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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-PV_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PV_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>PV industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PV_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Generations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Generations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Generations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_of_technical_specifications" 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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_costs_of_manufacture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Energy costs of manufacture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_costs_of_manufacture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Toxicity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cell_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Cell technologies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cell_technologies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cell technologies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cell_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-PERC_solar_cell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PERC_solar_cell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>PERC solar cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PERC_solar_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-HIT_solar_cell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#HIT_solar_cell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>HIT solar cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-HIT_solar_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fabrication_of_HIT_cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fabrication_of_HIT_cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Fabrication of HIT cells</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fabrication_of_HIT_cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opto-electrical_modeling_and_characterization_of_HIT_cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opto-electrical_modeling_and_characterization_of_HIT_cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Opto-electrical modeling and characterization of HIT cells</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opto-electrical_modeling_and_characterization_of_HIT_cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mono-silicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mono-silicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mono-silicon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mono-silicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polycrystalline_silicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polycrystalline_silicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Polycrystalline silicon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polycrystalline_silicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Not_classified_as_Crystalline_silicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Not_classified_as_Crystalline_silicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Not classified as Crystalline silicon</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Not_classified_as_Crystalline_silicon-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Not classified as Crystalline silicon subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Not_classified_as_Crystalline_silicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Amorphous_silicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amorphous_silicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Amorphous silicon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amorphous_silicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nanocrystalline_silicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanocrystalline_silicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Nanocrystalline silicon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanocrystalline_silicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protocrystalline_silicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protocrystalline_silicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Protocrystalline silicon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protocrystalline_silicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transformation_of_amorphous_into_crystalline_silicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transformation_of_amorphous_into_crystalline_silicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Transformation of amorphous into crystalline silicon</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Transformation_of_amorphous_into_crystalline_silicon-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Transformation of amorphous into crystalline silicon subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Transformation_of_amorphous_into_crystalline_silicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Low_temperature_induced_crystallization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_temperature_induced_crystallization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Low temperature induced crystallization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low_temperature_induced_crystallization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> 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typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparison_solar_cell_poly-Si_vs_mono-Si.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Comparison_solar_cell_poly-Si_vs_mono-Si.png/300px-Comparison_solar_cell_poly-Si_vs_mono-Si.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Comparison_solar_cell_poly-Si_vs_mono-Si.png/450px-Comparison_solar_cell_poly-Si_vs_mono-Si.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Comparison_solar_cell_poly-Si_vs_mono-Si.png/600px-Comparison_solar_cell_poly-Si_vs_mono-Si.png 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="565" /></a><figcaption>Crystalline-silicon <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a> are made of either <a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Poly Silicon</a> (left side) or <a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">Mono Silicon</a> (right side).</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Crystalline silicon</b> or (<b>c-Si</b>) is the <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystalline</a> forms of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, either <a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">polycrystalline silicon</a> (poly-Si, consisting of small crystals), or <a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">monocrystalline silicon</a> (mono-Si, a <a href="/wiki/Single_crystal" title="Single crystal">continuous crystal</a>). Crystalline silicon is the dominant <a href="/wiki/Semiconducting_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconducting material">semiconducting material</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">photovoltaic</a> technology for the production of <a href="/wiki/Solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cells">solar cells</a>. These cells are assembled into <a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">solar panels</a> as part of a <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">photovoltaic system</a> to generate <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a> from sunlight. </p><p>In electronics, crystalline silicon is typically the monocrystalline form of silicon, and is used for producing <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">microchips</a>. This silicon contains much lower impurity levels than those required for solar cells. Production of semiconductor grade silicon involves a <a href="/wiki/Siemens_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Siemens process">chemical purification</a> to produce hyper-pure polysilicon, followed by a <a href="/wiki/Czochralski_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Czochralski process">recrystallization</a> process to grow monocrystalline silicon. The cylindrical <a href="/wiki/Boule_(crystal)" title="Boule (crystal)">boules</a> are then cut into <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafers</a> for further processing. </p><p>Solar cells made of crystalline silicon are often called <i>conventional</i>, <i>traditional</i>, or <i>first generation</i> solar cells, as they were developed in the 1950s and remained the most common type up to the present time.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because they are produced from 160 to 190 <a href="/wiki/Micrometers" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrometers">μm</a> thick <a href="/wiki/Solar_wafer" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar wafer">solar wafers</a>—slices from bulks of <a href="/wiki/Silicon#Electronic_grade" title="Silicon">solar grade silicon</a>—they are sometimes called <i>wafer-based</i> solar cells. </p><p>Solar cells made from c-Si are <a href="/wiki/Single-junction_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-junction cell">single-junction cells</a> and are generally more efficient than their rival technologies, which are the second-generation <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">thin-film solar cells</a>, the most important being <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">CdTe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells">CIGS</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a> (a-Si). Amorphous silicon is an <a href="/wiki/Allotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotropic">allotropic</a> variant of silicon, and <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous</a> means "without shape" to describe its non-crystalline form.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraunhofer-PR-2014_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraunhofer-PR-2014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 29">: 29 </span></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:#4fc1cf; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 93.906250581749px; border-left-color:#3300a6"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#3300a6"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#3300a6"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:69.098300562505px; border-width:0 0 30.901699437495px 95.105651629515px; border-bottom-color:yellow"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:73.91584937101px; border-width:0 0 26.08415062899px 96.538163883327px; border-bottom-color:#00CC00"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:74.522927431662px; border-width:0 0 25.477072568338px 96.700148776243px; border-bottom-color:#de2821"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <p>Global PV market by technology in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraunhofer_ISE_2022_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraunhofer_ISE_2022-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 24, 25">: 24, 25 </span></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#de2821; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">CdTe</a> (4.1%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00CC00; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">a-Si</a> (0.1%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:yellow; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cell" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell">CIGS</a> (0.8%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#3300a6; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">mono-Si</a> (82%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#4fc1cf; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">multi-Si</a> (13%)</div> </div> </div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The allotropic forms of silicon range from a single crystalline structure to a completely unordered amorphous structure with several intermediate varieties. In addition, each of these different forms can possess several names and even more abbreviations, and often cause confusion to non-experts, especially as some materials and their application as a PV technology are of minor significance, while other materials are of outstanding importance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="PV_industry">PV industry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: PV industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In photovoltaic industry,materials are commonly grouped into the following two categories: </p> <ul><li>Crystalline silicon (c-Si), used in conventional <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafer</a>-based solar cells. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">Monocrystalline silicon</a> (mono-Si)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polycrystalline silicon</a> (multi-Si)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribbon_silicon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribbon silicon">Ribbon silicon</a> (ribbon-Si), has currently no market<sup id="cite_ref-Fraunhofer-PR-2014_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraunhofer-PR-2014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 17, 18">: 17, 18 </span></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Other materials, not classified as crystalline silicon, used in <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">thin-film</a> and other solar-cell technologies. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">Amorphous silicon</a> (a-Si)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanocrystalline_silicon" title="Nanocrystalline silicon">Nanocrystalline silicon</a> (nc-Si)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocrystalline_silicon" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocrystalline silicon">Protocrystalline silicon</a> (pc-Si)</li> <li>Other established non-silicon materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">CdTe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cell" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell">CIGS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell#Emerging_photovoltaics" title="Thin-film solar cell">Emerging photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">Multi-junction solar cells</a> (MJ) commonly used for <a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">solar panels on spacecraft</a> for <a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">space-based solar power</a>. They are also used in <a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">concentrator photovoltaics</a> (CPV, HCPV), an emerging technology best suited for locations that receive much sunlight.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Generations">Generations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Generations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alternatively, different types of solar cells and/or their semiconducting materials can be classified by generations: </p> <ul><li>First generation solar cells are made of crystalline silicon, also called, conventional, traditional, wafer-based solar cells and include monocrystalline (mono-Si) and polycrystalline (multi-Si) semiconducting materials.</li> <li>Second generation solar cells or panels are based on thin-film technology and are of commercially significant importance. These include CdTe, CIGS and amorphous silicon.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_generation_solar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Third generation solar cell">Third generation solar cells</a> are often labeled as <i>emerging technologies</i> with little or no market significance and include a large range of substances, mostly organic, often using organometallic compounds.</li></ul> <p>Arguably, <a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-junction photovoltaic cell">multi-junction photovoltaic cells</a> can be classified to neither of these generations. A typical triple junction semiconductor is made of <a href="/wiki/Indium_gallium_phosphide" title="Indium gallium phosphide">InGaP</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indium_gallium_arsenide" title="Indium gallium arsenide">(In)GaAs</a>/<a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Ge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_of_technical_specifications">Comparison of technical specifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Comparison of technical specifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Categories </th> <th>Technology </th> <th width="60"><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">η</a> (%) </th> <th width="80"><a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_voltage" title="Open-circuit voltage"><i>V</i><sub>OC</sub></a> (V) </th> <th width="80"><a href="/wiki/Short-circuit_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Short-circuit current"><i>I</i><sub>SC</sub></a> (A) </th> <th width="60"><a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">W/m<sup>2</sup></a> </th> <th width="60"><i>t</i> (<a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">μm</a>) </th></tr> <tr style="background-color: #f2f2f2;"> <th rowspan="3" align="left"><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-film solar cells">Thin-film solar cells</a><br /> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">a-Si</a> </td> <td>11.1 </td> <td>6.3 </td> <td>0.0089 </td> <td>33 </td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr style="background-color: #f2f2f2;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">CdTe</a> </td> <td>16.5 </td> <td>0.86 </td> <td>0.029 </td> <td>– </td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr style="background-color: #f2f2f2;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells">CIGS</a> </td> <td>20.5 </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Market_share">Market share</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Market share"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg/273px-Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg.png" decoding="async" width="273" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg/410px-Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg/546px-Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="513" data-file-height="344" /></a><figcaption>Global Photovoltaics market share by technology 1980–2021.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraunhofer_ISE_2022_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraunhofer_ISE_2022-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 24, 25">: 24, 25 </span></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 2013, conventional crystalline silicon technology dominated worldwide PV production, with multi-Si leading the market ahead of mono-Si, accounting for 54% and 36%, respectively. For the last ten years, worldwide market-share of thin-film technologies stagnated below 18% and currently stand at 9%. In the thin-film market, CdTe leads with an annual production of 2 <a href="/wiki/Gigawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigawatt">GW</a><sub><a href="/wiki/Watt-peak" class="mw-redirect" title="Watt-peak">p</a></sub> or 5%, followed by a-Si and CIGS, both around 2%.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraunhofer-PR-2014_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraunhofer-PR-2014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4, 18">: 4, 18 </span></sup> Alltime deployed PV <a href="/wiki/Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">capacity</a> of 139 gigawatts (<a href="/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics" title="Growth of photovoltaics">cumulative as of 2013</a>) splits up into 121 GW crystalline silicon (87%) and 18 GW thin-film (13%) technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraunhofer-PR-2014_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraunhofer-PR-2014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 41">: 41 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Efficiency">Efficiency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png/343px-Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png" decoding="async" width="343" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png/515px-Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png/686px-Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png 2x" data-file-width="3217" data-file-height="1638" /></a><figcaption>Conversion Efficiencies of best research solar cells worldwide for various Photovoltaic Technologies since 1976.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Solar cell efficiency</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">conversion efficiency</a> of PV devices describes the energy-ratio of the outgoing electrical power compared to the incoming radiated light. A single solar cells has generally a better, or higher efficiency than an entire solar module. Additionally, lab efficiency is always far superior to that of goods that are sold commercially. </p> <dl><dt>Lab cells</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <p>In 2013, record Lab cell efficiency was highest for crystalline silicon. However, multi-silicon is followed closely by cadmium telluride and copper indium gallium selenide solar cells. </p> <ol><li>25.6% — mono-Si cell</li> <li>20.4% — multi-Si cell</li> <li>21.7% — CIGS cell</li> <li>21.5% — CdTe cell</li></ol> <p>Both-sides-contacted silicon solar cells as of 2021: 26% and possibly above.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Modules</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <p>The average commercial crystalline silicon module increased its efficiency from about 12% to 16% over the last ten years. In the same period CdTe-modules improved their efficiency from 9 to 16%. The modules performing best under lab conditions in 2014 were made of monocrystalline silicon. They were 7% above the efficiency of commercially produced modules (23% over 16%) which indicated that the conventional silicon technology still had potential to improve and therefore maintain its leading position.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraunhofer-PR-2014_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraunhofer-PR-2014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6">: 6 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_costs_of_manufacture">Energy costs of manufacture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Energy costs of manufacture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crystalline silicon has a high cost in energy because <a href="/wiki/Silicon#Production" title="Silicon">silicon is produced</a> by the reduction of high-grade <a href="/wiki/Quartz_sand" class="mw-redirect" title="Quartz sand">quartz sand</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric furnace</a>. The electricity generated for this process may produce <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>. This coke-fired <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> process occurs at high temperatures of more than 1,000 °C and is very energy intensive, using about 11 kilowatt-hours (kW⋅h) per kilogram of silicon.<sup id="cite_ref-si-production_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-si-production-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The energy requirements of this process per unit of silicon metal produced may be relatively inelastic. But major energy cost reductions per (photovoltaic) product have been made as silicon cells have become more efficient at converting sunlight, larger silicon metal ingots are cut with less waste into thinner wafers, silicon waste from manufacture is recycled, and material costs have reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraunhofer-PR-2014_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraunhofer-PR-2014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 29">: 29 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxicity">Toxicity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Toxicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the exception of <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a>, most commercially established PV technologies use <a href="/wiki/Toxic_heavy_metal" title="Toxic heavy metal">toxic heavy metals</a>. <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cell" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell">CIGS</a> often uses a <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_sulfide" title="Cadmium sulfide">CdS</a> buffer layer, and the semiconductor material of <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">CdTe</a>-technology itself contains the toxic <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a> (Cd). In the case of crystalline silicon modules, the <a href="/wiki/Solder" title="Solder">solder</a> material that joins the copper strings of the cells, it contains about 36% of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> (Pb). Moreover, the paste used for screen printing front and back contacts contains traces of Pb and sometimes Cd as well. It is estimated that about 1,000 metric tonnes of Pb have been used for 100 gigawatts of c-Si solar modules. However, there is no fundamental need for lead in the solder alloy.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cell_technologies">Cell technologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cell technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PERC_solar_cell">PERC solar cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: PERC solar cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cells<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> consist of the addition of an extra layer to the rear-side of a solar cell. This dielectric passive layer acts to reflect unabsorbed light back to the solar cell for a second absorption attempt increasing the solar cell efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A PERC is created through an additional film deposition and etching process. Etching can be done either by chemical or laser processing. About 80% of solar panels worldwide use the PERC design.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Martin Green, Andrew Blakers, Jianhua Zhao and Aihua Wang won the <a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_Prize_for_Engineering" title="Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering">Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering</a> in 2023 for development of the PERC solar cell.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="HIT_solar_cell">HIT solar cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: HIT solar cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Heterojunction_solar_cell" title="Heterojunction solar cell">Heterojunction solar cell</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HIT_cell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/HIT_cell.jpg/279px-HIT_cell.jpg" decoding="async" width="279" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/HIT_cell.jpg/419px-HIT_cell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/HIT_cell.jpg/558px-HIT_cell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2233" data-file-height="1421" /></a><figcaption>Schematics of a HIT-cell...</figcaption></figure> <p>A HIT solar cell is composed of a mono thin crystalline silicon wafer surrounded by ultra-thin <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a> layers.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The acronym HIT stands for "<a href="/wiki/Heterojunction" title="Heterojunction">heterojunction</a> with intrinsic thin layer". HIT cells are produced by the Japanese multinational electronics corporation <a href="/wiki/Panasonic" title="Panasonic">Panasonic</a> (see also <i><a href="/wiki/Sanyo#Solar_cells_and_plants" title="Sanyo">Sanyo § Solar cells and plants</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Panasonic and several other groups have reported several advantages of the HIT design over its traditional c-Si counterpart: </p> <ol><li>An intrinsic a-Si layer can act as an effective surface passivation layer for c-Si wafer.</li> <li>The p+/n+ doped a-Si functions as an effective emitter/BSF for the cell.</li> <li>The a-Si layers are deposited at much lower temperature, compared to the processing temperatures for traditional diffused c-Si technology.</li> <li>The HIT cell has a lower temperature coefficient compared to c-Si cell technology.</li></ol> <p>Owing to all these advantages, this new hetero-junction solar cell is a considered to be a promising low cost alternative to traditional c-Si based solar cells. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fabrication_of_HIT_cells">Fabrication of HIT cells</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Fabrication of HIT cells"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The details of the fabrication sequence vary from group to group. Typically in good quality, CZ/FZ grown c-Si wafer (with ~1 ms lifetimes) are used as the absorber layer of HIT cells. Using alkaline etchants, such as, NaOH or (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub>NOH the (100) surface of the wafer is textured to form the pyramids of 5–10 μm height. Next, the wafer is cleaned using peroxide and HF solutions. This is followed by deposition of intrinsic a-Si passivation layer, typically through PECVD or Hot-wire CVD.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The silane (SiH4) gas diluted with H<sub>2</sub> is used as a precursor. The deposition temperature and pressure is maintained at 200 °C and 0.1−1 Torr. Precise control over this step is essential to avoid the formation of defective epitaxial Si.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cycles of deposition and annealing and H<sub>2</sub> plasma treatment are shown to have provided excellent surface passivation.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diborane or Trimethylboron gas mixed with SiH<sub>4</sub> is used to deposit p-type a-Si layer, while, Phosphine gas mixed with SiH<sub>4</sub> is used to deposit n-type a-Si layer. Direct deposition of doped a-Si layers on c-Si wafer is shown to have very poor passivation properties.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is most likely due to dopant induced defect generation in a-Si layers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sputtered Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) is commonly used as a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer on top of the front and back a-Si layer in bi-facial design, as a-Si has high lateral resistance. </p><p>It is generally deposited on the back side as well fully metallized cell to avoid diffusion of back metal and also for impedance matching for the reflected light.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The silver/aluminum grid of 50-100μm thick is deposited through stencil printing for the front contact and back contact for bi-facial design. The detailed description of the fabrication process can be found in.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opto-electrical_modeling_and_characterization_of_HIT_cells">Opto-electrical modeling and characterization of HIT cells</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Opto-electrical modeling and characterization of HIT cells"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The literature discusses several studies to interpret carrier transport bottlenecks in these cells. Traditional light and dark I–V are extensively studied <sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are observed to have several non-trivial features, which cannot be explained using the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells" title="Theory of solar cells">traditional solar cell diode theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because of the presence of hetero-junction between the intrinsic a-Si layer and c-Si wafer which introduces additional complexities to current flow.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, there has been significant efforts to characterize this solar cell using C-V,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> impedance spectroscopy,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> surface photo-voltage,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suns-Voc<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to produce complementary information. </p><p> Further, a number of design improvements, such as, the use of new emitters,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> bifacial configuration, interdigitated back contact (IBC) configuration<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> bifacial-tandem configuration<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are actively being pursued.</p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mono-silicon">Mono-silicon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mono-silicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon.svg/145px-Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="145" height="389" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon.svg/217px-Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon.svg/289px-Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="149" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of <a href="/wiki/Allotropy" title="Allotropy">allotropic</a> forms of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">Monocrystalline silicon</a></div> <p>Monocrystalline silicon (mono c-Si) is a form in which the crystal structure is homogeneous throughout the material; the orientation, lattice parameter, and electronic properties are constant throughout the material.<sup id="cite_ref-Green1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dopant atoms such as phosphorus and boron are often incorporated into the film to make the silicon n-type or p-type respectively. Monocrystalline silicon is fabricated in the form of silicon wafers, usually by the <a href="/wiki/Czochralski_method" title="Czochralski method">Czochralski Growth method</a>, and can be quite expensive depending on the radial size of the desired single crystal wafer (around $200 for a 300 mm Si wafer).<sup id="cite_ref-Green1_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This monocrystalline material, while useful, is one of the chief expenses associated with producing photovoltaics where approximately 40% of the final price of the product is attributable to the cost of the starting silicon wafer used in cell fabrication.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Polycrystalline_silicon">Polycrystalline silicon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Polycrystalline silicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Crystalline_silicon" title="Special:EditPage/Crystalline silicon">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polycrystalline silicon</a> is composed of many smaller silicon grains of varied crystallographic orientation, typically > 1 mm in size. This material can be synthesized easily by allowing liquid silicon to cool using a seed crystal of the desired crystal structure. Additionally, other methods for forming smaller-grained polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) exist such as high temperature chemical vapor deposition (CVD). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Not_classified_as_Crystalline_silicon">Not classified as Crystalline silicon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Not classified as Crystalline silicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These allotropic forms of silicon are not classified as crystalline silicon. They belong to the group of <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-film solar cells">thin-film solar cells</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amorphous_silicon">Amorphous silicon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Amorphous silicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amorphous silicon (a-Si) has no long-range periodic order. The application of amorphous silicon to photovoltaics as a standalone material is somewhat limited by its inferior electronic properties.<sup id="cite_ref-streetman_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-streetman-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When paired with microcrystalline silicon in tandem and triple-junction solar cells, however, higher efficiency can be attained than with single-junction solar cells.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tandem assembly of solar cells allows one to obtain a thin-film material with a bandgap of around 1.12 eV (the same as single-crystal silicon) compared to the bandgap of amorphous silicon of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6981272370002790000♠"></span>1.7–1.8 eV</span> bandgap. Tandem solar cells are then attractive since they can be fabricated with a bandgap similar to single-crystal silicon but with the ease of amorphous silicon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanocrystalline_silicon">Nanocrystalline silicon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Nanocrystalline silicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nanocrystalline_silicon" title="Nanocrystalline silicon">Nanocrystalline silicon</a> (nc-Si), sometimes also known as <i>microcrystalline silicon</i> (μc-Si), is a form of <a href="/wiki/Porous_silicon" title="Porous silicon">porous silicon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an <a href="/wiki/Allotropy" title="Allotropy">allotropic</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> with <a href="/wiki/Paracrystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrystalline">paracrystalline</a> structure—is similar to <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a> (a-Si), in that it has an <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous</a> phase. Where they differ, however, is that nc-Si has small grains of crystalline silicon within the amorphous phase. This is in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">polycrystalline silicon</a> (poly-Si) which consists solely of crystalline silicon grains, separated by grain boundaries. The difference comes solely from the grain size of the crystalline grains. Most materials with grains in the micrometre range are actually fine-grained polysilicon, so nanocrystalline silicon is a better term. The term 'nanocrystalline silicon' refers to a range of materials around the transition region from amorphous to microcrystalline phase in the silicon thin film. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protocrystalline_silicon">Protocrystalline silicon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Protocrystalline silicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Protocrystalline_silicon" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocrystalline silicon">Protocrystalline silicon</a> has a higher efficiency than amorphous silicon (a-Si) and it has also been shown to improve stability, but not eliminate it.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Protocrystalline phase is a distinct <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phase</a> occurring during <a href="/wiki/Crystal_growth" title="Crystal growth">crystal growth</a> which evolves into a <a href="/wiki/Microcrystalline" title="Microcrystalline">microcrystalline</a> form. </p><p>Protocrystalline Si also has a relatively low absorption near the band gap owing to its more ordered crystalline structure. Thus, protocrystalline and amorphous silicon can be combined in a tandem solar cell where the top layer of thin protocrystalline silicon absorbs short-wavelength light whereas the longer wavelengths are absorbed by the underlying a-Si substrate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transformation_of_amorphous_into_crystalline_silicon">Transformation of amorphous into crystalline silicon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Transformation of amorphous into crystalline silicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amorphous silicon can be transformed to crystalline silicon using well-understood and widely implemented high-temperature annealing processes. The typical method used in industry requires high-temperature compatible materials, such as special high temperature glass that is expensive to produce. However, there are many applications for which this is an inherently unattractive production method. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low_temperature_induced_crystallization">Low temperature induced crystallization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Low temperature induced crystallization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Flexible solar cells have been a topic of interest for less conspicuous-integrated power generation than solar power farms. These modules may be placed in areas where traditional cells would not be feasible, such as wrapped around a telephone pole or cell phone tower. In this application, a photovoltaic material may be applied to a flexible substrate, often a polymer. Such substrates cannot survive the high temperatures experienced during traditional annealing. Instead, novel methods of crystallizing the silicon without disturbing the underlying substrate have been studied extensively. Aluminum-induced crystallization (AIC) and local laser crystallization are common in the literature, however not extensively used in industry. </p><p>In both of these methods, amorphous silicon is grown using traditional techniques such as plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). The crystallization methods diverge during post-deposition processing. In aluminum-induced crystallization, a thin layer of aluminum (50 nm or less) is deposited by physical vapor deposition onto the surface of the amorphous silicon. This stack of material is then annealed at a relatively low temperature between 140 °C and 200 °C in a vacuum. The aluminum that diffuses into the amorphous silicon is believed to weaken the hydrogen bonds present, allowing crystal nucleation and growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Kishore_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kishore-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experiments have shown that polycrystalline silicon with grains on the order of 0.2–0.3 μm can be produced at temperatures as low as 150 °C. The volume fraction of the film that is crystallized is dependent on the length of the annealing process.<sup id="cite_ref-Kishore_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kishore-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aluminum-induced crystallization produces polycrystalline silicon with suitable crystallographic and electronic properties that make it a candidate for producing polycrystalline thin films for photovoltaics.<sup id="cite_ref-Kishore_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kishore-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> AIC can be used to generate crystalline silicon nanowires and other nano-scale structures. </p><p>Another method of achieving the same result is the use of a laser to heat the silicon locally without heating the underlying substrate beyond some upper-temperature limit. An excimer laser or, alternatively, green lasers such as a frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser is used to heat the amorphous silicon, supplying the energy necessary to nucleate grain growth. The laser fluence must be carefully controlled in order to induce crystallization without causing widespread melting. Crystallization of the film occurs as a very small portion of the silicon film is melted and allowed to cool. Ideally, the laser should melt the silicon film through its entire thickness, but not damage the substrate. Toward this end, a layer of silicon dioxide is sometimes added to act as a thermal barrier.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows the use of substrates that cannot be exposed to the high temperatures of standard annealing, polymers for instance. Polymer-backed solar cells are of interest for seamlessly integrated power production schemes that involve placing photovoltaics on everyday surfaces. </p><p>A third method for crystallizing amorphous silicon is the use of a thermal plasma jet. This strategy is an attempt to alleviate some of the problems associated with laser processing – namely the small region of crystallization and the high cost of the process on a production scale. The plasma torch is a simple piece of equipment that is used to anneal the amorphous silicon thermally. Compared to the laser method, this technique is simpler and more cost-effective.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plasma torch annealing is attractive because the process parameters and equipment dimensions can be changed easily to yield varying levels of performance. A high level of crystallization (~ 90%) can be obtained with this method. Disadvantages include difficulty achieving uniformity in the crystallization of the film. While this method is applied frequently to silicon on a glass substrate, processing temperatures may be too high for polymers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_solar_cells" title="List of types of solar cells">List of types of solar cells</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystalline_silicon&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200904/physicshistory.cfm">"Bell Labs Demonstrates the First Practical Silicon Solar Cell"</a>. <i>aps.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aps.org&rft.atitle=Bell+Labs+Demonstrates+the+First+Practical+Silicon+Solar+Cell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fpublications%2Fapsnews%2F200904%2Fphysicshistory.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrystalline+silicon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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href="/wiki/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Template:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Photovoltaics" title="Template talk:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photovoltaics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">Photoelectric effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">Solar irradiance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_constant" title="Solar constant">Solar constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Solar cell efficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency#Quantum_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Quantum efficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_power_(photovoltaic)" title="Nominal power (photovoltaic)">Nominal power (Watt-peak)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">Thin-film solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">Multi-junction solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-generation_photovoltaic_cell" title="Third-generation photovoltaic cell">Third-generation photovoltaic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_research" title="Solar cell research">Solar cell research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermophotovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermophotovoltaic">Thermophotovoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_efficiency_limit" title="Thermodynamic efficiency limit">Thermodynamic efficiency limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun-free_photovoltaics" title="Sun-free photovoltaics">Sun-free photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarizing_organic_photovoltaics" title="Polarizing organic photovoltaics">Polarizing organic photovoltaics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_materials" title="List of semiconductor materials">List of semiconductor materials</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crystalline silicon (c-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride" title="Cadmium telluride">Cadmium telluride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide" title="Copper indium gallium selenide">Copper indium gallium selenide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">Amorphous silicon (a-Si)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics" title="Growth of photovoltaics">Growth of photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_cells" title="Timeline of solar cells">Timeline of solar cells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic<br />system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanocrystal_solar_cell" title="Nanocrystal solar cell">Nanocrystal solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">Organic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_solar_cell" title="Quantum dot solar cell">Quantum dot solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_solar_cell" title="Hybrid solar cell">Hybrid solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmonic_solar_cell" title="Plasmonic solar cell">Plasmonic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes_in_photovoltaics" title="Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics">Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell" title="Dye-sensitized solar cell">Dye-sensitized solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">Cadmium telluride photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells">Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_solar_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Printed solar panel">Printed solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">Perovskite solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterojunction_solar_cell" title="Heterojunction solar cell">Heterojunction solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">System components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">Solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_system" title="Balance of system">Balance of system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charge_controller" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar charge controller">Solar charge controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_inverter" title="Solar inverter">Solar inverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_mounting_system" title="Photovoltaic mounting system">Photovoltaic mounting system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">Solar tracker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_shingles" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar shingles">Solar shingles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_mirror#Photovoltaic_augmentation" title="Solar mirror">Solar mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronverter" title="Synchronverter">Synchronverter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">System concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking" title="Maximum power point tracking">Maximum power point tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_factor_(solar_cell)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fill factor (solar cell)">Fill factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentrated photovoltaics">Concentrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_thermal_hybrid_solar_collector" title="Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector">Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-based solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system_performance" title="Photovoltaic system performance">PV system performance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar-powered_products" title="List of solar-powered products">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Appliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_refrigerator" title="Solar-powered refrigerator">Solar-powered refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#Photovoltaic_(PV)_solar_cooling" title="Solar air conditioning">Solar air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_lamp" title="Solar lamp">Solar lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charger" title="Solar charger">Solar charger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_pump" title="Solar-powered pump">Solar-powered pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_watch" title="Solar-powered watch">Solar-powered watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Tuki" title="Solar Tuki">Solar Tuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_keyboard" title="Photovoltaic keyboard">Photovoltaic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_road_stud" title="Solar road stud">Solar road stud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_calculator" title="Solar-powered calculator">Solar-powered calculator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_radio" title="Solar-powered radio">Solar-powered radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_flashlight" title="Solar-powered flashlight">Solar-powered flashlight</a></li> <li>Solar-powered fan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_street_light" title="Solar street light">Solar street light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_traffic_light" title="Solar traffic light">Solar traffic light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Land transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_roadway" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar roadway">Solar roadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_golf_cart" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar golf cart">Solar golf cart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Quiet_Achiever" title="The Quiet Achiever">The Quiet Achiever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Air transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Solar_Riser" title="Mauro Solar Riser">Mauro Solar Riser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">Solar panels on spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-Powered_Aircraft_Developments_Solar_One" title="Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One">Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gossamer_Penguin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gossamer Penguin">Gossamer Penguin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinetiq_Zephyr" class="mw-redirect" title="Qinetiq Zephyr">Qinetiq Zephyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Challenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Challenger">Solar Challenger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Water transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat#Types" title="Electric boat">Solar boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Solar vehicle racing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car_racing" title="Solar car racing">Solar car racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_car_teams" title="List of solar car teams">List of solar car teams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_challenge_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Solar challenge (disambiguation)">Solar challenges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Solar_Challenge" title="World Solar Challenge">World Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Solar_Challenge" title="American Solar Challenge">American Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formula_Sun_Grand_Prix" title="Formula Sun Grand Prix">Formula Sun Grand Prix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Cup" title="Solar Cup">Solar Cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Solar_Challenge" title="Frisian Solar Challenge">Frisian Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Splash" title="Solar Splash">Solar Splash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Solar_Challenge" title="South African Solar Challenge">South African Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_de_Sol" title="Tour de Sol">Tour de Sol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt-Winston_School_Solar_Car_Challenge" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge">Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_Model_Solar_Vehicle_Challenge" title="Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge">Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">Generation<br />systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="PV_power_station" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">PV power station</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stations" title="List of photovoltaic power stations">List of photovoltaic power stations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Building-mounted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rooftop_photovoltaic_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooftop photovoltaic power station">Rooftop photovoltaic power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaics" title="Building-integrated photovoltaics">Building-integrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Ark" title="Solar Ark">Solar Ark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Australia" title="Solar power in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Belgium" title="Solar power in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Bulgaria" title="Solar power in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Canada" title="Solar power in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Chile" title="Solar power in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Solar power in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_France" title="Solar power in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germany" title="Solar power in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Greece" title="Solar power in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italy" title="Solar power in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Japan" title="Solar power in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Netherlands" title="Solar power in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Romania" title="Solar power in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_South_Africa" title="Solar power in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain" title="Solar power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Switzerland" title="Solar power in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Thailand" title="Solar power in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">US</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaics_companies" title="List of photovoltaics companies">PV companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_photovoltaics_production" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by photovoltaics production">List of countries by photovoltaics production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Individual producers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Solar" title="First Solar">First Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanwha_Q_CELLS" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanwha Q CELLS">Hanwha Q CELLS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JA_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="JA Solar">JA Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motech_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Motech Solar">Motech Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Corporation" title="Renewable Energy Corporation">REC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_Solar" title="Sharp Solar">Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Frontier" title="Solar Frontier">Solar Frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solyndra" title="Solyndra">Solyndra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUNGEN_International_Limited" title="SUNGEN International Limited">Sungen Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunpower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunpower">Sunpower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suntech" class="mw-redirect" title="Suntech">Suntech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trina_Solar" title="Trina Solar">Trina Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yingli_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Yingli Solar">Yingli Solar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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