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<span>Modern Urban Renewal</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_Urban_Renewal-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern Urban Renewal subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_Urban_Renewal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Goals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Goals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Strategies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Strategies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Strategies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Strategies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slum_clearance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slum_clearance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Slum clearance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slum_clearance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eminent_domain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eminent_domain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Eminent domain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eminent_domain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_around_an_event_or_venue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_around_an_event_or_venue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Construction around an event or venue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction_around_an_event_or_venue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Business_incentives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Business_incentives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Business incentives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Business_incentives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Village_renewal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Village_renewal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Village renewal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Village_renewal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Improvement_of_living_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Improvement_of_living_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Improvement of living conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Improvement_of_living_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Economic benefits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_sprawl" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_sprawl"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Urban sprawl</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_sprawl-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Displacement_of_population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Displacement_of_population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Displacement of population</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Displacement_of_population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_or_change_of_character" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_or_change_of_character"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Loss or change of character</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_or_change_of_character-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policies_and_projects_by_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policies_and_projects_by_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Policies and projects by country</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Policies_and_projects_by_country-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Policies and projects by country subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Policies_and_projects_by_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Argentina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argentina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Argentina</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argentina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Brazil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Czechia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Czechia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Czechia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Czechia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hong_Kong" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hong_Kong"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Hong Kong</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hong_Kong-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Iran</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.10</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morocco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morocco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.11</span> <span>Morocco</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morocco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.12</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Singapore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Singapore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.13</span> <span>Singapore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Singapore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.14</span> <span>South Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.15</span> <span>Taiwan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.16</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.16.1</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interwar_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interwar_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.16.2</span> <span>Interwar period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interwar_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Since_the_1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Since_the_1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.16.3</span> <span>Since the 1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Since_the_1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.17</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1900_to_1950s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1900_to_1950s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.17.1</span> <span>1900 to 1950s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1900_to_1950s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_against_urban_renewal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_against_urban_renewal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.17.2</span> <span>Reaction against urban renewal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_against_urban_renewal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Niagara_Falls,_New_York" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Niagara_Falls,_New_York"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.17.3</span> <span>Niagara Falls, New York</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Niagara_Falls,_New_York-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.18</span> <span>South Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban renewal</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="تجديد حضري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تجديد حضري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%CD%98-chh%C4%AB_keng-sin" title="To͘-chhī keng-sin – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="To͘-chhī keng-sin" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renovaci%C3%B3_urbana" title="Renovació urbana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Renovació urbana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byfornyelse" title="Byfornyelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Byfornyelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadterneuerung" title="Stadterneuerung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stadterneuerung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnauuendus" title="Linnauuendus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Linnauuendus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renovaci%C3%B3n_urbana" title="Renovación urbana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Renovación urbana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiri-garapen" title="Hiri-garapen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hiri-garapen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renouvellement_urbain" title="Renouvellement urbain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Renouvellement urbain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%84%EC%8B%9C_%EC%9E%AC%EA%B0%9C%EB%B0%9C" title="도시 재개발 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="도시 재개발" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peremajaan_kota" title="Peremajaan kota – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peremajaan kota" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigenerazione_urbana" title="Rigenerazione urbana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rigenerazione urbana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%97%D7%93%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="התחדשות עירונית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התחדשות עירונית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ურბანული განახლება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ურბანული განახლება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1rosrehabilit%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Városrehabilitáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Városrehabilitáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a 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The specific problem is: <b>cohesion.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Urban_renewal" title="Special:EditPage/Urban renewal">improve this </a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Urban_renewal" title="Special:EditPage/Urban renewal">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Urban+renewal%22">"Urban renewal"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Urban+renewal%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Urban+renewal%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Urban+renewal%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Urban+renewal%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Urban+renewal%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melbourne_docklands_urban_renewal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Melbourne_docklands_urban_renewal.jpg/300px-Melbourne_docklands_urban_renewal.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Melbourne_docklands_urban_renewal.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="218" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Docklands,_Victoria" title="Docklands, Victoria">Melbourne Docklands</a> urban renewal project, a transformation of a large disused docks area into a new residential and commercial precinct for 25,000 people</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cabrini_Green_Housing_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Cabrini_Green_Housing_Project.jpg/300px-Cabrini_Green_Housing_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Cabrini_Green_Housing_Project.jpg/450px-Cabrini_Green_Housing_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Cabrini_Green_Housing_Project.jpg/600px-Cabrini_Green_Housing_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4601" data-file-height="3619" /></a><figcaption>1999 photograph looking northeast on <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cabrini%E2%80%93Green_Homes" title="Cabrini–Green Homes">Cabrini–Green</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">housing project</a>, one of many urban renewal efforts</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Urban renewal</b> (also called <b>urban regeneration</b> in the United Kingdom and <b>urban redevelopment</b> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is a program of land <a href="/wiki/Redevelopment" title="Redevelopment">redevelopment</a> often used to address <a href="/wiki/Urban_decay" title="Urban decay">urban decay</a> in cities.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urban renewal involves the clearing out of blighted areas in inner cities in favour of new housing, businesses, and other developments. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_origins">Historical origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of urban renewal as a method for social reform emerged in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> as a reaction to the increasingly cramped and unsanitary conditions of the urban poor in the rapidly industrializing cities of the 19th century. The agenda that emerged was a progressive doctrine that assumed better housing conditions would reform its residents morally and economically. Modern attempts at renewal began in the late 19th century in developed nations. However, urban reform imposed by the state for reasons of aesthetics and efficiency had already begun in 1853, with <a href="/wiki/Haussmann%27s_renovation_of_Paris" title="Haussmann's renovation of Paris">Haussmann's renovation of Paris</a> ordered by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>. </p><p>Modern urban renewal experienced an intense phase in the late 1940s under the rubric of <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_(architecture)" title="Reconstruction (architecture)">reconstruction</a>. In the context of urban renewal, "reconstruction" typically refers to efforts to rebuild and revitalize cities that were damaged during World War II. This phase involved not just repairing buildings, but also rethinking urban design, infrastructure, and housing policies. </p><p>The impact of these initiatives was significant: cities were often reshaped with new zoning laws, transportation systems, and public housing projects. These changes aimed to accommodate growing populations and improve living conditions, but they also often led to displacement of communities and altered demographics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_Urban_Renewal">Modern Urban Renewal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Modern Urban Renewal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 20th century and now in the 21st century, urban renewal initiatives have often pursued three key goals: economic revitalization, social or cultural regeneration, and environmental sustainability. These efforts frequently aim to transform underutilized urban areas into hubs of economic and cultural activity, leveraging policies that promote both sustainability and equitable development. For example, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure">green infrastructure projects</a>, such as urban parks and community gardens, not only enhance property values but also foster social cohesion and provide environmental benefits like improved water management and biodiversity conservation. </p><p>In recent years, urban renewal programs have increasingly involved "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://waterstonehc.com/blog/2022/06/22/why-nextgen-leaders-need-to-be-culturepreneurs/">culturepreneurs</a>," individuals or organizations that blend cultural and economic strategies to reimagine urban spaces. These stakeholders often collaborate with governments and private entities to redevelop vacant land into dynamic public spaces, such as pop-up cultural venues or urban beaches. Culturepreneur initiatives are designed to bridge the gap between the needs of urban residents, local authorities, and property developers, fostering innovative, community-driven solutions. </p><p>Moreover, urban renewal projects have drawn attention to the nuanced impacts of gentrification. While these efforts can bring economic and infrastructural improvements, they may also displace long-standing communities and erode cultural heritage. Addressing these challenges requires a deliberate focus on equitable development strategies, as demonstrated by initiatives like the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theregenesisinstitute.com/">ReGenesis Project in South Carolina</a>, which combines environmental cleanup with community-driven planning. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Goals">Goals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Goals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urban renewal evolved into a policy based less on destruction and more on renovation and investment, and today is an integral part of many local governments. A primary purpose of urban renewal is to restore economic viability to a given area by attracting external private and public investment and by encouraging business start-ups and survival.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The goals of urban renewal are: </p> <ul><li>Tackling barriers to economic growth</li> <li>Decreasing the level of unemployment</li> <li>Increasing the level of attractiveness for both local residents and investors</li> <li>Increasing residents satisfaction in where they live</li> <li>Creating opportunities for deprived communities</li> <li>Unlocking potential in deprived areas<sup id="cite_ref-natratex.co.uk_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natratex.co.uk-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (May 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strategies">Strategies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Strategies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slum_clearance">Slum clearance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Slum clearance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slum_clearance" title="Slum clearance">Slum clearance</a></div> <p>Slum clearances are strategy to demolish low-income poor-quality settlements and use the land for another type of housing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As well as being a tool for urban renewal, they have also been carried for <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> and social reform reasons. Slum clearances and other programmes focused mainly on the demolition of housing in disadvantaged areas have often been criticized as a means of urban renewal for not adequately addressing the social problems that caused the initial problems in the area.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Slum_upgrading" title="Slum upgrading">slum upgrading</a> is an approach that aims to improve the existing area by directly addressing existing land tenure, infrastructure, and socioeconomic problems.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eminent_domain">Eminent domain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Eminent domain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Also known as land acquisition, compulsory purchase/acquisition, resumption or expropriation in various countries, <a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">eminent domain</a> is, in principle, the power to take <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a> for <a href="/wiki/Public_use" title="Public use">public use</a>. </p><p>However, cases have emerged in the United States in cases where the land acquired was not put to any public use. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Kelo_v._City_of_New_London" title="Kelo v. City of New London">Kelo v. City of New London</a> lawsuit ruled that eminent domain may instead transfer acquired private property into private ownership in the case of renewal schemes. The case was brought by a homeowner whose house was acquired and demolished by a private company after the verdict. The company did not complete its contracted construction, leaving the plot empty. Similar occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Rust_Belt" title="Rust Belt">Rust Belt</a>, where large areas of productive buildings were demolished to enable speculative future development which never materialized. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York" title="Syracuse, New York">Syracuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati" title="Cincinnati">Cincinnati</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls,_New_York" title="Niagara Falls, New York">Niagara Falls</a>, among many others, cleared entire neighborhoods under urban renewal plans, only for the cleared areas to become surface parking lots, sparse industrial areas, or vacant land.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction_around_an_event_or_venue">Construction around an event or venue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Construction around an event or venue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> the 1992 Olympics provided a catalyst for infrastructure improvements and the redevelopment of the water front area, and in <a href="/wiki/Bilbao" title="Bilbao">Bilbao</a> the building of a new art museum was the focus for a new business district around the city's derelict dock area. The approach has become very popular in the UK due to the availability of lottery funding for capital projects and the vibrancy of the cultural and creative sectors. However, the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Tate_Modern" title="Tate Modern">Tate Modern</a> in the <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> borough of <a href="/wiki/Southwark" title="Southwark">Southwark</a> may be heralded<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#CRYSTAL" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not"><span title="Material appears to be speculative in nature. (May 2024)">speculation?</span></a></i>]</sup> as a catalyst to economic revival in its surrounding neighborhood. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Business_incentives">Business incentives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Business incentives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urban renewal schemes are often combined with <a href="/wiki/Small_business" title="Small business">small business</a> and <a href="/wiki/Big_business" title="Big business">big business</a> incentives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Village_renewal">Village renewal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Village renewal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The process of urban regeneration is often carried out in rural areas, referred to as village renewal, though it may not be exactly the same in practice.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>An example being the introduction of tractors in France after the second world war.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Improvement_of_living_conditions">Improvement of living conditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Improvement of living conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Replenished housing stock might be an improvement in quality, cultural and social amenity, and opportunities for safety and surveillance.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Developments such as London Docklands increased tax revenues for government.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late 1964, the British commentator Neil Wates expressed the opinion that urban renewal in the United States had 'demonstrated the tremendous advantages which flow from an urban renewal programme,' such as remedying the 'personal problems' of the poor, creation or renovation of housing stock, educational and cultural 'opportunities'.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_benefits">Economic benefits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economic benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urban renewal might have economic benefits and improve the global economic competitiveness of a city's centre.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_sprawl">Urban sprawl</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Urban sprawl"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urban renewal may increase density and reduce <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a>. While urban sprawl is an unrestricted way of expanding the limits of a city, urban renewal clears out undeveloped areas within city limits. While urban sprawl increases urbanization, it can lead to vacant areas and sparse industrial sites.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some cases, urban renewal may result in increased urban sprawl when city infrastructure begins to include <a href="/wiki/Controlled-access_highway" title="Controlled-access highway">freeways and expressways</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urban renewal triggers urban sprawl to transpire, as a network of highways and interstates becomes the connection between many different cities. Areas are also often cleared in solely order to construct highways, which bring pollution and heavy vehicle traffic to surrounding neighborhoods. </p><p>Poorly-conceived designs can lead to the destruction of functional neighborhoods and the creation of new ones which are less desirable or replaced with experimental new development patterns which prove undesirable or not economically sustainable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Displacement_of_population">Displacement of population</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Displacement of population"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Community_displacement" title="Community displacement">Community displacement</a> of people living in urban renewal areas comes in various forms. Displacement may be a stated or covert intention of the project, but it may also happen when other renewal objectives are prioritized over the ability of residents to stay in their area, or as an unforeseen consequence of planning decisions. Displacement may be direct, for example in cases where low-income residents are forced to leave their homes and communities, or indirect, for example when renewal is a catalyst for <a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">gentrification</a> and/or housing prices rise such that they no longer affordable to low-income residents. Indirect displacement can also result from the interplay of renewal projects and social inequalities, for example when people face discrimination in the housing market based on racial identity.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, urban redevelopment projects have often resulted in the displacement of low-income inhabitants and Black communities when their dwellings were taken and demolished. In the 1950s, a Southwest <a href="/wiki/Washington_DC" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington DC">Washington</a> renewal project (see <a href="/wiki/Berman_v._Parker" title="Berman v. Parker">Berman v. Parker</a>) displaced thousands of largely African-American families, but provided them with no replacement housing because at the time the law did not provide for any. A model established to improve the growth and urbanization of American cities instead harmed the welfare of many communities.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increasingly, urban redevelopment led to residents being replaced, not by new residents, but by shopping malls, automobile factories and dealerships, and <a href="/wiki/Big-box_stores" class="mw-redirect" title="Big-box stores">big-box stores</a>. Replacement housing – particularly in the form of high-rise housing for low-income tenants – has not been successful. Hostile architectural designs, together with low-quality construction and maintenance have often led to rapid deterioration and abandonment of these projects. Public housing projects like <a href="/wiki/Cabrini-Green" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabrini-Green">Cabrini-Green</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pruitt-Igoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pruitt-Igoe">Pruitt-Igoe</a> in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a> became so bad that they had to be demolished.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 2000, <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Oregon" title="Portland, Oregon">Portland, Oregon</a> city leaders promised residents whose communities had already been decimated through urban renewal programs<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (May 2024)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> that their latest scheme would benefit the poor, the elderly and ethnic minorities. In 2016, <a href="/wiki/Portland_Development_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Portland Development Commission">Portland Development Commission</a> apologised again after the funds instead went into multimillion-dollar apartment projects, the increasing prices force the African-American and other low-income residents out of the market.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The impact of urban renewal on marginalized communities has been well-documented in ethnographic studies. <i><a href="/wiki/Rebuilding_Shattered_Worlds:_Creating_Community_by_Voicing_the_Past" title="Rebuilding Shattered Worlds: Creating Community by Voicing the Past">Rebuilding Shattered Worlds: Creating Community by Voicing the Past</a></i> (2016) examines the destruction of Syrian Town, a diverse neighborhood in <a href="/wiki/Easton,_Pennsylvania" title="Easton, Pennsylvania">Easton, Pennsylvania</a>, and highlights how former residents use collective memory to maintain community ties despite displacement.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_or_change_of_character">Loss or change of character</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Loss or change of character"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the politics of urban renewal, the state ultimately decides what is important to a city based on its own narrative and existing market conditions, and introduces elements which reflect these values, replacing the infrastructure and character of older city cores. This can have knock-on effects on society and culture more broadly. Professor Kenneth Paul Tan writes that Singapore's self-image of having succeeded against all odds has led to strong pressure to pursue progress and development regardless of the destructive cost, postulating that Singapore's "culture of comfort and affluence" has developed in order to cope with people's repeated loss of their sense of place, redirecting their desires from "community" towards "economic progress, upward mobility, affluent and convenient lifestyles and a ‘world-class’ city."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Policies_and_projects_by_country">Policies and projects by country</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Policies and projects by country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argentina">Argentina</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Argentina"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puerto_Madero_-_Buenos_Aires.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Puerto_Madero_-_Buenos_Aires.jpg/290px-Puerto_Madero_-_Buenos_Aires.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Puerto_Madero_-_Buenos_Aires.jpg/435px-Puerto_Madero_-_Buenos_Aires.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Puerto_Madero_-_Buenos_Aires.jpg/580px-Puerto_Madero_-_Buenos_Aires.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1417" data-file-height="976" /></a><figcaption>A project named <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Madero" title="Puerto Madero">Puerto Madero</a> in <a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, transformed a large disused <a href="/wiki/Dock_(maritime)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dock (maritime)">dock</a> into a new <a href="/wiki/Luxury_real_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxury real estate">luxury</a> residential and commercial <a href="/wiki/District" title="District">district</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Madero" title="Puerto Madero">Puerto Madero</a> is a known example of an urban renewal project. In the 1990s, the Argentine government decided to build a new residential and commercial district to replace city's old port and docks. More than 50 skyscrapers have been built in the last 20 years. Puerto Madero is now Buenos Aires' most expensive and exclusive neighborhood.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal_in_Sydney" title="Urban renewal in Sydney">Urban renewal in Sydney</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brisbane_River_Front_-_Pre_Expo_88.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Brisbane_River_Front_-_Pre_Expo_88.jpg/220px-Brisbane_River_Front_-_Pre_Expo_88.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Brisbane_River_Front_-_Pre_Expo_88.jpg/330px-Brisbane_River_Front_-_Pre_Expo_88.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Brisbane_River_Front_-_Pre_Expo_88.jpg/440px-Brisbane_River_Front_-_Pre_Expo_88.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2625" data-file-height="2582" /></a><figcaption>Clearing large areas of <a href="/wiki/South_Brisbane" class="mw-redirect" title="South Brisbane">South Brisbane</a> in 1987 to make way for <a href="/wiki/World_Expo_88" title="World Expo 88">World Expo 88</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Australia's built environment is quite young and the earliest large scale urban renewal projects didn't occur until the 1960s in the large cities of <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>. <a href="/wiki/Housing_NSW" title="Housing NSW">Housing Commission of New South Wales</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Housing_Commission_of_Victoria" title="Housing Commission of Victoria">Housing Commission of Victoria</a> conducted large slum recalamation projects in the 1960s replacing large areas of Victorian era housing with international style housing commission towers. These projects were halted in the early 1970s as enthusiasm for <a href="/wiki/Towers_in_the_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Towers in the Park">Towers in the Park</a> planning waned. In 1971, a plan to raze Sydney's historic area <a href="/wiki/The_Rocks,_New_South_Wales" title="The Rocks, New South Wales">The Rocks</a> for public housing was halted by <a href="/wiki/Green_ban" title="Green ban">green bans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CBDs and inner suburban areas of Australia's cities have been in constant renewal since the 19th century, however apart from large commercial re-developments this has mostly been done in ad-hoc fashion rather than as major planning initiative. Among the largest projects since the 1980s have been the clearing of most of <a href="/wiki/South_Brisbane" class="mw-redirect" title="South Brisbane">South Brisbane</a>'s commercial heart to become <a href="/wiki/South_Bank_Parklands" title="South Bank Parklands">South Bank</a> for <a href="/wiki/World_Expo_88" title="World Expo 88">World Expo 88</a> and the transformation of large industrial parts of South Melbourne to become the modern hi-rise dominated precinct <a href="/wiki/Southbank,_Victoria" title="Southbank, Victoria">Southbank</a>. More recent ongoing projects include <a href="/wiki/Darling_Harbour" title="Darling Harbour">Darling Harbour</a> in Sydney and <a href="/wiki/Docklands,_Victoria" title="Docklands, Victoria">Docklands</a> in Melbourne in the late 1980s as well as <a href="/wiki/South_Wharf" title="South Wharf">South Wharf</a> in Melbourne and <a href="/wiki/Barangaroo,_New_South_Wales" title="Barangaroo, New South Wales">Barangaroo</a> in Sydney in the 2000s. Urban renewal involving established residential areas is now seldom tolerated and more recent projects have instead concentrated on disused industrial and transport infrastructure or adaptive reuse of older building stock particularly for new hi-rise housing projects. <a href="/wiki/Pyrmont,_New_South_Wales" title="Pyrmont, New South Wales">Pyrmont</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ultimo,_New_South_Wales" title="Ultimo, New South Wales">Ultimo</a> in Sydney and <a href="/wiki/Postcode_3000" title="Postcode 3000">Postcode 3000</a> in Melbourne in 1992 are two key early examples along with Beacon Cove <a href="/wiki/Fisherman%27s_Bend" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisherman's Bend">Fisherman's Bend</a> in Melbourne and <a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal_in_Woolstore_Precinct,_Teneriffe" title="Urban renewal in Woolstore Precinct, Teneriffe">Urban renewal in Woolstore Precinct, Teneriffe</a> and later Northshore at <a href="/wiki/Hamilton,_Queensland" title="Hamilton, Queensland">Hamilton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brisbane" title="Brisbane">Brisbane</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brazil">Brazil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Brazil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Porto_Maravilha" class="mw-redirect" title="Porto Maravilha">Porto Maravilha</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porto_Maravilha" class="extiw" title="pt:Porto Maravilha">pt</a>]</span> is a large-scale urban waterfront revitalization project, which covers a centrally located five million square meter area. The project aims to redevelop the port area, increasing the city center attractiveness as a whole and enhancing the city's competitiveness in the <a href="/wiki/Global_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Global economy">global economy</a>. The urban renovation involves 700 km of public networks for water supply, sanitation, drainage, electricity, gas and telecom; 5 km of tunnels; 70 km of roads; 650 km<sup>2</sup> of sidewalks; 17 km of bike path; 15.000 trees; and 3 plants for sanitation treatment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>China experienced the fastest urbanization and has one of the greatest <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a> scale in the world from 1990. Massive real estate development and reconstruction brought economic revitalization. However, when cleaning the urban decay area, traditional and historic buildings were destroyed to different levels. In the industry, researchers and practitioners used “old town reconstruction” and “urban regeneration” to describe the changes made to the urban decay area. After having more research about urban renewal in terms of international trends and domestic development, the practitioners in the industry built consensus to use “urban renewal” to describe all the changes made to the old town area. With the rapid development pace of urbanization in China, the urbanization rate reached the inflection point of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.mbalib.com/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E7%91%9F%E5%A7%86%E6%9B%B2%E7%BA%BF">Northam curve</a>. The city development was not about urban sprawl and real estate development on a large scale. China improved its urban development strategy by using inventory planning other than incremental planning. Chinese promoted urbanization aggressively as national policy. But due to the change from the concept of urban renewal in terms of its presentation from the physical dimension, China now promotes small-scale “repairs” to improve the urban environment in a more sustainable and reasonable way. At the 15th China Central City Work Conference, the policy, "urban repair and <a href="/wiki/Ecological_restoration" title="Ecological restoration">ecological restoration</a>," was put forward. Immediately thereafter, new urban renewal models such as Guangzhou's micro-renovation and Shanghai's micro-renewal appeared to lead the trend of a new era of urban renewal programs in China. </p><p>“Planning is inherently political”, however, the urban development in China for the past decade is strikingly similar to the situation in many Western countries. In terms of the similarity sharing with U.S. urban renewal programs, both countries viewed older neighborhoods as outdated and blighted, encouraged local governments to cooperate with local development interests for downtown redevelopment, failed to provide enough support and concern for residents of cleared areas, who often were the low-income residents, and building plenty of highways to reach large scale urban sprawl.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Czechia">Czechia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Czechia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Josefov_(Prague)" class="mw-redirect" title="Josefov (Prague)">Josefov neighborhood, or Old Jewish Quarter</a>, in Prague was leveled and rebuilt in an effort at urban renewal between 1890 and 1913. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hong_Kong">Hong Kong</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Hong Kong"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm/220px--Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="391" data-durationhint="12" data-mwtitle="Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden,_Tai_Po,_Hong_Kong.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden,_Tai_Po,_Hong_Kong.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="270" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="639" data-height="1136" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="406" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="608" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="82" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="136" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="202" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm/Construction_dust_emitted_and_rising_up_during_the_building_rehabilitation_of_Treasure_Garden%2C_Tai_Po%2C_Hong_Kong.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="202" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Video: Construction dust spreading from an inhabited building during government-funded renewal in Tai Po, Hong Kong, 2003</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Urban_Renewal_Authority" title="Urban Renewal Authority">Urban Renewal Authority</a> is the statutory body responsible for urban renewal in Hong Kong. The Operation Building Bright scheme was launched in 2009 and is subsidised by the government. People remain living inside the buildings during the renovation period, which usually lasts for over a year, leading to concerns about exposure to construction dust and the possible presence of asbestos.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such rehabilitation works are common in districts with older buildings, like Kowloon City, Mong Kok, Sham Shui Po, Yao Ma Tei and Tai Po. </p><p>The government of Hong Kong has always been concerned with land shortage and has introduced various policies to increase land supply. One of the current initiatives, noted in the Chief Executive's 2022 Policy Address, is to consolidate property interests and expedite urban renewal.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iran">Iran</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Iran"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Iranian Urban Renewal corporation is in charge of the program. Tehran and Isfahan and Khorasan and Khuzestan have some of the highest statistics of housing developments.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seventh program offers support to Ministry of Road and Urban and Development for gentrification and development in lesser devoped zones. Funding will also support money going to mass housing developers.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1990s the concept of <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>-led regeneration gained ground. Examples most often cited as successes include <a href="/wiki/Temple_Bar,_Dublin" title="Temple Bar, Dublin">Temple Bar</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> where tourism was attracted to a bohemian 'cultural quarter', </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel">Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinuy_binuy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Pinuy_binuy.jpg/200px-Pinuy_binuy.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Pinuy_binuy.jpg/300px-Pinuy_binuy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Pinuy_binuy.jpg/400px-Pinuy_binuy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>New buildings under construction in <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a> as part of the evacuate and build program</figcaption></figure> <p>Israel has been undergoing extensive urban renewal projects due to the large number of concrete <a href="/wiki/Tenement" title="Tenement">tenement</a> buildings in its cities which do not meet modern Israeli safety standards and have what is widely considered to be an impoverished and unattractive appearance. Israel built large numbers of these tenement buildings, known in Israel as "train buildings" (בנייני רכבת, <i>binyanei rakevet</i>), in the first decades of independence to house masses of Jewish refugees coming from Europe and the Muslim world. Since then, Israeli architectural styles have changed. In addition, these buildings do not meet modern safety regulations: Israeli law has required all new buildings to be built in an earthquake-resistant manner since 1980 and to be built with bomb shelters since 1991. There are two main urban renewal programs: the evacuate and build program and TAMA 38. The evacuate and build program, launched in 1998, allows developers to tear down older building complexes and replace them with larger and more modern buildings, while TAMA 38, launched in 2005, enables developers to extensively remodel buildings, strengthening them against earthquakes, adding safety rooms, remodeling the building's appearance, and adding new apartments. In both projects, the tenants are temporarily evacuated for the duration of the work and the developer pays for their alternative accommodation. In both programs, the developers add more apartments so as to sell them to additional tenants and make a profit.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Italy, the concept of urban renewal had been having the classical meaning of "recovery", "re-use", and also "redevelopment" for many years. It has not been long time that this meaning has changed, or has begun to change, towards the Anglo-Saxon model taking in account the idea of an action that "determines an increase of economic, cultural, social values in an existing urban or territorial context."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, we can mention the regional law of 29 July 2008, nr. 21, of the <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Puglia</a> Region, "Norms for urban regeneration", which states: «By this law, the Puglia Region promotes the regeneration of parts of cities and urban systems in coherence with municipal and inter-municipal strategies in order to improve urban, socio-economics, environmental and cultural conditions of human settlements "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.regione.puglia.it/documents/10192/5155767/LEGGE+REGIONALE++29+luglio+2008,%20n.+21+(id+5155780)/afb5c62f-6b66-471a-ba11-50fa809ddaab?version=1.0">LEGGE REGIONALE 29 luglio 2008, n. 21: "Norme per la rigenerazione urbana"</a>. </p><p>A similar concept was carried out by <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a> Region by mean of its Regional Law of 26 November 2019 - n. 18 "Simplification and incentive measures for urban and territorial regeneration, as well as for the recovery of existing building heritage. Changes and addendums to the regional law 11 March 2005, n. 12 (Law for the Government of the Territory) and other regional laws "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unitedrisk.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/LR-18-2019-rigenerazione-urbana.pdf">Legge Regione Lombardia 18/2019</a>. This law defines the urban regeneration as "the coordinated set of urban-building interventions and social initiatives that can include replacement, re-use, redevelopment of the built environment and reorganization of the urban landscape by mean of recovery of degraded, underused or abandoned areas, as well as through the creation and management of infrastructure, green spaces and services […] with a horizon towards sustainability and environmental and social resilience, technological innovation and increasing biodiversity" (Art 2. L.R.18/2019). The same law introduces some rewards reserved to whom builds for social purposes. Moreover, these rewards are also reserved for those who carry on some particular implementation models. For instance, you can increase the volume of your building whenever "integrated safety systems and construction site risk management processes are applied; methods that are based on traceability and control activities, with particular reference to soil movement and waste traceability, based on advanced technologies", the increase in the building index is recognized in the art. 3 and these rewards are also given when technologies as geolocation, video surveillance and perimeter protection are implemented in order to prevent the "risk of crime during all phases of construction sites" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unitedrisk.eu/la-legalita-per-la-rigenerazione-urbana/">La legalità per la rigenerazione urbana: a law analysis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morocco">Morocco</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Morocco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the French colonial period, the entire city of <a href="/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakesh</a> - the city inside the defensive walls - was razed and redeveloped, except for the preservation of mosques, madrassas, and funerary memorials. The preserved madrassas include buildings erected as caravanserai.<sup id="cite_ref-Madhimarrakesh_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madhimarrakesh-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%95%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0,_24%D0%BA5_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%95%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0%2C_24%D0%BA5_1.jpg/227px-%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%95%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0%2C_24%D0%BA5_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="227" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%95%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0%2C_24%D0%BA5_1.jpg/341px-%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%95%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0%2C_24%D0%BA5_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%95%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0%2C_24%D0%BA5_1.jpg/454px-%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83_%D0%95%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0%2C_24%D0%BA5_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Demolition of a Khrushchevka in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> in 2017</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Urban_Renewal_Initiative" title="Moscow Urban Renewal Initiative">Moscow Urban Renewal Initiative</a></div> <p>In 2017, <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> launched a large-scale program to renovate dilapidated <a href="/wiki/Panel_buildings_in_Russia" title="Panel buildings in Russia">Soviet-built housing</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Khrushchevka" title="Khrushchevka">Khrushchevki</a>. The program provided for the demolition of 5,171 apartment buildings and the resettlement of 1.6 million city residents by 2032.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The program was later extended to a number of other Russian cities.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singapore">Singapore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Singapore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal_in_Singapore" title="Urban renewal in Singapore">Urban renewal in Singapore</a></div> <p>The history of Singapore's urban renewal goes back to the time period surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>. Before the war, Singapore's housing environment had already been a problem. The tension of both infrastructure and housing conditions were worsened by the rapidly increasing number of the Singapore population in the 1930s. As a consequence of the war and the lack of economic development, between the 1940s to the 1950s, the previous evil of housing conditions continued to happen. As much as 240,000 squatters were placed in Singapore during the 1950s. It was caused by the movement of migrants, especially from <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Malaysia" title="Peninsular Malaysia">peninsular Malaysia</a> and the baby boom.<sup id="cite_ref-Dale,_O.J._1999_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dale,_O.J._1999-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In mid 1959, overcrowded <a href="/wiki/Slums" class="mw-redirect" title="Slums">slums</a> were inhabited by a big number of squatter populations, whereas these areas lacked the existence of service facilities such as sanitation.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Singapore">Republic of Singapore</a>, urban renewal has been included in the part of the national improvement policy that was urgently put in action. Before that, the 1958 master plan had already been designed to solve the city problems. However, due to the lack of <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a> experts caused by the deficiency of professional staff, criticism came from many urban practitioners. The professional team recommended by the United Nations then was asked by the government to cope with the urban renewal matters and its redevelopment plan in 1961. Based on the UN assistance report, two pilot developments were initiated in the end of 1964 by the government. These redevelopments then led to the success of Singapore's urban renewal because the government could provide sufficient amount of public housing and business areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Dale,_O.J._1999_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dale,_O.J._1999-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the establishment of urban renewal programmes, some difficulties were experienced by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Action_Party" title="People's Action Party">PAP government</a>. The obstacles came from the resistance of people who used to live in the slums and squatters. It was reported by Singapore newspapers that those people were reluctant to be replaced. This became the major problems of 1960s redevelopment schemes.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Affordable land value also became one of its reasons. Another problem was that the government had to purchase the private land owned by the middle and upper society to make the land vacant and be used for redevelopment.<sup id="cite_ref-Dale,_O.J._1999_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dale,_O.J._1999-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Korea">South Korea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: South Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Urban_regeneration_in_South_Korea" title="Urban regeneration in South Korea">Urban regeneration in South Korea</a></div> <p>Urban regeneration in South Korea began in the 1950s with the reconstruction from <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, but the first <i>Urban Redevelopment Act</i> was passed in 1976. This began 20 years of large-scale clearance projects, which did not address socioeconomic problems and led to the breakdown of communities. In the 2000s, the government's focus changed from redevelopment to maintenance of existing developments.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Taiwan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20200809_Taipei,_Taiwan_Skyline.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/20200809_Taipei%2C_Taiwan_Skyline.jpg/290px-20200809_Taipei%2C_Taiwan_Skyline.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/20200809_Taipei%2C_Taiwan_Skyline.jpg/435px-20200809_Taipei%2C_Taiwan_Skyline.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/20200809_Taipei%2C_Taiwan_Skyline.jpg/580px-20200809_Taipei%2C_Taiwan_Skyline.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2705" data-file-height="2065" /></a><figcaption>A project named <a href="/wiki/Xinyi_Special_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinyi Special District">Xinyi Special District</a> in <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>, transformed large disused industrial sites into a new commercial <a href="/wiki/District" title="District">district</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinyi_Special_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinyi Special District">Xinyi Special District</a> is a known example of an urban renewal project. Its historical development began in 1976, when the Taipei Municipal Government accepted the proposal to redevelop the area east of the Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hall. The goal of this redevelopment was to set up a secondary commercial center away from the more crowded old city center (<a href="/wiki/Taipei_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Taipei Station">Taipei Station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ximending" title="Ximending">Ximending</a> area). The redevelopment hoped to increase the prosperity of the eastern district and the convenience of urban life for existing residents. The center's purpose was to expand business investment in the area and attract international financial services and technology firms. It also planned for residential development by building a completely new community. The Xinyi Project Area is the only commercial development area in Taipei with a wholly planned street and urban design. In addition to attracting corporations, it also features large retail spaces, department stores, and shopping malls. Xinyi Special District is now the prime central business district of Taipei.<sup id="cite_ref-Xinyi_Commercial_District_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xinyi_Commercial_District-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booth_map_of_Westminster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Booth_map_of_Westminster.jpg/300px-Booth_map_of_Westminster.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Booth_map_of_Westminster.jpg/450px-Booth_map_of_Westminster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Booth_map_of_Westminster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Part of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Booth_(philanthropist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Booth (philanthropist)">Charles Booth</a>'s colour-coded <a href="/wiki/Poverty_map" title="Poverty map">poverty map</a>, showing <a href="/wiki/Westminster" title="Westminster">Westminster</a> in 1889 – a pioneering social study of poverty that shocked the population.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="19th_century">19th century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the 1850s onwards, the terrible conditions of the urban poor in the <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slums</a> of <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> began to attract the attention of <a href="/wiki/Social_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Social reform">social reformers</a> and philanthropists, who began a movement for social housing. The first area to be targeted was the notorious slum called the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Devil%27s_Acre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Devil's Acre (page does not exist)">Devil's Acre</a> near <a href="/wiki/Westminster" title="Westminster">Westminster</a>. This new movement was largely funded by <a href="/wiki/George_Peabody" title="George Peabody">George Peabody</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Peabody_Trust" title="Peabody Trust">Peabody Trust</a> and had a lasting impact on the urban character of Westminster.<sup id="cite_ref-gov_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gov-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Slum_clearance_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Slum clearance in the United Kingdom">Slum clearance</a> began with the Rochester Buildings, on the corner of Old Pye Street and Perkin's Rent, which were built in 1862 by the merchant <a href="/wiki/William_Gibbs_(businessman)" title="William Gibbs (businessman)">William Gibbs</a>. They are one of the earliest large-scale philanthropic housing developments in London. The Rochester Buildings were sold to the Peabody Trust in 1877 and later become known as Blocks A to D of the Old Perkin's Rents Estate. <a href="/wiki/Angela_Burdett-Coutts,_1st_Baroness_Burdett-Coutts" title="Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts">Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts</a> funded an experimental social housing estate, among the first of its kind, on the corner of Columbia Road and Old Pye Street (now demolished).<sup id="cite_ref-gov_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gov-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1869, the <a href="/wiki/Peabody_Trust" title="Peabody Trust">Peabody Trust</a> built one of its first housing estates at Brewer's Green, between Victoria Street and <a href="/wiki/St._James%27s_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="St. James's Park">St. James's Park</a>. What remained of the Devil's Acre on the other side of Victoria Street was cleared and further Peabody estates were built after the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cross_Act_1875&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cross Act 1875 (page does not exist)">Cross Act of 1875</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Palliser_2000_112_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palliser_2000_112-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1882, the Peabody Trust built the Abbey Orchard Estate on former marshland at the corner of Old Pye Street and Abbey Orchard Street. Like many of the social housing estates, the Abbey Orchard Estate was built following the square plan concept. Blocks of flats were built around a courtyard, creating a semi-private space within the estate functioning as recreation area. The courtyards were meant to create a community atmosphere and the blocks of flats were designed to allow sunlight into the courtyards. The blocks of flats were built using high-quality brickwork and included architectural features such as <a href="/wiki/Lettering" title="Lettering">lettering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glazing_(window)" title="Glazing (window)">glazing</a>, fixtures and fittings. The estates built in the area at the time were considered model dwellings and included shared laundry and sanitary facilities, innovative at the time, and fireplaces in some bedrooms. The design was subsequently repeated in numerous other housing estates in London.<sup id="cite_ref-gov_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gov-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>State intervention was first achieved with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Act_1875" title="Public Health Act 1875">Public Health Act of 1875</a> through <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a>. The Act focused on combating filthy urban living conditions that were the cause of disease outbreaks. It required all new residential construction to include running water and an internal drainage system and also prohibited the construction of shoddy housing by building contractors. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cellar_dwelling_nichol_street_1863.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/00/Cellar_dwelling_nichol_street_1863.jpg/220px-Cellar_dwelling_nichol_street_1863.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/00/Cellar_dwelling_nichol_street_1863.jpg/330px-Cellar_dwelling_nichol_street_1863.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/00/Cellar_dwelling_nichol_street_1863.jpg/440px-Cellar_dwelling_nichol_street_1863.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="298" /></a><figcaption>"A Cellar dwelling in Nichol Street", illustration for "More Revelations of Bethnal Green", published in <i>The Builder</i>, vol. XXI, no. 1082 (31 October 1863)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/London_County_Council" title="London County Council">London County Council</a> was created in 1889 as the municipal authority in the <a href="/wiki/County_of_London" title="County of London">County of London</a> and in 1890 the <a href="/wiki/Old_Nichol" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Nichol">Old Nichol</a> in the <a href="/wiki/East_End_of_London" title="East End of London">East End of London</a> was declared a slum and the Council authorized its clearance and the rebuilding of an area of some 15-acre (6.1 ha), including the Nichol and Snow estates, and a small piece on the Shoreditch side of Boundary Street, formally Cock Lane. The slum clearance began in 1891 and included 730 houses inhabited by 5,719 people. The LCC architects designed 21 and <a href="/wiki/Rowland_Plumbe" title="Rowland Plumbe">Rowland Plumbe</a> two of 23 blocks containing between 10 and 85 tenements each. A total of 1,069 tenements, mostly two or three-roomed, were planned to accommodate 5,524 persons. The project was hailed as setting "new aesthetic standards for housing the working classes" and included a new laundry, 188 shops, and 77 workshops. Churches and schools were preserved. Building for the project began in 1893 and it was opened by the <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a> in 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other such schemes in the 1880s, where newly cleared sites were sold on to developers, included <a href="/wiki/Whitechapel" title="Whitechapel">Whitechapel</a>, Wild Street, <a href="/wiki/Whitecross_Street,_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitecross Street, London">Whitecross Street</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clerkenwell" title="Clerkenwell">Clerkenwell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interwar_period">Interwar period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Interwar period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1917 <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Walters_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor Walters Committee">Tudor Walters Committee</a> Report into the provision of housing and post-war reconstruction in the United Kingdom, was commissioned by Parliament as a response to the shocking lack of fitness amongst many recruits during the War; this was attributed to poor living conditions, a belief summed up in a housing poster of the period "you cannot expect to get an A1 population out of C3 homes". </p><p>The report's recommendations, coupled with a chronic housing shortage after the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> led to a government-led program of house building with the slogan 'Homes for Heroes'. <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Addison" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Addison">Christopher Addison</a>, the Minister for Housing at the time was responsible for the drafting of the <a href="/wiki/Housing,_Town_Planning,_%26c._Act_1919" title="Housing, Town Planning, &c. Act 1919">Housing, Town Planning, &c. Act 1919</a> which introduced the new concept of the state being involved in the building of new houses.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This marked the start of a long 20th century tradition of state-owned housing, which would much later evolve into <a href="/wiki/Council_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Council estate">council estates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> in 1929, increased house building and government expenditure was used to pull the country out of recession. The Housing Act of 1930 gave local councils wide-ranging powers to demolish properties unfit for human habitation or that posed a danger to health, and obligated them to rehouse those people who were relocated due to the large scale slum clearance programs. Cities with a large proportion of Victorian terraced housing – housing that was no longer deemed of sufficient standard for modern living requirements – underwent the greatest changes. Over 5,000 homes (25,000 residents) in the city of <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a> were designated as redevelopment areas in 1933 and slated for demolition. Although efforts were made to house the victims of the demolitions in the same area as before, in practice this was too difficult to fully implement and many people were rehoused in other areas, even different cities. In an effort to rehouse the poorest people affected by redevelopment, the rent for housing was set at an artificially low level, although this policy also only achieved mixed success.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Post-Second World War</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slum_clearance_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Slum clearance in the United Kingdom">Slum clearance in the United Kingdom</a></div> <p>Post-war reconstruction was a catalyst for much urban renewal in the UK. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Since_the_1990s">Since the 1990s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Since the 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Single Regeneration Budget (SRB) was a project run by the government from 1994 to 2002 to enable regeneration in areas with social and economic problems, with funds allocated through a competitive bidding system.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Housing_Market_Renewal_Initiative" title="Housing Market Renewal Initiative">Housing Market Renewal Initiative</a> (also known as the Pathfinder Scheme) was in place between 2002 and 2011 and aimed to demolish, refurbish or construct new housing. Areas of housing that were demolished were replaced with new houses aimed towards attracting richer tenants to move to the area, rather than use by the areas' former residents.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other programs, such as The <a href="/wiki/Castleford" title="Castleford">Castleford</a> Project (2002-2005)<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sought to enable local citizens to have greater control and ownership<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> of the direction of their community and the way in which it overcomes market<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> failure. This approach supports important themes in urban renewal today, such as participation, <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> and trust – and government acting as advocate and 'enabler', rather than an instrument of command and control. </p><p>Currently<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (May 2024)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> there are two main Urban Regeneration projects going on in London, Elephant Park<sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at <a href="/wiki/Elephant_%26_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Elephant & Castle">Elephant & Castle</a><sup id="cite_ref-:1_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at <a href="/wiki/Stratford,_London" title="Stratford, London">Stratford</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are both being done by <a href="/wiki/Lendlease" title="Lendlease">Lendlease</a>, a multinational company focusing on redeveloping neglected city areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States the term 'urban renewal' technically refers only to a federal program in the middle-to-late 20th Century, but colloquially is sometimes used to refer to any large-scale change in urban development. Urban renewal is a widely discussed and controversial program. Urban renewal sometimes lives up to the hopes of its original proponents – it has been assessed by politicians, <a href="/wiki/Urban_planner" title="Urban planner">urban planners</a>, civic leaders, and residents – it has played an important but controversial role. But at other times urban redevelopment projects have failed in several American cities, having wasted large amounts of public funds to no purpose.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It has been seen by proponents as an economic engine and a reform mechanism, and by critics as a mechanism for control.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1900_to_1950s">1900 to 1950s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: 1900 to 1950s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fairbanks,_Alaska_aerial,_downtown_urban_renewal_zone,_early_1960s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Fairbanks%2C_Alaska_aerial%2C_downtown_urban_renewal_zone%2C_early_1960s.jpg/220px-Fairbanks%2C_Alaska_aerial%2C_downtown_urban_renewal_zone%2C_early_1960s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Fairbanks%2C_Alaska_aerial%2C_downtown_urban_renewal_zone%2C_early_1960s.jpg/330px-Fairbanks%2C_Alaska_aerial%2C_downtown_urban_renewal_zone%2C_early_1960s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Fairbanks%2C_Alaska_aerial%2C_downtown_urban_renewal_zone%2C_early_1960s.jpg/440px-Fairbanks%2C_Alaska_aerial%2C_downtown_urban_renewal_zone%2C_early_1960s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2430" data-file-height="1764" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of downtown <a href="/wiki/Fairbanks,_Alaska" title="Fairbanks, Alaska">Fairbanks, Alaska</a> in the early 1960s, showing the area cleared in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>'s first urban renewal project.</figcaption></figure> <p>Prior to the Urban Renewal policies of the 1950s, cities in the United States revitalized with large scale projects like the design and construction of <a href="/wiki/Central_Park" title="Central Park">Central Park</a> in New York and the 1909 Plan for Chicago by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Burnham" title="Daniel Burnham">Daniel Burnham</a>. Similarly, the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Riis" title="Jacob Riis">Jacob Riis</a> in advocating for improved living conditions in degraded areas of New York in the late 19th century were also formative. The redevelopment of large sections of <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_State" class="mw-redirect" title="New York State">New York State</a> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Moses" title="Robert Moses">Robert Moses</a> between the 1930s and the 1970s was a notable and prominent example of urban redevelopment. Moses directed the construction of new <a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">bridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Highway" title="Highway">highways</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_Housing_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Housing in the United States">housing projects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Park" title="Park">public parks</a>. </p><p>Other cities across the US began to create redevelopment programs in the late 1930s and 1940s. These early projects were generally focused on <a href="/wiki/Slum_clearance" title="Slum clearance">slum clearance</a> and were implemented by local <a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_housing_authorities&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Public housing authorities (page does not exist)">public housing authorities</a>, which were responsible both for clearing slums and for building new affordable housing. In Detroit, the (local) City Planning and Housing Council (CHPC) founded in 1937 had a large hand in the reconstruction of urban slums, with their primary mission being the elimination of poor housing conditions, creating less crowded and cleaner public housing.<sup id="cite_ref-Sugrue_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sugrue-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1944, the <a href="/wiki/GI_Bill" class="mw-redirect" title="GI Bill">GI Bill</a> (officially the Serviceman's Readjustment Act) guaranteed <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs" title="United States Department of Veterans Affairs">Veterans Administration</a> (VA) mortgages to veterans under favorable terms, which fueled suburbanization after the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, as places like <a href="/wiki/Levittown,_New_York" title="Levittown, New York">Levittown, New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warren,_Michigan" title="Warren, Michigan">Warren, Michigan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/San_Fernando_Valley" title="San Fernando Valley">San Fernando Valley</a> of <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles</a> were transformed from farmland into cities occupied by tens of thousands of families in a few years. However, the GI Bill was primarily beneficial for white veterans over black ones, so in inner cities where black veterans tried using the benefits from the GI bill to occur housing and/or jobs, it was much more difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-Sugrue_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sugrue-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_of_1949" title="Housing Act of 1949">Housing Act of 1949</a>, also known as the Taft-Ellender-Wagner Act, provided federal loans to cities to acquire and clear slum areas to be sold to private developers to redevelop in accordance with a plan prepared by the city (normally with new housing), and grants to cover two-thirds of the portion of the city's costs in excess of the sale prices received from the developers, as well as provide millions of dollars to create public housing throughout the country.<sup id="cite_ref-Sugrue_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sugrue-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phrase used at the time was "urban redevelopment". "Urban renewal" was a phrase popularized with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_of_1954" title="Housing Act of 1954">Housing Act of 1954</a>, which made these projects more enticing to developers by, among other things, providing mortgages backed by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration" title="Federal Housing Administration">Federal Housing Administration</a> (FHA). </p><p>The term "urban renewal" was not introduced in the USA until the Housing Act was again amended in 1954. That was also the year in which the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> upheld the general validity of urban redevelopment statutes in the landmark case, <i><a href="/wiki/Berman_v._Parker" title="Berman v. Parker">Berman v. Parker</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the powerful influence of multimillionaire <a href="/wiki/R.K._Mellon" class="mw-redirect" title="R.K. Mellon">R.K. Mellon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh,_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania">Pittsburgh</a> became the first major city to undertake a modern urban-renewal <a href="/wiki/History_of_Pittsburgh#Renaissance_I_(1946–1973)" title="History of Pittsburgh">program</a> in May 1950. Pittsburgh was infamous around the world as one of the dirtiest and most economically depressed cities, and seemed ripe for urban renewal. A large section of downtown at the heart of the city was demolished, converted to parks, office buildings, and a sports arena and renamed the <a href="/wiki/Central_Business_District_(Pittsburgh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Business District (Pittsburgh)">Golden Triangle</a> in what was generally recognized as a major success.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (July 2012)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> Other neighborhoods were also subjected to urban renewal, but with mixed results. Some areas did improve, while other areas, such as <a href="/wiki/East_Liberty_(Pittsburgh)" title="East Liberty (Pittsburgh)">East Liberty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hill_District" title="Hill District">Hill District</a>, declined following ambitious projects that shifted traffic patterns, blocked streets to vehicular traffic, isolated or divided neighborhoods with highways, and removed large numbers of ethnic and minority residents.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An entire neighborhood was destroyed (to be replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Civic_Arena_(Pittsburgh)" title="Civic Arena (Pittsburgh)">Civic Arena</a>), displacing 8000 residents (most of whom were poor and black).<sup id="cite_ref-Glasco_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glasco-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of the ways in which it targeted the most disadvantaged sector of the American population, novelist <a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Baldwin (writer)">James Baldwin</a> famously dubbed Urban Renewal "Negro Removal" in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/History_of_Detroit" title="History of Detroit">Early to mid-20th century Detroit</a> was a prime area for urban "redevelopers", as much of the city had only decrepit housing available. The efforts of the CHPC and the FHA to renew Detroit caused huge amounts of black displacement due to the construction of highways and airports directly through black neighborhoods like <a href="/wiki/8_Mile_City" class="mw-redirect" title="8 Mile City">8-mile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paradise_Valley,_Detroit" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradise Valley, Detroit">Paradise Valley</a>. Black families were thrown out from their homes and not provided relocation services. The "slums" being cleared or being looked at for redevelopment were primarily black neighborhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-Sugrue_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sugrue-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1956, the <a href="/wiki/Federal-Aid_Highway_Act_of_1956" title="Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956">Federal-Aid Highway Act</a> gave state and federal government complete control over new highways, and often they were routed directly through vibrant urban neighborhoods—isolating or destroying many—since the focus of the program was to bring traffic in and out of the central cores of cities as expeditiously as possible and nine out of every ten dollars spent came from the federal government. This resulted in a serious degradation of the <a href="/wiki/Tax_base" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax base">tax bases</a> of many cities, isolated entire neighborhoods,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and meant that existing commercial districts were bypassed by the majority of <a href="/wiki/Commuter" class="mw-redirect" title="Commuter">commuters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Segregation continued to increase as communities were displaced. Black families that had their homes and neighborhoods destroyed had to find housing options deeper in the inner city as whites could then use those highways to spread further and further into the suburbs but continue to work in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Sugrue_55-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sugrue-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, one of the country's oldest cities, almost a third of the old city was demolished—including the historic <a href="/wiki/West_End,_Boston" title="West End, Boston">West End</a>—to make way for a new highway, low- and moderate-income high-rises (which eventually became luxury housing), and new government and commercial buildings. This came to be seen as a tragedy by many residents and <a href="/wiki/Urban_planner" title="Urban planner">urban planners</a>, and one of the centerpieces of the redevelopment—<a href="/wiki/Government_Center,_Boston,_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Government Center, Boston, Massachusetts">Government Center</a>—is still considered an example of the excesses of urban renewal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reaction_against_urban_renewal">Reaction against urban renewal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Reaction against urban renewal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1961, <a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_and_Life_of_Great_American_Cities" title="The Death and Life of Great American Cities">The Death and Life of Great American Cities</a></i>, one of the first—and strongest—critiques of contemporary large-scale urban renewal. However, it would still be a few years before organized movements began to oppose urban renewal. The <a href="/wiki/Rondout,_New_York" title="Rondout, New York">Rondout</a> neighborhood in Kingston, New York (on the Hudson River) was essentially destroyed by a federally funded urban renewal program in the 1960s, with more than 400 old buildings demolished, most of them historic brick structures built in the 19th century. Similarly ill-conceived urban renewal programs gutted the historic centers of other towns and cities across America in the 1950s and 1960s (for example the <a href="/wiki/West_End,_Boston" title="West End, Boston">West End</a> neighborhood in Boston, the <a href="/wiki/Gateway_District_(Minneapolis)" title="Gateway District (Minneapolis)">Gateway District</a> of <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis,_Minnesota" class="mw-redirect" title="Minneapolis, Minnesota">Minneapolis</a>, the downtown area of <a href="/wiki/Norfolk,_Virginia" title="Norfolk, Virginia">Norfolk, Virginia</a> and the historic waterfront areas of the towns of <a href="/wiki/Narragansett,_Rhode_Island" title="Narragansett, Rhode Island">Narragansett</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newport,_Rhode_Island" title="Newport, Rhode Island">Newport</a> in Rhode Island). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> is a landmark law to prohibit discrimination based on race, gender, religion, sex, national origin, and later sexual orientation and gender identity through legal means. At this time, racial deed restrictions on housing were legally removed and banned, which was an important step for <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States" title="Desegregation in the United States">Desegregation in the United States</a>. However, <a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">redlining</a> still existed to present the unequal real estate transaction for many ethnic minorities. Even though segregation was explicitly illegal, discrimination under urban planning context has been deep-rooted. </p><p>From 1965 to 1967, riots swept many cities across the States—most drastically in <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a> during the <a href="/wiki/12th_Street_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="12th Street Riot">12th Street Riot</a>. By the 1970s many major cities developed opposition to the sweeping urban-renewal plans for their cities.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, community activists halted construction of the proposed <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Corridor_(Boston)" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest Corridor (Boston)">Southwest Expressway</a> but only after a three-mile long stretch of land had been cleared. In <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Alioto" title="Joseph Alioto">Joseph Alioto</a> was the first mayor to publicly repudiate the policy of urban renewal, and with the backing of community groups, forced the state to end construction of highways through the heart of the city. <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a> lost over 60,000 people between 1960 and 1970 because of urban renewal and expressway construction,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but a downtown building boom turned the city into the showcase of the <a href="/wiki/New_South" title="New South">New South</a> in the 1970s and 1980s. In the early 1970s in <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, Jacobs was heavily involved in a group which halted the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Spadina_Expressway" class="mw-redirect" title="Spadina Expressway">Spadina Expressway</a> and altered transport policy in that city. </p><p>Some of the policies around urban renewal began to change under President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a> and the <a href="/wiki/War_on_Poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Poverty">War on Poverty</a>, and in 1968, the <a href="/wiki/Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1968" title="Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968">Housing and Urban Development Act</a> and The New Communities Act of 1968 guaranteed private financing for private entrepreneurs to plan and develop new communities. Subsequently, the Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 established the <a href="/wiki/Community_Development_Block_Grant" title="Community Development Block Grant">Community Development Block Grant</a> program (CDBG) which began in earnest the focus on redevelopment of existing neighborhoods and properties, rather than demolition of substandard housing and economically depressed areas. </p><p>Until 1970, the displaced owners and tenants received only the constitutionally-mandated "just compensation" specified in the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. This measure of compensation covered only the fair market value of the taken property, and omitted compensation for a variety of incidental losses like, for example, moving expenses, loss of favorable financing and notably, business losses, such as loss of business goodwill. In the 1970s the federal government and state governments enacted the Uniform Relocation Assistance Act which provides for limited compensation of some of these losses. However the Act denies the displaced land owners the right to sue to enforce its provisions, so it is deemed an act of legislative grace rather than a constitutional right. Historically, urban redevelopment has been controversial because of such practices as taking private property by eminent domain for "public use" and then turning it over to redevelopers free of charge or for less than the acquisition cost (known as "land write-down"). Thus, in the controversial Connecticut case of <a href="/wiki/Kelo_v._City_of_New_London" title="Kelo v. City of New London">Kelo v. City of New London</a> (2005) the plan called for a redeveloper to lease the subject 90-acre waterfront property for $1 per year. </p><p>Currently, a mix of renovation, selective demolition, commercial development, and tax incentives is most often used to revitalize urban neighborhoods. An example of an entire eradication of a community is <a href="/wiki/Africville" title="Africville">Africville</a> in <a href="/wiki/Halifax_Regional_Municipality" class="mw-redirect" title="Halifax Regional Municipality">Halifax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">Gentrification</a> is still controversial, and often results in familiar patterns of poorer residents being priced out of urban areas into suburbs or more depressed areas of cities. Some programs, such as that administered by <a href="/wiki/Fresh_Ministries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fresh Ministries">Fresh Ministries</a> and Operation New Hope in <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville, Florida</a>, and the Hill Community Development Corporation (Hill CDC) in Pittsburgh's historic <a href="/wiki/Hill_District_(Pittsburgh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hill District (Pittsburgh)">Hill District</a> attempt to develop communities, while at the same time combining highly favorable loan programs with financial literacy education so that poorer residents are not displaced. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Niagara_Falls,_New_York"><span id="Niagara_Falls.2C_New_York"></span>Niagara Falls, New York</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Niagara Falls, New York"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An example of urban renewal gone wrong in the United States is in downtown <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls,_New_York" title="Niagara Falls, New York">Niagara Falls, New York</a>. Most of the original downtown was demolished in the 1960s, and many replacement projects including the <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Centre_Factory_Outlet" title="Rainbow Centre Factory Outlet">Rainbow Centre Factory Outlet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls_Convention_and_Civic_Center" title="Niagara Falls Convention and Civic Center">Niagara Falls Convention and Civic Center</a>, the Native American Cultural Center, the Hooker Chemical (later the <a href="/wiki/Occidental_Petroleum" title="Occidental Petroleum">Occidental Petroleum</a>) Headquarters building, the Wintergarden, the <a href="/wiki/Fallsville_Splash_Park" title="Fallsville Splash Park">Fallsville Splash Park</a>, a large parking ramp, an enclosed pedestrian walkway, the Falls Street Faire & Falls Street Station entertainment complexes, and the Mayor E. Dent Lackey Plaza closed within twenty to thirty years of their construction.<sup id="cite_ref-Strand_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strand-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Moses_State_Parkway" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Moses State Parkway">Robert Moses State Parkway</a> cut through the town, dividing it from the riverfront. As in many American cities, some demolished blocks were never replaced. </p><p>Ultimately, the former tourist district of the city along Falls Street was destroyed. It went against the principles of several urban philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a>, who claimed that mixed-use districts were needed (which the new downtown was not) and arteries needed to be kept open. Smaller buildings also should be built or kept. In Niagara Falls, however, the convention center blocked traffic into the city, located in the center of Falls Street (the main artery), and the Wintergarden also blocked traffic from the convention center to the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls</a>. The Rainbow Centre interrupted the street grid, taking up three blocks, and parking ramps isolated the city from the core, leading to the degradation of nearby neighborhoods. Tourists were forced to walk around the Rainbow Center, the Wintergarden, and the Quality Inn (all of which were adjacent), in total five blocks, discouraging small business in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Strand_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strand-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These issues have spawned ongoing efforts to address them.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1938 to 1942, the Central Housing Board and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_City_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Town City Council">Cape Town City Council</a> constructed 13,000 flats as part of slum clearance projects. In the mid-1950s, some residential areas of <a href="/wiki/Johannesburg" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a> were to be involuntarily removed by city planners. Black townships were targeted, motivated by residents' participation in civil unrest against the <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a> government authorities in 1949 and 1950.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In post-apartheid <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> major grassroots social movements such as the <a href="/wiki/Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign" title="Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign">Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abahlali_baseMjondolo" title="Abahlali baseMjondolo">Abahlali baseMjondolo</a> emerged to contest 'urban renewal' programs that forcibly relocated the poor out of the cities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Planning: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phase_I_environmental_site_assessment" title="Phase I environmental site assessment">Phase I environmental site assessment</a> – Contamination assessment for US real estate, known as 'ESA'</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_Market_Renewal_Initiative" title="Housing Market Renewal Initiative">Housing Market Renewal Initiative</a> – British housing redevelopment scheme</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_City_Plan" title="Big City Plan">Big City Plan</a> – Major development plan for the city centre of Birmingham, England</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_planners" title="List of urban planners">List of urban planners</a></li></ul> <p>Types of project: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaproject" title="Megaproject">Megaproject</a> – Extremely large-scale construction and investment project</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overspill_estate" title="Overspill estate">Overspill estate</a> – Housing for relocated inner-city residents</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_town" class="mw-redirect" title="New town">New town</a> – Settlement built according to a plan<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planned_cities" title="List of planned cities">List of planned cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slum_upgrading" title="Slum upgrading">Slum upgrading</a> – Strategy to improve low-quality housing areas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_reuse" title="Adaptive reuse">Adaptive reuse</a> – Reuse of an existing building for a new purpose</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_use" title="Temporary use">Temporary use</a> – Time-limited use of empty urban buildings</li></ul> <p>Social processes: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a> – Environmental injustice that occurs within a racialized context</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">Gentrification</a> – Urban socioeconomic process</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_development" title="Community development">Community development</a> – Communities taking collective action to solve common problems</li></ul> <p>Academic theory: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a> – Urban design movement promoting sustainable land use</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Intelligent_Urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of Intelligent Urbanism">Principles of Intelligent Urbanism</a> – Theory of urban planning<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban economics</a> – Economic study of urban areas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_renaissance" title="Urban renaissance">Urban renaissance</a> – Repopularisation of city living in England</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_vitality" title="Urban vitality">Urban vitality</a> – Intensity of use of an urban area</li></ul> <p><i><b><small><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/28px-COL-city_icon.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/42px-COL-city_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/56px-COL-city_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cities" title="Portal:Cities">Cities portal</a></small></b></i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=brplatform.org.hk&rft.atitle=Operation+Building+Bright+2.0+-+Subsidy+and+Assistance+-+Building+Rehab+Platform&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrplatform.org.hk%2Fen%2Fsubsidy-and-assistance%2Foperation-building-bright-2-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/sites/default/files/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/asbestos/files/General_Reporting_Guidelines.pdf">"Asbestos: Investigation, Abatement & Management"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Asbestos%3A+Investigation%2C+Abatement+%26+Management&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epd.gov.hk%2Fepd%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fepd%2Fenglish%2Fenvironmentinhk%2Fair%2Fasbestos%2Ffiles%2FGeneral_Reporting_Guidelines.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: url-status (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status" title="Category:CS1 maint: url-status">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayerbrown.com/en/insights/publications/2022/11/unleashing-redevelopment-potential-of-hong-kongs-old-buildings-proposal-to-relax-requirements-for-compulsory-sale-regime">"Unleashing Redevelopment Potential of Hong Kong's Old Buildings: Proposal to Relax Requirements for Compulsory Sale Regime | Insights | Mayer Brown"</a>. <i>www.mayerbrown.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mayerbrown.com&rft.atitle=Unleashing+Redevelopment+Potential+of+Hong+Kong%27s+Old+Buildings%3A+Proposal+to+Relax+Requirements+for+Compulsory+Sale+Regime+%7C+Insights+%7C+Mayer+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayerbrown.com%2Fen%2Finsights%2Fpublications%2F2022%2F11%2Funleashing-redevelopment-potential-of-hong-kongs-old-buildings-proposal-to-relax-requirements-for-compulsory-sale-regime&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.mrud.ir/news/151281/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%DA%A9-%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA-%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C-%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%87-%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%81">"اینفوگرافیک| آمار واحدهای در دست نوسازی کشور در محدوده‌های هدف بازآفرینی شهری"</a>. 27 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%DA%A9%26%23124%3B+%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1+%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C+%D8%AF%D8%B1+%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA+%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C+%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1+%D8%AF%D8%B1+%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C+%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%81+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C+%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C&rft.date=2023-11-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.mrud.ir%2Fnews%2F151281%2F%25D8%25A7%25DB%258C%25D9%2586%25D9%2581%25D9%2588%25DA%25AF%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25DB%258C%25DA%25A9-%25D8%25A2%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B1-%25D9%2588%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AD%25D8%25AF%25D9%2587%25D8%25A7%25DB%258C-%25D8%25AF%25D8%25B1-%25D8%25AF%25D8%25B3%25D8%25AA-%25D9%2586%25D9%2588%25D8%25B3%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B2%25DB%258C-%25DA%25A9%25D8%25B4%25D9%2588%25D8%25B1-%25D8%25AF%25D8%25B1-%25D9%2585%25D8%25AD%25D8%25AF%25D9%2588%25D8%25AF%25D9%2587-%25D9%2587%25D8%25A7%25DB%258C-%25D9%2587%25D8%25AF%25D9%2581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.mrud.ir/news/151840/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%87-%D9%87%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C-%D8%B4%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%AA-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%88-%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%B2-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87-%D9%85%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86">"توسعه همکاری شرکت بازآفرینی شهری ایران و مرکز تحقیقات راه، مسکن و شهرسازی"</a>. 3 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%87+%D9%87%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C+%D8%B4%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%AA+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C+%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C+%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86+%D9%88+%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%B2+%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA+%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%8C+%D9%85%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86+%D9%88+%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C&rft.date=2023-12-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.mrud.ir%2Fnews%2F151840%2F%25D8%25AA%25D9%2588%25D8%25B3%25D8%25B9%25D9%2587-%25D9%2587%25D9%2585%25DA%25A9%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B1%25DB%258C-%25D8%25B4%25D8%25B1%25DA%25A9%25D8%25AA-%25D8%25A8%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B2%25D8%25A2%25D9%2581%25D8%25B1%25DB%258C%25D9%2586%25DB%258C-%25D8%25B4%25D9%2587%25D8%25B1%25DB%258C-%25D8%25A7%25DB%258C%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586-%25D9%2588-%25D9%2585%25D8%25B1%25DA%25A9%25D8%25B2-%25D8%25AA%25D8%25AD%25D9%2582%25DB%258C%25D9%2582%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AA-%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2587-%25D9%2585%25D8%25B3%25DA%25A9%25D9%2586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.mrud.ir/news/152116/%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%87-%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%87-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA-%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%87-%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C">"حمایت از انبوه‌سازان در محدوده بافت‌های فرسوده شهری"</a>. 7 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA+%D8%A7%D8%B2+%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86+%D8%AF%D8%B1+%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%87+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C+%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%87+%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C&rft.date=2023-12-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.mrud.ir%2Fnews%2F152116%2F%25D8%25AD%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25DB%258C%25D8%25AA-%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B2-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25D8%25A8%25D9%2588%25D9%2587-%25D8%25B3%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B2%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586-%25D8%25AF%25D8%25B1-%25D9%2585%25D8%25AD%25D8%25AF%25D9%2588%25D8%25AF%25D9%2587-%25D8%25A8%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25D8%25AA-%25D9%2587%25D8%25A7%25DB%258C-%25D9%2581%25D8%25B1%25D8%25B3%25D9%2588%25D8%25AF%25D9%2587-%25D8%25B4%25D9%2587%25D8%25B1%25DB%258C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dolat.ir/detail/429441">"حمایت کامل برنامه هفتم توسعه کشور از بازآفرینی شهری"</a> [Full support of the 7th National Development Plan for urban regeneration] (in Persian).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA+%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84+%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87+%D9%87%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%85+%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%87+%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D8%B2+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C+%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdolat.ir%2Fdetail%2F429441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mako.co.il/finances-real-estate/Article-5b246e79c49eb71027.htm">"עוני ואסונות: למה בנייני הרכבת עדיין כאן"</a>. <i>mako</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Pathfinder+was+slum+clearances+without+the+socialism&rft.date=2010-11-19&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Hatherley&rft.aufirst=Owen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2010%2Fnov%2F19%2Fslum-clearance-housing-failed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.channel4.com/castleford">"Kevin McCloud and the Big Town Plan – All 4"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kevin+McCloud+and+the+Big+Town+Plan+%E2%80%93+All+4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.channel4.com%2Fcastleford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.monumenta.org/magazine/site%3AP3FK-23BREV1M0/%CE%9C%CE%91%CE%A4%CE%99%CE%95%CE%A3%20%CE%A3%CE%A4%CE%9F%CE%9D%20%CE%9A%CE%9F%CE%A3%CE%9C%CE%9F/site%3AYTRY-BUPRFOXGE">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Castleford Project", an innovative regeneration project"</a>. <i>Monumenta</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Monumenta&rft.atitle=%22Castleford+Project%22%2C+an+innovative+regeneration+project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.monumenta.org%2Fmagazine%2Fsite%253AP3FK-23BREV1M0%2F%25CE%259C%25CE%2591%25CE%25A4%25CE%2599%25CE%2595%25CE%25A3%2520%25CE%25A3%25CE%25A4%25CE%259F%25CE%259D%2520%25CE%259A%25CE%259F%25CE%25A3%25CE%259C%25CE%259F%2Fsite%253AYTRY-BUPRFOXGE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.homesbylendlease.co.uk/west-grove">"West Grove"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lendlease" title="Lendlease">Lendlease</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-08-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lendlease&rft.atitle=West+Grove&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.homesbylendlease.co.uk%2Fwest-grove&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lendlease.com/expertise/what-we-do/urban-regeneration/">"City & Urban Regeneration, Development & Renewal Projects"</a>. <i>Lendlease</i>. 10 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cityatpointessay00hays/page/89">89</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-3618-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-3618-3"><bdi>978-0-8229-3618-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Double+Burden%3A+The+Black+Experience+in+Pittsburgh&rft.btitle=City+at+the+Point%3A+Essays+on+the+Social+History+of+Pittsburgh&rft.place=Pittsburgh&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-3618-3&rft.aulast=Glasco&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcityatpointessay00hays&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.post-gazette.com/businessnews/20000521eastliberty1.asp">The story of urban renewal: In East Liberty and elsewhere, Pittsburgh's dominant public policy tool didn't work out as planned</a> Sunday, May 21, 2000, By Dan Fitzpatrick, Post-Gazette Staff Writer</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna9678167">"Harsh urban renewal in New Orleans: Poor, black residents cannot afford to return, worry city will exclude them"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harsh+urban+renewal+in+New+Orleans%3A+Poor%2C+black+residents+cannot+afford+to+return%2C+worry+city+will+exclude+them&rft.pub=NBC+News&rft.date=2005-10-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna9678167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Race, Place, and Opportunity," The American Prospect, September 22, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=race_place_and_opportunity">http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=race_place_and_opportunity</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101223020345/http://prospect.org/cs/articles?article=race_place_and_opportunity">Archived</a> 2010-12-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Interstate Highways," The Economist, June 22, 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_SDRSQVR">http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_SDRSQVR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leavitt, 1970</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kelley, 1971</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strand-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Strand_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strand_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrand2008" class="citation book cs1">Strand, Ginger (2008). <i>Inventing Niagara: Beauty, Power, and Lies</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781416546566" title="Special:BookSources/9781416546566"><bdi>9781416546566</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+Niagara%3A+Beauty%2C+Power%2C+and+Lies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781416546566&rft.aulast=Strand&rft.aufirst=Ginger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Samantha Christmann, "Redevelopment Efforts Bring New Life to Downtown Niagara Falls," <i>The Buffalo News</i> October 18, 2022. Accessed July 20, 2023.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLodge1981" class="citation journal cs1">Lodge, Tom (March 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-modern-african-studies/article/abs/destruction-of-sophiatown/A030DFB5775F7D9413F14F49C525C87B">"The Destruction of Sophiatown"</a>. <i>The Journal of Modern African Studies</i>. <b>19</b> (1): 107–132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022278X00054148">10.1017/S0022278X00054148</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-7777">1469-7777</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+African+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Destruction+of+Sophiatown&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=107-132&rft.date=1981-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022278X00054148&rft.issn=1469-7777&rft.aulast=Lodge&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-modern-african-studies%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fdestruction-of-sophiatown%2FA030DFB5775F7D9413F14F49C525C87B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+renewal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_renewal&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Cohen, Lizabeth, <i>Saving American Cities: Ed Logue and the Struggle to Renew Urban America in the Suburban Age</i> (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2019).</li> <li>Grogan, Paul, Proscio, Tony, <i>Comeback Cities: A Blueprint for Urban Neighborhood Revival</i>, 2000. (Business Week review of "Comeback Cities")</li> <li>Kelley, Ben. <i>The Pavers and the Paved.</i> Donald W. Brown, 1971.</li> <li>Klemek, Christopher (2011). <i>The Transatlantic Collapse of Urban Renewal, Postwar Urbanism from New York to Berlin</i>. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-44174-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-44174-1">0-226-44174-1</a>.</li> <li>Lavine, Amy. <i>Urban Renewal and the Story of Berman v. Parker.</i> vol. 42 The Urban Lawyer 423 (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27895791">Urban Renewal and the Story of Berman v. Parker</a></li> <li>Leavitt, Helen. <i>Superhighway-Superhoax</i>. New York: Doubleday, 1970.</li> <li>Pernice, Nicolas M., M.S. "Urban redevelopment of Lawrence, MA a retrospective case study of the Plains Neighborhood", 2011, 136 pages <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781267218490" title="Special:BookSources/9781267218490">9781267218490</a></li> <li>Zipp, Samuel. <i>Manhattan Projects: Rise & Fall of Urban Renewal in Cold War New York</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning" title="History of urban planning">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_urban_planning" title="Theories of urban planning">Theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_urban_planning_articles" title="Index of urban planning articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_urban_planning" title="Outline of urban planning">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">Urban area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City" title="City">City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">Metropolitan area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">Suburb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_and_zoning_commission" title="Planning and zoning commission">Planning and zoning commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_management" title="Growth management">Growth management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Urbanism_Day" title="World Urbanism Day">World Urbanism Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_market_area" title="Labor market area">Labor market area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major<br />branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">Land-use planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_planning" title="Comprehensive planning">Comprehensive planning</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning" title="History of urban planning">History of urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">Spatial planning</a> (Eur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redevelopment" title="Redevelopment">Redevelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">Urban design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">Urban green space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">Urbanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Rural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_development" title="Conservation development">Conservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preservation_development" title="Preservation development">Preservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_housing" title="Rural housing">Rural housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Village_design_statement" title="Village design statement">Village design statement</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">Regional planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Planning_Association_of_America" title="Regional Planning Association of America">Regional Planning Association of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation_resource_planning" title="Recreation resource planning">Recreation resource planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Transportation_planning" title="Transportation planning">Transportation planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_forecasting" title="Transportation forecasting">Transportation forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trip_distribution" title="Trip distribution">Trip distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_planning_model" title="Rational planning model">Rational planning model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit-oriented_development" title="Transit-oriented development">Transit-oriented development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_transportation_planner" title="Professional transportation planner">Professional transportation planner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_freight_distribution" title="Urban freight distribution">Urban freight distribution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_economic_development" title="Community economic development">Community economic development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts/ <br />theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athens_Charter" title="Athens Charter">Athens Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car-free_movement" title="Car-free movement">Car-free movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_Beautiful_movement" title="City Beautiful movement">City Beautiful movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark-sky_movement" title="Dark-sky movement">Dark-sky movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_city_movement" title="Garden city movement">Garden city movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_planning" title="Indigenous planning">Indigenous planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_movement" title="Settlement movement">Settlement movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">Smart growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_towns" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition towns">Transition towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="YIMBY movement">YIMBY</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_urban_planning" title="Theories of urban planning">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborative planning">Collaborative planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Context theory">Context theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekistics" title="Ekistics">Ekistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Intelligent_Urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of Intelligent Urbanism">Intelligent urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livable_streets" class="mw-redirect" title="Livable streets">Livable streets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market urbanism">Market urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical planning">Radical planning</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Urban renewal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Cities_by_type" title="Category:Cities by type">Cities by type</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Company_town" title="Company town">Company town</a> / <a href="/wiki/Monotown" title="Monotown">Monotown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commuter_town" title="Commuter town">Commuter town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_town" title="Ghost town">Ghost town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_city" title="Global city">Global city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_community" title="Mining community">Mining community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pit_village" title="Pit village">Pit village</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_camp" title="Man camp">Man camp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logging_camp" title="Logging camp">Logging camp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_village" title="Model village">Model village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">Planned community</a> (New town)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">Intentional community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcology" title="Arcology">Arcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_village" title="Urban village">Urban village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomtown" title="Boomtown">Boomtown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing" title="Affordable housing">Affordable housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">Cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_development" title="Cluster development">Cluster development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_Communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Complete Communities">Complete Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation community">Conservation community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_city" title="Creative city">Creative city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtering_(housing)" title="Filtering (housing)">Filtering (housing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">Gentrification</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brusselization" title="Brusselization">Brusselization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infill" title="Infill">Infill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_city" title="Healthy city">Healthy cities</a> / <a href="/wiki/Healthy_community_design" title="Healthy community design">Healthy community design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LEED-ND" class="mw-redirect" title="LEED-ND">LEED-ND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrog_development" title="Leapfrog development">Leapfrog development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-use_development" title="Mixed-use development">Mixed-use development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_Cities_Program" title="Model Cities Program">Model cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(spatial_and_transport_planning)" title="Permeability (spatial and transport planning)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placemaking" title="Placemaking">Placemaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_gain" title="Planning gain">Planning gain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Permission" class="mw-redirect" title="Planning Permission">Planning Permission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_flight" title="Rural flight">Rural flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_use" title="Temporary use">Temporary use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_place" title="Third place">Third place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tract_housing" title="Tract housing">Tract housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transferable_development_rights" title="Transferable development rights">Transferable development rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_decay" title="Urban decay">Urban decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_growth_boundary" title="Urban growth boundary">Urban growth boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">Urban sprawl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peri-urbanisation" title="Peri-urbanisation">Peri-urbanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_vitality" title="Urban vitality">Urban vitality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verticalization" title="Verticalization">Verticalization</a> / <a href="/wiki/High-rise" class="mw-redirect" title="High-rise">High-rise urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Urban_planner" title="Urban planner">Theorists/<br />practitioners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Duany" title="Andrés Duany">Andrés Duany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Perry" title="Clarence Perry">Clarence Perry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Stein" title="Clarence Stein">Clarence Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Buchanan_(town_planner)" title="Colin Buchanan (town planner)">Colin Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Burnham" title="Daniel Burnham">Daniel Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Appleyard" title="Donald Appleyard">Donald Appleyard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard" title="Ebenezer Howard">Ebenezer Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Bacon_(architect)" title="Edmund Bacon (architect)">Edmund Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Benveniste" title="Guy Benveniste">Guy Benveniste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_McHarg" title="Ian McHarg">Ian McHarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rouse" title="James Rouse">James Rouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantinos_Apostolos_Doxiadis" class="mw-redirect" title="Konstantinos Apostolos Doxiadis">Konstantinos Doxiadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_A._Lynch" title="Kevin A. Lynch">Kevin A. Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loretta_Lees" title="Loretta Lees">Loretta Lees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Calthorpe" title="Peter Calthorpe">Peter Calthorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Geddes" title="Patrick Geddes">Patrick Geddes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Unwin" title="Raymond Unwin">Raymond Unwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Adams_(architect)" title="Thomas Adams (architect)">Thomas Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_theorists" title="List of urban theorists">List of urban theorists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_planners" title="List of urban planners">List of urban planners</a></li></ul> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Farrelly" title="Elizabeth Farrelly">Elizabeth Farrelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Howard_Kunstler" title="James Howard Kunstler">James Howard Kunstler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Mumford" title="Lewis Mumford">Lewis Mumford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randal_O%27Toole" title="Randal O'Toole">Randal O'Toole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_education" title="Urban planning education">Planning education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Accreditation_Board" title="Planning Accreditation Board">Planning Accreditation Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_real_estate_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate real estate education">Real estate education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Professional_planning_institutes" title="Category:Professional planning institutes">Professional organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Australia" title="Urban planning in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_China" title="Urban planning in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Urban planning in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Russia" title="Urban planning in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning_in_Serbia" title="Spatial planning in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Singapore" title="Urban planning in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_and_country_planning_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Town and country planning in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Barcelona" title="Urban planning of Barcelona">Barcelona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Shanghai" title="Urban planning of Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Sydney" title="Urban planning of Sydney">Sydney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Africa" title="Urban planning in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_communist_countries" title="Urban planning in communist countries">Communist countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Urban planning in Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_spatial_planning" title="Marine spatial planning">Marine spatial planning </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">Real estate development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">Social sciences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/28px-COL-city_icon.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/42px-COL-city_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/56px-COL-city_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cities" title="Portal:Cities">Cities portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Urban_planning" title="Category:Urban planning">Category</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planned_cities" title="List of planned cities">List of planned cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planning_journals" title="List of planning journals">List of planning journals</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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