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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Amorphous silicon and carbon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amorphous_silicon_and_carbon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrogenated_amorphous_silicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrogenated_amorphous_silicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Hydrogenated amorphous silicon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrogenated_amorphous_silicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deposition_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item 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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Photovoltaics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photovoltaics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Microcrystalline_and_micromorphous_silicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microcrystalline_and_micromorphous_silicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Microcrystalline and micromorphous silicon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microcrystalline_and_micromorphous_silicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Large-scale_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Large-scale_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Large-scale production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Large-scale_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photovoltaic_thermal_hybrid_solar_collectors" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicium_amorphe" title="Silicium amorphe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Silicium amorphe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicio_amorfo" title="Silicio amorfo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Silicio amorfo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorf_silicium" title="Amorf silicium – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Amorf silicium" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:126px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg/95px-Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg/143px-Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg/190px-Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="1632" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" 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href="/wiki/File:A-Si_structure-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/A-Si_structure-en.svg/288px-A-Si_structure-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="288" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/A-Si_structure-en.svg/432px-A-Si_structure-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/A-Si_structure-en.svg/576px-A-Si_structure-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="202" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:144px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Solar_calculator_casio_fx115ES_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Solar_calculator_casio_fx115ES_crop.jpg/288px-Solar_calculator_casio_fx115ES_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Solar_calculator_casio_fx115ES_crop.jpg/432px-Solar_calculator_casio_fx115ES_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Solar_calculator_casio_fx115ES_crop.jpg/576px-Solar_calculator_casio_fx115ES_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1868" data-file-height="940" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Amorphous silicon: <ul><li>Thin-film silicon solar panels on rooftop</li> <li>Schematic structures of <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">crystalline silicon</a>, amorphous silicon, and amorphous <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenated" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogenated">hydrogenated</a> silicon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_calculator" title="Solar-powered calculator">Solar calculator</a> with amorphous <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> (upper right corner) and <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">LCDs.</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div> <p><b>Amorphous silicon</b> (<b>a-Si</b>) is the non-<a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> used for solar cells and <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">thin-film transistors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">LCDs</a>. </p><p>Used as <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor material">semiconductor material</a> for <b>a-Si solar cells</b>, or <b>thin-film silicon solar cells</b>, it is deposited in <a href="/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin films</a> onto a variety of flexible substrates, such as glass, metal and plastic. Amorphous silicon cells generally feature low efficiency. </p><p>As a second-generation <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">thin-film solar cell</a> technology, amorphous silicon was once expected to become a major contributor in the <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics" title="Growth of photovoltaics">fast-growing</a> worldwide photovoltaic market, but has since lost its significance due to strong competition from conventional <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">crystalline silicon</a> cells and other thin-film technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">CdTe</a> and <a href="/wiki/CIGS_solar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="CIGS solar cell">CIGS</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Amorphous silicon is a preferred material for the <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">thin film transistor</a> (TFT) elements of <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">liquid crystal displays</a> (LCDs) and for x-ray imagers. </p><p>Amorphous silicon differs from other <a href="/wiki/Allotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotropic">allotropic</a> variations, such as <a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">monocrystalline silicon</a>—a single crystal, and <a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">polycrystalline silicon</a>, that consists of small grains, also known as <a href="/wiki/Crystallite" title="Crystallite">crystallites</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Silicon is a fourfold coordinated atom that is normally <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedron" title="Tetrahedron">tetrahedrally</a> bonded to four neighboring silicon atoms. In crystalline silicon (c-Si) this tetrahedral structure continues over a large range, thus forming a well-ordered crystal lattice. </p><p>In amorphous silicon this long range order is not present. Rather, the atoms form a continuous random network. Moreover, not all the atoms within amorphous silicon are fourfold coordinated. Due to the disordered nature of the material some atoms have a <a href="/wiki/Dangling_bond" title="Dangling bond">dangling bond</a>. Physically, these dangling bonds represent defects in the continuous random network and may cause anomalous electrical behavior. </p><p>The material can be <a href="/wiki/Passivation_(chemistry)" title="Passivation (chemistry)">passivated</a> by hydrogen, which bonds to the dangling bonds and can reduce the dangling bond density by several orders of magnitude. Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) has a sufficiently low amount of defects to be used within devices such as solar <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> cells, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Protocrystalline" title="Protocrystalline">protocrystalline</a> growth regime.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, hydrogenation is associated with light-induced degradation of the material, termed the <a href="/wiki/Staebler%E2%80%93Wronski_effect" title="Staebler–Wronski effect">Staebler–Wronski effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon_horizontal_plain.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon_horizontal_plain.svg/550px-Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon_horizontal_plain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon_horizontal_plain.svg/825px-Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon_horizontal_plain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon_horizontal_plain.svg/1100px-Schematic_of_allotropic_forms_of_silcon_horizontal_plain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="164" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of allotropic forms of silicon: <a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">monocrystalline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">polycrystalline</a>, and amorphous silicon</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Amorphous_silicon_and_carbon">Amorphous silicon and carbon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Amorphous silicon and carbon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amorphous <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a> of silicon and carbon (amorphous silicon <a href="/wiki/Carbide" title="Carbide">carbide</a>, also hydrogenated, a-Si<sub>1−x</sub>C<sub>x</sub>:H) are an interesting variant. Introduction of carbon atoms adds extra degrees of freedom for control of the properties of the material. The film could also be made <a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">transparent</a> to visible light. </p><p>Increasing the concentration of carbon in the alloy widens the electronic gap between conduction and valence bands (also called "optical gap" and <a href="/wiki/Bandgap" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandgap">bandgap</a>). This increases the light efficiency of solar cells made with amorphous silicon carbide layers. On the other hand, the electronic properties as a <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Electron_mobility" title="Electron mobility">electron mobility</a>), are adversely affected by the increasing content of carbon in the alloy, presumably due to the increased disorder in the atomic network.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several studies are found in the scientific literature, mainly investigating the effects of deposition parameters on electronic quality, but practical applications of amorphous silicon carbide in commercial devices are still lacking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The density of ion implanted amorphous Si has been calculated as 4.90×10<sup>22</sup> atom/cm<sup>3</sup> (2.285 g/cm<sup>3</sup>) at 300 K. This was done using thin (5 micron) strips of amorphous silicon. This density is 1.8±0.1% less dense than crystalline Si at 300 K.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Silicon is one of the few elements that expands upon cooling and has a lower density as a solid than as a liquid. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrogenated_amorphous_silicon">Hydrogenated amorphous silicon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hydrogenated amorphous silicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unhydrogenated a-Si has a very high defect density which leads to undesirable semiconductor properties such as poor photoconductivity and prevents doping which is critical to engineering semiconductor properties. By introducing hydrogen during the fabrication of amorphous silicon, <a href="/wiki/Photoconductivity" title="Photoconductivity">photoconductivity</a> is significantly improved and doping is made possible. Hydrogenated amorphous silicon, a-Si:H, was first fabricated in 1969 by Chittick, Alexander and Sterling by deposition using a silane gas (SiH<sub>4</sub>) precursor. The resulting material showed a lower defect density and increased conductivity due to impurities. Interest in a-Si:H came when (in 1975), <a href="/wiki/Peter_LeComber" title="Peter LeComber">LeComber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Eric_Spear" title="Walter Eric Spear">Spear</a> discovered the ability for substitutional doping of a-Si:H using phosphine (n-type) or diborane (p-type).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role of hydrogen in reducing defects was verified by Paul's group at Harvard who found a hydrogen concentration of about 10 atomic % through IR vibration, which for Si-H bonds has a frequency of about 2000 cm<sup>−1</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the 1970s, a-Si:H was developed in solar cells by <a href="/wiki/David_E._Carlson" title="David E. Carlson">David E. Carlson</a> and C. R. Wronski at RCA Laboratories.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversion efficiency steadily climbed to about 13.6% in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deposition_processes">Deposition processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Deposition processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition">CVD</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Plasma-enhanced_chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition">PECVD</a> </th> <th>Catalytic CVD </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sputter_deposition" title="Sputter deposition">Sputtering</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Type of film </td> <td>a-Si:H </td> <td>a-Si:H </td> <td>a-Si:H </td> <td>a-Si </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unique application </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Large-area_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-area electronics">Large-area electronics</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>Hydrogen-free deposition </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chamber temperature </td> <td>600C </td> <td>30–300C </td> <td> </td> <td>30–1000C </td></tr> <tr> <td>Active element temperature </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>2000C </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chamber pressure </td> <td>0.1–10 Torr </td> <td>0.1–10 Torr </td> <td> </td> <td>0.001–0.1 Torr </td></tr> <tr> <td>Physical principle </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thermal_decomposition" title="Thermal decomposition">Thermolysis</a> </td> <td>Plasma-induced dissociation </td> <td>Thermolysis </td> <td>Ionization of Si source </td></tr> <tr> <td>Facilitators </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">W</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Ta</a> heated wires </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Argon</a> cations </td></tr> <tr> <td>Typical drive voltage </td> <td> </td> <td>RF 13.56 MHz; 0.01-1W/cm<sup>2</sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Si source </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Silane" title="Silane">SiH<sub>4</sub></a> gas </td> <td>SiH<sub>4</sub> gas </td> <td>SiH<sub>4</sub> gas </td> <td>Target </td></tr> <tr> <td>Substrate temperature </td> <td>controllable </td> <td>controllable </td> <td>controllable </td> <td>controllable </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While a-Si suffers from lower electronic performance compared to c-Si, it is much more flexible in its applications. For example, a-Si layers can be made thinner than c-Si, which may produce savings on silicon material cost. </p><p>One further advantage is that a-Si can be deposited at very low temperatures, e.g., as low as 75 degrees Celsius. This allows deposition on not only glass, but on <a href="/wiki/Plastic_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic electronics">plastic</a> or even on paper<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> substrates as well, making it a candidate for a <a href="/wiki/Roll-to-roll_processing" title="Roll-to-roll processing">roll-to-roll processing</a> technique. Once deposited, a-Si can be <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doped</a> in a fashion similar to c-Si, to form <a href="/wiki/P-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="P-type semiconductor">p-type</a> or <a href="/wiki/N-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-type semiconductor">n-type</a> layers and ultimately to form electronic devices. </p><p>Another advantage is that a-Si can be deposited over large areas by <a href="/wiki/Plasma-enhanced_chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition">PECVD</a>. The design of the PECVD system has great impact on the production cost of such panel, therefore most equipment suppliers put their focus on the design of PECVD for higher throughput, that leads to lower <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_cost" title="Manufacturing cost">manufacturing cost</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly when the <a href="/wiki/Silane" title="Silane">silane</a> is <a href="/wiki/Recycled" class="mw-redirect" title="Recycled">recycled</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arrays of small (under 1 mm by 1 mm) a-Si photodiodes on glass are used as visible-light <a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">image sensors</a> in some <a href="/wiki/Flat_panel_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat panel detector">flat panel detectors</a> for <a href="/wiki/Fluoroscopy" title="Fluoroscopy">fluoroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Photovoltaics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">Thin-film solar cell</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vintage_Teal_Photon_Solar_Powered_Electronic_Pocket_Calculator,_LCD_With_Yellow_Filter,_One_Of_The_First_Solar_Powered_Calculators,_Made_In_Japan,_Circa_1978_(15083726059).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Vintage_Teal_Photon_Solar_Powered_Electronic_Pocket_Calculator%2C_LCD_With_Yellow_Filter%2C_One_Of_The_First_Solar_Powered_Calculators%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1978_%2815083726059%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Vintage_Teal_Photon_Solar_Powered_Electronic_Pocket_Calculator%2C_LCD_With_Yellow_Filter%2C_One_Of_The_First_Solar_Powered_Calculators%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1978_%2815083726059%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Vintage_Teal_Photon_Solar_Powered_Electronic_Pocket_Calculator%2C_LCD_With_Yellow_Filter%2C_One_Of_The_First_Solar_Powered_Calculators%2C_Made_In_Japan%2C_Circa_1978_%2815083726059%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3531" data-file-height="3020" /></a><figcaption>The "Teal Photon" <a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_calculator" title="Solar-powered calculator">solar-powered calculator</a> produced in the late 1970s</figcaption></figure> <p>Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) has been used as a <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> material for devices which require very little power, such as pocket <a href="/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">calculators</a>, because their lower performance compared to conventional <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">crystalline silicon</a> (c-Si) solar cells is more than offset by their simplified and lower cost of deposition onto a substrate. Moreover, the vastly higher shunt resistance of the p-i-n device means that acceptable performance is achieved even at very low light levels. The first <a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_calculator" title="Solar-powered calculator">solar-powered calculators</a> were already available in the late 1970s, such as the Royal <i>Solar 1</i>, Sharp <i>EL-8026</i>, and Teal <i>Photon</i>. </p><p>More recently, improvements in a-Si:H construction techniques have made them more attractive for large-area solar cell use as well. Here their lower inherent efficiency is made up, at least partially, by their thinness – higher efficiencies can be reached by stacking several thin-film cells on top of each other, each one tuned to work well at a specific frequency of light. This approach is not applicable to c-Si cells, which are thick as a result of its <a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_band_gaps" title="Direct and indirect band gaps">indirect band-gap</a> and are therefore largely opaque, blocking light from reaching other layers in a stack. </p><p>The source of the low efficiency of amorphous silicon photovoltaics is due largely to the low <a href="/wiki/Hole_mobility" class="mw-redirect" title="Hole mobility">hole mobility</a> of the material.<sup id="cite_ref-LiangSchiff2006_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LiangSchiff2006-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This low hole mobility has been attributed to many physical aspects of the material, including the presence of <a href="/wiki/Dangling_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Dangling bonds">dangling bonds</a> (silicon with 3 bonds),<sup id="cite_ref-SmithWagner1987_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SmithWagner1987-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> floating bonds (silicon with 5 bonds),<sup id="cite_ref-Stathis1989_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stathis1989-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as bond reconfigurations.<sup id="cite_ref-JohlinWagner2013_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JohlinWagner2013-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While much work has been done to control these sources of low mobility, evidence suggests that the multitude of interacting defects may lead to the mobility being inherently limited, as reducing one type of defect leads to formation others.<sup id="cite_ref-JohlinSimmons2014_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JohlinSimmons2014-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main advantage of a-Si:H in large scale production is not efficiency, but cost. a-Si:H cells use only a fraction of the silicon needed for typical c-Si cells, and the cost of the silicon has historically been a significant contributor to cell cost.<sup id="cite_ref-Zanatta1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zanatta1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the higher costs of manufacture due to the multi-layer construction have, to date, made a-Si:H unattractive except in roles where their thinness or flexibility are an advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Typically, amorphous silicon thin-film cells use a <a href="/wiki/P-i-n" class="mw-redirect" title="P-i-n">p-i-n</a> structure. The placement of the p-type layer on top is also due to the lower hole mobility, allowing the holes to traverse a shorter average distance for collection to the top contact. Typical panel structure includes front side glass, <a href="/wiki/Transparent_conducting_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparent conducting oxide">TCO</a>, thin-film silicon, back contact, <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_butyral" title="Polyvinyl butyral">polyvinyl butyral</a> (PVB) and back side glass. Uni-Solar, a division of <a href="/wiki/Energy_Conversion_Devices" title="Energy Conversion Devices">Energy Conversion Devices</a> produced a version of flexible backings, used in roll-on roofing products. However, the world's largest manufacturer of amorphous silicon photovoltaics had to file for bankruptcy in 2012, as it could not compete with the rapidly declining prices of conventional <a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">solar panels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Microcrystalline_and_micromorphous_silicon">Microcrystalline and micromorphous silicon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Microcrystalline and micromorphous silicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nanocrystalline_silicon" title="Nanocrystalline silicon">Nanocrystalline silicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Micromorph" title="Micromorph">Micromorph</a></div> <p>Microcrystalline silicon (also called nanocrystalline silicon) is amorphous silicon, but also contains small crystals. It absorbs a broader spectrum of light and is <a href="/wiki/Flexible_electronics" title="Flexible electronics">flexible</a>. <a href="/wiki/Micromorph" title="Micromorph">Micromorphous</a> silicon <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_module" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic module">module</a> technology combines two different types of silicon, amorphous and microcrystalline silicon, in a top and a bottom <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic cell">photovoltaic cell</a>. Sharp produces cells using this system in order to more efficiently capture blue light, increasing the efficiency of the cells during the time where there is no direct sunlight falling on them. <a href="/wiki/Protocrystalline" title="Protocrystalline">Protocrystalline</a> silicon is often used to optimize the open circuit voltage of a-Si photovoltaics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Large-scale_production">Large-scale production</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Large-scale production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_Solar_Ovonic_roll-to-roll_solar_photovoltaic_production_line_with_30_MW_annual_capacity.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/United_Solar_Ovonic_roll-to-roll_solar_photovoltaic_production_line_with_30_MW_annual_capacity.jpg/220px-United_Solar_Ovonic_roll-to-roll_solar_photovoltaic_production_line_with_30_MW_annual_capacity.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/United_Solar_Ovonic_roll-to-roll_solar_photovoltaic_production_line_with_30_MW_annual_capacity.jpg/330px-United_Solar_Ovonic_roll-to-roll_solar_photovoltaic_production_line_with_30_MW_annual_capacity.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/United_Solar_Ovonic_roll-to-roll_solar_photovoltaic_production_line_with_30_MW_annual_capacity.jpg/440px-United_Solar_Ovonic_roll-to-roll_solar_photovoltaic_production_line_with_30_MW_annual_capacity.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3131" data-file-height="2931" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Energy_Conversion_Devices" title="Energy Conversion Devices">United Solar Ovonic</a> roll-to-roll solar photovoltaic production line with 30 MW annual capacity</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Xunlight_Corporation" title="Xunlight Corporation">Xunlight Corporation</a>, which has received over $40 million of institutional investments,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> has completed the installation of its first 25 MW wide-web, <a href="/wiki/Roll-to-roll" class="mw-redirect" title="Roll-to-roll">roll-to-roll</a> photovoltaic manufacturing equipment for the production of thin-film silicon PV modules.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anwell_Technologies" title="Anwell Technologies">Anwell Technologies</a> has also completed the installation of its first 40 MW a-Si thin film solar panel manufacturing facility in Henan with its in-house designed multi-substrate-multi-chamber PECVD equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Photovoltaic_thermal_hybrid_solar_collectors">Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerospace_Product-Flexible_Thin-Film_Solar_PV-United_Solar_Ovonic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aerospace_Product-Flexible_Thin-Film_Solar_PV-United_Solar_Ovonic.jpg/220px-Aerospace_Product-Flexible_Thin-Film_Solar_PV-United_Solar_Ovonic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aerospace_Product-Flexible_Thin-Film_Solar_PV-United_Solar_Ovonic.jpg/330px-Aerospace_Product-Flexible_Thin-Film_Solar_PV-United_Solar_Ovonic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Aerospace_Product-Flexible_Thin-Film_Solar_PV-United_Solar_Ovonic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="417" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption>Aerospace product with flexible thin-film solar PV from United Solar Ovonic</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_thermal_hybrid_solar_collector" title="Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector">Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors</a> (PVT), are systems that convert <a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">solar radiation</a> into <a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">electrical energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a>. These systems combine a solar cell, which converts <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>) into electricity, with a <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_collector" title="Solar thermal collector">solar thermal collector</a>, which captures the remaining energy and removes waste heat from the solar PV module. Solar cells suffer from a drop in efficiency with the rise in temperature due to increased <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell#Cell_temperature" title="Solar cell">resistance</a>. Most such systems can be engineered to carry heat away from the solar cells thereby cooling the cells and thus improving their efficiency by lowering resistance. Although this is an effective method, it causes the thermal component to under-perform compared to a <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar thermal">solar thermal</a> collector. Recent research showed that a-Si:H PV with low temperature coefficients allow the PVT to be operated at high temperatures, creating a more symbiotic PVT system and improving performance of the a-Si:H PV by about 10%. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thin-film-transistor_liquid-crystal_display">Thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thin-film-transistor_liquid-crystal_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display">Thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display</a></div> <p>Amorphous silicon has become the material of choice for the active layer in <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">thin-film transistors</a> (TFTs), which are most widely used in <a href="/wiki/Large-area_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-area electronics">large-area electronics</a> applications, mainly for <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">liquid-crystal displays</a> (LCDs). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thin-film-transistor_liquid-crystal_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display">Thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display</a> (TFT-LCD) show a similar circuit layout process to that of semiconductor products. However, rather than fabricating the transistors from silicon, that is formed into a crystalline silicon <a href="/wiki/Wafer" title="Wafer">wafer</a>, they are made from a thin film of amorphous silicon that is deposited on a <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> panel. The silicon layer for TFT-LCDs is typically deposited using the <a href="/wiki/Plasma-enhanced_chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition">PECVD</a> process.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transistors take up only a small fraction of the area of each pixel and the rest of the silicon film is etched away to allow light to easily pass through it. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polycrystalline silicon</a> is sometimes used in displays requiring higher TFT performance. Examples include small high-resolution displays such as those found in projectors or viewfinders. Amorphous silicon-based TFTs are by far the most common, due to their lower production cost, whereas polycrystalline silicon TFTs are more costly and much more difficult to produce.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_layer_deposition" title="Atomic layer deposition">Atomic layer deposition</a> (ALD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical-mechanical_planarization" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical-mechanical planarization">Chemical-mechanical planarization</a> (CMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition">Chemical vapor deposition</a> (CVD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">Crystalline silicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">Ion implantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">Nanoparticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_vapor_deposition" title="Physical vapor deposition">Physical vapor deposition</a> (PVD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocrystalline" title="Protocrystalline">Protocrystalline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_thermal_processing" title="Rapid thermal processing">Rapid thermal processing</a> (RTP)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCollinsFerlautoFerreiraChen2003" class="citation journal cs1">Collins, R.W.; Ferlauto, A.S.; Ferreira, 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TFT+LCD+%E2%80%93+Electronic+Aspects+of+LCD+TVs+and+LCD+Monitors&rft.pub=Plasma.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plasma.com%2Fclassroom%2Fwhat_is_tft_lcd.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmorphous+silicon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://g2n.uwaterloo.ca">Amorphous Silicon Devices group at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060830214317/http://www.phy.ohiou.edu/~drabold/int.html">Theory and Simulation at Ohio University, Athens Ohio</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&oldid=1256700288">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amorphous_silicon&oldid=1256700288</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Allotropes_of_silicon" title="Category:Allotropes of silicon">Allotropes of silicon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Group_IV_semiconductors" title="Category:Group IV semiconductors">Group IV semiconductors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Amorphous_solids" title="Category:Amorphous solids">Amorphous solids</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Thin-film_cells" title="Category:Thin-film cells">Thin-film cells</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_September_2021" title="Category:Use mdy dates from September 2021">Use mdy dates from September 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_March_2019" title="Category:Use American English from March 2019">Use American English from March 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images" title="Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images">Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2016" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2012" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 11 November 2024, at 04:45<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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