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id="toc-Undesirable_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Therapeutic_window" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Therapeutic_window"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Therapeutic window</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Therapeutic_window-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duration_of_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duration_of_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Duration of action</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duration_of_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recreational_drug_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recreational_drug_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Recreational drug use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recreational_drug_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Total" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Total"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Total</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Total-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Onset" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Onset"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Onset</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Onset-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Come_up" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Come_up"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.4</span> <span>Come up</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Come_up-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.5</span> <span>Peak</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Offset" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Offset"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.6</span> <span>Offset</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Offset-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.7</span> <span>After effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Receptor_binding_and_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Receptor_binding_and_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Receptor binding and effect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Receptor_binding_and_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multicellular_pharmacodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multicellular_pharmacodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Multicellular pharmacodynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multicellular_pharmacodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxicodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxicodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Toxicodynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxicodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pharmacodynamics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ديناميكية دوائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ديناميكية دوائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фармакодинамика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Фармакодинамика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacodin%C3%A0mica" title="Farmacodinàmica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Farmacodinàmica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodynamik" title="Farmakodynamik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Farmakodynamik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmakodynamik" title="Pharmakodynamik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pharmakodynamik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B4%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Φαρμακοδυναμική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φαρμακοδυναμική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacodin%C3%A1mica" title="Farmacodinámica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Farmacodinámica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فارماکودینامیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فارماکودینامیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacodynamique" title="Pharmacodynamique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pharmacodynamique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%BD%EB%AC%BC%EB%8F%99%EC%97%AD%ED%95%99" title="약물동역학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="약물동역학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Ֆարմակոդինամիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆարմակոդինամիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodinamika" title="Farmakodinamika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Farmakodinamika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodinamika" title="Farmakodinamika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Farmakodinamika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacodinamica" title="Farmacodinamica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Farmacodinamica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фармакодинамика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Фармакодинамика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacodynamiek" title="Farmacodynamiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Farmacodynamiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%96%AC%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="薬力学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="薬力学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodynamikk" title="Farmakodynamikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Farmakodynamikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%87" title="درملپېژندنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="درملپېژندنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodynamika" title="Farmakodynamika – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Farmakodynamika" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacodin%C3%A2mica" title="Farmacodinâmica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Farmacodinâmica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacodinamic%C4%83" title="Farmacodinamică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Farmacodinamică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фармакодинамика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фармакодинамика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodynamika" title="Farmakodynamika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Farmakodynamika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodinamika" title="Farmakodinamika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Farmakodinamika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodinamika" title="Farmakodinamika – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Farmakodinamika" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodinamika" title="Farmakodinamika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Farmakodinamika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodynamiikka" title="Farmakodynamiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Farmakodynamiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodynamik" title="Farmakodynamik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Farmakodynamik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="เภสัชพลศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เภสัชพลศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakodinami" title="Farmakodinami – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Farmakodinami" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фармакодинаміка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фармакодинаміка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c_l%E1%BB%B1c_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Dược lực học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dược lực học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8D%AF%E7%89%A9%E6%95%88%E5%BA%94%E5%8A%A8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="药物效应动力学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="药物效应动力学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of pharmacology</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pharmacodynamics.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pharmacodynamics.svg/220px-Pharmacodynamics.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pharmacodynamics.svg/330px-Pharmacodynamics.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pharmacodynamics.svg/440px-Pharmacodynamics.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="311" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>Topics of pharmacodynamics</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Pharmacodynamics</b> (<b>PD</b>) is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiologic</a> effects of <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drugs</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">pharmaceutical drugs</a>). The effects can include those manifested within <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> (including humans), <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, or combinations of <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a>). </p><p>Pharmacodynamics and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">pharmacokinetics</a> are the main branches of <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a>, being itself a topic of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> interested in the study of the interactions of both endogenous and exogenous chemical substances with living organisms. </p><p>In particular, pharmacodynamics is the study of how a drug affects an organism, whereas pharmacokinetics is the study of how the organism affects the drug. Both together influence <a href="/wiki/Dosing" title="Dosing">dosing</a>, benefit, and <a href="/wiki/Adverse_effect" title="Adverse effect">adverse effects</a>. Pharmacodynamics is sometimes abbreviated as PD and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">pharmacokinetics</a> as PK, especially in combined reference (for example, when speaking of <a href="/wiki/PK/PD_models" class="mw-redirect" title="PK/PD models">PK/PD models</a>). </p><p>Pharmacodynamics places particular emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Dose%E2%80%93response_relationship" title="Dose–response relationship">dose–response relationships</a>, that is, the relationships between drug <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> and effect.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One dominant example is drug-receptor interactions as modeled by </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {L + R <=> LR}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>L</mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext>R</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OP MJX-fixedlimits"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mpadded height="0" depth="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↽</mo> </mrow> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </mpadded> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">⇀</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> </mover> </mrow> <mtext>LR</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {L + R <=> LR}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/efa3e45536340d01f9779a5ed37ae66647690089" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:13.815ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {L + R <=> LR}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>L</i>, <i>R</i>, and <i>LR</i> represent ligand (drug), receptor, and ligand-receptor complex concentrations, respectively. This equation represents a simplified model of <a href="/wiki/Reaction_dynamics" title="Reaction dynamics">reaction dynamics</a> that can be studied mathematically through tools such as <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">free energy</a> maps. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style=""><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> definition</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p><b>Pharmacodynamics</b>: Study of pharmacological actions on living systems, including the reactions with and binding to cell constituents, and the biochemical and physiological consequences of these actions.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> </div> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basics">Basics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Basics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are four principal protein targets with which drugs can interact: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_modulator" title="Enzyme modulator">Enzymes</a> –  (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Neostigmine" title="Neostigmine">neostigmine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholinesterase" title="Acetylcholinesterase">acetyl cholinesterase</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">Inhibitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inducer" title="Enzyme inducer">Inducers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_activator" title="Enzyme activator">Activators</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Membrane_transport_modulators" title="Category:Membrane transport modulators">Membrane carriers</a> –  [<a href="/wiki/Reuptake" title="Reuptake">Reuptake</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Reverse_transport" title="Reverse transport">Efflux</a>] (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant" title="Tricyclic antidepressant">tricyclic antidepressants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">catecholamine</a> uptake-1) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reuptake_enhancer" title="Reuptake enhancer">Enhancer</a> (RE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuptake_inhibitor" title="Reuptake inhibitor">Inhibitor</a> (RI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Releasing_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Releasing agent">Releaser</a> (RA)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_modulator" title="Channel modulator">Ion channels</a> –  (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Nimodipine" title="Nimodipine">nimodipine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voltage-gated_calcium_channel" title="Voltage-gated calcium channel">voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Channel_blocker" title="Channel blocker">Blocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_opener" title="Channel opener">Opener</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptor_modulator" title="Receptor modulator">Receptor</a> –  (e.g. Listed in table below) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">Agonists</a> can be full, <a href="/wiki/Partial_agonist" title="Partial agonist">partial</a> or <a href="/wiki/Inverse_agonist" title="Inverse agonist">inverse</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">Antagonists</a> can be competitive, non-competitive, or uncompetive.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allosteric_modulator" title="Allosteric modulator">Allosteric modulator</a> can have 3 effects within a receptor. One is its capability or incapability to activate a receptor (2 possibilities). The other two are agonist <a href="/wiki/Affinity_(pharmacology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Affinity (pharmacology)">affinity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Efficacy_(pharmacology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Efficacy (pharmacology)">efficacy</a>. They may be increased, decreased or unaffected (3 and 3 possibilities).</li></ul></li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Receptors can be subdivided into four main classes: ligand-gated ion channels(LGIC), tyrosine kinase-coupled(TRK), intracellular steroid, G-protein-coupled (GPCR). </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ligand-gated_ion_channel" title="Ligand-gated ion channel">LGIC</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Receptor_tyrosine_kinase" title="Receptor tyrosine kinase">TRK</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Steroid_hormone_receptor" title="Steroid hormone receptor">Steroid</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">GPCR</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Location</b> </td> <td>Membrane </td> <td>Membrane </td> <td>Intracellular </td> <td>Membrane </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Main action</b> </td> <td>Ion flux </td> <td>Phosphorylation </td> <td>Gene transcription </td> <td>2nd messengers </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Example/drug</b> </td> <td>Nicotinic/NMBD </td> <td>Insulin/insulin </td> <td>Steroid/thyroxine </td> <td>Opioid/morphine </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>NMDA/ketamine </td> <td>Growth factor/EGF </td> <td>Steroid/oestrogen </td> <td>Adrenoceptor/isoprenaline </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i>NMBD = neuromuscular blocking drugs; NMDA = N-methyl-d-aspartate; EGF = epidermal growth factor.</i><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_the_body">Effects on the body</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Effects on the body"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The majority of drugs either </p><div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>induce(mimic) or inhibit(prevent) normal physiological/biochemical processes and pathological processes in animals or</li><li>inhibit vital processes of endo- or ectoparasites and microbial organisms.</li></ol></div> <p>There are 7 main drug actions:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stimulation" title="Stimulation">stimulating action</a> through direct <a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">receptor agonism</a> and downstream effects</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_(physiology)" title="Depression (physiology)">depressing action</a> through direct <a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">receptor agonism</a> and downstream effects (ex.: <a href="/wiki/Inverse_agonist" title="Inverse agonist">inverse agonist</a>)</li> <li>blocking/antagonizing action (as with <a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">silent antagonists</a>), the drug binds the receptor but does not activate it</li> <li>stabilizing action, the drug seems to act neither as a stimulant or as a depressant (ex.: some drugs possess receptor activity that allows them to stabilize general receptor activation, like <a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine" title="Buprenorphine">buprenorphine</a> in opioid dependent individuals or <a href="/wiki/Aripiprazole" title="Aripiprazole">aripiprazole</a> in schizophrenia, all depending on the dose and the recipient)</li> <li>exchanging/replacing substances or accumulating them to form a reserve (ex.: <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a> storage)</li> <li>direct beneficial chemical reaction as in <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant#Oxidative_challenge_in_biology" title="Antioxidant">free radical scavenging</a></li> <li>direct harmful chemical reaction which might result in damage or destruction of the cells, through induced toxic or lethal damage (<a href="/wiki/Cytotoxicity" title="Cytotoxicity">cytotoxicity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Irritation" title="Irritation">irritation</a>)</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Molecular_mechanisms.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Molecular_mechanisms.svg/220px-Molecular_mechanisms.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Molecular_mechanisms.svg/330px-Molecular_mechanisms.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Molecular_mechanisms.svg/440px-Molecular_mechanisms.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="311" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>Some molecular mechanisms of pharmacological agents</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Desired_activity">Desired activity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Desired activity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The desired activity of a drug is mainly due to successful targeting of one of the following: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular membrane">Cellular membrane</a> disruption</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> with downstream effects</li> <li>Interaction with <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> proteins</li> <li>Interaction with <a href="/wiki/Structural" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural">structural</a> proteins</li> <li>Interaction with <a href="/wiki/Carrier-protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrier-protein">carrier</a> proteins</li> <li>Interaction with <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligand_binding" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligand binding">Ligand binding</a> to <a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptors</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">Hormone</a> receptors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromodulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromodulator">Neuromodulator</a> receptors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">Neurotransmitter</a> receptors</li></ul></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/General_anesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="General anesthetic">General anesthetics</a> were once thought to work by disordering the neural membranes, thereby altering the Na<sup>+</sup> influx. <a href="/wiki/Antacid" title="Antacid">Antacids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chelating_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelating agent">chelating agents</a> combine chemically in the body. Enzyme-substrate binding is a way to alter the production or metabolism of key <a href="/wiki/Endogenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogenous">endogenous</a> chemicals, for example <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a> irreversibly inhibits the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Cyclooxygenase" title="Cyclooxygenase">prostaglandin synthetase (cyclooxygenase)</a> thereby preventing <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammatory</a> response. <a href="/wiki/Colchicine" title="Colchicine">Colchicine</a>, a drug for gout, interferes with the function of the structural protein <a href="/wiki/Tubulin" title="Tubulin">tubulin</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Digitalis" title="Digitalis">digitalis</a>, a drug still used in heart failure, inhibits the activity of the carrier molecule, <a href="/wiki/Na-K-ATPase_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Na-K-ATPase pump">Na-K-ATPase pump</a>. The widest class of drugs act as ligands that bind to receptors that determine cellular effects. Upon drug binding, receptors can elicit their normal action (agonist), blocked action (antagonist), or even action opposite to normal (inverse agonist). </p><p>In principle, a pharmacologist would aim for a target <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">plasma</a> concentration of the drug for a desired level of response. In reality, there are many factors affecting this goal. Pharmacokinetic factors determine peak concentrations, and concentrations cannot be maintained with absolute consistency because of metabolic breakdown and excretory clearance. <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetic</a> factors may exist which would alter metabolism or drug action itself, and a patient's immediate status may also affect indicated dosage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Undesirable_effects">Undesirable effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Undesirable effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Undesirable effects of a drug include: </p> <ul><li>Increased probability of cell <a href="/wiki/Mutagen" title="Mutagen">mutation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogenic</a> activity)</li> <li>A multitude of simultaneous assorted actions which may be deleterious</li> <li>Interaction (additive, multiplicative, or metabolic)</li> <li>Induced physiological damage, or abnormal chronic conditions</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Therapeutic_window">Therapeutic window</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Therapeutic window"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_window" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic window">Therapeutic window</a></div> <p>The therapeutic window is the amount of a <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medication</a> between the amount that gives an effect (<a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(pharmacology)" title="Effective dose (pharmacology)">effective dose</a>) and the amount that gives more <a href="/wiki/Adverse_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverse effects">adverse effects</a> than desired effects. For instance, medication with a small pharmaceutical window must be administered with care and control, e.g. by frequently measuring blood concentration of the drug, since it easily loses effects or gives adverse effects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duration_of_action">Duration of action</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Duration of action"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>duration of action</i> of a drug is the length of time that particular drug is effective.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7352385_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7352385-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Duration of action is a function of several parameters including <a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life" title="Biological half-life">plasma half-life</a>, the time to equilibrate between plasma and target compartments, and the off rate of the drug from its <a href="/wiki/Biological_target" title="Biological target">biological target</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20880390_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20880390-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recreational_drug_use">Recreational drug use</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Recreational drug use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">Recreational drug use</a></div> <p>In recreational psychoactive drug spaces, duration refers to the length of time over which the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Subjective_effects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Subjective effects (page does not exist)">subjective effects</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_substance" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoactive substance">psychoactive substance</a> manifest themselves. Duration can be broken down into 6 parts: (1) total duration (2) onset (3) come up (4) peak (5) offset and (6) after effects. Depending upon the substance consumed, each of these occurs in a separate and continuous fashion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Total">Total</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Total"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The total duration of a substance can be defined as the amount of time it takes for the effects of a substance to completely wear off into <a href="/wiki/Sobriety" title="Sobriety">sobriety</a>, starting from the moment the substance is first <a href="/wiki/Drug_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug administration">administered</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Onset">Onset</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Onset"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The onset phase can be defined as the period until the very first changes in perception (i.e. "first alerts") are able to be detected. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Come_up">Come up</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Come up"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "come up" phase can be defined as the period between the first noticeable changes in perception and the point of highest subjective intensity. This is colloquially known as "coming up." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peak">Peak</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Peak"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The peak phase can be defined as period of time in which the intensity of the substance's effects are at its height. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Offset">Offset</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Offset"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The offset phase can be defined as the amount of time in between the conclusion of the peak and shifting into a sober state. This is colloquially referred to as "coming down." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="After_effects">After effects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: After effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The after effects can be defined as any residual effects which may remain after the experience has reached its conclusion. After effects depend on the substance and usage. This is colloquially known as a "hangover" for negative after effects of substances, such as <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA">MDMA</a> or an "afterglow" for describing a typically positive, pleasant effect, typically found in substances such as <a href="/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">cannabis</a>, <a href="/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD</a> in low to high doses, and <a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">ketamine</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Receptor_binding_and_effect">Receptor binding and effect</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Receptor binding and effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The binding of ligands (drug) to receptors is governed by the <i><a href="/wiki/Law_of_mass_action" title="Law of mass action">law of mass action</a></i> which relates the large-scale status to the rate of numerous molecular processes. The rates of formation and un-formation can be used to determine the equilibrium concentration of bound receptors. The <i>equilibrium dissociation constant</i> is defined by: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {L + R <=> LR}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>L</mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext>R</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-OP MJX-fixedlimits"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mpadded height="0" depth="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↽</mo> </mrow> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </mpadded> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">⇀</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> </mover> </mrow> <mtext>LR</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {L + R <=> LR}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/efa3e45536340d01f9779a5ed37ae66647690089" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:13.815ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {L + R <=> LR}}}"></span>                      <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K_{d}={\frac {[L][R]}{[LR]}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>L</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>R</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>L</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K_{d}={\frac {[L][R]}{[LR]}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f2887ea134915835c428d80e9c182a60010be8c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:12.934ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K_{d}={\frac {[L][R]}{[LR]}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>L</i>=ligand, <i>R</i>=receptor, square brackets [] denote concentration. The fraction of bound receptors is </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {p}_{LR}={\frac {[LR]}{[R]+[LR]}}={\frac {1}{1+{\frac {K_{d}}{[L]}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>L</mi> <mi>R</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>L</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>R</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>L</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>L</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {p}_{LR}={\frac {[LR]}{[R]+[LR]}}={\frac {1}{1+{\frac {K_{d}}{[L]}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0944b402f7a195ef192b2a52ad0a67736990e77d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.338ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:29.362ex; height:8.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {p}_{LR}={\frac {[LR]}{[R]+[LR]}}={\frac {1}{1+{\frac {K_{d}}{[L]}}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {p}_{LR}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>L</mi> <mi>R</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {p}_{LR}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b9714d9e35d903443b315f22417939efafa4c6d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:3.858ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {p}_{LR}}"></span> is the fraction of receptor bound by the ligand. </p><p>This expression is one way to consider the effect of a drug, in which the response is related to the fraction of bound receptors (see: <a href="/wiki/Hill_equation_(biochemistry)" title="Hill equation (biochemistry)">Hill equation</a>). The fraction of bound receptors is known as occupancy. The relationship between occupancy and pharmacological response is usually non-linear. This explains the so-called <i>receptor reserve</i> phenomenon i.e. the concentration producing 50% occupancy is typically higher than the concentration producing 50% of maximum response. More precisely, receptor reserve refers to a phenomenon whereby stimulation of only a fraction of the whole receptor population apparently elicits the maximal effect achievable in a particular tissue. </p><p>The simplest interpretation of receptor reserve is that it is a model that states there are excess receptors on the cell surface than what is necessary for full effect. Taking a more sophisticated approach, receptor reserve is an integrative measure of the response-inducing capacity of an <a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">agonist</a> (in some receptor models it is termed intrinsic efficacy or <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_activity" title="Intrinsic activity">intrinsic activity</a>) and of the signal amplification capacity of the corresponding receptor (and its downstream signaling pathways). Thus, the existence (and magnitude) of receptor reserve depends on the agonist (<a href="/wiki/Efficacy" title="Efficacy">efficacy</a>), tissue (signal amplification ability) and measured effect (pathways activated to cause signal amplification). As receptor reserve is very sensitive to agonist's intrinsic efficacy, it is usually defined only for full (high-efficacy) agonists.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7161296_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7161296-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid12570756_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12570756-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid23456693_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23456693-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Often the response is determined as a function of log[<i>L</i>] to consider many orders of magnitude of concentration. However, there is no biological or physical theory that relates effects to the log of concentration. It is just convenient for graphing purposes. It is useful to note that 50% of the receptors are bound when [<i>L</i>]=<i>K<sub>d</sub></i> . </p><p>The graph shown represents the conc-response for two hypothetical receptor agonists, plotted in a semi-log fashion. The curve toward the left represents a higher potency (potency arrow does not indicate direction of increase) since lower concentrations are needed for a given response. The effect increases as a function of concentration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Multicellular_pharmacodynamics">Multicellular pharmacodynamics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Multicellular pharmacodynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of pharmacodynamics has been expanded to include <b>Multicellular Pharmacodynamics</b> (MCPD). MCPD is the study of the static and dynamic properties and relationships between a set of drugs and a dynamic and diverse multicellular four-dimensional organization. It is the study of the workings of a drug on a minimal multicellular system (mMCS), both <i>in vivo</i> and <i>in silico</i>. <b>Networked Multicellular Pharmacodynamics</b> (Net-MCPD) further extends the concept of MCPD to model regulatory genomic networks together with signal transduction pathways, as part of a complex of interacting components in the cell.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Toxicodynamics">Toxicodynamics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Toxicodynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2019</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Toxicodynamics" title="Toxicodynamics">Toxicodynamics</a></div> <p>Toxicodynamics (TD) and pharmacodynamics (PD) link a therapeutic agent or toxicant, or toxin (xenobiotic)'s dosage to the features, amount, and time course of its biological action.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mechanism of action is a crucial factor in determining effect and toxicity of the drug, taking in consideration the pharmacokinetic (PK) factors.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sort and extent of altered cellular physiology will depend on the combination of the drug's presence (as established by pharmacokinetic (PK) studies) and/or its mechanism and duration of action (PD). Types of xenobiotic-target interaction can be described either by reversible, irreversible, noncompetitive, and allosteric interaction or agonist, partial agonist, antagonist, and inverse interactions. <i>In vitro, ex vivo,</i> or <i>in vivo</i> studies can be used to assess PD and TD from the molecule to the level of the entire organism. </p><p>The mechanism of drug action and adverse drug reaction is either physiochemical property based and biochemical based. Adverse drugs reactions can be classified as either idiosyncratic (type B) or intrinsic (type A). Idiosyncratic toxicity is not dosage dependent and defy the mass-action relationship. Immune-mediated processes are frequently cited as the source of type B reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cannot be accurately described in preclinical research or clinical trials due to their low incidence frequency. Type A reactions are dosage (concentration) dependent. Usually, this kind of side effect is an extension of an ongoing treatment. </p><p>Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics are termed <a href="/wiki/Toxicokinetics" title="Toxicokinetics">toxicokinetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toxicodynamics" title="Toxicodynamics">toxicodynamics</a> in the field of <a href="/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">ecotoxicology</a>. Here, the focus is on toxic effects on a wide range of organisms. The corresponding models are called toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic models.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20863871_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20863871-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_of_action" title="Mechanism of action">Mechanism of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dose-response_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Dose-response relationship">Dose-response relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ADME" title="ADME">ADME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_pharmacodynamics" title="Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics">Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical company">Pharmaceutical company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schild_regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Schild regression">Schild regression</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacodynamics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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(2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/adis/pdr/2003/00000001/00000003/art00002">Predictive software for drug design and development</a>. Pharmaceutical Development and Regulation 1 ((3)), 159–168.</li> <li>Werner, E., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14678738&query_hl=3">In silico multicellular systems biology and minimal genomes</a>, DDT vol 8, no 24, pp 1121–1127, Dec 2003. (Introduces the concepts MCPD and Net-MCPD)</li> <li>Dr. David W. A. Bourne, OU College of Pharmacy <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boomer.org/pkin/">Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Resources</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ashp.org/-/media/store%20files/p2418-sample-chapter-1.pdf">Introduction to Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics</a> (PDF)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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aria-labelledby="Topics_in_medicinal_chemistry33" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medicinal chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Topics_in_medicinal_chemistry33" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics in <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">medicinal chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADME" title="ADME">ADME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">Bioavailability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemogenomics" title="Chemogenomics">Chemogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_class" title="Drug class">Drug class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_delivery" title="Drug delivery">Drug delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_design" title="Drug design">Drug design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_development" title="Drug development">Drug development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">Drug discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_drug_delivery" title="Targeted drug delivery">Drug targeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">Enzyme inhibitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligand_efficiency" title="Ligand efficiency">Ligand efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipinski%27s_rule_of_five" title="Lipinski's rule of five">Lipinski's rule of five</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipophilic_efficiency" title="Lipophilic efficiency">Lipophilic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_of_action" title="Mechanism of action">Mechanism of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_of_action" title="Mode of action">Mode of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_chemical_entity" title="New chemical entity">New chemical entity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pharmacodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacophore" title="Pharmacophore">Pharmacophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_structure%E2%80%93activity_relationship" title="Quantitative structure–activity relationship">Quantitative structure–activity relationship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pharmacology105" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pharmacology" title="Template:Pharmacology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pharmacology" title="Template talk:Pharmacology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pharmacology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pharmacology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pharmacology105" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ligand_(biochemistry)" title="Ligand (biochemistry)">Ligand (biochemistry)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Excitatory10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Excitatory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">Agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_agonist" title="Endogenous agonist">Endogenous agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_agonist" title="Irreversible agonist">Irreversible agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_agonist" title="Partial agonist">Partial agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superagonist" title="Superagonist">Superagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism" title="Physiological agonism and antagonism">Physiological agonist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Inhibitory10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Inhibitory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">Antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Competitive antagonist">Competitive antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_antagonist" title="Irreversible antagonist">Irreversible antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism" title="Physiological agonism and antagonism">Physiological antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_agonist" title="Inverse agonist">Inverse agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">Enzyme inhibitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">Drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">Neurotransmitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agonist-antagonist" title="Agonist-antagonist">Agonist-antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacophore" title="Pharmacophore">Pharmacophore</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pharmacodynamics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Activity_at_receptor20" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Activity at receptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_of_action" title="Mechanism of action">Mechanism of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_of_action" title="Mode of action">Mode of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_binding" title="Molecular binding">Binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">Receptor (biochemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desensitization_(medicine)" title="Desensitization (medicine)">Desensitization (medicine)</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Other_effects_of_ligand23" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other effects of ligand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Selectivity (<a href="/wiki/Binding_selectivity" title="Binding selectivity">Binding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functional_selectivity" title="Functional selectivity">Functional</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleiotropy_(drugs)" title="Pleiotropy (drugs)">Pleiotropy (drugs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-specific_effect_of_vaccines" title="Non-specific effect of vaccines">Non-specific effect of vaccines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_effect" title="Adverse effect">Adverse effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">Toxicity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">Neurotoxicity</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Analysis8" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Analysis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dose%E2%80%93response_relationship" title="Dose–response relationship">Dose–response relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_equation_(biochemistry)" title="Hill equation (biochemistry)">Hill equation (biochemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schild_plot" class="mw-redirect" title="Schild plot">Schild plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Del_Castillo_Katz_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Del Castillo Katz model">Del Castillo Katz model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng-Prussoff_Equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheng-Prussoff Equation">Cheng-Prussoff Equation</a></li> <li>Methods (<a href="/wiki/Organ_bath" title="Organ bath">Organ bath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ligand_binding_assay" title="Ligand binding assay">Ligand binding assay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patch_clamp" title="Patch clamp">Patch clamp</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Metrics7" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Metrics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Efficacy#Pharmacology" title="Efficacy">Efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_activity" title="Intrinsic activity">Intrinsic activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potency_(pharmacology)" title="Potency (pharmacology)">Potency</a> (<a href="/wiki/EC50" title="EC50">EC50</a>, <a href="/wiki/IC50" title="IC50">IC50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(pharmacology)" title="Effective dose (pharmacology)">ED50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose">LD50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Median_toxic_dose" title="Median toxic dose">TD50</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_index" title="Therapeutic index">Therapeutic index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociation_constant#Protein-ligand_binding" title="Dissociation constant">Affinity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Metrics7" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Metrics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loading_dose" title="Loading dose">Loading dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_of_distribution" title="Volume of distribution">Volume of distribution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Initial_volume_of_distribution" title="Initial volume of distribution">Initial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rate_of_infusion" title="Rate of infusion">Rate of infusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onset_of_action" title="Onset of action">Onset of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life" title="Biological half-life">Biological half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_protein_binding" title="Plasma protein binding">Plasma protein binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">Bioavailability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="LADME5" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">LADME</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADME" title="ADME">(L)ADME</a>: (<a href="/wiki/Liberation_(pharmacology)" title="Liberation (pharmacology)">Liberation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absorption_(pharmacology)" title="Absorption (pharmacology)">Absorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_(pharmacology)" title="Distribution (pharmacology)">Distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_metabolism" title="Drug metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">Excretion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Clearance_(pharmacology)" title="Clearance (pharmacology)">Clearance</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compartment_(pharmacokinetics)" title="Compartment (pharmacokinetics)">Compartment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioequivalence" title="Bioequivalence">Bioequivalence</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related<br /> fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Neuroscience_and_psychology35" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychopharmacology" title="Neuropsychopharmacology">Neuropsychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopharmacology" title="Psychopharmacology">Psychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Medicine12" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pharmacology" title="Clinical pharmacology">Clinical pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacoepidemiology" title="Pharmacoepidemiology">Pharmacoepidemiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Biochemistry_and_genetics33" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacoinformatics" title="Pharmacoinformatics">Pharmacoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacogenetics">Pharmacogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Toxicology14" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacotoxicology" title="Pharmacotoxicology">Pharmacotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotoxicology">Neurotoxicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Drug_discovery18" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">Drug discovery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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