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href="#T-to-R_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>T-to-R rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-T-to-R_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Phonetic change of -t- and -d- between vowels in some English dialects</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Flap_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Flap (disambiguation)">Flap (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">History and description of</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">English pronunciation</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Historical stages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle English</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">General development</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English" title="Phonological history of Old English">In Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Scots" title="Phonological history of Scots">In Scots</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Development of vowels</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Close back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Pre-L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Pre-R</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Development of consonants</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Single consonants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Variable features</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cot%E2%80%93caught_merger" title="Cot–caught merger"><i>Cot</i>–<i>caught</i> merger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawl" title="Drawl">Drawl</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Flapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping">H-dropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8ng%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨ng⟩">NG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_/r/" title="Pronunciation of English /r/">R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">T-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩">TH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩">WH</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">Spelling</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:English_phonology_topics" title="Template:English phonology topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:English_phonology_topics" title="Template talk:English phonology topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:English_phonology_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:English phonology topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p><b>Flapping</b> or <b>tapping</b>, also known as <b>alveolar flapping</b>, <b>intervocalic flapping</b>, or <b><i>t</i>-voicing</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a> process involving a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">voiced alveolar tap or flap</a>; it is found in many varieties of <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/North_American_English" title="North American English">North American</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiff_English" title="Cardiff English">Cardiff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulster_English" title="Ulster English">Ulster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand English</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonant</a> <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> is pronounced as a <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> alveolar <a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">flap</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span>, a sound produced by briefly tapping the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ridge">alveolar ridge</a> with the tongue, when placed between <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>. In London English, the flapped <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>]</span> is perceived as a casual pronunciation intermediate between the affricate <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">tsʰ</a>]</span>, with higher class associations, and the glottal stop <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span>, with lower class associations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982325_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982325-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some varieties, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span>, the voiced counterpart of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>, may also be frequently pronounced as a flap in such positions, making pairs of words like <i>latter</i> and <i>ladder</i> sound similar or identical. In similar positions, the combination <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nt/</span> may be pronounced as a <a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasalized</a> flap <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_nasal_tap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar nasal tap">ɾ̃</a>]</span>, making <i>winter</i> sound similar or identical to <i>winner</i>. </p><p>Flapping of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> is sometimes perceived as the replacement of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>; for example, the word <i>butter</i> pronounced with flapping may be heard as "budder".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In other dialects of English, such as <a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South African English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Northern_England_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern England English">Northern England English</a> (like <a href="/wiki/Scouse" title="Scouse">Scouse</a>), and older varieties of <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a>, the flap is a variant of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> (see <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_/r/" title="Pronunciation of English /r/">Pronunciation of English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span></a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOgden200992_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden200992-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology_and_articulation">Terminology and articulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flapping&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology and articulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The terms <a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant"><i>flap</i> and <i>tap</i></a> are often used synonymously, although some authors make a distinction between them. When the distinction is made, a flap involves a rapid backward and forward movement of the tongue tip, while a tap involves an upward and downward movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175–176_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175–176-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguists disagree on whether the sound produced in the present process is a flap or a tap, and by extension on whether the process is better called <i>flapping</i> or <i>tapping</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982249_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982249-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <i>flapping</i> has traditionally been more widely used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200329_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200329-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="#CITEREFDerrickGick2011">Derrick & Gick (2011)</a> identify four types of sounds produced in the process: alveolar tap, down-flap, up-flap, and postalveolar tap (found in <i>autumn</i>, <i>Berta</i>, <i>otter</i>, and <i>murder</i>, respectively).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDerrickGick2011309–312_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerrickGick2011309–312-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockney</a>, another voiced variant of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> that has been reported to occur to coexist with the alveolar tap (and other allophones, such as the very common <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>) is a simple <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar stop">voiced alveolar stop</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>]</span>, which occurs especially in the words <i>little</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈlɪdʊ]</span>, <i>hospital</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɒspɪdʊ]</span> and <i>whatever</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[wɒˈdɛvə]</span>. That too results in a (variable) merger with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>, whereas the tap does not.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982326_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982326-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Cardiff_English" title="Cardiff English">Cardiff English</a>, the alveolar tap is less rapid than the corresponding sound in traditional RP, being more similar to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>. It also involves a larger part of the tongue. Thus, the typical Cardiff pronunciation of <i>hospital</i> as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɑspɪɾl̩]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɑspɪɾʊ]</span> is quite similar to Cockney <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɒspɪdʊ]</span>, though it does not involve a neutralization of the flap with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flapping&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/50px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/75px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/100px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="listen-header"><b>Examples of flapping in American English</b></div> <div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:En-Betty_Botter.ogg" title="File:En-Betty Botter.ogg">"Betty Botter" tongue twister</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="14" data-mwtitle="En-Betty_Botter.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/En-Betty_Botter.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ea/En-Betty_Botter.ogg/En-Betty_Botter.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEn-Betty_Botter.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">A recitation of the tongue twister "<a href="/wiki/Betty_Botter" title="Betty Botter">Betty Botter</a>" with flapping</div></div><hr /><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-latter-ladder-flapped-unflapped.oga" title="File:En-us-latter-ladder-flapped-unflapped.oga">Pronunciation of <i>latter</i> and <i>ladder</i> with and without flapping</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="5" data-mwtitle="En-us-latter-ladder-flapped-unflapped.oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/33/En-us-latter-ladder-flapped-unflapped.oga/En-us-latter-ladder-flapped-unflapped.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/En-us-latter-ladder-flapped-unflapped.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈlætɚ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈlædɚ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈlæɾɚ]</span></div></div><hr /><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-winter-winner-flapped-unflapped.oga" title="File:En-us-winter-winner-flapped-unflapped.oga">Pronunciation of <i>winter</i> and <i>winner</i> with and without flapping</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="4" data-mwtitle="En-us-winter-winner-flapped-unflapped.oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/En-us-winter-winner-flapped-unflapped.oga/En-us-winter-winner-flapped-unflapped.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/En-us-winter-winner-flapped-unflapped.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈwɪntɚ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈwɪnɚ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈwɪɾ̃ɚ]</span></div></div><hr /><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-seventy-voiceless-voiced-flapped.oga" title="File:En-us-seventy-voiceless-voiced-flapped.oga">Pronunciation of <i>seventy</i> with and without <i>t</i>-voicing, and with flapping</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="4" data-mwtitle="En-us-seventy-voiceless-voiced-flapped.oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c7/En-us-seventy-voiceless-voiced-flapped.oga/En-us-seventy-voiceless-voiced-flapped.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/En-us-seventy-voiceless-voiced-flapped.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsɛvn̩ti<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈsɛvn̩di<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈsɛvɨɾ̃i]</span></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing these files? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <p>Flapping of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> is a prominent feature of <a href="/wiki/North_American_English" title="North American English">North American English</a>. Some linguists consider it obligatory for most American dialects to flap <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> between a <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stressed</a> and an unstressed vowel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200329_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200329-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flapping of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> also occurs in <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand</a> and (especially <a href="/wiki/Ulster_English" title="Ulster English">Northern</a>) <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Irish English</a>, and more infrequently or variably in <a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South African English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockney</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200330_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200330-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200824,_30,_35,_104_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200824,_30,_35,_104-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickey2007115_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2007115-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The exact conditions for flapping in North American English are unknown, although it is widely understood that it occurs in an alveolar stop, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>, when placed between two vowels, provided the second vowel is unstressed (as in <i>butter</i>, <i>writing</i>, <i>wedding</i>, <i>loader</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Across word boundaries, however, it can occur between any two vowels, provided the second vowel begins a word (as in <i>get over</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡɛɾˈoʊvɚ]</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This extends to morphological boundaries within compound words (as in <i>whatever</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˌwʌɾˈɛvɚ]</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHualde20112230_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHualde20112230-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to vowels, segments that may precede the flap include <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> (as in <i>party</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes2009143_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009143-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and occasionally <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> (as in <i>faulty</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoberg2015236_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoberg2015236-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2011xi_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2011xi-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flapping after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> is more common in Canadian English than in American English.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrintonFee2001428_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrintonFee2001428-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">Syllabic</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> may also follow the flap (as in <i>bottle</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982248_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982248-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flapping of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ən/</span> (as in <i>button</i>) is observed in Australian English.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETollfree200157–58_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETollfree200157–58-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In North American English, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span> (<a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization"><i>t</i>-glottalization</a>) were the only realizations of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ən/</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982251_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982251-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but studies in the 2020s have found <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span> in younger US speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERepetti-LudlowBlake2024_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERepetti-LudlowBlake2024-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">Morpheme</a>-internally, the vowel following the flap must not only be unstressed but also be a <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel reduction in English">reduced</a> one (namely <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span>, morpheme-final or prevocalic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i,<span class="wrap"> </span>oʊ/</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span> preceding <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2011_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2011-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so words like <i>botox</i>, <i>retail</i>, and <i>latex</i> are not flapped in spite of the primary stress on the first syllables,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <i>pity</i>, <i>motto</i>, and <i>Keating</i> can be.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second syllables in the former set of words can thus be considered as having <a href="/wiki/Secondary_stress" title="Secondary stress">secondary stress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Word-medial flapping is also prohibited in <a href="/wiki/Foot_(prosody)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot (prosody)">foot</a>-initial positions. This prevents words such as <i>militaristic</i>, <i>spirantization</i>, and <i>Mediterranean</i> from flapping, despite <i>capitalistic</i> and <i>alphabetization</i>, for example, being flapped. This is known as the <a href="#Withgott_effect">Withgott effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20005_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20005-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBérces201184–89_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBérces201184–89-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In North American English, the cluster <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nt/</span> (but not <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nd/</span>) in the same environment as flapped <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> may be realized as a <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_nasal_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar nasal flap">nasal flap</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ̃]</span>. Intervocalic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> is also often realized as a nasal flap, so words like <i>winter</i> and <i>winner</i> can become homophonous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201174–75_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201174–75-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, in the United States, Southerners tend to pronounce <i>winter</i> and <i>winner</i> identically, while Northerners, especially those from the east coast, tend to retain the distinction, pronouncing <i>winter</i> with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ̃]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nt]</span> and <i>winner</i> with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982252_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982252-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Given these intricacies, it is difficult to formulate a <a href="/wiki/Phonological_rule" title="Phonological rule">phonological rule</a> that accurately predicts flapping.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200329_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200329-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, <a href="#CITEREFVaux2000">Vaux (2000)</a> postulates that it applies to alveolar stops: </p> <blockquote> <ul><li>after a <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a> other than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">l</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ</span>, but with restrictions on <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n</span>;</li> <li>before an unstressed vowel within words, or before any vowel across a word boundary;</li> <li>when not in foot-initial position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20004–5_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20004–5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </blockquote> <p>Exceptions include the preposition/particle <i>to</i> and words derived from it, such as <i>today</i>, <i>tonight</i>, <i>tomorrow</i>, and <i>together</i>, wherein <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> may be flapped when intervocalic (as in <i>go to sleep</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˌɡoʊɾəˈslip]</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011192_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011192-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Australian English, numerals <i>thirteen</i>, <i>fourteen</i>, and <i>eighteen</i> are often flapped despite the second vowel being stressed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorvath2004635_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorvath2004635-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20007_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20007-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a handful of words such as <i>seventy</i>, <i>ninety</i>, and <i>carpenter</i>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nt/</span> is frequently pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nd]</span>, retaining <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> and <a href="/wiki/Consonant_voicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonant voicing">voicing</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>, although it may still become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ̃]</span> in rapid speech.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20006–7_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20006–7-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIversonAhn2007262–263_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIversonAhn2007262–263-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Homophony">Homophony</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flapping&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Homophony"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Flapping is a specific type of <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenition</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Intervocalic_consonant" title="Intervocalic consonant">intervocalic</a> weakening. It leads to the <a href="/wiki/Neutralization_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutralization (linguistics)">neutralization</a> of the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> in appropriate environments, a partial <a href="/wiki/Merger_(phonology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Merger (phonology)">merger</a> of the two phonemes, provided that both <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> are flapped.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982249_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982249-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some speakers, however, flap only <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> but not <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>. Yet, for a minority of speakers, the merger can occur only if neither sound is flapped. That is the case in Cockney, where <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> is occasionally voiced to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>]</span>, yielding a variable merger of <i>little</i> and <a href="/wiki/Lidl" title="Lidl">Lidl</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982250,_326_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982250,_326-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For speakers with the merger, the following utterances sound the same or almost the same: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <caption class="nowrap">Homophonous pairs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-t-,<span class="wrap"> </span>-nt-/</span> </th> <th><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-d-,<span class="wrap"> </span>-n-/</span> </th> <th>IPA </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>aborting</td> <td>aboarding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">əˈbɔɹɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>alighted</td> <td>elided</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">əˈlaɪɾəd</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>ante</td> <td>Annie</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈæɾ̃i</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>anti-</td> <td>Annie</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈæɾ̃i</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>at 'em</td> <td>Adam</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈæɾəm</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>at 'em</td> <td>add 'em</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈæɾəm</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>atom</td> <td>Adam</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈæɾəm</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>atom</td> <td>add 'em</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈæɾəm</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>auntie</td> <td>Annie</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈæɾ̃i</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>banter</td> <td>banner</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbæɾ̃əɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>batter</td> <td>badder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbæɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>batty</td> <td>baddie</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbæɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>beating</td> <td>beading</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbiːɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bertie</td> <td>birdie</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbəɹɾi</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Fern-fir-fur_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fern-fir-fur merger">fern-fir-fur merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bertie</td> <td>Birdy; Birdie</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbəɹɾi</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Fern-fir-fur_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fern-fir-fur merger">fern-fir-fur merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>betting</td> <td>bedding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbɛɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>biting</td> <td>biding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbaɪɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>bitter</td> <td>bidder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbɪɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>bitting</td> <td>bidding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbɪɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>bitty</td> <td>biddy</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbɪɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>blatter</td> <td>bladder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈblæɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>bleating</td> <td>bleeding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbliːɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>boating</td> <td>boding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈboʊɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>bruter</td> <td>brooder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbɹuːɾəɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Yod-dropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-dropping">yod-dropping</a> after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɹ/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>butting</td> <td>budding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbʌɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>butty</td> <td>buddy</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbʌɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>canter</td> <td>canner</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkæɾ̃əɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>canton</td> <td>cannon</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkæɾ̃ən</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>canton</td> <td>canon</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkæɾ̃ən</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>carting</td> <td>carding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkɑɹɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>catty</td> <td>caddy</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkæɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>centre; center</td> <td>sinner</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsɪɾ̃əɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pen%E2%80%93pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen–pin merger">pen–pin merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>chanting</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Channing_(name)" title="Channing (name)">Channing</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈt͡ʃæɾ̃ɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cited</td> <td>sided</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsaɪɾɨd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>citer</td> <td>cider</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsaɪɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>clotting</td> <td>clodding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈklɒɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>coating</td> <td>coding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkoʊɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>courting</td> <td>chording</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkɔɹɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>courting</td> <td>cording</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkɔɹɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cuttle</td> <td>cuddle</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkʌɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cutty</td> <td>cuddy</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkʌɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>daughter</td> <td>dodder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈdɑɾəɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot-caught merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>daunting</td> <td>dawning</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈdɔɾ̃ɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>daunting</td> <td>donning</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈdɑɾ̃ɪŋ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot-caught merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>debtor</td> <td>deader</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈdɛɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>diluted</td> <td>deluded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dɪˈluːɾəd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>don't it</td> <td>doughnut</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈdoʊɾ̃ət</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toe-tow_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Toe-tow merger">toe-tow merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>dotter</td> <td>dodder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈdɑɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>doughty</td> <td>dowdy</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈdaʊɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>eluted</td> <td>alluded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">əˈluːɾəd</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>eluted</td> <td>eluded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɪˈluːɾəd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>enter</td> <td>in a</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɪɾ̃ə</span></td> <td>In <a href="/wiki/Non-rhotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rhotic">non-rhotic</a> accents with <a href="/wiki/Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>enter</td> <td>inner</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɪɾ̃əɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>eta</td> <td>Ada</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈeɪɾə</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>fated</td> <td>faded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈfeɪɾɨd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>flutter</td> <td>flooder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈflʌɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>fontal</td> <td>faunal</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈfɑɾ̃əl</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot-caught merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>futile</td> <td>feudal</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈfjuːɾəl</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>garter</td> <td>guarder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈgɑɹɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>gaunter</td> <td>goner</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈgɑɾ̃əɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot-caught merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>goated</td> <td>goaded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈgoʊɾəd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>grater</td> <td>grader</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɡɹeɪɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>greater</td> <td>grader</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɡɹeɪɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>gritted</td> <td>gridded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈgɹɪɾəd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>gritty</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Griddy_(dance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Griddy (dance)">Griddy</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɡɹɪɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>hearty</td> <td>hardy</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈhɑːɹɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>heated</td> <td>heeded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈhiːɾɨd</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Meet-meat_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Meet-meat merger">meet-meat merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hetty; Hettie</td> <td>heady</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈhɛɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>hurting</td> <td>herding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈhɜːɹɾɪŋ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Fern-fir-fur_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fern-fir-fur merger">fern-fir-fur merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>inter-</td> <td>in a</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɪɾ̃ə</span></td> <td>In <a href="/wiki/Non-rhotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rhotic">non-rhotic</a> accents. </td></tr> <tr> <td>inter-</td> <td>inner</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɪɾ̃əɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>iter</td> <td>eider</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈaɪɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>jaunty</td> <td>Johnny</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈd͡ʒɑɾ̃i</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Cot-caught" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught">cot-caught</a> merger. </td></tr> <tr> <td>jointing</td> <td>joining</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈd͡ʒɔɪɾ̃ɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>kitted</td> <td>kidded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkɪɾɨd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>kitty</td> <td>kiddie</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkɪɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>knotted</td> <td>nodded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈnɒɾɨd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>latter</td> <td>ladder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈlæɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>lauded</td> <td>lotted</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈlɑɾəd</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot-caught merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>linty</td> <td>Lenny</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈlɪɾ̃i</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>liter</td> <td>leader</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈliːɾəɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Meet-meat_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Meet-meat merger">meet-meat merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>little</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lidl" title="Lidl">Lidl</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈlɪɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>looter</td> <td>lewder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈluːɾəɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Yod-dropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-dropping">yod-dropping</a> after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>manta</td> <td>manna</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmæɾ̃ə</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>manta</td> <td>manner</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmæɾ̃ə</span></td> <td>In <a href="/wiki/Non-rhotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rhotic">non-rhotic</a> accents. </td></tr> <tr> <td>manta</td> <td>manor</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmæɾ̃ə</span></td> <td>In <a href="/wiki/Non-rhotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rhotic">non-rhotic</a> accents. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Marty</td> <td>Mardi</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmɑːɹɾi</span></td> <td>In the term <i><a href="/wiki/Mardi_Gras" title="Mardi Gras">Mardi Gras</a></i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>matter</td> <td>madder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmæɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>mattocks</td> <td>Maddox</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmæɾəks</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>meant it</td> <td>minute</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmɪɾ̃ɨt</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pen%E2%80%93pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen–pin merger">pen–pin merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>metal</td> <td>medal</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmɛɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>metal</td> <td>meddle</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmɛɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>mettle</td> <td>medal</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmɛɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>mettle</td> <td>meddle</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmɛɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>minty</td> <td>many</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmɪɾ̃i</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pen%E2%80%93pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen–pin merger">pen–pin merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>minty</td> <td>mini</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmɪɾ̃i</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>minty</td> <td>Minnie</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmɪɾ̃i</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>motile</td> <td>modal</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmoʊɾəl</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>mottle</td> <td>model</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmɑɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>mutter</td> <td>mudder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmʌɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>neater</td> <td>kneader</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈniːɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>neuter</td> <td>nuder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈnuːɾəɹ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈnjuːɾəɹ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈnɪuɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>nighter</td> <td>nidor</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈnaɪɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>nitre; niter</td> <td>nidor</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈnaɪɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>noted</td> <td>noded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈnoʊɾɨd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>oater</td> <td>odour; odor</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈoʊɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>otter</td> <td>odder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɒɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>painting</td> <td>paining</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpeɪɾ̃ɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>panting</td> <td>panning</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpæɾ̃ɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>parity</td> <td>parody</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpæɹəɾi</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>patter</td> <td>padder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpæɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>patting</td> <td>padding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpæɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>patty</td> <td>paddy</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpæɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>petal</td> <td>pedal</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpɛɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>petal</td> <td>peddle</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpɛɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>pettle</td> <td>pedal</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpɛɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>pettle</td> <td>peddle</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpɛɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>platted</td> <td>plaided</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈplæɾəd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>planting</td> <td>planning</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈplæɾ̃ɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>pleating</td> <td>pleading</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpliːɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>plenty</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pliny_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Pliny (disambiguation)">Pliny</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈplɪɾ̃i</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pen%E2%80%93pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen–pin merger">pen–pin merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>plotting</td> <td>plodding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈplɒɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>potted</td> <td>podded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpɒɾɨd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>pouter</td> <td>powder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpaʊɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>punting</td> <td>punning</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpʌɾ̃ɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>putting</td> <td>pudding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpʊɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>rated</td> <td>raided</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɹeɪɾɨd</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pane-pain_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pane-pain merger">pane-pain merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>rattle</td> <td>raddle</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɹæɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>righting</td> <td>riding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>roti</td> <td>roadie</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɹoʊɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>rooter</td> <td>ruder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɹuːɾəɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Yod-dropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-dropping">yod-dropping</a> after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɹ/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>rotting</td> <td>rodding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɹɒɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>router</td> <td>ruder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɹuːɾəɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Yod-dropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-dropping">yod-dropping</a> after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɹ/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>runty</td> <td>runny</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɹʌɾ̃i</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>rutty</td> <td>ruddy</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɹʌɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sainting</td> <td>seining</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈseɪɾ̃ɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Saturday</td> <td>sadder day</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsæɾəɹdeɪ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>satyr</td> <td>Seder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈseɪɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>saunter</td> <td>sauna</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsɔɾ̃ə</span></td> <td>In <a href="/wiki/Non-rhotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rhotic">non-rhotic</a> accents. </td></tr> <tr> <td>scented</td> <td>synod</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsɪɾ̃əd</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>scenting</td> <td>sinning</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsɪɾ̃ɪŋ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>seating</td> <td>seeding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsiːɾɪŋ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Meet-meat_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Meet-meat merger">meet-meat merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>sent it</td> <td>senate</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsɛɾ̃ɨt</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>set it</td> <td>said it</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsɛɾɨt</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>shunting</td> <td>shunning</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈʃʌɾ̃ɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>shutter</td> <td>shudder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈʃʌɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sighted</td> <td>sided</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsaɪɾɨd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sighter</td> <td>cider</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsaɪɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sinter</td> <td>sinner</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsɪɾ̃əɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sited</td> <td>sided</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsaɪɾɨd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>skitting</td> <td>skidding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈskɪɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sorted</td> <td>sordid</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈsɔɹɾɨd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>slighting</td> <td>sliding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈslaɪɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>stunting</td> <td>stunning</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈstʌɾ̃ɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tarty</td> <td>tardy</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtɑɹɾi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tenter</td> <td>tenner</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtɛɾ̃əɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tenter</td> <td>tenor</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtɛɾ̃əɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tenting</td> <td>tinning</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtɪɾɪŋ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>title</td> <td>tidal</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtaɪɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>toting</td> <td>toading</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtoʊɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>traitor</td> <td>trader</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtɹeɪɾəɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pane-pain_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pane-pain merger">pane-pain merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>tutor</td> <td>Tudor</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtuːɾəɹ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈtjuːɾəɹ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈtɪuɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tweeted</td> <td>tweeded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtwiːɾəd</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>utter</td> <td>udder</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈʌɾəɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>waiter</td> <td>wader</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈweɪɾəɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pane-pain_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pane-pain merger">pane-pain merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>wattle</td> <td>waddle</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈwɑɾəl</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>weighted</td> <td>waded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈweɪɾəd</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Pane-pain_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pane-pain merger">pane-pain merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>wetting</td> <td>wedding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈwɛɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>winter</td> <td>winner</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈwɪɾ̃əɹ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>wheated</td> <td>weeded</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈwiːɾəd</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Wine-whine_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine-whine merger">wine-whine merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>whiter</td> <td>wider</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈwaɪɾəɹ</span></td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Wine%E2%80%93whine_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine–whine merger">wine–whine merger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>writing</td> <td>riding</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In accents characterized by <a href="/wiki/Canadian_raising" title="Canadian raising">Canadian raising</a>, such words as <i>riding</i> and <i>writing</i> may be flapped yet still distinguished by the quality of the vowel: <i>riding</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ]</span>, <i>writing</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɹʌɪɾɪŋ]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144–146_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144–146-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vowel duration may also be different, with a longer vowel before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> than before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>, due to <a href="/wiki/Pre-fortis_clipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-fortis clipping">pre-fortis clipping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs2017217_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs2017217-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Withgott_effect">Withgott effect</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flapping&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Withgott effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a dissertation in 1982, M.M. Withgott demonstrated that, among speakers of <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a>, words seem to be chunked into pronunciation units she referred to as a foot, similar to a metrical unit in poetry. Such chunking was said to block flapping in the word ‘Mediterranean’ ([[Medi[terranean] ], cf. [ [sub[terranean]]). How a word is chunked relates to its <a href="/wiki/Morphological_derivation" title="Morphological derivation">morphological</a> derivation, as seen by contrasting morphologically similar pairs such as the following (where the vertical bar shows where Withgott argued there is boundary between neighboring feet): </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td>Initial-type t</td> <td></td> <td><i>vs.</i></td> <td>flapped-t</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>mili<b>t</b>ary</td> <td>[ˈmɪlɨ | <b>tʰ</b>ɛɹi]</td> <td><i>vs.</i></td> <td>capi<b>t</b>al</td> <td>[ˈkʰæpɨ<b>ɾ</b>l̩] </td></tr> <tr> <td>mili<b>t</b>aristic</td> <td>[ˌmɪlɨ | <b>tʰ</b>əˈɹɪstɪk]</td> <td><i>vs.</i></td> <td>capi<b>t</b>alistic</td> <td>[ˌkʰæpɨ<b>ɾ</b>ə | ˈlɪstɪk] </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The medial <i>t</i> in <i>càpitalístic</i> can be flapped as easily as in post-stress <i>cátty</i> [ˈkʰæɾi], in contrast to the medial <i>t</i> in <i>mìlitarístic</i>, which comes at the beginning of a foot, and so must be pronounced as [tʰ], like a <i>t</i> at the beginning of a word. </p><p>Long, seemingly monomorphemic words also are chunked in English for purposes of pronunciation. In such words [t]’s — as well as the other unvoiced stops — are pronounced like initial segments whenever they receive secondary <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a> or are at the beginning of a foot: </p><p><i>Navra tilóva</i> </p><p><i>Abra cadábra</i> </p><p><i>Ala kazám</i> </p><p><i>Rázz matàzz</i> </p><p>But: </p><p><i>Fliberti gibety</i> </p><p><i>Humu humu nuku nuku apu a‘a</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="T-to-R_rule">T-to-R rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flapping&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: T-to-R rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The origins of the T-to-R rule lie in the flapping of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and the subsequent reinterpretation of the flap as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, which was then followed by the use of the prevailing variant of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, namely the approximant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">ɹ</a>]</span>. It is applied in <a href="/wiki/Northern_England_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern England English">Northern England English</a> and it is always stigmatized. The application of that rule means that <i>shut</i> in the phrasal verb <i>to shut up</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃʊrˈʊp/</span> has a different phonemic form than the citation form of the verb <i>to shut</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃʊt/</span>. The rule is typically not applied in the word-internal position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982370_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982370-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The T-to-R rule has also been reported to occur in the <a href="/wiki/Cardiff_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiff dialect">Cardiff dialect</a> (where the merged consonant can surface as either an approximant or a flap) and <a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South African English</a> (where only a flap is possible). In the Cardiff dialect, the rule is typically applied between any vowel (including long vowels) and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> or the reduced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span> (also across word boundaries), so that <i>starting</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈstaːtɪŋ/</span> and <i>starring</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈstaːrɪŋ/</span> can be homophonous as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈstaːɹɪn<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈstaːɾɪn]</span>. In South African English, the merger is possible only for those speakers who use the flapped allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> (making the <i>starting</i>–<i>starring</i> minimal pair homophonous as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈstɑːɾɪŋ]</span>), otherwise the sounds are distinguished as a flap (or a voiceless stop) for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈstɑːɾɪŋ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>stɑːtɪŋ]</span>) vs. approximant for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈstɑːɹɪŋ]</span>). There, the merger occurs word-internally between vowels in those environments where flapping is possible in North American English.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982616–618_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982616–618-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <caption class="nowrap">Homophonous pairs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> </th> <th><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> </th> <th>IPA </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>battle </td> <td>barrel </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbæɾəl</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>batty </td> <td>Barrie </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbæɾi</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>batty </td> <td>Barry </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbæɾi</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>betty </td> <td>berry </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbɛɾi</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>but a </td> <td>borough </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbəɾə</span> </td> <td>In Cardiff English. <i>But</i> has an alternative form <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bə/</span>, with an elided <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199099_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199099-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>butter </td> <td>borough </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈbʌɾə</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>catty </td> <td>carry </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkæɾi</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>catty </td> <td>kar(r)ee </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈkæɾi</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>daughter </td> <td>Dora </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈdɔːɾə</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fetty </td> <td>ferry </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈfɛɾi</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>hotter </td> <td>horror </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈhɒɾə</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>jetty </td> <td>jerry </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈd͡ʒɛɾi</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lottie </td> <td>lorry </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈlɒɾi</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>matty </td> <td>marry </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈmæɾi</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>otter </td> <td>horror </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈɒɾə</span> </td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping">h-dropping</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>petty </td> <td>Perry </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈpɛɾi</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>starting </td> <td>starring </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈstɑːɾɪŋ</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tarty </td> <td>tarry </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtɑːɾi</span> </td> <td><i>Tarry</i> in the sense "resembling tar". </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flapping&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Phonological history of English consonants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_accents_of_English" title="Regional accents of English">Regional accents of English</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flapping&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Since North American English normally lacks the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> in unstressed positions, there is variability among linguists and dictionaries in the treatment of unstressed vowels pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span> in other varieties of English that have the distinction. They are usually identified as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span> before <a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_consonant" title="Palato-alveolar consonant">palato-alveolar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a> consonants (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ,<span class="wrap"> </span>tʃ,<span class="wrap"> </span>dʒ,<span class="wrap"> </span>k,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋ/</span>) and in prefixes such as <i>re-, e-, de-</i>, and as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2000xv_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2000xv-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flapping&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982325-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982325_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.g. in <a href="#CITEREFFox2011">Fox (2011</a>:158).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden200992-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOgden200992_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOgden2009">Ogden (2009)</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175–176-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175–176_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedJohnson2011">Ladefoged & Johnson (2011)</a>, pp. 175–176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982249-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982249_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982249_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Jong1998">de Jong (1998)</a>, p. 284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200329-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200329_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200329_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200329_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShockey2003">Shockey (2003)</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerrickGick2011309–312-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDerrickGick2011309–312_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDerrickGick2011">Derrick & Gick (2011)</a>, pp. 309–312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982326-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982326_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 326.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollinsMees1990">Collins & Mees (1990)</a>, pp. 91–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsmith2011">Goldsmith (2011)</a>, p. 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200330-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200330_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShockey2003">Shockey (2003)</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200824,_30,_35,_104-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200824,_30,_35,_104_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008">Trudgill & Hannah (2008)</a>, pp. 24, 30, 35, 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2007115-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickey2007115_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHickey2007">Hickey (2007)</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsmith2011">Goldsmith (2011)</a>, pp. 191–192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHualde20112230-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHualde20112230_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHualde2011">Hualde (2011)</a>, p. 2230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009143-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes2009143_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHayes2009">Hayes (2009)</a>, p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoberg2015236-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoberg2015236_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoberg2015">Boberg (2015)</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2011xi-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2011xi_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2011">Jones (2011)</a>, p. xi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrintonFee2001428-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrintonFee2001428_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrintonFee2001">Brinton & Fee (2001)</a>, p. 428.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982248-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982248_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETollfree200157–58-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETollfree200157–58_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTollfree2001">Tollfree (2001)</a>, pp. 57–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982251-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982251_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERepetti-LudlowBlake2024-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERepetti-LudlowBlake2024_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRepetti-LudlowBlake2024">Repetti-Ludlow & Blake (2024)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2000xv-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2000xv_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells2000">Wells (2000)</a>, p. xv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHayes1995">Hayes (1995)</a>, pp. 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2011-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2011_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells2011">Wells (2011)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20005-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20005_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVaux2000">Vaux (2000)</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBérces201184–89-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBérces201184–89_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBérces2011">Bérces (2011)</a>, pp. 84–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201174–75-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201174–75_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefogedJohnson2011">Ladefoged & Johnson (2011)</a>, pp. 74–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982252-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982252_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20004–5-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20004–5_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVaux2000">Vaux (2000)</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011192-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011192_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsmith2011">Goldsmith (2011)</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorvath2004635-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorvath2004635_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorvath2004">Horvath (2004)</a>, p. 635.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20007-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20007_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVaux2000">Vaux (2000)</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20006–7-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20006–7_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVaux2000">Vaux (2000)</a>, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIversonAhn2007262–263-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIversonAhn2007262–263_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIversonAhn2007">Iverson & Ahn (2007)</a>, pp. 262–263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHayes2009">Hayes (2009)</a>, p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982250,_326-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982250,_326_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, pp. 250, 326.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144–146-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144–146_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHayes2009">Hayes (2009)</a>, pp. 144–146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs2017217-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs2017217_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGussenhovenJacobs2017">Gussenhoven & Jacobs (2017)</a>, p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982370-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982370_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 370.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982616–618-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982616–618_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, pp. 616–618.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199099-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199099_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollinsMees1990">Collins & Mees (1990)</a>, p. 99.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flapping&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBérces2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bérces, Katalin Balogné (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18172%2Fjes.160">"Weak and semiweak phonological positions in English"</a>. <i>Journal of English Studies</i>. <b>9</b>: 75–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18172%2Fjes.160">10.18172/jes.160</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+English+Studies&rft.atitle=Weak+and+semiweak+phonological+positions+in+English&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=75-96&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18172%2Fjes.160&rft.aulast=B%C3%A9rces&rft.aufirst=Katalin+Balogn%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.18172%252Fjes.160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoberg2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Boberg" title="Charles Boberg">Boberg, Charles</a> (2015). "North American English". In Reed, Marnie; Levis, John M. (eds.). <i>The Handbook of English Pronunciation</i>. Wiley. pp. 229–250. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118346952.ch13">10.1002/9781118346952.ch13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-11831447-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-11831447-0"><bdi>978-1-11831447-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=North+American+English&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+English+Pronunciation&rft.pages=229-250&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118346952.ch13&rft.isbn=978-1-11831447-0&rft.aulast=Boberg&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrintonFee2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Laurel_J._Brinton" title="Laurel J. 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Wadsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-42823126-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-42823126-9"><bdi>978-1-42823126-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Course+in+Phonetics&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-42823126-9&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgden2009" class="citation book cs1">Ogden, Richard (2009). <i>An Introduction to English Phonetics</i>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2541-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2541-3"><bdi>978-0-7486-2541-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+English+Phonetics&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-2541-3&rft.aulast=Ogden&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRepetti-LudlowBlake2024" class="citation journal cs1">Repetti-Ludlow, Chiara; Blake, Renee (2024). "You Best Button <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bʌɾən]</span> it up: An American English Change-in-progress with People Identified as Black Taking the Lead". <i>University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 100–108. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14332%2F60615">20.500.14332/60615</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania+Working+Papers+in+Linguistics&rft.atitle=You+Best+Button+%3Cspan+class%3D%22IPA+nowrap%22+lang%3D%22und-Latn-fonipa%22+title%3D%22Representation+in+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28IPA%29%22%3E%5Bb%CA%8C%C9%BE%C9%99n%5D%3C%2Fspan%3E+it+up%3A+An+American+English+Change-in-progress+with+People+Identified+as+Black+Taking+the+Lead&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=100-108&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.14332%2F60615&rft.aulast=Repetti-Ludlow&rft.aufirst=Chiara&rft.au=Blake%2C+Renee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockey2003" class="citation book cs1">Shockey, Linda (2003). <i>Sound Patterns of Spoken English</i>. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-63123079-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-63123079-3"><bdi>0-63123079-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sound+Patterns+of+Spoken+English&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-63123079-3&rft.aulast=Shockey&rft.aufirst=Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTollfree2001" class="citation book cs1">Tollfree, Laura (2001). "Variation and change in Australian consonants: reduction of /t/". In Blair, David; Collins, Peter (eds.). <i>English in Australia</i>. John Benjamins. pp. 45–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fveaw.g26.06tol">10.1075/veaw.g26.06tol</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-4884-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-4884-2"><bdi>90-272-4884-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Variation+and+change+in+Australian+consonants%3A+reduction+of+%2Ft%2F&rft.btitle=English+in+Australia&rft.pages=45-67&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fveaw.g26.06tol&rft.isbn=90-272-4884-2&rft.aulast=Tollfree&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Trudgill" title="Peter Trudgill">Trudgill, Peter</a>; Hannah, Jean (2008). <i>International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English</i> (5th ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-97161-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-97161-1"><bdi>978-0-340-97161-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+English%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Varieties+of+Standard+English&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-340-97161-1&rft.aulast=Trudgill&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Hannah%2C+Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaux2000" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bert_Vaux" title="Bert Vaux">Vaux, Bert</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010615151824/http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~ling80/assignments/flap.pdf"><i>Flapping in English</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Linguistic Society of America. Chicago. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icg.harvard.edu/~ling80/assignments/flap.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 15 June 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Flapping+in+English&rft.place=Chicago&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Vaux&rft.aufirst=Bert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ficg.harvard.edu%2F~ling80%2Fassignments%2Fflap.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite id="CITEREFWells1982" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (1982). <i>Accents of English</i>. Vol. 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278), Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759">10.1017/CBO9780511611759</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611766">10.1017/CBO9780511611766</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52129719-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-52129719-2">0-52129719-2</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=1%3A+An+Introduction&rft.isbn=0-52129719-2"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52128540-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-52128540-2">0-52128540-2</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=2%3A+The+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128540-2&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52128541-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-52128541-0">0-52128541-0</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=3%3A+Beyond+the+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128541-0&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span>.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (2000). <i>Longman Pronunciation Dictionary</i> (2nd ed.). Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-36467-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-36467-1"><bdi>0-582-36467-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-582-36467-1&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2011" class="citation web cs1">Wells, John C. (25 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2011/03/strong-and-weak.html">"strong and weak"</a>. <i>John Wells's phonetic blog</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=John+Wells%27s+phonetic+blog&rft.atitle=strong+and+weak&rft.date=2011-03-25&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphonetic-blog.blogspot.com%2F2011%2F03%2Fstrong-and-weak.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flapping&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Withgott, M. Margaret. 1982. Segmental Evidence for Phonological Constituents. Ph.D. Dissertation for the University of Texas at Austin.</li> <li>Iverson, Gregory K. and Sang-Cheol Ahn. 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120415102047/http://pantherfile.uwm.edu/iverson/www/engvce.pdf"><i>English Voicing in Dimensional Theory</i></a>. Language Sciences (Phonology of English).</li> <li>Kahn, Daniel. 1976. <i>Syllable-Based Generalizations in English Phonology</i>. Ph.D. Dissertation for the University of Massachusetts reproduced by I.U. Linguistics Club.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steriade,_Donca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steriade, Donca (page does not exist)">Steriade, Donca</a>. 1999. <i>Paradigm uniformity and the phonetics-phonology boundary</i>. In M. Broe and J. Pierrehumbert (eds.), <i>Papers in Laboratory Phonology V: Acquisition and the lexicon</i>, 313-334. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_English" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_English" title="Template:History of English"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_English" title="Template talk:History of English"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_English" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of English"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_English" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">Proto-West-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentish_Old_English" title="Kentish Old English">Kentish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Phonological_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Vowels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩"><i>A</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Close back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisyllabic_laxing" title="Trisyllabic laxing">Trisyllabic laxing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Consonants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Flapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping"><i>H</i>-dropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization"><i>L</i>-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8ng%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨ng⟩"><i>Ng</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization"><i>T</i>-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩"><i>Th</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th-stopping" title="Th-stopping">stopping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩"><i>Wh</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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