span> <span>Transmutation of species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmutation_of_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phenomenology_of_Vision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phenomenology_of_Vision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Phenomenology of Vision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phenomenology_of_Vision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_mind" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_mind"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Philosophy of mind</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_mind-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Place_and_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Place_and_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Place and space</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Place_and_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Philosophy of education</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy_of_education-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy of education subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Primary education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Secondary education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Philosophy of science</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy_of_science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy of science subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scientific_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Scientific method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experimental_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Experimental medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peer_review" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peer_review"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Peer review</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peer_review-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Other fields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other fields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eschatology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eschatology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Eschatology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eschatology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Legal philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_novels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_novels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Philosophical novels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_novels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Political philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Philosophy of history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7</span> <span>Philosophy of religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.8</span> <span>Social philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judeo-Islamic_philosophies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judeo-Islamic_philosophies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.9</span> <span>Judeo-Islamic philosophies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judeo-Islamic_philosophies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_Islamic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Islamic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Later Islamic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_Islamic_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Later Islamic philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Later_Islamic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Illuminationist_school" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illuminationist_school"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Illuminationist school</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illuminationist_school-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transcendent_school" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transcendent_school"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Transcendent school</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transcendent_school-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Contemporary Islamic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contemporary_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.1</span> <span>Contemporary perspectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic philosophy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 59 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-59" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">59 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فلسفة إسلامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة إسلامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="ইছলামিক দৰ্শন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ইছলামিক দৰ্শন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_isl%C3%A1mica" title="Filosofía islámica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Filosofía islámica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99si" title="İslam fəlsəfəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İslam fəlsəfəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ایسلام فلسفه‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایسلام فلسفه‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="ইসলামি দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইসলামি দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99%D2%BB%D0%B5" title="Ислам фәлсәфәһе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ислам фәлсәфәһе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensament_isl%C3%A0mic" title="Pensament islàmic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pensament islàmic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C3%A1msk%C3%A1_filozofie" title="Islámská filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Islámská filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamisk_filosofi" title="Islamisk filosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Islamisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamische_Philosophie" title="Islamische Philosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Islamische Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%90%DE%B0%DE%8D%DE%A7%DE%89%DE%A9_%DE%8A%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%90%DE%A6%DE%8A%DE%A7" title="އިސްލާމީ ފަލްސަފާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="އިސްލާމީ ފަލްސަފާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ισλαμική φιλοσοφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ισλαμική φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_isl%C3%A1mica" title="Filosofía islámica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía islámica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islama_filozofio" title="Islama filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Islama filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_islamiko" title="Filosofia islamiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filosofia islamiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="فلسفه اسلامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه اسلامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_islamique" title="Philosophie islamique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie islamique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%8A%AC%EB%9E%8C_%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="이슬람 철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이슬람 철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BD%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իսլամական փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իսլամական փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="अरब का दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अरब का दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamska_filozofija" title="Islamska filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Islamska filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_Islam" title="Filsafat Islam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat Islam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_islamica" title="Filosofia islamica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia islamica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פילוסופיה אסלאמית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה אסלאמית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Ислам философиясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ислам философиясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi_islamik" title="Filozofi islamik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Filozofi islamik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefeya_%C3%AEslam%C3%AA" title="Felsefeya îslamê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Felsefeya îslamê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_Islamica" title="Philosophia Islamica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia Islamica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iszl%C3%A1m_filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Iszlám filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Iszlám filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%87" title="فلسفه اسلاميه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فلسفه اسلاميه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamitische_filosofie" title="Islamitische filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Islamitische filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="イスラーム哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イスラーム哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islom_falsafasi" title="Islom falsafasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Islom falsafasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਇਸਲਾਮੀ ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਸਲਾਮੀ ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="اسلامي فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اسلامي فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izlamik_filasafi" title="Izlamik filasafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Izlamik filasafi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_%C5%9Bwiata_islamu" title="Filozofia świata islamu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia świata islamu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_isl%C3%A2mica" title="Filosofia islâmica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia islâmica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_islamic%C4%83" title="Filosofie islamică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filosofie islamică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Исламская философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Исламская философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_Islame" title="Filozofia Islame – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Filozofia Islame" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Islamic philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%88" title="اسلامي فلسفو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اسلامي فلسفو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamsk%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Islamská filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Islamská filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="فەلسەفەی ئیسلامی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفەی ئیسلامی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Исламска филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Исламска филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamska_filozofija" title="Islamska filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Islamska filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamilainen_filosofia" title="Islamilainen filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Islamilainen filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamisk_filosofi" title="Islamisk filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Islamisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya_ng_Islam" title="Pilosopiya ng Islam – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pilosopiya ng Islam" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="இசுலாமிய மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இசுலாமிய மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D3%A3" title="Фалсафаи исломӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фалсафаи исломӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam_felsefesi" title="İslam felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İslam felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ісламська філософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ісламська філософія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="اسلامی فلسفہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اسلامی فلسفہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i_gi%C3%A1o" title="Triết học Hồi giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Triết học Hồi giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="伊斯兰哲学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伊斯兰哲学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_Islam" title="Filsafat Islam – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophical tradition in Muslim culture</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Arabic philosophy" redirects here. For Jewish philosophy in Arabic, see <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Double-leaf_frontispiece_from_%22The_Epistles_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity%22_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Illustration of various old men discussing and reading books." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Double-leaf_frontispiece_from_%22The_Epistles_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity%22_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Double-leaf_frontispiece_from_%22The_Epistles_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity%22_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Double-leaf_frontispiece_from_%22The_Epistles_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity%22_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Double-leaf_frontispiece_from_%22The_Epistles_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity%22_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Double-leaf_frontispiece_from_%22The_Epistles_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity%22_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Double-leaf_frontispiece_from_%22The_Epistles_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity%22_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1715" data-file-height="1634" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a> were a medieval <a href="/wiki/Secret_society" title="Secret society">secret society</a>, consisting of Islamic philosophers, here seen in an illustration from the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1287</span>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/110px-Allah3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/165px-Allah3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/220px-Allah3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="313" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iman_(Islam)" title="Iman (Islam)">Beliefs</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Oneness</a> of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Holy books</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgement_Day_in_Islam" title="Judgement Day in Islam">Judgement Day</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Predestination</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Practices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Profession of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Prayer</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Almsgiving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Fasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Pilgrimage</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_texts" title="List of Islamic texts">Texts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Foundations</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Sirah</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></i> (exegesis)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">Ijtihad</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">Aqidah</a> </i>(creed)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qisas_al-Anbiya" title="Qisas al-Anbiya">Qisas al-Anbiya</a></i> (<i>Stories of the Prophets</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mathnawi" title="Mathnawi">Mathnawi</a></i> (poems)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh"><i>Fiqh</i></a> (jurisprudence)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia"><i>Sharia</i></a> (law)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jahiliyyah" title="Jahiliyyah">Jahiliyyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">society</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Academics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_(circumcision)" title="Khitan (circumcision)">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_diaspora" title="Muslim diaspora">Diaspora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Islam" title="Education in Islam">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession_and_exorcism_in_Islam" title="Spirit possession and exorcism in Islam">Exorcism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a 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title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_Islam" title="Sexuality in Islam">Sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_people_and_Islam" title="LGBTQ people and Islam">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">Concubinage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Related topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_hadith" title="Criticism of hadith">Hadith</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_violence" title="Islam and violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">terrorism</a></li> <li><a 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height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/120px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/160px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above sidebar-phi-above"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy_and_thinking" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy and thinking">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_schools_and_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical schools and traditions">Philosophies</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Islamic philosophy</b> is <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> that emerges from the <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> tradition. Two terms traditionally used in the Islamic world are sometimes translated as philosophy—<i>falsafa</i> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">philosophy</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>), which refers to philosophy as well as <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan-2013_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-2013-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">kalam</a></i> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">speech</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>), which refers to a <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology#ʿIlm_al-Kalām" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Scholastic Islamic theology</a> which includes the schools of <a href="/wiki/Maturidiyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Maturidiyah">Maturidiyah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashari">Ashaira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazila">Mu'tazila</a>. </p><p>Early Islamic philosophy began with <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a> in the 2nd century of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic calendar</a> (early 9th century CE) and ended with <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd</a> (Averroes) in the 6th century AH (late 12th century CE), broadly coinciding with the period known as the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age of Islam</a>. The death of Averroes effectively marked the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the Islamic peripatetic school, and philosophical activity declined significantly in the west of the Islamic world, including <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>. </p><p>Islamic philosophy persisted for much longer in the east of the Islamic world, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>, where several schools of philosophy continued to flourish: <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">mystical philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">transcendent theosophy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Isfahan" title="School of Isfahan">school of Isfahan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a>, made important contributions to the philosophy of history. Interest in Islamic philosophy revived during the <a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Nahda</a> ("Awakening") movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and continues to the present day. </p><p>Islamic philosophy had a major impact in <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christian Europe</a>, where translation of <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> philosophical texts into <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> "led to the transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world", with a particularly strong influence of Muslim philosophers being felt in <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Islamic philosophy refers to philosophy produced in an Islamic society. As it is not necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor exclusively produced by <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many scholars prefer the term "Arabic philosophy."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Islamic philosophy is a generic term that can be defined and used in different ways. In its broadest sense it means the world view of Islam, as derived from the Islamic texts concerning the creation of the universe and the will of the Creator. In another sense it refers to any of the schools of thought that flourished under the Islamic empire or in the shadow of the Arab-Islamic culture and Islamic civilization. In its narrowest sense it is a translation of <i>Falsafa</i>, meaning those particular schools of thought that most reflect the influence of Greek systems of philosophy such as <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>. </p><p>Some schools of thought within Islam deny the usefulness or legitimacy of philosophical inquiry. Some argue that there is no indication that the limited knowledge and experience of humans can lead to truth. It is also important to observe that, while "reason" (<i><a href="/wiki/%27aql" class="mw-redirect" title="'aql">'aql</a></i>) is sometimes recognised as a source of Islamic law, it has been claimed that this has a totally different meaning from "reason" in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The historiography of Islamic philosophy is marked by disputes as to how the subject should be properly interpreted. Some of the key issues involve the comparative importance of eastern intellectuals such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and of western thinkers such as Ibn Rushd,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also whether Islamic philosophy can be read at face value or should be interpreted in an <a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">esoteric</a> fashion. Supporters of the latter thesis, like <a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a>, maintain that Islamic philosophers wrote so as to conceal their true meaning in order to avoid <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a>, but scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Leaman" title="Oliver Leaman">Oliver Leaman</a> disagree.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formative_influences">Formative influences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formative influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main sources of classical or early Islamic philosophy are the religion of Islam itself (especially ideas derived and interpreted from the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-EoQ-Quran_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EoQ-Quran-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a> which the early Muslims inherited as a result of conquests, along with pre-Islamic <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian philosophy">Persian philosophy</a>. Many of the early philosophical debates centered around reconciling religion and reason, the latter exemplified by Greek philosophy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Islamic_philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Islamic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sughrat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sughrat.jpg/200px-Sughrat.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sughrat.jpg/300px-Sughrat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sughrat.jpg/400px-Sughrat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>An Arabic manuscript from the 13th century depicting <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (Soqrāt) in discussion with his pupils</figcaption></figure> <p>In early Islamic thought, which refers to philosophy during the "<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>", traditionally dated between the 8th and 12th centuries, two main currents may be distinguished. The first is <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a>, which mainly dealt with <a href="/wiki/Islamic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theology">Islamic theological</a> questions, and the other is <a href="#Falsafa">Falsafa</a>, which was founded on interpretations of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>. There were attempts by later philosopher-theologians at harmonizing both trends, notably by <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina (Avicenna)</a> who founded the school of <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd (Averroes)</a> who founded the school of <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a>, and others such as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen) and <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī">Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kalam"><i>Kalam</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Kalam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></div> <p><i>ʿIlm al-Kalām</i> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:120%">علم الكلام</span></span>) is the philosophy that seeks <a href="/wiki/Islamic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theology">Islamic theological</a> principles through <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, the word literally means "speech".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the first debates was that between partisans of the <i><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></i> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><span style="font-size:120%">قدر</span></span></span> meaning "Fate"), who affirmed <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>; and the <i>Jabarites</i> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><span style="font-size:120%">جبر</span></span></span> meaning "force", "constraint"), who believed in <a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">fatalism</a>. </p><p>At the 2nd century of the <a href="/wiki/Hijri_year" title="Hijri year">Hijra</a>, a new movement arose in the theological school of <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. A pupil of <a href="/wiki/Hasan_of_Basra" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan of Basra">Hasan of Basra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wasil_ibn_Ata" title="Wasil ibn Ata">Wasil ibn Ata</a>, left the group when he disagreed with his teacher on whether a Muslim who has committed a major sin invalidates his faith. He systematized the radical opinions of preceding sects, particularly those of the Qadarites and Jabarites. This new school was called <i><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazila">Mu'tazilite</a></i> (from <i>i'tazala</i>, to separate oneself). </p><p>The Mu'tazilites looked in towards a strict <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> with which to interpret Islamic doctrine. Their attempt was one of the first to pursue a <a href="/wiki/Rational_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational theology">rational theology</a> in Islam. They were however severely criticized by other Islamic philosophers, both <a href="/wiki/Maturidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maturidi">Maturidis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asharites" class="mw-redirect" title="Asharites">Asharites</a>. The great Asharite scholar <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_ad-Din_ar-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi">Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi</a> wrote the work <i>Al-Mutakallimin fi 'Ilm al-Kalam</i> against the Mutazalites. </p><p>In later times, <i>Kalam</i> was used to mean simply "theology", i.e. the <i>duties of the heart</i> as opposed to (or in conjunction with) <i><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">fiqh</a></i> (jurisprudence), the <i>duties of the body</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolfson1976_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolfson1976-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Falsafa"><i>Falsafa</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Falsafa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Falsafa</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanword</a> meaning "philosophy" (the Greek pronunciation <i>philosophia</i> became <i>falsafa</i>). From the 9th century onward, due to <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> and his successor, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophy</a> was introduced among the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arabs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripatetic School">Peripatetic School</a> began to find able representatives. Among them were <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>. Another trend, represented by the Brethren of Purity, used Aristotelian language to expound a fundamentally <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagorean</a> world view. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliphate">Abbasid caliphate</a>, a number of thinkers and scientists, some of them <a href="/wiki/Heterodoxy" title="Heterodoxy">heterodox</a> Muslims or non-Muslims, played a role in transmitting Greek, <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a>. Three speculative thinkers, Al-Farabi, Avicenna and <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a>, combined <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> with other ideas introduced through Islam. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Ahmad Sirhindi</a>, 17th century Indian Islamic scholar, has viewed that the Greek philosophy about creations are incompatible with Islamic teaching by quoting several chapters of <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maktubat_Imam_Rabbani;_philosophy_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maktubat_Imam_Rabbani;_philosophy-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, Sirhindi criticize the method of interpretating the meaning of Quran with philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Maktubat_Imam_Rabbani;_philosophy_2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maktubat_Imam_Rabbani;_philosophy_2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_classical_period">End of the classical period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: End of the classical period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the 12th century, <i>Kalam</i>, attacked by both the philosophers and the orthodox, perished for lack of champions. At the same time, however, <i>Falsafa</i> came under serious critical scrutiny. The most devastating attack came from <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a>, whose work <i>Tahafut al-Falasifa</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers" title="The Incoherence of the Philosophers">The Incoherence of the Philosophers</a></i>) attacked the main arguments of the Peripatetic School.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Averroes, <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>' contemporary, was one of the last of the Islamic Peripatetics and set out to defend the views of the <i>Falsafa</i> against al-Ghazali's criticism. The theories of Ibn Rushd do not differ fundamentally from those of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a>, who only follow the teachings of Avicenna and Al-Farabi. Like all Islamic Peripatetics, Averroes admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world—hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. </p><p>But while Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on traditional beliefs, Ibn Rushd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation <i>ex nihilo</i>" (Munk, "Mélanges," p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Avicenna declared, but also a necessity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Logic">Logic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic in Islamic philosophy</a></div> <p>In early Islamic philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> played an important role. <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> (Islamic law) placed importance on formulating standards of argument, which gave rise to a novel approach to logic in <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a>, but this approach was later displaced by ideas from <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a> philosophers, who highly valued <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></i>. The works of Hellenistic-influenced Islamic philosophers were crucial in the reception of Aristotelian logic in medieval Europe, along with the commentaries on the <i>Organon</i> by <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>. The works of <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a> and other Muslim logicians who often criticized and corrected Aristotelian logic and introduced their own forms of logic, also played a central role in the subsequent development of European logic during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. </p><p>According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>For the Islamic philosophers, logic included not only the study of formal patterns of <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a> and their validity but also elements of the philosophy of language and even of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>. Because of territorial disputes with the Arabic grammarians, Islamic philosophers were very interested in working out the relationship between logic and language, and they devoted much discussion to the question of the subject matter and aims of logic in relation to reasoning and speech. In the area of formal logical analysis, they elaborated upon the theory of <a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">terms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proposition_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Proposition (philosophy)">propositions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogisms</a> as formulated in Aristotle's Categories, De interpretatione and Prior Analytics. In the spirit of Aristotle, they considered the syllogism to be the form to which all rational argumentation could be reduced, and they regarded syllogistic theory as the focal point of logic. Even poetics was considered as a syllogistic art in some fashion by most of the major Islamic Aristotelians.</p></blockquote> <p>Important developments made by Muslim logicians included the development of "Avicennian logic" as a replacement of Aristotelian logic. <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s <a href="/wiki/System_of_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="System of logic">system of logic</a> was responsible for the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_syllogism" title="Hypothetical syllogism">hypothetical syllogism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temporal_logic" title="Temporal logic">temporal</a> <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive logic</a>. Other important developments in early Islamic philosophy include the development of a strict <a href="/wiki/Scientific_citation" title="Scientific citation">science of citation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Isnad" title="Isnad">isnad</a> or "backing", and the development of a method to disprove claims, the <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a>, which was generally applied to many types of questions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logic_in_Islamic_law_and_theology">Logic in Islamic law and theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Logic in Islamic law and theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early forms of <a href="/wiki/Analogy" title="Analogy">analogical reasoning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a> and categorical <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a> were introduced in <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a> (Islamic jurisprudence), <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a> (Islamic theology) from the 7th century with the process of <i><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyas</a></i>, before the Arabic translations of Aristotle's works. Later, during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, there was debate among Islamic philosophers, logicians and theologians over whether the term <i>Qiyas</i> refers to analogical reasoning, inductive reasoning or categorical syllogism. Some Islamic scholars argued that <i>Qiyas</i> refers to inductive reasoning. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a> (994–1064) disagreed, arguing that <i>Qiyas</i> does not refer to inductive reasoning but to <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">categorical syllogistic reasoning</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">real</a> sense and analogical reasoning in a <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphorical</a> sense. On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a> (1058–1111; and, in modern times, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muhammad_Asem_al-Maqdisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Muhammad Asem al-Maqdisi">Abu Muhammad Asem al-Maqdisi</a>) argued that <i>Qiyas</i> refers to analogical reasoning in a real sense and categorical syllogism in a metaphorical sense. Other Islamic scholars at the time, however, argued that the term <i>Qiyas</i> refers to both analogical reasoning and categorical syllogism in a real sense.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotelian_logic">Aristotelian logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aristotelian logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first original Arabic writings on logic were produced by <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a> (Alkindus) (805–873), who produced a summary on earlier logic up to his time. The first writings on logic with non-Aristotelian elements was produced by <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a> (Alfarabi) (873–950), who discussed the topics of future <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingents</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Number" title="Number">number</a> and relation of the <a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">categories</a>, the relation between <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, and non-Aristotelian forms of <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is also credited for categorizing logic into two separate groups, the first being "idea" and the second being "<a href="/wiki/Logical_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical argument">proof</a>". </p><p><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> (1126–1198), author of the most elaborate commentaries on Aristotelian logic, was the last major logician from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avicennian_logic">Avicennian logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Avicennian logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (980–1037) developed his own system of logic known as "Avicennian logic" as an alternative to Aristotelian logic. By the 12th century, Avicennian logic had replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first criticisms of Aristotelian logic were written by <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (980–1037), who produced independent treatises on logic rather than commentaries. He criticized the logical school of Baghdad for their devotion to Aristotle at the time. He investigated the theory of <a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">definition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classification_theorems" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification theorems">classification</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Quantification_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantification (logic)">quantification</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)" title="Predicate (mathematical logic)">predicates</a> of categorical <a href="/wiki/Proposition_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Proposition (philosophy)">propositions</a>, and developed an original theory on "<a href="/wiki/Temporal_logic" title="Temporal logic">temporal</a> <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal</a>" syllogism. Its premises included <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_modifier" title="Grammatical modifier">modifiers</a> such as "at all times", "at most times", and "at some time". </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (980–1037) often relied on <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive reasoning</a> in philosophy, he used a different approach in medicine. Ibn Sina contributed inventively to the development of <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive logic</a>, which he used to pioneer the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Syndrome" title="Syndrome">syndrome</a>. In his medical writings, Avicenna was the first to describe the <a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill's Methods">methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation</a> which are critical to inductive logic and the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodman_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodman-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a> (994–1064) wrote the <i>Scope of Logic</i>, in which he stressed on the importance of <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sense</a> <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> as a source of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Herald_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herald-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> (Algazel) (1058–1111) had an important influence on the use of logic in theology, making use of Avicennian logic in <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a> (b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's "<a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">first figure</a>" and developed a form of <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive logic</a>, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> (1806–1873). Systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the <a href="/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminationist philosophy">Illuminationist school</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi</a> (1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in favour of <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Metaphysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmological_and_ontological_arguments">Cosmological and ontological arguments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cosmological and ontological arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Proof of the Truthful</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam cosmological argument</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s proof for the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a>, which he proposed in the <i>Metaphysics</i> section of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Morewedge_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morewedge-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the first attempt at using the method of <a href="/wiki/A_priori_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori (philosophy)">a priori proof</a>, which utilizes intuition and reason alone. Avicenna's proof of God's existence is unique in that it can be classified as both a <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">cosmological argument</a> and an ontological argument. "It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent". The proof is also "cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a Necessary Existent."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Essence_and_existence">Essence and existence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Essence and existence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Theologians, particularly among the <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Muʿtazilites</a>, agreed with Aristotelian metaphysics that non-existence is a thing (<i>s̲h̲ayʾ</i>) and an entity (<i>d̲h̲āt</i>). According to Aristotelian philosophy, non-existence has to be distinguished by absolute non-existence, that is absolute nothingness, and relative non-existence. The latter can refer to the absence of a quality or the potentiality of something.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muʿtazilite thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Al-F%C4%81r%C4%81b%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Fārābī">al-Fārābī</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_S%C4%ABn%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sīnā">ibn Sīnā</a> hold the position that things had a relative existence prior to creation. God knew what he was going to create and God gave them the accident of existence. Contrarily, Asharites regard existence as essence.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Islamic philosophy, imbued as it is with <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Islamic theology</a>, distinguishes more clearly than <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> the difference between <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>. Whereas existence is the domain of the <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingent</a> and the accidental, essence endures within a <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">being</a> beyond the accidental. This was first described by <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s works on <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, who was himself influenced by <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a>. </p><p>Some orientalists (or those particularly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomist</a> scholarship) argued that Avicenna was the first to view existence (<i>wujud</i>) as an accident that happens to the essence (<i>mahiyya</i>). However, this aspect of ontology is not the most central to the distinction that Avicenna established between essence and existence. One cannot therefore make the claim that Avicenna was the proponent of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a> <i>per se</i>, given that existence (<i>al-wujud</i>) when thought of in terms of necessity would ontologically translate into a notion of the "Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself" (<i>wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi</i>), which is without description or definition and, in particular, without <a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">quiddity</a> or essence (<i>la mahiyya lahu</i>). Consequently, Avicenna's <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> is '<a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialist</a>' when accounting for being–<i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/qua" class="extiw" title="wikt:qua">qua</a></i>–existence in terms of necessity (<i>wujub</i>), while it is <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialist</a> in terms of thinking about being–<i>qua</i>–existence in terms of "contingency–<i>qua</i>–possibility" (<i>imkan</i> or <i>mumkin al-wujud</i>, meaning "contingent being").<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some argue that Avicenna anticipated <a href="/wiki/Frege" class="mw-redirect" title="Frege">Frege</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> in "holding that existence is an accident of accidents" and also anticipated <a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Alexius Meinong</a>'s "view about <a href="/wiki/Nonexistent_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonexistent object">nonexistent objects</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also provided early arguments for "a "<a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary and sufficient conditions">necessary</a> being" as <a href="/wiki/First_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="First cause">cause of all other existents</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea of "essence preced[ing] existence" is a concept which dates back to <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a><sup id="cite_ref-Irwin_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irwin-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">his school</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi</a><sup id="cite_ref-Razavi_1997_129_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Razavi_1997_129-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his <a href="/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminationist philosophy">Illuminationist philosophy</a>. "<a href="/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence" title="Existence precedes essence">Existence preced[ing] essence</a>", the opposite (existentialist) notion, was developed in the works of <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a><sup id="cite_ref-Irwin_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irwin-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">transcendent theosophy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resurrection">Resurrection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Resurrection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ibn al-Nafis wrote the <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." The book presents rational arguments for bodily <a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">resurrection</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">immortality</a> of the human soul, using both demonstrative <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> and material from the hadith corpus as forms of <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> argument on spiritual resurrection (as opposed to bodily resurrection), which was earlier criticized by <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soul_and_spirit">Soul and spirit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Soul and spirit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Muslim physician</a>-philosophers, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a>, developed their own theories on the soul. They both made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and in particular, the <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennian</a> doctrine on the nature of the soul was influential among the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastics</a>. Some of Avicenna's views on the soul included the idea that the <a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">immortality</a> of the soul is a consequence of its nature, and not a purpose for it to fulfill. In his theory of "The Ten Intellects", he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final <a href="/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">intellect</a>. </p><p>Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis (Ibn al-Nafis), Islamic philosophers and physicians who followed Aristotle, put forward a different theory about the soul than Aristotle's, and made a distinction between soul (In. spirit) and soul (In. soul). [32] Especially Avicenna's teaching on the nature of the soul had a great influence on the Scholastics. According to Ibn Sina, the soul is a spiritual substance separate from the body, it uses the body as a tool. The famous example given by Ibn Sina to show that the soul is a spiritual substance separate from the material body and to show one's self-awareness, is known as "insan-i tair" (flying person) and was used throughout the West in the Middle Ages. In this example, he asks his readers to imagine themselves suspended in the sky (in the air), without any sensory contact, isolated from all sensations: The person in this state is still realizing himself even though there is no material contact. In that case, the idea that the soul (person) is dependent on matter, that is, any physical object, does not make sense, and the soul is a substance on its own. (Here, the concept of “I exist even though I am not in the dense-rough matter of the world” is treated.) This "proving by reflection" study by Ibn Sina was later simplified by René Descartes and expressed in epistemological terms as follows: “I can isolate myself from all supposed things outside of me. , but I can never (abstract) from my own consciousness.”.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Ibn Sina, immortality of the soul is not a goal, but a necessity and consequence of its nature.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Avicenna generally supported <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s idea of the soul originating from the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>, whereas Ibn al-Nafis on the other hand rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a>." He further criticized Aristotle's idea that every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul" and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying ‘<a href="/wiki/I_(pronoun)" title="I (pronoun)">I</a>’."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thought_experiments">Thought experiments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Thought experiments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Avicenna#Thought_experiments" title="Avicenna">Avicenna § Thought experiments</a></div> <p>While he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near <a href="/wiki/Hamadhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamadhan">Hamadhan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> wrote his "Floating Man" <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> to demonstrate human <a href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-awareness</a> and the substantiality of the soul. He referred to the living human <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">active intellect</a>, which he believed to be the <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">hypostasis</a> by which God communicates truth to the human <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and imparts order and <a href="/wiki/Intelligibility_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligibility (philosophy)">intelligibility</a> to <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>. His "Floating Man" thought experiment tells its readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sensation" class="extiw" title="wikt:sensation">sensations</a>, which includes no <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensory</a> contact with even their own bodies. He argues that, in this scenario, one would still have <a href="/wiki/Self-consciousness" title="Self-consciousness">self-consciousness</a>. He thus concludes that the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Self_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Self (philosophy)">self</a> is not logically dependent on any physical <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">thing</a>, and that the soul should not be seen in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Relative_term&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Relative term (page does not exist)">relative terms</a>, but as a primary given, a <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leaman_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leaman-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This argument was later refined and simplified by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Epistemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemic">epistemic</a> terms when he stated: "I can abstract from the supposition of all external things, but not from the supposition of my own consciousness."<sup id="cite_ref-Leaman_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leaman-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time">Time</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While ancient Greek philosophers believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, early <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval philosophers</a> and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a <a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">finite past</a> with a beginning. This view was inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a> shared by <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> presented a detailed argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. Muslim and Arab Jewish philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> developed further arguments, with most falling into two broad categories: assertions of the "impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite" and of the "impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition".<sup id="cite_ref-Craig_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Truth">Truth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Truth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (Ibn Sina) defined truth as: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What corresponds in the mind to what is outside it.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Avicenna elaborated on his definition of truth in his <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The truth of a thing is the property of the being of each thing which has been established in it.<sup id="cite_ref-Aertsen_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aertsen-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Quodlibeta" title="Quodlibeta">Quodlibeta</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> wrote a commentary on Avicenna's definition of truth in his <i>Metaphysics</i> and explained it as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The truth of each thing, as Avicenna says in his <i>Metaphysica</i>, is nothing else than the property of its being which has been established in it. So that is called true gold which has properly the being of gold and attains to the established determinations of the nature of gold. Now, each thing has properly being in some nature because it stands under the complete form proper to that nature, whereby being and species in that nature is.<sup id="cite_ref-Aertsen_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aertsen-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Early <a href="#Political_philosophy">Islamic political philosophy</a> emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion and the process of <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a> to find truth. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhacen) reasoned that to discover the truth about nature, it is necessary to eliminate human opinion and error, and allow the universe to speak for itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezine_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezine-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i>Aporias against Ptolemy</i>, Ibn al-Haytham further wrote the following comments on truth: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error...<sup id="cite_ref-Sabra_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sabra-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency.<sup id="cite_ref-Sabra_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sabra-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/effulgence" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:effulgence">effulgence</a> and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Plott_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plott-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_will_and_predestination">Free will and predestination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Free will and predestination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The issue of free will versus predestination is one of the "most contentious topics in classical Islamic thought."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In accordance with the Islamic belief in <a href="/wiki/Predestination" title="Predestination">predestination</a>, or divine preordainment (<i>al-qadā wa'l-qadar</i>), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or bad, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in <i>al-Lawh al-Mahfūz</i>, the "Preserved Tablet".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_philosophy">Natural philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Natural philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Physics in medieval Islam">Physics in medieval Islam</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomism">Atomism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Atomism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomistic</a> philosophies are found very early in Islamic philosophy, and represent a synthesis of the Greek and Indian ideas. Like both the Greek and Indian versions, Islamic atomism was a charged topic that had the potential for conflict with the prevalent religious orthodoxy. Yet it was such a fertile and flexible idea that, as in Greece and India, it flourished in some schools of Islamic thought. </p><p>The most successful form of Islamic atomism was in the <a href="/wiki/Asharite" class="mw-redirect" title="Asharite">Asharite</a> school of philosophy, most notably in the work of the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a> (1058–1111). In <a href="/wiki/Asharite" class="mw-redirect" title="Asharite">Asharite</a> atomism, atoms are the only perpetual, material things in existence, and all else in the world is "accidental" meaning something that lasts for only an instant. Nothing accidental can be the cause of anything else, except perception, as it exists for a moment. Contingent events are not subject to natural physical causes, but are the direct result of God's constant intervention, without which nothing could happen. Thus nature is completely dependent on God, which meshes with other Asharite Islamic ideas on <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causation</a>, or the lack thereof.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardet_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardet-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other traditions in Islam rejected the atomism of the Asharites and expounded on many Greek texts, especially those of Aristotle. An active school of philosophers in Spain, including the noted commentator <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> (1126-1198 AD) explicitly rejected the thought of al-Ghazali and turned to an extensive evaluation of the thought of Aristotle. Averroes commented in detail on most of the works of Aristotle and his commentaries did much to guide the interpretation of Aristotle in later Jewish and Christian scholastic thought. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmology">Cosmology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Cosmology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Astronomy in medieval Islam</a></div> <p>There are several <a href="/wiki/Cosmological" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmological">cosmological</a> verses in the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> which some modern writers have interpreted as foreshadowing the <a href="/wiki/Metric_expansion_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric expansion of space">expansion of the universe</a> and possibly even the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory:<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Do the disbelievers not realize that the heavens and earth were ˹once˺ one mass then We split them apart? And We created from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Al-Anbiya" title="Al-Anbiya">Surah Al-Anbiya</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/21?startingVerse=30">21:30</a></cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We built the universe with ˹great˺ might, and We are certainly expanding ˹it˺.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Adh-Dhariyat" title="Adh-Dhariyat">Surah Adh-Dhariyat</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/51?startingVerse=47">51:47</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In contrast to ancient <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophers</a> who believed that the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> had an infinite past with no beginning, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval philosophers</a> and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning. This view was inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation myth</a> shared by the three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>, presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. His reasoning was adopted by many, most notably; Muslim philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> (Alkindus); the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a> (Saadia ben Joseph); and the <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Muslim theologian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> (Algazel). They used two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:<sup id="cite_ref-Craig_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>"An actual infinite cannot exist."</dd> <dd>"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite."</dd> <dd>".•. An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist."</dd></dl> <p>The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:<sup id="cite_ref-Craig_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>"An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition."</dd> <dd>"The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition."</dd> <dd>".•. The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite."</dd></dl> <p>Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became famous after it was adopted by <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> in his thesis of the first antimony concerning time.<sup id="cite_ref-Craig_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 10th century, the <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a> published the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></i>, in which a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> view of the universe is expressed in a section on cosmology:<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>God has placed the Sun at the center of the Universe just as the capital of a country is placed in its middle and the ruler's palace at the center of the city.</p></blockquote> <p>Cosmological ideas maintained by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a> and Ibn Sina, have strong resemblance with the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neo-Platonistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Emanationism" title="Emanationism">emanation cosmology</a>. They identified the different <a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">Intellects</a>, dividing the cosmos into different spheres, as similar to the Islamic angels. However, Islamic scholars repeatedly insist that all heavenly spheres as a whole form a single body and are moved by God, in contrast to Aristotelian cosmology in which God only moves the outer sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to ibn Sina, but differing from al-Farabi, God is not part of the scheme of emanation. God emanated things in accordance with his will. In his <i>Theologia Aristotelis</i> he shows that through the manifestation of God, the intellects are aware of God and their role in the universe. Further Ibn Sina seems to distinguishes between two types of angels: One completely unrelated to matter, and another one, which exists in form of a superior kind of matter. The latter ones can carry messages between the heavenly spheres and the sublunary world, appearing in visions. Therefore, the higher angels dwell in <a href="/wiki/Jabarut" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabarut">higher spheres</a>, while their subordinate angels appear in an <a href="/wiki/Malakut" title="Malakut">intermediary realm</a>. Ibn Sina's explanation might imply an attempt to consider revelation as part of the natural world.<sup id="cite_ref-glasse_49_50_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glasse_49_50-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also Qazwini lists a lower type of angels; earthly angels as indwelling forces of nature, who keep the world in order and never deviate from their duty. Qazwini believed that the existence of these angels could be proved by reason and effects of these angels on their assigned object.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution">Evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Struggle_for_existence">Struggle for existence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Struggle for existence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a> scientist and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">al-Jahiz</a> (c. 776–869) was the only known medieval Arab philosopher to write on topics related to <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Jahiz's ideas on the struggle for existence in the <i>Book of Animals</i> have been summarized as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Animals engage in a struggle for existence; for <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">resources</a>, to avoid being eaten and to <a href="/wiki/Breed" title="Breed">breed</a>. Environmental factors influence <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> to develop new characteristics to ensure survival, thus transforming into new species. Animals that survive to breed can pass on their successful characteristics to offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>However, according to Frank Edgerton (2002), the claim made by some authors that al-Jahiz was an early evolutionist is "unconvincing", but the narrower claim that Jahiz "recognized the effect of environmental factors on animal life" seems valid.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rebecca Stott (2013) writes of al-Jahiz's work: </p> <blockquote><p>Jahiz was not concerned with argument or theorizing. He was concerned with witnessing;...Jahiz was not trying to work out how the world began or how species had come to be. He believed that God had done the making and that he had done it brilliantly...He also understood what we might call the <a href="/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest" title="Survival of the fittest">survival of the fittest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In Chapter 47 of <i>India</i>, entitled "On Vasudeva and the Wars of the Bharata," <a href="/wiki/Abu_Rayhan_Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Rayhan Biruni">Abu Rayhan Biruni</a> attempted to give a <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">naturalistic explanation</a> as to why the struggles described in the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i> "had to take place." He explains it using <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">natural</a> processes that include <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological</a> ideas related to evolution, which has led several scholars to compare his ideas to <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. This is due to Biruni describing the idea of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial selection">artificial selection</a> and then applying it to nature:<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The agriculturist selects his corn, letting grow as much as he requires, and tearing out the remainder. The forester leaves those branches which he perceives to be excellent, whilst he cuts away all others. The bees kill those of their kind who only eat, but do not work in their beehive. Nature proceeds in a similar way; however, it does not distinguish for its action is under all circumstances one and the same. It allows the leaves and fruit of the trees to perish, thus preventing them from realising that result which they are intended to produce in the economy of nature. It removes them so as to make room for others.</p></blockquote> <p>In the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a> explains how the <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">elements</a> evolved into <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>. Tusi then goes on to explain how <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">hereditary</a> variability was an important factor for biological evolution of living things:<sup id="cite_ref-Alakbarov_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alakbarov-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> that can gain the new features faster are more variable. As a result, they gain advantages over other creatures. [...] The bodies are changing as a result of the internal and external interactions.</p></blockquote> <p>Tusi discusses how organisms are able to <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapt</a> to their environments:<sup id="cite_ref-Alakbarov_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alakbarov-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Look at the world of animals and birds. They have all that is necessary for defense, protection and daily life, including strengths, courage and appropriate tools [organs] [...] Some of these organs are real weapons, [...] For example, horns-spear, teeth and claws-knife and needle, feet and hoofs-cudgel. The thorns and needles of some animals are similar to arrows. [...] Animals that have no other means of defense (as the gazelle and fox) protect themselves with the help of flight and cunning. [...] Some of them, for example, bees, ants and some bird species, have united in communities in order to protect themselves and help each other.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transmutation_of_species">Transmutation of species</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Transmutation of species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Al-Dinawari" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Dinawari">Al-Dinawari</a> (828–896), considered the founder of <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Agricultural_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Agricultural Revolution">Arabic botany</a> for his <i>Book of Plants</i>, discussed <a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">plant evolution</a> from its birth to its death, describing the phases of <a href="/wiki/Plant_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant growth">plant growth</a> and the production of flowers and fruit.<sup id="cite_ref-Fahd-815_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahd-815-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Miskawayh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Miskawayh">Ibn Miskawayh</a>'s <i>al-Fawz al-Asghar</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></i> (<i>The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa</i>) developed theories on evolution that possibly had an influence on <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> and his inception of <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a>, but has at one time been criticized as overenthusiastic.<sup id="cite_ref-Muqaddimah-Footnotes_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muqaddimah-Footnotes-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[These books] state that God first created <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> and invested it with <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> for development. Matter, therefore, adopted the form of <a href="/wiki/Vapour" class="mw-redirect" title="Vapour">vapour</a> which assumed the shape of water in due time. The next stage of development was <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> life. Different kinds of <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">stones</a> developed in course of time. Their highest form being mirjan (<a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>). It is a stone which has in it branches like those of a tree. After mineral life evolves <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a>. The evolution of vegetation culminates with a tree which bears the qualities of an animal. This is the <a href="/wiki/Date_Palm" class="mw-redirect" title="Date Palm">date-palm</a>. It has male and female genders. It does not wither if all its branches are chopped but it dies when the head is cut off. The date-palm is therefore considered the highest among the trees and resembles the lowest among animals. Then is born the lowest of animals. It evolves into an <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">ape</a>. This is not the statement of Darwin. This is what Ibn Maskawayh states and this is precisely what is written in the <i>Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa</i>. The Muslim thinkers state that ape then evolved into a lower kind of a <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a> man. He then became a superior human being. Man becomes a <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saint</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">prophet</a>. He evolves into a higher stage and becomes an <a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">angel</a>. The one higher to angels is indeed none but God. Everything begins from Him and everything returns to Him.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamidullah_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamidullah-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>English translations of the <i>Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</i> were available from 1812,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> of the <i>al-Fawz al-Asghar</i> and <i>The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa</i> were also available at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> by the 19th century. These works likely had an influence on 19th-century evolutionists, and possibly <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> further developed the evolutionary ideas found in the <i>Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</i>. The following statements from his 1377 work, the <i><a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a></i>, express evolutionary ideas: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We explained there that the whole of existence in (all) its simple and composite worlds is arranged in a natural order of ascent and descent, so that everything constitutes an uninterrupted continuum. The essences at the end of each particular stage of the worlds are by nature prepared to be transformed into the essence adjacent to them, either above or below them. This is the case with the simple material elements; it is the case with palms and vines, (which constitute) the last stage of plants, in their relation to snails and shellfish, (which constitute) the (lowest) stage of animals. It is also the case with monkeys, creatures combining in themselves cleverness and perception, in their relation to man, the being who has the ability to think and to reflect. The preparedness (for transformation) that exists on either side, at each stage of the worlds, is meant when (we speak about) their connection.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Plants do not have the same fineness and power that animals have. Therefore, the sages rarely turned to them. Animals are the last and final stage of the three permutations. Minerals turn into plants, and plants into animals, but animals cannot turn into anything finer than themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, including the polymaths <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Khazini" title="Al-Khazini">Al-Khazini</a>, discussed and developed these ideas. Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and may have influenced <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> and science. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phenomenology_of_Vision">Phenomenology of Vision</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Phenomenology of Vision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a></div> <p>The polymath <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhacen) is considered a pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>. He articulated a relationship between the physical and observable <a href="/wiki/World_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="World (philosophy)">world</a> and that of <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (knowledge)">intuition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mental_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental function">mental functions</a>. His theories regarding knowledge and <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, linking the domains of science and religion, led to a philosophy of existence based on the direct observation of <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a> from the observer's point of view. Much of his thought on phenomenology was not further developed until the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_mind">Philosophy of mind</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Philosophy of mind"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology in medieval Islam">Psychology in medieval Islam</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a> was studied in medieval <a href="/wiki/Islamic_psychological_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic psychological thought">Islamic psychological thought</a>, which refers to the study of the <i><a href="/wiki/Nafs" title="Nafs">nafs</a></i> (literally "<a href="/wiki/Self_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Self (philosophy)">self</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">psyche</a>" in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>, particularly during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> (8th–15th centuries) as well as modern times (20th–21st centuries), and is related to <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neurosciences</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Place_and_space">Place and space</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Place and space"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Arab polymath al-Hasan <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen; died c. 1041) presented a thorough mathematical critique and refutation of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s conception of place (<i>topos</i>) in his <i>Risala/Qawl fi’l-makan</i> (<i>Treatise/Discourse on Place</i>). </p><p>Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i> (Book IV – <i>Delta</i>) stated that the place of something is the two-dimensional boundary of the containing body that is at rest and is in contact with what it contains. Ibn al-Haytham disagreed with this definition and demonstrated that place (<i>al-makan</i>) is the imagined (three-dimensional) void (<i>al-khala' al-mutakhayyal</i>) between the inner surfaces of the containing body. He showed that place was akin to <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a>, foreshadowing <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>'s notion of place as space qua <i>Extensio</i> or even <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>'s <i>analysis situs</i>. Ibn al-Haytham's mathematization of place rested on several geometric demonstrations, including his study on the sphere and other solids, which showed that the <a href="/wiki/Sphere" title="Sphere">sphere</a> (<i>al-kura</i>) is the largest in magnitude (volumetric) with respect to other geometric solids that have equal surface areas. For instance, a sphere that has an equal surface area to that of a <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cylinder (geometry)">cylinder</a>, would be larger in (volumetric) magnitude than the cylinder; hence, the sphere occupies a larger place than that occupied by the cylinder; unlike what is entailed by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s definition of place: that this sphere and that cylinder occupy places that are equal in magnitude.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ibn al-Haytham rejected <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s philosophical concept of place on mathematical grounds. Later, the philosopher '<a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi">Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi</a> (13th century) tried to defend the Aristotelian conception of place in a treatise titled: <i>Fi al-Radd ‘ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan</i> (<i>A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham's place</i>), although his effort was admirable from a philosophical standpoint, it was unconvincing from the scientific and mathematical viewpoints.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ibn al-Haytham also discussed <a href="/wiki/Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">space perception</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> implications in his <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a></i> (1021). His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the way the <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a> of space was understood, contrary to the previous <a href="/wiki/Emission_theory_(vision)" title="Emission theory (vision)">emission theory of vision</a> supported by <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy_of_education">Philosophy of education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Philosophy of education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>, an elementary school was known as a <i><a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">maktab</a></i>, which dates back to at least the 10th century. Like <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">madrasahs</a> (which referred to <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a>), a maktab was often attached to a mosque. In the 11th century, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a> (known as <i>Avicenna</i> in the West), in one of his books, wrote a chapter dealing with the <i>maktab</i> entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing of Children", as a guide to teachers working at <i>maktab</i> schools. He wrote that children can learn better if taught in <a href="/wiki/Class_(education)" title="Class (education)">classes</a> instead of individual <a href="/wiki/Tuition_payments" title="Tuition payments">tuition</a> from private <a href="/wiki/Tutor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutor">tutors</a>, and he gave a number of reasons for why this is the case, citing the value of <a href="/wiki/Competition" title="Competition">competition</a> and emulation among pupils as well as the usefulness of group <a href="/wiki/Discussion" class="mw-redirect" title="Discussion">discussions</a> and debates. Ibn Sina described the <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a> of a <i>maktab</i> school in some detail, describing the curricula for two stages of education in a <i>maktab</i> school.<sup id="cite_ref-Asimov_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asimov-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_education">Primary education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Primary education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to a <i>maktab</i> school from the age of 6 and be taught <a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">primary education</a> until they reach the age of 14. During which time, he wrote that they should be taught the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic metaphysics">Islamic metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic ethics</a>, and manual skills (which could refer to a variety of practical skills).<sup id="cite_ref-Asimov_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asimov-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_education">Secondary education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Secondary education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ibn Sina refers to the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">secondary education</a> stage of <i>maktab</i> schooling as the period of specialization, when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be given a choice to choose and specialize in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills, literature, preaching, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics_in_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic economics in the world">trade and commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inventions_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventions in medieval Islam">craftsmanship</a>, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future <a href="/wiki/Career" title="Career">career</a>. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Philosophy of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">Islamic science</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_method">Scientific method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Scientific method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The pioneering development of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a> polymath <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhacen) was an important contribution to the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a></i> (c. 1025 CE), his scientific method was very similar to the modern scientific method and consisted of the following procedures:<sup id="cite_ref-Ezine_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezine-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li>Statement of <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem</a></li> <li>Formulation of <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a></li> <li>Testing of hypothesis using <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimentation</a></li> <li>Analysis of experimental <a href="/wiki/Result" title="Result">results</a></li> <li>Interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> and formulation of <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">conclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publication" title="Publication">Publication</a> of findings</li></ol> <p>In <i>The Model of the Motions</i>, Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a>, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmological</a> hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Aporias against Ptolemy</i>, Ibn al-Haytham commented on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error...<sup id="cite_ref-Sabra_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sabra-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>He held that the criticism of existing theories—which dominated this book—holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency.<sup id="cite_ref-Sabra_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sabra-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Ibn al-Haytham attributed his experimental <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">scientific skepticism</a> to his Islamic faith. He believed that human beings are inherently flawed and that only God is perfect. He reasoned that to discover the truth about nature, it is necessary to eliminate human opinion and error, and allow the universe to speak for itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezine_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezine-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>The Winding Motion</i>, Ibn al-Haytham further wrote that <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> should only apply to <a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophets of Islam">prophets of Islam</a> and not to any other authorities, in the following comparison between the Islamic prophetic tradition and the demonstrative sciences: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>From the statements made by the noble <a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">Shaykh</a>, it is clear that he believes in <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (<a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a>); that is how <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">experts in the prophetic tradition</a> have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Ibn al-Haytham described his search for truth and knowledge as a way of leading him closer to God: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/effulgence" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:effulgence">effulgence</a> and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Plott_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plott-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>His contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī">Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a> also introduced an early scientific method in nearly every field of <a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">inquiry</a> he studied. For example, in his treatise on <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, <i>Kitab al-Jamahir</i> (<i>Book of Precious Stones</i>), he is "the most <a href="/wiki/Exact_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Exact science">exact</a> of experimental scientists", while in the introduction to his <a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">study of India</a>, he declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method" and develops <a href="/wiki/Comparative_sociology" title="Comparative sociology">comparative sociology</a> as a scientific method in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Sardar_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sardar-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also responsible for introducing the experimental method into <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Rozhanskaya-642_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozhanskaya-642-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to <a href="/wiki/Astronomical" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical">astronomical</a> phenomena,<sup id="cite_ref-Zahoor_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zahoor-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Iqbal_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iqbal-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike his contemporary <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s scientific method where "general and universal questions came first and led to experimental work", al-Biruni developed scientific methods where "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are formulated after discoveries."<sup id="cite_ref-Sardar_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sardar-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his debate with Avicenna on <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, al-Biruni made the first real distinction between a scientist and a <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, referring to Avicenna as a philosopher and considering himself to be a mathematical scientist.<sup id="cite_ref-Dallal_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dallal-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Biruni's scientific method was similar to the modern scientific method in many ways, particularly his emphasis on repeated experimentation. Biruni was concerned with how to conceptualize and prevent both <a href="/wiki/Systematic_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic error">systematic errors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Random_errors" class="mw-redirect" title="Random errors">random errors</a>, such as "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers." He argued that if instruments produce random errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken, <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">analyzed qualitatively</a>, and on this basis, arrive at a "common-sense single value for the <a href="/wiki/Constant_(mathematics)" title="Constant (mathematics)">constant</a> sought", whether an <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_mean" title="Arithmetic mean">arithmetic mean</a> or a "reliable <a href="/wiki/Approximation" title="Approximation">estimate</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Experimental_medicine">Experimental medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Experimental medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (Ibn Sina) is considered the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for his introduction of <a href="/wiki/Experimental_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental medicine">experimental medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Tschanz_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tschanz-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the experimental use and <a href="/wiki/Drug_test" title="Drug test">testing of drugs</a>, and a precise guide for practical experimentation in the process of discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">substances</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in his medical encyclopedia, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a></i> (11th century), which was the first book dealing with experimental medicine. It laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drugs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medications</a>, which still form the basis of modern clinical trials:<sup id="cite_ref-Tschanz_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tschanz-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>"The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality."</li> <li>"It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease."</li> <li>"The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones."</li> <li>"The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them."</li> <li>"The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused."</li> <li>"The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect."</li> <li>"The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man."</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peer_review">Peer review</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Peer review"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first documented description of a <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> process is found in the <i>Ethics of the Physician</i> written by <a href="/wiki/Ishaq_bin_Ali_al-Rahwi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi">Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi</a> (854–931) of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Raha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Raha (page does not exist)">al-Raha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, who describes the first <a href="/wiki/Medical_peer_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical peer review">medical peer review</a> process. His work, as well as later <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Arabic medical</a> manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would <a href="/wiki/Review" title="Review">review</a> the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuit</a> from a maltreated patient.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_fields">Other fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Other fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s most influential theory in <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> is his theory of knowledge, in which he developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a>. He argued that the "human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through "<a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" which is developed through a "<a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogistic</a> method of <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a>; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts."<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 12th century, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a> further developed the concept of tabula rasa in his <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic novel</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqzan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hayy ibn Yaqzan">Hayy ibn Yaqzan</a></i>, in which he depicted the development of the mind of a <a href="/wiki/Feral_child" title="Feral child">feral child</a> "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a <a href="/wiki/Desert_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert island">desert island</a>. The Latin translation of his work, entitled <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>, published by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Pococke" title="Edward Pococke">Edward Pococke</a> the Younger in 1671, had an influence on <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>'s formulation of tabula rasa in <i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eschatology">Eschatology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Eschatology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic eschatology</a></div> <p>Islamic <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">eschatology</a> is concerned with the <i><a href="/wiki/Qiyamah" class="mw-redirect" title="Qiyamah">Qiyamah</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">end of the world</a>; <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Last Judgement">Last Judgement</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">final judgement of humanity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a> relates to one of the six articles of faith (<i><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">aqidah</a></i>) of Islam. Like the other <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic religion">Abrahamic religions</a>, Islam teaches the bodily <a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">resurrection</a> of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul (though Jews do not necessarily view the soul as eternal); the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of <i><a href="/wiki/Jannah" title="Jannah">Jannah</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a>), while the unrighteous are punished in <i><a href="/wiki/Jahannam" title="Jahannam">Jahannam</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Hell#Islam" title="Hell">Hell</a>). A significant fraction (one third, in fact) of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many <i><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a></i> elaborating on the themes and details. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as <i><a href="/wiki/Fitna_(word)" title="Fitna (word)">fitna</a></i> (a test) and <i>malahim</i> (or <i>ghayba</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Shi%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a">Shi'a</a> tradition). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a> dealt with Islamic eschatology in some depth in his <i><a href="/wiki/Theologus_Autodidactus" title="Theologus Autodidactus">Theologus Autodidactus</a></i>, where he <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationalized</a> the Islamic view of eschatology using reason and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">science</a> to explain the events that would occur according to Islamic eschatology. He presented his rational and scientific arguments in the form of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic fiction</a>, hence his <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> may be considered the earliest <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> work.<sup id="cite_ref-Ibn_al-Nafis_As_a_Philosopher_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ibn_al-Nafis_As_a_Philosopher-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_philosophy">Legal philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Legal philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></div> <p>Sharia (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><span style="font-size:120%">شَرِيعَةٌ</span></span></span>) refers to the body of Islamic <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Islamic principles of jurisprudence. Fiqh is the term for Islamic jurisprudence, made up of the rulings of Islamic jurists. A component of Islamic studies, Fiqh expounds the methodology by which Islamic law is derived from primary and secondary sources. </p><p>Mainstream Islam distinguish <i>fiqh</i>, which means understanding details and inferences drawn by scholars, from <i>sharia</i> that refers to principles that lie behind the fiqh. Scholars hope that <i>fiqh</i> and <i>sharia</i> are in harmony in any given case, but they cannot be sure.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_novels">Philosophical novels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Philosophical novels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Islamic philosophers, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a> (Abubacer)<sup id="cite_ref-Jon_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jon-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Meyerhof_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meyerhof-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were pioneers of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical novel">philosophical novel</a>. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic novel</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></i> (<i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>) as a response to <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers" title="The Incoherence of the Philosophers">The Incoherence of the Philosophers</a></i>, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis#Theologus_Autodidactus" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Theologus Autodidactus</a></i> as a response to Ibn Tufail's <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>. Both of these novels had <a href="/wiki/Protagonist" title="Protagonist">protagonists</a> (Hayy in <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> and Kamil in <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i>) who were <a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">autodidactic</a> individuals <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">spontaneously generated</a> in a cave and living in seclusion on a <a href="/wiki/Desert_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert island">desert island</a>, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone on the desert island for most of the story in <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i>, developing into the first example of a <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> novel.<sup id="cite_ref-Ibn_al-Nafis_As_a_Philosopher_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ibn_al-Nafis_As_a_Philosopher-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ibn al-Nafis described his book <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." He presents rational arguments for bodily <a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">resurrection</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">immortality</a> of the human soul, using both demonstrative <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> claim of Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A Latin translation of <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> was published in 1671, prepared by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Pococke" title="Edward Pococke">Edward Pococke</a> the Younger.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first English translation by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Ockley" title="Simon Ockley">Simon Ockley</a> was published in 1708, and <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> translations were also published at the time. <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> went on to have a significant influence on <a href="/wiki/European_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="European literature">European literature</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Wainwright_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wainwright-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and became an influential best-seller throughout Western Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell-228_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-228-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These translations later inspired <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Defoe" title="Daniel Defoe">Daniel Defoe</a> to write <i><a href="/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe" title="Robinson Crusoe">Robinson Crusoe</a></i>, which also featured a desert island narrative and was regarded as the <a href="/wiki/First_novel_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="First novel in English">first novel in English</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wainwright_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wainwright-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Amber_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amber-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> also had a "profound influence" on <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Toomer-218_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toomer-218-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It became "one of the most important books that heralded the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">European Enlightenment</a>, and the thoughts expressed in the novel can be found in "different variations and to different degrees in the books of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The novel inspired the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a>" developed in <i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></i> (1690) by Locke, who was a student of Pococke.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> also developed the themes of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">nature versus nurture</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Condition_of_possibility" title="Condition of possibility">condition of possibility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Molyneux%27s_Problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Molyneux's Problem">Molyneux's Problem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The novel also inspired <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, another acquaintance of Pococke, to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, <i>The Aspiring Naturalist</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Toomer-222_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toomer-222-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other European scholars influenced by <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> include <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Wainwright_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wainwright-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Melchis%C3%A9dech_Th%C3%A9venot" title="Melchisédech Thévenot">Melchisédech Thévenot</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Wallis" title="John Wallis">John Wallis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Keith_(missionary)" title="George Keith (missionary)">George Keith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Barclay" title="Robert Barclay">Robert Barclay</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quakers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hartlib" title="Samuel Hartlib">Samuel Hartlib</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Toomer-222_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toomer-222-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_philosophy">Political philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Political philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early Islamic <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a> to find truth—in effect <i>all</i> philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the <a href="/wiki/Mutazilite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutazilite">Mutazilite</a> philosophers, who held a more <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> view and were supported by secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>. The only <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> political treatise known to medieval Muslims at the time was <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)"><i>Laws</i></a>. By the end of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, however, the <a href="/wiki/Asharite" class="mw-redirect" title="Asharite">Asharite</a> view of Islam had in general triumphed. </p><p>Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam, i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>, the words and practices of Muhammad. However, in the Western thought, it is generally known that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a> (Alkindus), <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a> (Alfarabi), <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">İbn Sina</a> (Avicenna), <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah</a> (Avempace), <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd</a> (Averroes), and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah, sultan, ummah, cemaa -and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an, i.e. ibada, din, rab and ilah- is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">jurists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">ulama</a> posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> in the very early years of <a href="/wiki/Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim history">Islamic history</a> on <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Khilafa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a>, or that of <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a> on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Shi%27a_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)">Imamah</a> are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Ehl-i Sunna</a> and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character. </p><p>The 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gellner" title="Ernest Gellner">Ernest Gellner</a> considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history of political theory.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_history">Philosophy of history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Philosophy of history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first detailed studies on the subject of <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> and the first critiques on <a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">historical methods</a> appeared in the works of the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a> polymath <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (1332–1406), who is regarded as the father of <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural history</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a>, especially for his historiographical writings in the <i><a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latinized</a> as <i>Prolegomena</i>) and <i>Kitab al-Ibar</i> (<i>Book of Advice</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <i>Muqaddimah</i> also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systematic_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic bias">systematic bias</a> in history,<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he discussed the rise and fall of <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Franz_Rosenthal" title="Franz Rosenthal">Franz Rosenthal</a> wrote in the <i>History of Muslim Historiography</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Muslim historiography has at all times been united by the closest ties with the general development of scholarship in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in MusIim education has exercised a decisive influence upon the intellectual level of historicai writing... The Muslims achieved a definite advance beyond previous historical writing in the <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociological</a> understanding of <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> and the systematisation of <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>. The development of modern historical writing seems to have gained considerably in speed and substance through the utilization of a Muslim Literature which enabled western historians, from the 17th century on, to see a large section of the world through foreign eyes. The Muslim historiography helped indirectly and modestly to shape present day historical thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_religion">Philosophy of religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Philosophy of religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is an important question on the relation of religion and philosophy, reason and faith and so on. In one hand there is extraordinary importance attached to religion in Islamic civilization and in other hand they created certain doctrines in respect to reason and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_philosophy">Social philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Social philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The social <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a> polymath <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (1332–1406) was the last major Islamic philosopher from <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, North Africa. In his <i><a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a></i>, he developed the earliest theories on social philosophy, in formulating theories of <a href="/wiki/Structural_cohesion" title="Structural cohesion">social cohesion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_conflict" title="Social conflict">social conflict</a>. His <i>Muqaddimah</i> was also the introduction to a seven volume analysis of <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">universal history</a>. </p><p>Ibn Khaldun is considered the "father of <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>", "father of <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>", and "father of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a>" by some, for allegedly being the first to discuss the topics of sociology, historiography and the philosophy of history in detail.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judeo-Islamic_philosophies">Judeo-Islamic philosophies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Judeo-Islamic philosophies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)</a></div> <p>Islamic philosophy found an audience with the Jews, to whom belongs the honor of having transmitted it to the Christian world. A series of eminent men—such as the <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tibbon" title="Ibn Tibbon">Ibn Tibbons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narboni" class="mw-redirect" title="Narboni">Narboni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a>—joined in translating the Arabic philosophical works into Hebrew and commenting upon them. The works of Ibn Rushd especially became the subject of their study, due in great measure to Maimonides, who, in a letter addressed to his pupil <a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Judah" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph ben Judah">Joseph ben Judah</a>, spoke in the highest terms of Ibn Rushd's commentary. </p><p>The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved in Arabic is that of <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a> (892–942), <i><a href="/wiki/Emunoth_ve-Deoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Emunoth ve-Deoth">Emunot ve-Deot</a></i>, "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_nihilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex nihilo">ex nihilo</a></i>, just as the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter. </p><p>To prove the unity of God, Saadia uses the demonstrations of the Mutakallamin. Only the attributes of essence (<i>sifat al-dhatia</i>) can be ascribed to God, but not the attributes of action (<i>sifat-al-fi'aliya</i>). The soul is a substance more delicate even than that of the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">celestial spheres</a>. Here Saadia controverts the Mutakallamin, who considered the soul an "accident" '<i>arad</i> (compare <a href="/wiki/Guide_for_the_Perplexed" class="mw-redirect" title="Guide for the Perplexed">Guide for the Perplexed</a> i. 74), and employs the following one of their premises to justify his position: "Only a substance can be the substratum of an accident" (that is, of a non-essential property of things). Saadia argues: "If the soul be an accident only, it can itself have no such accidents as wisdom, joy, love," etc. Saadia was thus in every way a supporter of the Kalam; and if at times he deviated from its doctrines, it was owing to his religious views. </p><p>Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Persian or Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al Ghazali</a> found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This poet also took upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Kuzari," in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the Mutakallimun for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari," v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Mutakallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the <a href="/wiki/Kalam_(islamic_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalam (islamic term)">Kalam</a> give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in <a href="/wiki/Judah_ha-Levi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah ha-Levi">Judah ha-Levi</a>'s eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament. </p><p>Similarly the reaction in favour of stricter Aristotelianism, as found in <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, had its Jewish counterpart in the work of <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>. Later Jewish philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Delmedigo" class="mw-redirect" title="Elijah Delmedigo">Elijah Delmedigo</a>, followed the school of Averroes and played a part in transmitting Averroist thought to medieval Europe. </p><p>In Spain and Italy, Jewish translators such as <a href="/wiki/Abraham_de_Balmes" title="Abraham de Balmes">Abraham de Balmes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Mantino" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob Mantino">Jacob Mantino</a> translated Arabic philosophic literature into <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_Islamic_philosophy">Later Islamic philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Later Islamic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The death of <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd (Averroës)</a> effectively marks the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the <i><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic Arabic School</a></i>, and philosophical activity declined significantly in western Islamic countries, namely in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Islamic Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, though it persisted for much longer in the Eastern countries, in particular <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. Contrary to the traditional view, <a href="/wiki/Dimitri_Gutas" title="Dimitri Gutas">Dimitri Gutas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> consider the period between the 11th and 14th centuries to be the true "<a href="/wiki/Golden_Age" title="Golden Age">Golden Age</a>" of Arabic and Islamic philosophy, initiated by <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a>'s successful integration of <a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">logic</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">Madrasah</a> curriculum and the subsequent rise of <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the political power shift in Western Europe (<a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>) from Muslim to Christian control, the Muslims naturally did not practice philosophy in Western Europe. This also led to some loss of contact between the 'west' and the 'east' of the Islamic world. Muslims in the 'east' continued to do philosophy, as is evident from the works of <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman empire">Ottoman</a> scholars and especially those living in Muslim kingdoms within the territories of present-day Iran and India, such as Shah Waliullah and <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Ahmad Sirhindi</a>. This fact has escaped most pre-modern historians of Islamic (or Arabic) philosophy. In addition, logic has continued to be taught in religious seminaries up to modern times. </p><p>After Ibn Rushd, there arose many later schools of Islamic Philosophy such as those founded by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a> and Shi'ite <a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a>. These new schools are of particular importance, as they are still active in the Islamic world. The most important among them are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminationist philosophy">School of Illumination</a> (<i>Hikmat al-Ishraq</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_Theosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendent Theosophy">Transcendent Theosophy</a> (<i>Hikmat Muta'aliah</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School">Traditionalist School</a></li> <li>Avicennism(Hikmat Sinavi)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Illuminationist_school">Illuminationist school</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Illuminationist school"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminationist philosophy">Illuminationist philosophy</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminationist philosophy">Illuminationist philosophy</a> was a school of Islamic philosophy founded by <a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi</a> in the 12th century. This school is a combination of <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s philosophy and ancient <a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian philosophy</a>, with many new innovative ideas of Suhrawardi. It is often described as having been influenced by <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">logic in Islamic philosophy</a>, systematic refutations of <a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Greek logic</a> were written by the <a href="/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminationist philosophy">Illuminationist school</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi</a> (1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logical</a> philosophical speculation.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transcendent_school">Transcendent school</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Transcendent school"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Transcendent theosophy</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Transcendent theosophy</a> is the school of Islamic philosophy founded by <a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a> in the 17th century. His philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> is considered to be just as important to Islamic philosophy as <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>'s philosophy later was to <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> in the 20th century. Mulla Sadra bought "a new philosophical insight in dealing with the nature of <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>" and created "a major transition from <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>" in Islamic philosophy, several centuries before this occurred in Western philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Kamal_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kamal-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea of "essence precedes existence" is a concept which dates back to <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina (Avicenna)</a><sup id="cite_ref-Irwin_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irwin-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his school of <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi</a><sup id="cite_ref-Razavi_1997_129_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Razavi_1997_129-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his <a href="/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminationist philosophy">Illuminationist philosophy</a>. The opposite idea of "<a href="/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence" title="Existence precedes essence">Existence precedes essence</a>" was thus developed in the works of <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a><sup id="cite_ref-Irwin_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irwin-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a reaction to this idea and is a key foundational concept of <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>. </p><p>For Mulla Sadra, "existence precedes the essence and is thus principle since something has to exist first and then have an essence." This is primarily the argument that lies at the heart of Mulla Sadra's <a href="/wiki/Transcendent_Theosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendent Theosophy">Transcendent Theosophy</a>. Sayyid Jalal Ashtiyani later summarized Mulla Sadra's concept as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The existent being that has an essence must then be caused and existence that is pure existence ... is therefore a Necessary Being.</p></blockquote> <p>More careful approaches are needed in terms of thinking about philosophers (and theologians) in Islam in terms of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological</a> methods of investigation in <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> (or onto-theology), or by way of comparisons that are made with <a href="/wiki/Heidegger" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a>'s thought and his critique of the history of metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy">Contemporary Islamic philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Contemporary Islamic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary Islamic philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iqbal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Iqbal.jpg/205px-Iqbal.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Iqbal.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="227" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Allama_Muhammad_Iqbal" class="mw-redirect" title="Allama Muhammad Iqbal">Allama Muhammad Iqbal</a> (1877–1938)</span> Muslim philosopher, poet and scholar from Pakistan (then <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British India</a>).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hossein_nasr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hossein_nasr.jpg/205px-Hossein_nasr.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hossein_nasr.jpg/308px-Hossein_nasr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hossein_nasr.jpg/410px-Hossein_nasr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a> (born 1933)</span> is one of the leading Muslim philosophers of the contemporary world.<sup id="cite_ref-Azad_2014_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Azad_2014-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The tradition of Islamic philosophy is still very much alive today, particularly among followers of <a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi">Suhrawardi</a>'s <i>Hikmat al-Ishraq</i> (<i>Illumination Philosophy</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a>'s <i>Hikmat-e-Mota'aliye</i> (<i>Transcendent Theosophy</i>). Another figure is <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a>, who reshaped and revitalized Islamic philosophy among the Muslims of the Indian sub-continent in the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <i><a href="/wiki/The_Reconstruction_of_Religious_Thought_in_Islam" title="The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam">The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam</a></i> <sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a milestone in the modern political philosophy of Islam.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In contemporary Islamic regions, the teaching of <i>hikmat</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Hikmah" title="Hikmah">hikmah</a></i> has continued to flourish. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdolkarim_Soroush" title="Abdolkarim Soroush">Abdolkarim Soroush</a>, born 1945, Iranian philosopher and religious reformist, exponent of <a href="/wiki/Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Kantian">Kantian</a> categories within Islamic thought. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahlén2003chpt._6a_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDahlén2003chpt._6a-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a>, founder of the Islamic Republic of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, was a teacher of the philosophical school of Hikmat-ul-Mutaliya. Before the Islamic Revolution, he was one of the few who formally taught philosophy at the Religious Seminary at Qom.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdollah_Javadi-Amoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdollah Javadi-Amoli">Abdollah Javadi-Amoli</a>, Grand Ayatollah is an Iranian <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> Shi'a <a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">Marja</a>. He is a conservative Iranian politician and one of the prominent Islamic scholars of the <a href="/wiki/Hawza" title="Hawza">Hawza</a> (seminary) in <a href="/wiki/Qom" title="Qom">Qom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahlén2003chpt._5_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDahlén2003chpt._5-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Milad_Karimi" title="Ahmad Milad Karimi">Ahmad Milad Karimi</a>, Afghan philosopher of religion and professor of Islamic Philosophy at the University of Münster in Germany.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad-Taqi_Mesbah-Yazdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi">Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi</a>, Grand Ayatollah is an Iranian <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> <a href="/wiki/Shi%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a">Shi'a</a> cleric. Advocate of Islamic philosophy, particularly Hikmat Mutaliyyah.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geydar_Dzhemal" title="Geydar Dzhemal">Geydar Dzhemal</a>, Russian Islamic philosopher, author of <i>Orientation - North.</i> Founding ideologist of Islamic Marxism.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Tabataba%27i" title="Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i">Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i</a>, Grand Ayatollah, Iranian <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> <a href="/wiki/Shi%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a">Shi'a</a> cleric (<i><a href="/wiki/Allameh_Tabatabaei" class="mw-redirect" title="Allameh Tabatabaei">Allameh Tabatabaei</a></i>), author of numerous works including the 27-volume Quranic commentary <i>al-Mizan</i> (<span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa"><span style="font-size:120%">الميزان</span></span></span>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamka" title="Hamka">Hamka</a> or Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amirullah was a prominent Indonesian author, <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">Ulema</a> politician, philosophical thinker, and author of Tafir Al Azhar. He was head of Indonesia's <a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">mufti</a> council (MUI). He resigned when his <a href="/wiki/Fatwa" title="Fatwa">fatwa</a> against the celebration of Christmas by Muslims was condemned by the <a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a> regime. Highly respected in his country, he was also appreciated in <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murtaza_Motahhari" class="mw-redirect" title="Murtaza Motahhari">Murtaza Motahhari</a>, the best student of <a href="/wiki/Allamah_Tabatabai" class="mw-redirect" title="Allamah Tabatabai">Allamah Tabatabai</a>, a martyr of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> in 1979, and author of numerous books (an incomplete compilation of his works comprises 25 volumes). He, like his teachers <a href="/wiki/Allama_Tabatabai" class="mw-redirect" title="Allama Tabatabai">Allama Tabatabai</a> and Ayatollah Khomeini, belong to the philosophical schools of Hikmat-ul-Mutaliya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Abul_Ala_Maududi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi">Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi</a>, who is credited with creating modern <a href="/wiki/Islamist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist">Islamist</a> political thought in the 20th century, was the founder of <a href="/wiki/Jamaat-e-Islami_Pakistan" title="Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan">Jamaat-e-Islami</a> and spent his life attempting to revive the Islamic intellectual tradition.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israr_Ahmed" title="Israr Ahmed">Israr Ahmed</a>, (1932–2010) was a Pakistani Islamic theologian followed particularly in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> and also among the South Asian diaspora in the Middle East, Western Europe, and North America. Founder of the <a href="/wiki/Tanzeem-e-islami" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanzeem-e-islami">Tanzeem-e-islami</a>, an offshoot of the Jamaat-e-Islami, he was significant scholar of Islam and the Quran.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Hamidullah" title="Muhammad Hamidullah">Muhammad Hamidullah</a> (1908–2002) belonged to a family of scholars, <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Writer" title="Writer">writers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">sufis</a>. He was a world-renowned <a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">scholar</a> of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, who was known for contributions to the research of the history of <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a>, translations of the <a href="/wiki/Koran" class="mw-redirect" title="Koran">Koran</a>, the advancement of golden age <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic learning</a>, and to the dissemination of Islamic teachings in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fazlur_Rahman_Malik" title="Fazlur Rahman Malik">Fazlur Rahman</a> was professor of Islamic thought at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahid_Hasyim" title="Wahid Hasyim">Wahid Hasyim</a> first Indonesian minister of religious affairs. Former head of Indonesian Nahdwatul Ulema, and founder of Islamic state universities in Indonesia. He is best known for reformation of the <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">Madrasah</a> curriculum.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a> is a major <a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">perennialist</a> thinker. His works are characterized by a persistent critique of modern sciences as well as a defense of Islamic and perennialist doctrines and principles. He argues that <a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">knowledge has been desacralized</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Human_history#Modern_history" title="Human history">modern period</a>, that is, separated from its divine source—God—and calls for its <a href="/wiki/Resacralization_of_knowledge" title="Resacralization of knowledge">resacralization</a> through <a href="/wiki/Tradition_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tradition (perennialism)">sacred traditions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientia_sacra" title="Scientia sacra">sacred science</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javed_Ahmad_Ghamidi" title="Javed Ahmad Ghamidi">Javed Ahmad Ghamidi</a> is a well-known <a href="/wiki/Pakistani_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pakistani people">Pakistani</a> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_scholar" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic scholar">Islamic scholar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exegete" class="mw-redirect" title="Exegete">exegete</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Educator" class="mw-redirect" title="Educator">educator</a>. A former member of the Jamaat-e-Islami, who extended the work of his tutor, <a href="/wiki/Amin_Ahsan_Islahi" title="Amin Ahsan Islahi">Amin Ahsan Islahi</a>.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syed_Muhammad_Naquib_al-Attas" title="Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas">Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas</a> is a prominent metaphysical thinker.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Ali Shariati</a> Iranian revolutionary thinker and sociologist who focused on <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> and Islam.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Abd_al-Rahman_Ibn_Aqil_al-Zahiri" title="Abu Abd al-Rahman Ibn Aqil al-Zahiri">Abu Abd al-Rahman Ibn Aqil al-Zahiri</a> (born 1942) is a Saudi Arabian <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> primarily focused on the reconciliation of reason and <a href="/wiki/Divine_revelation" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine revelation">revelation</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Baqir_al-Sadr" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr">Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr</a> (died 1980) is a Shi'ite Grand Ayatollah and one of the most influential Islamic philosophers of the 20th century. His two most important contributions to philosophy are his books "Our Philosophy" and "<a href="/wiki/The_Logical_Foundations_of_Induction" title="The Logical Foundations of Induction">The Logical Foundations of Induction</a>." He is also widely known for his work on economics, including "<a href="/wiki/Iqtisaduna" title="Iqtisaduna">Our Economics</a>" and "The Non-Usury Banking System" which are two of the most influential works in contemporary Islamic economics.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contemporary_perspectives">Contemporary perspectives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Contemporary perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the contemporary era, some people like the Ali Shariati have considered Islamic philosophy as realism;<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But there is also a belief that Islam is beyond all of (other) "isms".<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosophy has not been without criticism amongst Muslims, both contemporary and past. The imam <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a>, for whom the <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a> school of thought is named, rebuked philosophical discussion, once telling proponents of it that he was secure in his religion, but that they were "in doubt, so go to a doubter and argue with him (instead)."<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, Islamic philosophical thought has also been criticized by scholars of the modern <a href="/wiki/Salafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafi">Salafi</a> movement.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There would be many Islamic thinkers who were not enthusiastic about the potential of philosophy, but it would be incorrect to assume that they opposed it simply because it was a "foreign science". <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Leaman" title="Oliver Leaman">Oliver Leaman</a>, an expert on Islamic philosophy, points out that the objections of notable theologians are rarely directed at philosophy itself, but rather at the conclusions the philosophers arrived at. Even the 11th century <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a>, known for his <i><a href="/wiki/Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Incoherence of the Philosophers">Incoherence of the Philosophers</a></i> critique of philosophers, was himself an expert in philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>. His criticism was that they arrived at theologically erroneous conclusions. In his view the three most serious of these were believing in the co-eternity of the universe with God, denying the bodily resurrection, and asserting that God only has knowledge of abstract universals, not of particular things, though not all philosophers subscribed to these same views.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent studies by Muslim contemporary thinkers that aim at "renewing the impetus of philosophical thinking in Islam," the philosopher and theorist <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a> offers a critical analysis of the conventions that dominate mainstream academic and epistemic approaches in studying Islamic philosophy. These approaches, of methodology and <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> are looked at from archival standpoints within Oriental and Mediaevalist Studies, fail to recognize the fact that philosophy in Islam can still be a living intellectual tradition. He maintains that its renewal requires a radical reform in <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> within Islamic thought. El-Bizri's interpretations of <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (Ibn Sina) from the standpoint of <a href="/wiki/Heidegger" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a>'s critique of the history of metaphysics, and specifically against the background of the unfolding of the essence of technology, aim at finding new pathways in ontology that are not simply Avicennian nor Heideggerian, even though El-Bizri's approach in rethinking <i>falsafa</i> amounts to a "Neo-Avicennism" that carries resonances with novel modern philosophical ways of reading Aristotelianism and Thomism. El-Bizri engages contemporary issues in philosophy through a fundamental critical analytic of the evolution of key concepts in the history of ontology and epistemology. <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a> is a modernist in outlook since he aims at bringing newness to the tradition rather than simply reproduce it or being in rupture with it.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Maani’ Hammad al-Juhani, (a member of the Consultative Council and General Director, World Assembly of Muslim Youth)<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is quoted as declaring that because philosophy does not follow the moral guidelines of the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>, "philosophy, as defined by the philosophers, is one of the most dangerous falsehoods and most vicious in fighting faith and religion on the basis of logic, which it is very easy to use to confuse people in the name of reason, interpretation and metaphor that distort the religious texts".<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/27px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/40px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/54px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-%E2%80%98aql_al-fa%E2%80%98%E2%80%98al" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-‘aql al-fa‘‘al">Al-‘aql al-fa‘‘al</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_Philosophy" title="History of Islamic Philosophy"><i>History of Islamic philosophy</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_modernity" title="Islam and modernity">Islam and modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic metaphysics">Islamic metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">Islamic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_studies_scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Islamic studies scholars">List of Islamic studies scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_philosophers" title="List of Muslim philosophers">List of Muslim philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_advice_literature" title="Islamic advice literature">Islamic advice literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Islamic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace in Islamic philosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hassan-2013-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hassan-2013_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHassan2013" class="citation web cs1">Hassan, Hassan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.qantara.de/content/the-decline-of-islamic-scientific-thought-dont-blame-it-on-al-ghazali">"Don't Blame It on al-Ghazali"</a>. <i>qantara.de</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=qantara.de&rft.atitle=Don%27t+Blame+It+on+al-Ghazali&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Hassan&rft.aufirst=Hassan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.qantara.de%2Fcontent%2Fthe-decline-of-islamic-scientific-thought-dont-blame-it-on-al-ghazali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stanford-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stanford_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDag_Nikolaus_Hasse2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dag Nikolaus Hasse (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/">"Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020001417/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-10-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Influence+of+Arabic+and+Islamic+Philosophy+on+the+Latin+West&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Dag+Nikolaus+Hasse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Farabic-islamic-influence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver Leaman, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutas2002" class="citation journal cs1">Gutas, Dimitri (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/826146">"The Study of Arabic Philosophy in the Twentieth Century: An Essay on the Historiography of Arabic Philosophy"</a>. <i>British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies</i>. <b>29</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">5–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13530190220124043">10.1080/13530190220124043</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/826146">826146</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143301609">143301609</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Middle+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Study+of+Arabic+Philosophy+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+An+Essay+on+the+Historiography+of+Arabic+Philosophy&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143301609%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F826146%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13530190220124043&rft.aulast=Gutas&rft.aufirst=Dimitri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F826146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Henry_Corbin" title="Henry Corbin">Henry Corbin</a>, <i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver_Leaman2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Leaman" title="Oliver Leaman">Oliver Leaman</a> (2002). <i>An Introduction to Classical Islamic Philosophy</i> (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">211–</span>12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521793432" title="Special:BookSources/0521793432"><bdi>0521793432</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Classical+Islamic+Philosophy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E211-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0521793432&rft.au=Oliver+Leaman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EoQ-Quran-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EoQ-Quran_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFakhry2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fakhry, Majid (2006). "Philosophy and the Qurʾān". In <a href="/wiki/Jane_Dammen_McAuliffe" title="Jane Dammen McAuliffe">McAuliffe, Jane Dammen</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n" title="Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān">Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān</a></i>. Vol. IV. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00146">10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00146</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-14743-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-14743-8"><bdi>90-04-14743-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+and+the+Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00146&rft.isbn=90-04-14743-8&rft.aulast=Fakhry&rft.aufirst=Majid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simon van den Bergh, in his commentary on <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>' <i>Incoherence of the Incoherence</i>, argues that Kalām was influenced by Greek <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> and that the term <i>mutakallimun</i> (those who speak to each other, i.e. dialecticians) is derived from the Stoics' description of themselves as <i>dialektikoi</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wolfson1976-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wolfson1976_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfson1976" class="citation book cs1">Wolfson, Harry Austryn (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fuv8J-g7EdAC&pg=PA1"><i>The philosophy of the Kalam</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66580-4"><bdi>978-0-674-66580-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+philosophy+of+the+Kalam&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-66580-4&rft.aulast=Wolfson&rft.aufirst=Harry+Austryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfuv8J-g7EdAC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maktubat_Imam_Rabbani;_philosophy-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Maktubat_Imam_Rabbani;_philosophy_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed_Sirhindi_Faruqi" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ahmed Sirhindi Faruqi. "7: The alams and everything were created from nothing. Greek philosophers.". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090810170341/http://www.maktabah.org/index.php/sufism/45-maktubat/62-maktubat-imam-rabbani.html"><i>Maktubat Imam Rabbani (Shaykh Ahmed Sirhindi)</i></a> (in English and Punjabi). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maktabah.org/index.php/sufism/45-maktubat/62-maktubat-imam-rabbani.html">the original</a> on 2009-08-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7%3A+The+alams+and+everything+were+created+from+nothing.+Greek+philosophers.&rft.btitle=Maktubat+Imam+Rabbani+%28Shaykh+Ahmed+Sirhindi%29&rft.au=Ahmed+Sirhindi+Faruqi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maktabah.org%2Findex.php%2Fsufism%2F45-maktubat%2F62-maktubat-imam-rabbani.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maktubat_Imam_Rabbani;_philosophy_2-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Maktubat_Imam_Rabbani;_philosophy_2_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed_Sirhindi_Faruqi" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ahmed Sirhindi Faruqi. "3: It is not permissible to confine the meanings in Qur'an al-karim within philosophers' views.". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090810063722/http://www.hizmetbooks.org/Endless_Bliss_Third_Fascicle/"><i>Maktubat Imam Rabbani (Shaykh Ahmed Sirhindi)</i></a> (in English and Punjabi). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hizmetbooks.org/Endless_Bliss_Third_Fascicle/">the original</a> on 2009-08-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3%3A+It+is+not+permissible+to+confine+the+meanings+in+Qur%27an+al-karim+within+philosophers%27+views.&rft.btitle=Maktubat+Imam+Rabbani+%28Shaykh+Ahmed+Sirhindi%29&rft.au=Ahmed+Sirhindi+Faruqi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hizmetbooks.org%2FEndless_Bliss_Third_Fascicle%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leaman, 25, 27. "In this book [<i>Intentions of the philosophers</i>] he seeks to set out clearly the views of his opponents before demolishing them, in the subsequent <i>Incoherence of the philosophers</i>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wael B. Hallaq (1993), <i>Ibn Taymiyya Against the Greek Logicians</i>, p. 48. Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824043-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824043-0">0-19-824043-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928">History of logic: Arabic logic</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. M. Bochenski (1961), "On the history of the history of logic", <i>A history of formal logic</i>, pp. 4–10. Translated by I. Thomas, Notre Dame, <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.formalontology.it/islamic-philosophy.htm">Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodman-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Goodman_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), <i>Islamic Humanism</i>, p. 155, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-513580-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-513580-6">0-19-513580-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herald-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Herald_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp">Science and Muslim Scientists</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071020090525/http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp">Archived</a> 2007-10-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Islam Herald.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Ibn Taymiyyah</a> (1263–1328), the <i>Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin</i> (<i>Refutation of Greek Logicians</i>), where he argued against the usefulness, though not the validity, of the <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a> See pp. 253–54 of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStreet2005" class="citation cs2">Street, Tony (2005), "Logic", in Peter Adamson; Richard C. Taylor (eds.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">247–</span>65, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52069-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52069-0"><bdi>978-0-521-52069-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Logic&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Arabic+Philosophy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E247-%3C%2Fspan%3E65&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52069-0&rft.aulast=Street&rft.aufirst=Tony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steve A. Johnson (1984), "Ibn Sina's Fourth Ontological Argument for God's Existence", <i>The Muslim World</i> <b>74</b> (3–4), 161–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morewedge-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morewedge_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorewedge1970" class="citation cs2">Morewedge, P. (1970), "Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Malcolm and the Ontological Argument", <i>Monist</i>, <b>54</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">234–</span>49, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fmonist197054212">10.5840/monist197054212</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monist&rft.atitle=Ibn+Sina+%28Avicenna%29+and+Malcolm+and+the+Ontological+Argument&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E234-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fmonist197054212&rft.aulast=Morewedge&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer2001" class="citation cs2">Mayer, Toby (2001), "Ibn Sina's 'Burhan Al-Siddiqin'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>", <i>Journal of Islamic Studies</i>, <b>12</b> (1), <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Centre_for_Islamic_Studies" title="Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies">Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies</a>, Oxford Journals, Oxford University Press: <span class="nowrap">18–</span>39, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjis%2F12.1.18">10.1093/jis/12.1.18</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=Ibn+Sina%27s+%27Burhan+Al-Siddiqin%27&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E18-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjis%2F12.1.18&rft.aulast=Mayer&rft.aufirst=Toby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bergh, S. van den, “ʿAdam”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 17 August 2023 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_0296">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0296</a> First publishedonline: 2012 First print edition: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004161214" title="Special:BookSources/9789004161214">9789004161214</a>, 1960-2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bergh, S. van den, “ʿAdam”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 17 August 2023 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_0296">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0296</a> First published online: 2012 First print edition: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004161214" title="Special:BookSources/9789004161214">9789004161214</a>, 1960-2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For recent discussions of this question, see Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism", <i>The Review of Metaphysics</i>, Vol. 54 (June 2001), pp. 753–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlejandro1990" class="citation cs2">Alejandro, Herrera Ibáñez (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.formalontology.it/avicenna.htm">"La distinción entre esencia y existencia en Avicena"</a>, <i>Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía</i>, <b>16</b>: <span class="nowrap">183–</span>95<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-29</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+Latinoamericana+de+Filosof%C3%ADa&rft.atitle=La+distinci%C3%B3n+entre+esencia+y+existencia+en+Avicena&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E183-%3C%2Fspan%3E95&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Alejandro&rft.aufirst=Herrera+Ib%C3%A1%C3%B1ez&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.formalontology.it%2Favicenna.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFadlo1972" class="citation cs2">Fadlo, Hourani George (1972), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.formalontology.it/avicenna-biblio-one.htm">"Ibn Sina on necessary and possible existence"</a>, <i>Philosophical Forum</i>, <b>4</b>: <span class="nowrap">74–</span>86<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-29</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Forum&rft.atitle=Ibn+Sina+on+necessary+and+possible+existence&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E74-%3C%2Fspan%3E86&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Fadlo&rft.aufirst=Hourani+George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.formalontology.it%2Favicenna-biblio-one.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Irwin-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Irwin_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Irwin_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Irwin_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Irwin_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin2002" class="citation journal cs1">Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002). "Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam". <i>The Philosopher</i>. <b>LXXXX</b> (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosopher&rft.atitle=Averroes%27+Reason%3A+A+Medieval+Tale+of+Christianity+and+Islam&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=LXXXX&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Irwin&rft.aufirst=Jones&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Razavi_1997_129-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Razavi_1997_129_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Razavi_1997_129_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRazavi1997">Razavi (1997)</a>, p. 129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fancy, pp. 42, 60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman (1996), History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 315, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-13159-6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emanasyon görüşüne göre, maddi evren, her şeyin kaynağı Tanrı'nın kendini kademe kademe açığa vuruşu, tezahür edişi ya da yansımasıdır. Catholic Encyclopedia/ Emanation, Jewish Encyclopedia/Emanation , 22 Eylül 2008 tarihinde erişild</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615">"Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615">Archived</a> 2015-04-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, pp. 209–10 (<i>Electronic Theses and Dissertations</i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leaman-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leaman_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leaman_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Seyyed <a href="/wiki/Hossein_Nasr" class="mw-redirect" title="Hossein Nasr">Hossein Nasr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Leaman" title="Oliver Leaman">Oliver Leaman</a> (1996), <i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i>, p. 315, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-13159-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-13159-6">0-415-13159-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Craig-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Craig_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Craig_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Craig_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Craig_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig1979" class="citation cs2">Craig, William Lane (June 1979), "Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past", <i>The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science</i>, <b>30</b> (2): 165–70 [165–66], <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbjps%2F30.2.165">10.1093/bjps/30.2.165</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Whitrow+and+Popper+on+the+Impossibility+of+an+Infinite+Past&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=165-70+165-66&rft.date=1979-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbjps%2F30.2.165&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=William+Lane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osman Amin (2007), "Influence of Muslim Philosophy on the West", <i>Monthly Renaissance</i> <b>17</b> (11).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aertsen-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aertsen_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aertsen_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan A. Aertsen (1988), <i>Nature and Creature: Thomas Aquinas's Way of Thought</i>, p. 152. BRILL, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08451-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-08451-7">90-04-08451-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ezine-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ezine_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezine_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ezine_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bradley Steffens (2006). <i>Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist</i>, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59935-024-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-59935-024-6">1-59935-024-6</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a> Bradley Steffens, "Who Was the First Scientist?", <i>Ezine Articles</i>.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sabra-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sabra_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sabra_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sabra_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sabra_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/A._I._Sabra" title="A. I. Sabra">Sabra</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/090351.html">Ibn al-Haytham: Brief life of an Arab mathematician</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927224948/http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/090351.html">Archived</a> 2007-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Magazine" title="Harvard Magazine">Harvard Magazine</a></i>, October–December 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plott-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plott_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plott_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Plott (2000), <i>Global History of Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism</i>, Pt. II, p. 465. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0551-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0551-8">81-208-0551-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass" title="Motilal Banarsidass">Motilal Banarsidass</a> Publ.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCillis2013" class="citation book cs1">Cillis, Maria (2013-12-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1YliAgAAQBAJ&q=predestination&pg=PA142"><i>Free Will and Predestination in Islamic Thought: Theoretical Compromises in the Works of Avicenna, al-Ghazali and Ibn 'Arabi</i></a>. 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Karamustafa. "Fate". <i>Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fate&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+Qur%27an+Online&rft.au=Ahmet+T.+Karamustafa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span>: The verb <i>qadara</i> literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFFarah2003">Farah (2003</a>, pp. 119–22)</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFPatton1900">Patton (1900</a>, p. 130)</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Gardet-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gardet_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. Gardet (2001), "djuz’", in <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i>, CD-ROM Edition, v. 1.1, Leiden: Brill</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Abd-Allah" class="citation web cs1">A. Abd-Allah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081128054613/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/scislam.html">"The Qur'an, Knowledge, and Science"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southern_California" title="University of Southern California">University of Southern California</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/scislam.html">the original</a> on 2008-11-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Qur%27an%2C+Knowledge%2C+and+Science&rft.pub=University+of+Southern+California&rft.au=A.+Abd-Allah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usc.edu%2Fdept%2FMSA%2Fquran%2Fscislam.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNasr1993">Nasr (1993)</a>, p. 77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/uk/guardian-cartoon-of-cow-in-relation-to-priti-patel-sparks-outrage-amongst-diaspora-in-britain/articleshow/74557770.cms">"Guardian cartoon of cow in relation to Priti Patel sparks outrage amongst diaspora in Britain"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a></i>. 9 March 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200911224645/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/uk/guardian-cartoon-of-cow-in-relation-to-priti-patel-sparks-outrage-amongst-diaspora-in-britain/articleshow/74557770.cms">Archived</a> from the original on 11 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Guardian+cartoon+of+cow+in+relation+to+Priti+Patel+sparks+outrage+amongst+diaspora+in+Britain&rft.date=2020-03-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesofindia.indiatimes.com%2Fworld%2Fuk%2Fguardian-cartoon-of-cow-in-relation-to-priti-patel-sparks-outrage-amongst-diaspora-in-britain%2Farticleshow%2F74557770.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-glasse_49_50-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-glasse_49_50_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cyril Glassé, Huston Smith, The New Encyclopedia of Islam Rowman Altamira 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-759-10190-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-759-10190-6">978-0-759-10190-6</a> page 49-50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadi_Abd_al-Jabbar" title="Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar">Abd al-Jabbar</a>, Ibn Sina and al-Ghazali <i>God and Humans in Islamic Thought</i> Routledge 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203965375" title="Special:BookSources/9780203965375">9780203965375</a> p. 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Syrinx von Hees Enzyklopädie als Spiegel des Weltbildes: Qazwīnīs Wunder der Schöpfung: eine Naturkunde des 13. Jahrhunderts Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2002 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04511-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04511-7">978-3-447-04511-7</a> page 263</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i> <b>84</b> (1), pp. 71–123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", <i>The Islamic Quarterly</i>. London.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ehsan Masood, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/feb/27/islam-religion-evolution-science">"Islam's evolutionary legacy"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgerton2002" class="citation journal cs1">Edgerton, Frank N. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20168700">"A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science: Origins and Zoological Writings"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America</i>. <b>83</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">142–</span>146. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20168700">20168700</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Ecological+Society+of+America&rft.atitle=A+History+of+the+Ecological+Sciences%2C+Part+6%3A+Arabic+Language+Science%3A+Origins+and+Zoological+Writings&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E142-%3C%2Fspan%3E146&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20168700%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Edgerton&rft.aufirst=Frank+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20168700&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStott2013" class="citation book cs1">Stott, Rebecca (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzY_kGjRCXkC"><i>Darwin's Ghosts</i></a>. Bloomsbury. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781408831014" title="Special:BookSources/9781408831014"><bdi>9781408831014</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin%27s+Ghosts&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781408831014&rft.aulast=Stott&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWzY_kGjRCXkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_Z._Wilczynski1959" class="citation cs2">Jan Z. Wilczynski (December 1959), "On the Presumed Darwinism of Alberuni Eight Hundred Years before Darwin", <i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" title="Isis (journal)">Isis</a></i>, <b>50</b> (4): 459–66 [459–61], <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F348801">10.1086/348801</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143086988">143086988</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=On+the+Presumed+Darwinism+of+Alberuni+Eight+Hundred+Years+before+Darwin&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=459-66+459-61&rft.date=1959-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F348801&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143086988%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Jan+Z.+Wilczynski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alakbarov-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alakbarov_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alakbarov_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Farid Alakbarov (Summer 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/92_folder/92_articles/92_tusi.html">A 13th-Century Darwin? 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"The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980–1037)", <i>Becka J.</i> <b>119</b> (1), pp. 17–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tschanz-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tschanz_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tschanz_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", <i>Heart Views</i> <b>4</b> (2).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toby E. Huff (2003), <i>The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West</i>, p. 218. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-52994-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-52994-8">0-521-52994-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", <i>Trends in Biotechnology</i> <b>20</b> (8), pp. 357–58 [357].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sajjad H. Rizvi (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm">Avicenna/Ibn Sina (c. 980–1037)</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Russell_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Russell_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell1994">Russell (1994)</a>, pp. 224–62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ibn_al-Nafis_As_a_Philosopher-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ibn_al-Nafis_As_a_Philosopher_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ibn_al-Nafis_As_a_Philosopher_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", <i>Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis</i>, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (<a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html">Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080206072116/http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html">Archived</a> 2008-02-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Encyclopedia of Islamic World</i>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the Sources of Islamic Law and Practices, The Journal of law and religion <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0748-0814">0748-0814</a> Souaiaia 2005 vol: 20 iss:1 p:123</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jon-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jon_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jon Mcginnis, <i>Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources</i>, p. 284, <a href="/wiki/Hackett_Publishing_Company" title="Hackett Publishing Company">Hackett Publishing Company</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-871-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87220-871-0">0-87220-871-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meyerhof-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Meyerhof_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Muhsin Mahdi (1974), "<i>The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn at-Nafis</i> by Max Meyerhof, Joseph Schacht", <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i> <b>94</b> (2), pp. 232–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (died 1288)", p. 95–101, <i>Electronic Theses and Dissertations</i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615">Archived</a> 2015-04-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", pp. 42, 60, <i>Electronic Theses and Dissertations</i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615">Archived</a> 2015-04-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToomer1996">Toomer (1996)</a>, pp. 220–21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wainwright-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wainwright_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wainwright_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wainwright_90-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Wainwright, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html">Desert island scripts</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>, 22 March 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell-228-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russell-228_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell1994">Russell (1994)</a>, p. 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), <i>Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature</i>, Al-Rashid House for Publication.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cyril Glasse (2001), <i>New <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Islam">Encyclopedia of Islam</a></i>, p. 202, Rowman Altamira, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7591-0190-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7591-0190-6">0-7591-0190-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amber-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Amber_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", <i>Journal of Religion and Health</i> <b>43</b> (4): 357–77 [369].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Toomer-218-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Toomer-218_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToomer1996">Toomer (1996)</a>, p. 218</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Samar_Attar" class="mw-redirect" title="Samar Attar">Samar Attar</a>, <i>The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought</i>, Lexington Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-1989-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-1989-3">0-7391-1989-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell1994">Russell (1994)</a>, pp. 224–39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToomer1996">Toomer (1996)</a>, pp. 221–22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), <i>The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān</i>, pp. 38–46, <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09300-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09300-1">90-04-09300-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a> and Léon Gauthier (1981), <i>Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan</i>, p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://limitedinc.blogspot.com/2007/04/things-about-arabick-influence-on-john.html">[4]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Toomer-222-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Toomer-222_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toomer-222_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToomer1996">Toomer (1996)</a>, p. 222</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell1994">Russell (1994)</a>, p. 227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell1994">Russell (1994)</a>, p. 247</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernest Gellner, <i>Plough, Sword and Book</i> (1988), p. 239</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", <i>Islam & Science</i> <b>5</b> (1), pp. 61–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Ahmed (1999). <i>A Dictionary of Muslim Names</i>. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85065-356-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85065-356-9">1-85065-356-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", <i>Cooperation South Journal</i> <b>1</b>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://members.tripod.com/~salems2/historiography.htm">"Historiography"</a>. The Islamic Scholar.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkbarian2008" class="citation journal cs1">Akbarian, Reza (Winter 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.noormags.ir/view/en/articlepage/574395/the-relationship-between-religion-and-philosophy-in-the-history-of-islamic-thought">"The Relationship Between Religion And Philosophy In The History Of Islamic Thought"</a>. <i>Alhekmah</i>. <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">109–</span>142.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alhekmah&rft.atitle=The+Relationship+Between+Religion+And+Philosophy+In+The+History+Of+Islamic+Thought&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E109-%3C%2Fspan%3E142&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Akbarian&rft.aufirst=Reza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.noormags.ir%2Fview%2Fen%2Farticlepage%2F574395%2Fthe-relationship-between-religion-and-philosophy-in-the-history-of-islamic-thought&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFʻAlī1950" class="citation thesis cs1">ʻAlī, Wardī (1 June 1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/15127"><i>A sociological analysis of Ibn Khaldun's theory : a study in the sociology of knowledge</i></a> (PhD). University of Texas. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2152%2F15127">2152/15127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+sociological+analysis+of+Ibn+Khaldun%27s+theory+%3A+a+study+in+the+sociology+of+knowledge&rft.inst=University+of+Texas&rft.date=1950-06-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2152%2F15127&rft.aulast=%CA%BBAl%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Ward%C4%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepositories.lib.utexas.edu%2Fhandle%2F2152%2F15127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTony_Street2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tony Street (July 23, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-language">"Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and Logic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-12-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabic+and+Islamic+Philosophy+of+Language+and+Logic&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2008-07-23&rft.au=Tony+Street&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Farabic-islamic-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp">Science and Muslim Scientists</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071020090525/http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp">Archived</a> 2007-10-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Islam Herald</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kamal-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kamal_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamal2006" class="citation book cs1">Kamal, Muhammad (2006). <i>Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy</i>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 9, 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-5271-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-5271-8"><bdi>0-7546-5271-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mulla+Sadra%27s+Transcendent+Philosophy&rft.pages=9%2C+39&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7546-5271-8&rft.aulast=Kamal&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRazavi1997">Razavi (1997)</a>, p. 130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRazavi1997">Razavi (1997)</a>, pp. 129–30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For recent studies that engage in this line of research with care and thoughtful deliberation, see: <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, <i>The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger</i> (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000); and <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, 'Avicenna and Essentialism', <i>Review of Metaphysics</i> 54 (2001), 753–78; and <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, 'Avicenna's De Anima Between Aristotle and Husserl', in <i>The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming</i>, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), 67–89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Azad_2014-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Azad_2014_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAzad2014" class="citation web cs1">Azad, Hasan (2014-06-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2014/6/12/why-are-there-no-muslim-philosophers">"Why are there no Muslim philosophers? - Opinions"</a>. <i>Al Jazeera</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Why+are+there+no+Muslim+philosophers%3F+-+Opinions&rft.date=2014-06-12&rft.aulast=Azad&rft.aufirst=Hasan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fopinions%2F2014%2F6%2F12%2Fwhy-are-there-no-muslim-philosophers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allamaiqbal.com/">Allama Muhammad Iqbal</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/">"The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Reconstruction+of+Religious+Thought+in+Islam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allamaiqbal.com%2Fworks%2Fprose%2Fenglish%2Freconstruction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDahlén2003chpt._6a-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahlén2003chpt._6a_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDahlén2003">Dahlén 2003</a>, chpt. 6a.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDahlén2003chpt._5-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahlén2003chpt._5_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDahlén2003">Dahlén 2003</a>, chpt. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ensani.ir/fa/content/11479/default.aspx">"نهضت خداپرستان سوسیالیست"</a> (in Persian). پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B6%D8%AA+%D8%AE%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86+%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA&rft.pub=%D9%BE%DA%98%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B4%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C+%D9%88+%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA+%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ensani.ir%2Ffa%2Fcontent%2F11479%2Fdefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rooziato.com/1397157268/%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1-%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C-%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C/">"دکتر علی شریعتی"</a>. 19 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1+%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C+%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C&rft.date=2018-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frooziato.com%2F1397157268%2F%25D8%25AF%25DA%25A9%25D8%25AA%25D8%25B1-%25D8%25B9%25D9%2584%25DB%258C-%25D8%25B4%25D8%25B1%25DB%258C%25D8%25B9%25D8%25AA%25DB%258C%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://farsnews.ir/razavi/news/13990415001044/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D9%87%D9%85%D9%87-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7">https://farsnews.ir/razavi/news/13990415001044/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D9%87%D9%85%D9%87-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation is required to prevent link rot. (August 2024)">bare URL</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://borna.news/fa/news/1024801/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D9%87%D9%85%D9%87-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85-%D9%87%D8%A7">"اسلام، فراتر از همه" ایسم" ها"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D8%B2+%D9%87%D9%85%D9%87%22+%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85%22+%D9%87%D8%A7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fborna.news%2Ffa%2Fnews%2F1024801%2F%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B3%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D9%2585-%25D9%2581%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AA%25D8%25B1-%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B2-%25D9%2587%25D9%2585%25D9%2587-%25D8%25A7%25DB%258C%25D8%25B3%25D9%2585-%25D9%2587%25D8%25A7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">al-Hilyah (6/324)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leaman, O. (1999). <i>A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy</i> Polity Press. p 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, "The Labyrinth of Philosophy in Islam", in <i>Comparative Philosophy</i> 1.2 (2010): 3–23. Refer also to his article: <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, 'Le renouvellement de la falsafa?', <i>Les Cahiers de l’Islam</i> I (2014): 17–38. See also references above in this section of the footnotes to some of <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>'s other related earlier studies.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlankenhorn2005" class="citation book cs1">Blankenhorn, David (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UigeR5tVEoMC&q=Maani%E2%80%99+Hammad+al-Juhani%2C&pg=PA79"><i>The Islam/West Debate: Documents from a Global Debate on Terrorism, U.S.</i></a> Rowman & Littlefield. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742550070" title="Special:BookSources/9780742550070"><bdi>9780742550070</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islam%2FWest+Debate%3A+Documents+from+a+Global+Debate+on+Terrorism%2C+U.S.&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780742550070&rft.aulast=Blankenhorn&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUigeR5tVEoMC%26q%3DMaani%25E2%2580%2599%2BHammad%2Bal-Juhani%252C%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Al-Mawsoo’ah al-Muyassarah fi’l-Adyaan al-Madhaahib wa’l-Ahzaab al-Mu’aasirah</i> 1/419–423</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsonTaylor2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Adamson_(philosopher)" title="Peter Adamson (philosopher)">Adamson, Peter</a>; Taylor, Richard C., eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xowm255qOzQC"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81743-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81743-1"><bdi>978-0-521-81743-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Arabic+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81743-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxowm255qOzQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterworthKessel1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Butterworth_(philosopher)" title="Charles Butterworth (philosopher)">Butterworth, Charles E.</a>; Kessel, Blake Andrée, eds. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a-cmw-7jQKEC"><i>The Introduction of Arabic Philosophy Into Europe</i></a>. Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters. Vol. 39. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09842-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09842-8"><bdi>978-90-04-09842-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Introduction+of+Arabic+Philosophy+Into+Europe&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Studien+und+Texte+zur+Geistesgeschichte+des+Mittelalters&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09842-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da-cmw-7jQKEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen-Mor2001" class="citation book cs1">Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). <i>A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513398-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513398-1"><bdi>978-0-19-513398-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Matter+of+Fate%3A+The+Concept+of+Fate+in+the+Arab+World+as+Reflected+in+Modern+Arabic+Literature&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513398-1&rft.aulast=Cohen-Mor&rft.aufirst=Dalya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbin2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Corbin" title="Henry Corbin">Corbin, Henry</a> (2014) [1993]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l9bgAwAAQBAJ"><i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i></a>. Translated by Liadain Sherrard; Philip Sherrard. <a href="/wiki/Abingdon-on-Thames" title="Abingdon-on-Thames">Abingdon, Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-710-30416-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-710-30416-2"><bdi>978-0-710-30416-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Islamic+Philosophy&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxford&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-710-30416-2&rft.aulast=Corbin&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl9bgAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDahlén2003" class="citation cs2">Dahlén, Ashk (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QARHBQAAQBAJ"><i>Islamic Law, Epistemology and Modernity. Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran</i></a>, New York: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415945295" title="Special:BookSources/9780415945295"><bdi>9780415945295</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Law%2C+Epistemology+and+Modernity.+Legal+Philosophy+in+Contemporary+Iran&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780415945295&rft.aulast=Dahl%C3%A9n&rft.aufirst=Ashk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQARHBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarah2003" class="citation book cs1">— (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islambeliefsobse00fara_0"><i>Islam: Beliefs and Observances</i></a> (7th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Barron%27s_Educational_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="Barron's Educational Series">Barron's Educational Series</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7641-2226-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7641-2226-2"><bdi>978-0-7641-2226-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+Beliefs+and+Observances&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Barron%27s+Educational+Series&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7641-2226-2&rft.aulast=Farah&rft.aufirst=Caesar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislambeliefsobse00fara_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlickLiveseyWallis2005" class="citation cs2">Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005), <i>Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia</i>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-96930-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-96930-1"><bdi>0-415-96930-1</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/218847614">218847614</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F218847614&rft.isbn=0-415-96930-1&rft.aulast=Glick&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rft.au=Livesey%2C+Steven+John&rft.au=Wallis%2C+Faith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorelonRashed1996" class="citation book cs1">Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996). <i>Ency Hist Arab Science V 3</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203086537" title="Special:BookSources/9780203086537"><bdi>9780203086537</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ency+Hist+Arab+Science+V+3&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780203086537&rft.aulast=Morelon&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9gis&rft.au=Rashed%2C+Roshdi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasr1993" class="citation book cs1">Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1 January 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9wms5240AvQC&pg=PA77"><i>Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, An</i></a>. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-1419-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-1419-5"><bdi>978-1-4384-1419-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Islamic+Cosmological+Doctrines%2C+An&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1993-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-1419-5&rft.aulast=Nasr&rft.aufirst=Seyyed+Hossein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9wms5240AvQC%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatton1900" class="citation book cs1">Patton, Walter M. (1900). <i>The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân</i>. Vol. 16. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F369367">10.1086/369367</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10314-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10314-6"><bdi>978-90-04-10314-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144087031">144087031</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Doctrine+of+Freedom+in+the+Kor%C3%A2n&rft.pages=129&rft.date=1900&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144087031%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F369367&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10314-6&rft.aulast=Patton&rft.aufirst=Walter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRazavi1997" class="citation cs2">Razavi, Mehdi Amin (1997), <i>Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination</i>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-0412-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-0412-4"><bdi>0-7007-0412-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Suhrawardi+and+the+School+of+Illumination&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-7007-0412-4&rft.aulast=Razavi&rft.aufirst=Mehdi+Amin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Rescher, Nicholas</a> (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YNZBFJXt9SAC"><i>Studies in Arabic Philosophy</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Press" title="University of Pittsburgh Press">University of Pittsburgh Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822975663" title="Special:BookSources/9780822975663"><bdi>9780822975663</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Arabic+Philosophy&rft.place=Pittsburgh&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=9780822975663&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYNZBFJXt9SAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1994" class="citation book cs1">Russell, G. A. (1994). <i>The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England</i>. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09459-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09459-8"><bdi>90-04-09459-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%27Arabick%27+Interest+of+the+Natural+Philosophers+in+Seventeenth-Century+England&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=90-04-09459-8&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=G.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToomer1996" class="citation book cs1">Toomer, G. J. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/easternwisedomel0000toom"><i>Eastern Wisedome and Learning: the Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820291-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820291-1"><bdi>0-19-820291-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Wisedome+and+Learning%3A+the+Study+of+Arabic+in+Seventeenth-Century+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-820291-1&rft.aulast=Toomer&rft.aufirst=G.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feasternwisedomel0000toom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i> (Routledge History of World Philosophies) by <a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a> and Oliver Leaman [eds.]</li> <li><i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i> by Majid Fakhry.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220606082214/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/islamic-philosophy;jsessionid=B31B033F077DD5E68E09CC9D35C02105"><i>Islamic Philosophy</i></a> by <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Leaman" title="Oliver Leaman">Oliver Leaman</a>.</li> <li><i>The Study of Islamic Philosophy</i> by Ibrahim Bayyumi Madkour.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Falsafatuna" title="Falsafatuna">Falsafatuna</a></i> (<i>Our Philosophy</i>) by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Baqir_al-Sadr" title="Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr">Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr</a>.</li> <li>McGinnis, Jon & Reisman, David C. (eds.), <i>Classical Arabic Philosophy. An Anthology of Sources</i>, Indianapolis: Hackett, 2007.</li> <li>Schuon, Frithjof. <i>Islam and the Perennial Philosophy</i>. Trans. by J. Peter Hobson; ed. by Daphne Buckmaster. World of Islam Festival Publishing Co., 1976, cop. 1975. xii, 217 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-905035-22-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-905035-22-4">0-905035-22-4</a> pbk</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Baker, A.; Chapter, L. (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences", <i>Philosophia Islamica</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+4%3A+The+Sciences&rft.btitle=Philosophia+Islamica&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Chapter%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span>, in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sharif, M. M., "A History of Muslim Philosophy", <i>Philosophia Islamica</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Muslim+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Philosophia+Islamica&rft.aulast=Sharif&rft.aufirst=M.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Arabian_Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Arabian Philosophy">Arabian Philosophy</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131206130640/http://www.arabic-philosophy.com/dict/">Online Dictionary of Arabic Philosophical Terms</a> by Andreas Lammer.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140430093431/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1854?_hi=4&_pos=1">Philosophy in Oxford Islamic Studies Online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070219001832/http://majalla.org/souaiaia/ethics/dictionary/index.htm">Islamic Ethics and Philosophy Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muslimphilosophy.org/">Islamic Philosophy Online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/isl/hpi/index.htm">History of Philosophy in Islam</a> by T. J. De Boer (1903).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/study-philosophy.htm">The Study of Islamic Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep.htm">Islamic Philosophy</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fa.hole.ru/Hist_Iran_Phil_Corbin_part_I.pdf">History of Islamic philosophy (part I)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090319212901/http://fa.hole.ru/Hist_Iran_Phil_Corbin_part_I.pdf">Archived</a> 2009-03-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Corbin" title="Henry Corbin">Henry Corbin</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052618/http://www.iiitbd.org/ijit/">International Journal of Islamic Thoughts (IIITs)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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title="Template:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_philosophy22" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islamic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology"><i>Aqidah</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(theology)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Aql" title="'Aql">'<i>Aql</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(intellect)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">medieval astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam"><i>Kalam</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(dialectic)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh"><i>Fiqh</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(jurisprudence)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Natural philosophy <span style="font-size:85%;">(physics)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa"><i>Madrasah</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(education)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism <span style="font-size:85%;">(mysticism)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Farabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_metaphysics" title="Sufi metaphysics">metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_psychology" title="Sufi psychology">psychology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Transcendent theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Traditionalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">ʻAṣabīya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_(Sufism)" title="Hal (Sufism)">Ḥāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27jaz" title="I'jaz">Iʻjaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ʼIjtihād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_(Arabic)" title="Ilm (Arabic)">ʻIlm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irfan" title="Irfan">ʻIrfān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijmāʿ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslaha" title="Maslaha">Maslaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafs" title="Nafs">Nafs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalb" title="Qalb">Qalb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyās</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">Shūrā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawḥīd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophers_by_century_(CE)22" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_philosophers" title="List of Muslim philosophers">Philosophers</a> by century (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th–10th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari" title="Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari">Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_Iranshahri" title="Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri">Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Apharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hatim_Ahmad_ibn_Hamdan_al-Razi" title="Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi">Abu Hatim al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Ibn Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahmany%C4%81r" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmanyār">Bahmanyār</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27ayyad_fi%27l-Din_al-Shirazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi">Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Khusraw" title="Nasir Khusraw">Nasir Khusraw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afdal_al-Din_Kashani" title="Afdal al-Din Kashani">Afdal al-Din Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahi_Evren" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahi Evren">Ahi Evren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoja_Akhmet_Yassawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoja Akhmet Yassawi">Ahmad Yasavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn-al-Quzat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyám</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_Tabrizi" title="Shams Tabrizi">Shams Tabrizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Bektash_Veli" title="Haji Bektash Veli">Hajji Bektash Wali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab’in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ath%C4%ABr_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Abhar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī">al-Abharī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_al-Din_al-Qunawi" title="Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi">Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th–16th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunus_Emre" title="Yunus Emre">Yunus Emre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Bayram_Veli" title="Haji Bayram Veli">Hajji Bayram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalaladdin_Davani" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalaladdin Davani">Jalaladdin Davani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_ad-Din_Dashtaki" title="Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki">Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Hudayi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud Hudayi">Aziz Mahmud Hudayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi_Mir_Husayn_al-Maybudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi">Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Shabestari" title="Mahmoud Shabestari">Mahmud Shabistari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Haydar_Amuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Haydar Amuli">Sayyid Haydar Amuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daw%C5%ABd_al-Qay%E1%B9%A3ar%C4%AB" title="Dawūd al-Qayṣarī">Dawūd al-Qayṣarī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jami" title="Jami">Jami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th–19th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Damad" title="Mir Damad">Mir Damad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Fendereski" title="Mir Fendereski">Mir Fendereski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohsen_Fayz_Kashani" title="Mohsen Fayz Kashani">Mohsen Fayz Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Razzaq_Lahiji" title="Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji">Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajab_Ali_Tabrizi" title="Rajab Ali Tabrizi">Rajab Ali Tabrizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qazi_Sa%E2%80%99id_Qumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qazi Sa’id Qumi">Qazi Sa’id Qumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi" title="Shah Waliullah Dehlawi">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadi_Sabzavari" title="Hadi Sabzavari">Hādī Sabzavārī</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Tabataba%27i" title="Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i">Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riaz_Ahmed_Gohar_Shahi" title="Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi">Gohar Shahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Baqir_al-Sadr" title="Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr">Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ismail_al-Faruqi" title="Ismail al-Faruqi">Ismail al-Faruqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syed_Muhammad_Naquib_al-Attas" title="Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas">Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdolkarim_Soroush" title="Abdolkarim Soroush">Abdolkarim Soroush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gholamhossein_Ebrahimi_Dinani" title="Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani">Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Abdurrahman" title="Taha Abdurrahman">Taha Abdurrahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Abed_al-Jabri" title="Mohammed Abed al-Jabri">Mohammed Abed al-Jabri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Arkoun" title="Mohammed Arkoun">Mohammed Arkoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fouad_Zakariyya" title="Fouad Zakariyya">Fouad Zakariyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reza_Davari_Ardakani" title="Reza Davari Ardakani">Reza Davari Ardakani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Fardid" title="Ahmad Fardid">Ahmad Fardid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_Malekian" title="Mostafa Malekian">Mostafa Malekian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Hassanzadeh_Amoli" title="Hassan Hassanzadeh Amoli">Hasanzadeh Amoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdollah_Javadi-Amoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdollah Javadi-Amoli">Javadi Amoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_Nasir_Hunzai" title="Nasir al-Din Nasir Hunzai">Partawi Shah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_studies259" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_studies" title="Template talk:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_studies259" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_influences_on_Western_art" title="Islamic influences on Western art">Influences on Western art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawala" title="Hawala">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_poverty" title="Islam and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Usury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_of_Islam_in_early_modern_Europe" title="Reception of Islam in early modern Europe">Reception in early modern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">consultation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">use of analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">schools</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_quietism_in_Islam" title="Political quietism in Islam">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_secularism" title="Islam and secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">State</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">dialectic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">solidarity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world" title="Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">cosmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">ophthalmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">elementary school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_studies" title="Sufi studies">Sufi studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">philosophy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islam_topics273" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_topics" title="Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="View this 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title="Schools of Islamic theology">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God in Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">In Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revelation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Judgement Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Holiest sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Sawm</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_leaders" title="Islamic religious leaders">Leaders</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahaba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Shi'a Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate"><i>Rashidun</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Religious texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Seerah</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qisas_Al-Anbiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qisas Al-Anbiya">Story of Prophets</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Bektashi Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azariqa" title="Azariqa">Azariqa</a></li> <li>Moderate Kharijites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azzabas" title="Azzabas">Azzabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukkari" title="Nukkari">Nukkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam#Wahbi_school" title="Ibadi Islam">Wahbi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdat" title="Najdat">Najdat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam">Lahori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Life</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_flags" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qurban_(Islamic_ritual_sacrifice)" title="Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)">Qurbani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT in Islam">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="LawJurisprudence273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">Economic history</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sukuk" title="Sukuk">Sukuk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Takaful" title="Takaful">Takaful</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Murabaha" title="Murabaha">Murabaha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Riba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Hygiene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ghusl" title="Ghusl">Ghusl</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miswak" title="Miswak">Miswak</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Najis" title="Najis">Najis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tayammum" title="Tayammum">Tayammum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_toilet_etiquette" title="Islamic toilet etiquette">Toilet</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">Wudu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_family_jurisprudence" title="Islamic family jurisprudence">Family</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marital_jurisprudence" title="Islamic marital jurisprudence">Marriage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_sexual_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic sexual jurisprudence">Sex</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marriage_contract" title="Islamic marriage contract">Marriage contract</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahr" title="Mahr">Mahr</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahram" title="Mahram">Mahram</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Nikah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nikah_mut%27ah" title="Nikah mut'ah">Nikah mut'ah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">Zina</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_criminal_jurisprudence" title="Islamic criminal jurisprudence">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">Blasphemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">Death penalty</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">Dhabiĥa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam" title="Divorce in Islam">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maisir" title="Maisir">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Gender segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_honorifics" title="Islamic honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hudud" title="Hudud">Hudud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_inheritance_jurisprudence" title="Islamic inheritance jurisprudence">Inheritance</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war in Islam">POWs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_sharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sources of sharia">Sources of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theological jurisprudence">Theological</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Schools of islamic jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Islamic_studies273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="padding-left:2.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Theological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_evolution" title="Islamic views on evolution">Creationism (evolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberalism and progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyya" title="Shu'ubiyya">Shu'ubiyya</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_non-Islamic_places_of_worship_into_mosques" title="Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques">Conversion to mosques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Other273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="padding-left:2.5em;"> </span>Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Mormonism" title="Islam and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Islam" title="Protestantism and Islam">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze#Relationship_with_Muslims" title="Druze">Druzism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Jainism" title="Islam and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Sikhism" title="Islam and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam_by_country" title="Apostasy in Islam by country">Apostasy in Islam by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-Muslims" title="Ex-Muslims">Ex-Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_Muslims" title="List of former Muslims">List of former Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ex-Muslim_organisations" title="List of ex-Muslim organisations">List of ex-Muslim organisations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism of Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Muslim">Cultural Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Islamism" title="Post-Islamism">Post-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_miracles" title="Islamic view of miracles">Islamic view of miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_domestic_violence" title="Islam and domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_and_miracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran and miracles">Quran and miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Islam" title="Symbols of Islam">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy269" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec 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= 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 9,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-lllpf","timestamp":"20250214040949","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Islamic philosophy","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Islamic_philosophy","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q193104","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q193104","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-01-06T22:23:37Z","dateModified":"2025-02-09T15:18:13Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/57\/Double-leaf_frontispiece_from_%22The_Epistles_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity%22_%28cropped%29.jpg","headline":"Academic study of philosophy derived from the tradition and teachings of Islam"}</script> </body> </html>