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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="Yes"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>Variable toxicity of inorganic mercury compounds to Artemia elicited by coexposure with dissolved organic matter | Environmental Science and Pollution Research</title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Variable toxicity of inorganic mercury compounds to Artemia elicited by coexposure with dissolved organic matter"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Environmental Science and Pollution Research - The chemical behavior of mercury (Hg) and its interactions with naturally occurring ligands shape its environmental fate and impact. The neurotoxic..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Figa_HTML.png"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="11356"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Variable toxicity of inorganic mercury compounds to Artemia elicited by coexposure with dissolved organic matter"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2024"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-11-21"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="The chemical behavior of mercury (Hg) and its interactions with naturally occurring ligands shape its environmental fate and impact. The neurotoxic properties of Hg are widely known and studied both in vitro and in vivo. However, there continues to be limited information on the influence of chelation with large organic ligands on the toxicity to marine macro-organisms. This work examined the effect of Hg complexed with various types of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on the mortality and hatching success of Artemia sp. nauplii under varying marine media conditions. The results confirmed both, an alleviating as well as additive, DOM-specific, effect on mortality. DOM coexposure resulted in a compound specific decreased or increased toxicity in comparison with single exposure in artificial seawater, with LC50 values ranging from 2.11 to 62.89&nbsp;µM. Hatching success under conditions of Hg exposure was almost two orders of magnitude more sensitive than toxicity in hatched individuals. Elevated DOM concentrations had no statistically significant impact on hatching success with computed EC50 values ranging from 196 to 324&nbsp;nM."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1614-7499"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="Environmental Science and Pollution Research"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-11-21"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="1"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="14"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Environmental Science and Pollution Research"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Environ Sci Pollut Res"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer Berlin Heidelberg"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1614-7499"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Variable toxicity of inorganic mercury compounds to Artemia elicited by coexposure with dissolved organic matter"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/11/21"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="1"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="14"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Research Article"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y"/> <meta name="size" content="265846"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="The chemical behavior of mercury (Hg) and its interactions with naturally occurring ligands shape its environmental fate and impact. The neurotoxic propert"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Gade, Christoph"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="von Hellfeld, Rebecca"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Mbadugha, Lenka"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Paton, Graeme"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Environment, general"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Environmental Chemistry"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Ecotoxicology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Environmental Health"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Atmospheric Protection/Air Quality Control/Air Pollution"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Waste Water Technology / Water Pollution Control / Water Management / Aquatic Pollution"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Sci Total Environ; citation_title=Dissolved organic matter distribution in the water column and sediment pore water in a highly anthropized coastal lagoon (Mar Menor, Spain): characteristics, sources, and benthic fluxes; citation_author=V Amaral, J Santos-Echeandía, T Ortega; citation_volume=896; citation_publication_date=2023; citation_pages=165264; citation_doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165264; citation_id=CR1"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Am J Physiol-Renal Physiol; citation_title=Mercury blocks Na-K-ATPase by a ligand-dependent and reversible mechanism; citation_author=BM Anner, M Moosmayer, E Imesch; citation_volume=262; citation_publication_date=1992; citation_pages=F830-F836; citation_doi=10.1152/ajprenal.1992.262.5.F830; citation_id=CR2"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Environ Toxicol Chem; citation_title=Effects of using synthetic sea salts when measuring and modeling copper toxicity in saltwater toxicity tests; citation_author=WR Arnold, JS Cotsifas, AR Winter; citation_volume=26; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=935-943; citation_doi=10.1897/06-215R1.1; citation_id=CR3"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Chem Phys; citation_title=Kinetics of phase change. 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The neurotoxic properties of Hg are widely known and studied both in vitro and in vivo. However, there continues to be limited information on the influence of chelation with large organic ligands on the toxicity to marine macro-organisms. This work examined the effect of Hg complexed with various types of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on the mortality and hatching success of Artemia sp. nauplii under varying marine media conditions. The results confirmed both, an alleviating as well as additive, DOM-specific, effect on mortality. DOM coexposure resulted in a compound specific decreased or increased toxicity in comparison with single exposure in artificial seawater, with LC50 values ranging from 2.11 to 62.89 µM. Hatching success under conditions of Hg exposure was almost two orders of magnitude more sensitive than toxicity in hatched individuals. Elevated DOM concentrations had no statistically significant impact on hatching success with computed EC50 values ranging from 196 to 324 nM. Graphical abstract"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Figa_HTML.png"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-c6d59aafac.ico> <meta name="theme-color" content="#e6e6e6">   <link rel="stylesheet" media="print" href=/oscar-static/app-springerlink/css/print-b8af42253b.css> <style> 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The neurotoxic properties of Hg are widely known and studied both in vitro and in vivo. However, there continues to be limited information on the influence of chelation with large organic ligands on the toxicity to marine macro-organisms. This work examined the effect of Hg complexed with various types of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on the mortality and hatching success of Artemia sp. nauplii under varying marine media conditions. The results confirmed both, an alleviating as well as additive, DOM-specific, effect on mortality. DOM coexposure resulted in a compound specific decreased or increased toxicity in comparison with single exposure in artificial seawater, with LC50 values ranging from 2.11 to 62.89 µM. Hatching success under conditions of Hg exposure was almost two orders of magnitude more sensitive than toxicity in hatched individuals. Elevated DOM concentrations had no statistically significant impact on hatching success with computed EC50 values ranging from 196 to 324 nM. \n\n \n \n \n ","datePublished":"2024-11-21T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2024-11-21T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"1","pageEnd":"14","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y","keywords":["Marine environment","Ecotoxicology","Hatching assay","Bioaccumulation","Environment","general","Environmental Chemistry","Environmental Health","Atmospheric Protection/Air Quality Control/Air Pollution","Waste Water Technology / Water Pollution Control / Water Management / Aquatic 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Aberdeen","address":{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Lenka Mbadugha","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Aberdeen","address":{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Graeme Paton","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Aberdeen","address":{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"}],"isAccessibleForFree":true,"@type":"ScholarlyArticle"},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebPage"}</script> </head> <body class="" >  <noscript> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-MRVXSHQ" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript>   <noscript data-test="gtm-body"> <iframe 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xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use></svg> </a> <a href="https://www.editorialmanager.com/espr/" class="app-article-masthead__submission-link" data-track="click_submit_manuscript" data-track-context="article masthead on springerlink article page" data-track-action="submit manuscript" data-track-label="link"> Submit manuscript <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </section> <div class="c-article-main u-container u-mt-24 u-mb-32 l-with-sidebar" id="main-content" data-component="article-container"> <main class="u-serif js-main-column" data-track-component="article body"> <div class="c-context-bar u-hide" data-test="context-bar" data-context-bar aria-hidden="true"> <div class="c-context-bar__container u-container"> <div class="c-context-bar__title"> Variable toxicity of inorganic mercury compounds to <i>Artemia</i> elicited by coexposure with dissolved organic matter </div> <div data-test="inCoD" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Christoph-Gade-Aff1-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Christoph-Gade-Aff1-Aff2" data-author-search="Gade, Christoph" data-corresp-id="c1">Christoph Gade<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6610-7359"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-6610-7359</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Rebecca-Hellfeld-Aff1-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Rebecca-Hellfeld-Aff1-Aff2" data-author-search="von Hellfeld, Rebecca">Rebecca von Hellfeld</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Lenka-Mbadugha-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Lenka-Mbadugha-Aff2" data-author-search="Mbadugha, Lenka">Lenka Mbadugha</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 4 authors for this article" title="Show all 4 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Graeme-Paton-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Graeme-Paton-Aff2" data-author-search="Paton, Graeme">Graeme Paton</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup> </li></ul><button aria-expanded="false" class="c-article-author-list__button"><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium"></use></svg><span>Show authors</span></button> <div data-test="article-metrics"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>125 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item app-article-metrics-bar__item--metrics"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Explore all metrics <svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use> </svg></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>The chemical behavior of mercury (Hg) and its interactions with naturally occurring ligands shape its environmental fate and impact. The neurotoxic properties of Hg are widely known and studied both in vitro and in vivo<i>.</i> However, there continues to be limited information on the influence of chelation with large organic ligands on the toxicity to marine macro-organisms. This work examined the effect of Hg complexed with various types of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on the mortality and hatching success of <i>Artemia</i> sp. nauplii under varying marine media conditions. The results confirmed both, an alleviating as well as additive, DOM-specific, effect on mortality. DOM coexposure resulted in a compound specific decreased or increased toxicity in comparison with single exposure in artificial seawater, with LC<sub>50</sub> values ranging from 2.11 to 62.89 µM. Hatching success under conditions of Hg exposure was almost two orders of magnitude more sensitive than toxicity in hatched individuals. Elevated DOM concentrations had no statistically significant impact on hatching success with computed EC<sub>50</sub> values ranging from 196 to 324 nM.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" data-test="abstract-sub-heading">Graphical abstract</h3> <div class="c-article-section__figure" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure"><figure><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Figa_HTML.png?as=webp"><img src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Figa_HTML.png" alt="" loading="lazy" width="685" height="265"></picture></div></div></figure></div></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs41742-019-00202-y/MediaObjects/41742_2019_202_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s41742-019-00202-y?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 1" data-track-label="10.1007/s41742-019-00202-y">Bioaccumulation of Mercury in the Copepod <i>Pseudodiaptomus marinus</i>: A Comparative Study Between Waterborne and Dietary Pathways </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">13 June 2019</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10646-023-02651-w/MediaObjects/10646_2023_2651_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10646-023-02651-w?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_2" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 2" data-track-label="10.1007/s10646-023-02651-w">Acute ecotoxicological effects of Hg(CN)<sub>2</sub> in <i>Danio rerio</i> (zebrafish) </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">13 April 2023</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11270-016-2771-9/MediaObjects/11270_2016_2771_Fig1_HTML.gif" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11270-016-2771-9?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_3" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 3" data-track-label="10.1007/s11270-016-2771-9">Toxicity of Engineered Nickel Oxide and Cobalt Oxide Nanoparticles to <i>Artemia salina</i> in Seawater </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">05 February 2016</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1732659510, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <section aria-labelledby="content-related-subjects" data-test="subject-content"> <h3 id="content-related-subjects" class="c-article__sub-heading">Explore related subjects</h3> <span class="u-sans-serif u-text-s u-display-block u-mb-24">Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.</span> <ul class="c-article-subject-list" role="list"> <li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"> <a href="/subject/environmental-chemistry" data-track="select_related_subject_1" data-track-context="related subjects from content page" data-track-label="Environmental Chemistry">Environmental Chemistry</a> </li> </ul> </section> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=11356" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>The marine biome is exposed to a multitude of stressors including chemical pollution. Mercury (Hg) is a ubiquitous heavy metal with intrinsic elemental characteristics that allow it to speciate into different Hg compounds with diverse physicochemical properties (Gworek et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Gworek B, Bemowska-Kałabun O, Kijeńska M, Wrzosek-Jakubowska J (2016) Mercury in marine and oceanic waters—a review. Water Air Soil Pollut 227:371. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-016-3060-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e358">2016</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Gworek B, Dmuchowski W, Baczewska-Dąbrowska AH (2020) Mercury in the terrestrial environment: a review. Environ Sci Eur 32:128. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-020-00401-x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e361">2020</a>). In the context of this manuscript, speciation is defined as ‘the distribution of the element among various chemical forms which together make up the total concentration of the element in the system’ (Blust et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Blust R, Baillieul M, Decleir W (1995) Effect of total cadmium and organic complexing on the uptake of cadmium by the brine shrimp, Artemia franciscana. Mar Biol 123:65–73. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00350324
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e364">1995</a>). The toxicity of Hg is caused by non-specific denaturing of proteins, resulting in enzyme inhibition and genotoxicity on a cellular level and structural damages on a tissue level (Krupp et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Krupp EM, Gajdosechova Z, Schwerdtle T, Lohren H (2016) Mercury toxicity and speciation analysis. Metallomics. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Germany, pp 285–304" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e367">2016</a>), as well as a resource depletion of detoxification and defence mechanisms (von Hellfeld et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023a" title="von Hellfeld R, Gade C, Doeschate M ten, et al (2023a) High resolution visualisation of tiemannite microparticles, essential in the detoxification process of mercury in marine mammals. Environ Pollut 123027. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.123027
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR95" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e370">2023a</a>). Marine environments act as sink and source for environmental Hg with major influx from wet deposition and anthropogenic emissions and efflux primarily as surface gas evasion and sediment burial (Mason and Fitzgerald <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Mason RP, Fitzgerald WF (1996) Sources, sinks and biogeochemical cycling of mercury in the ocean. Global and regional mercury cycles: sources, fluxes and mass balances. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 249–272" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e374">1996</a>). The environmental fate and transport of Hg in aquatic systems is linked with particulate and dissolved organic matter (DOM), which chelate dissolved Hg with highly reactive functional groups (Dyrssen and Wedborg <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Dyrssen D, Wedborg M (1991) The sulphur-mercury(II) system in natural waters. Water Air Soil Pollut 56:507–519. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00342295
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e377">1991</a>; Gerbig et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Gerbig CA, Ryan JN, Aiken GR (2011) The effects of dissolved organic matter on mercury biogeochemistry. Environmental chemistry and toxicology of mercury. John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken, pp 259–292" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e380">2011</a>; Jeremiason et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Jeremiason JD, Portner JC, Aiken GR et al (2015) Photoreduction of Hg(II) and photodemethylation of methylmercury: the key role of thiol sites on dissolved organic matter. Environ Sci: Process Impacts 17:1892–1903. 
 https://doi.org/10.1039/c5em00305a
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e383">2015</a>; Gade et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2024" title="Gade C, Mbadugha L, Paton G (2024) Use of diffusive gradient in thin-films (DGTs) to advance environmental mercury research: development, growth, and tomorrow. Trends Environ Anal Chem 42:e00230. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teac.2024.e00230
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e386">2024</a>). Conte et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Conte P, Spaccini R, Šmejkalová D et al (2007) Spectroscopic and conformational properties of size-fractions separated from a lignite humic acid. Chemosphere 69:1032–1039. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.04.043
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e389">2007</a>) defined DOM as ‘supramolecular aggregates of small heterogeneous molecules strongly associated by dispersive forces in apparently large molecular sizes.’ In marine environments, DOM serves as a nutrient source (Baylor and Sutcliffe <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1963" title="Baylor ER, Sutcliffe WH (1963) Dissolved organic matter in seawater as a source of particulate food. Limnol Oceanogr 8:369–371. 
 https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1963.8.4.0369
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e393">1963</a>), drives photochemical processes (Zhou et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Zhou C, Xie Q, Wang J et al (2020) Effects of dissolved organic matter derived from freshwater and seawater on photodegradation of three antiviral drugs. Environ Pollut 258:113700. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113700
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR107" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e396">2020</a>), and constitutes a major part of the planets’ carbon cycle (Ogawa and Tanoue <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Ogawa H, Tanoue E (2003) Dissolved organic matter in oceanic waters. J Oceanogr 59:129–147. 
 https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1025528919771
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e399">2003</a>). Mercury is highly thiophilic, which promotes strong binding with sulfur containing heteroatomic functional groups of DOM, such as aromatic thiols (Li et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Li D, Xie L, Carvan MJ, Guo L (2019) Mitigative effects of natural and model dissolved organic matter with different functionalities on the toxicity of methylmercury in embryonic zebrafish. Environ Pollut 252:616–626. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.155
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e402">2019</a>). The effect of DOM complexation on toxicity and bioaccumulation in freshwater systems is well described; however, a similar understanding for marine organisms is currently lacking (Barber-Lluch et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Barber-Lluch E, Nieto-Cid M, Santos-Echeandía J, Sánchez-Marín P (2023) Effect of dissolved organic matter on copper bioavailability to a coastal dinoflagellate at environmentally relevant concentrations. Sci Total Environ 901:165989. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165989
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e405">2023</a>).</p><p>The euryhaline crustacean <i>Artemia</i> has been used in ecotoxicological testing due to several advantageous properties, such as rapid hatching, easy accessibility, and sensitivity to toxic substances (Nunes et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Nunes BS, Carvalho FD, Guilhermino LM, Van Stappen G (2006) Use of the genus Artemia in ecotoxicity testing. Environ Pollut 144:453–462. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2005.12.037
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e414">2006</a>). Sensitive endpoints, including hatching success, growth, acute mortality, and behavioral and biomarker responses, are commonly used as evaluation criteria in <i>Artemia</i> toxicity testing (Libralato et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Libralato G, Prato E, Migliore L et al (2016) A review of toxicity testing protocols and endpoints with Artemia spp. Ecol Indic 69:35–49. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.04.017
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e420">2016</a>). <i>Artemia</i> also have the advantage of being cost-efficient and readily available as nauplii can be hatched directly from cysts without the need for culture maintenance. Although, their adaptability to diversified testing conditions (i.e., pH and salinity resistance) makes them an ideal candidate for toxicity studies, the heterogeneous genomics of “wildtype” <i>Artemia</i> have so far precluded the organism from being widely adopted in standardized testing (Libralato et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Libralato G, Prato E, Migliore L et al (2016) A review of toxicity testing protocols and endpoints with Artemia spp. Ecol Indic 69:35–49. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.04.017
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e430">2016</a>).</p><p>While the impact of water parameters including temperature, water hardness, and synthetic organic ligands on the toxicity of heavy metals such as cadmium has been studied (Blust et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Blust R, Baillieul M, Decleir W (1995) Effect of total cadmium and organic complexing on the uptake of cadmium by the brine shrimp, Artemia franciscana. Mar Biol 123:65–73. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00350324
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e436">1995</a>; Penttinen et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Penttinen S, Kostamo A, Kukkonen JVK (1998) Combined effects of dissolved organic material and water hardness on toxicity of cadmium to Daphnia magna. Environ Toxicol Chem 17:2498–2503. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620171217
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e439">1998</a>; Heugens et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Heugens EHW, Jager T, Creyghton R et al (2003) Temperature-dependent effects of cadmium on Daphnia magna : accumulation versus sensitivity. Environ Sci Technol 37:2145–2151. 
 https://doi.org/10.1021/es0264347
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e442">2003</a>), a similarly comprehensive appraisal of the effects of DOM-Hg-coexposure is still lacking. This is in part due to the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of naturally occurring DOM resulting in a broad range of binding coefficients and subsequent degree of bioavailability (Ravichandran <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Ravichandran M (2004) Interactions between mercury and dissolved organic matter - a review. Chemosphere 55:319–331. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2003.11.011
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e445">2004</a>). The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of three commercially available types of DOM on the toxicity of Hg in <i>Artemia</i> based acute toxicity and hatching assays. The hypothesis that DOM would alleviate toxicity was based on previous works in this field (e.g., Penttinen et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Penttinen S, Kostamo A, Kukkonen JVK (1998) Combined effects of dissolved organic material and water hardness on toxicity of cadmium to Daphnia magna. Environ Toxicol Chem 17:2498–2503. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620171217
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e452">1998</a>).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Materials and methods"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2">Materials and methods</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>Mercuric chloride (HgCl<sub>2</sub>, ACS grade) and mercuric acetate (HgOAc<sub>2</sub>, ACS grade) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Three humic acids (technical grade) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Prod. Nr. 53680), Thermo Fisher Scientific (Cat. Nr. 041747.06), and Carl Roth (Art. No. 7821.1). Humic acid sodium salt (Prod. Nr. H16752, technical grade) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Bladderwrack powder certified reference material (NIST B2164) was purchased from the EU Joint Research Centre. Sodium chloride (NaCl, analytical grade), magnesium sulphate (MgSO<sub>4</sub>, analytical grade), calcium chloride (CaCl<sub>2</sub> 2H<sub>2</sub>O, analytical grade), potassium chloride (KCl, analytical grade), and magnesium chloride (MgCl<sub>2</sub> 7H<sub>2</sub>O, analytical grade) were obtained from Fisher Scientific. <i>Artemia</i> sp. cysts were procured from Blades Biological Ltd. (UK), subsampled, and stored in darkness at − 20 °C until further use, as recommended by other suppliers.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec3">DOM characterization</h3><p>To allow for a higher reproducibility, commercially available types of DOM were used to make up DOM-enriched Hg stock solutions and exposure media. To further analyze the properties of individual DOM materials, elemental and Fourier-transformed infrared (FTIR) analyses were carried out before the ecotoxicological studies commenced. Preliminary toxicity tests using DOM-enriched media revealed a 20–30% toxicity elicited by the humic acids purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and Carl Roth. These compounds were subsequently excluded from any further experiments. The remaining compounds, i.e., humic acid sodium salt (Sigma-Aldrich), Bladderwrack powder (NIST B2164), and humic acid (Thermo Scientific), did not induce any observable toxic effects and are from here on referred to as DOM#1, DOM#2, and DOM#3, respectively.</p><p>Elemental analysis of DOM materials was carried out on a flash analyzer for total carbon and nitrogen (CE Instruments NA 2500 Series, UK) and a radiofrequency induction analyzer for total sulfur content (LECO CS744, US). DOM#2 was used as a reference material in all analyses. Recovery was 104.25% and 95.83% for carbon and nitrogen, respectively, and 81.66% for sulfur with a relative standard deviation of 0.48%, 0.51%, and 0.76%, respectively. Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to investigate the nature and abundance of functional groups in the used materials. Representative portions of the samples were transferred onto the sample area of a single reflection diamond attenuated total reflectance accessory, fitted with a ZnSe ATR crystal. The infrared spectra were recorded using a Bruker Vertex 70 Fourier transform infrared spectrometer.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec4">Preparation of Hg species/solutions</h3><p>Artificial seawater (ASW) was prepared according to Cold Spring Harbor Protocols (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Cold Spring Harbor Protocols (2012) Artificial seawater. Cold Spring Harb Protoc 2012:pdb.rec068270-pdb.rec068270. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/pdb.rec068270
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e499">2012</a>). Saline DOM solutions were prepared in ASW with an initial concentration of 0.5 g/l and stored in complete darkness at room temperature for 8 weeks, which exceeded previously reported equilibration times (Gai et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Gai K, Hoelen TP, Hsu-Kim H, Lowry GV (2016) Mobility of four common mercury species in model and natural unsaturated soils. Environ Sci Technol 50:3342–3351. 
 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b04247
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e502">2016</a>). This was done due to the extremely low solubility of the substances in ASW. Prepared DOM media were vacuum filtered through 0.45-µm membrane filters as the dissolved alginate in the DOM#2 solution impeded filtration through 0.22-µm filters. In this study, the operational definition for DOM as ‘organic material passing a filter’ was adopted (Ogawa and Tanoue <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Ogawa H, Tanoue E (2003) Dissolved organic matter in oceanic waters. J Oceanogr 59:129–147. 
 https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1025528919771
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e505">2003</a>). After filtration, dissolved organic carbon concentrations were determined photometrically, as the salinity of the media adversely affected total organic carbon (TOC) analysis. Briefly, DOM standard solutions were produced in deionized water and their concentration verified using a TOC analyzer (Aurora 1030W, Xylem Inc., USA). A photometric standard curve was produced from these solutions, and the saline samples assessed using this curve. Mercury stock solutions were prepared at concentrations of 10 mg/l and 1 g/l in ASW or DOM-medium for the hatching and acute toxicity assays, respectively. Stock solutions were aged for at least 4 days in darkness at 4 °C before use to facilitate Hg-DOM chelation. Exposure media were prepared fresh with 24 h (h) aerated and pH = 8.1 adjusted ASW and filtered DOM-solutions before every replicate by spiking with matrix-matched stock solution.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec5"> <i>Artemia</i> toxicity assays</h3><p>To obtain Instar I nauplii, <i>Artemia</i> sp<i>.</i> cysts were incubated in 500 ml ASW of 32.8 g/l salinity, at 25 °C, pH 8.1 ± 0.5, constant aeration (50 l/h), and constant illumination (1600 lumens) for 24 h until they hatched (Sorgeloos et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1978" title="Sorgeloos P, Remiche-Van Der Wielen C, Persoone G (1978) The use of Artemia nauplii for toxicity tests—a critical analysis. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2:249–255. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-6513(78)80003-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e526">1978</a>). The temperature of the hatchery (JBL, Germany) and exposure plates was kept at 25 °C throughout the experiment and only nauplii from the same generation were applied for each experiment. For the acute toxicity assay, all the wells in a 24-well plates (Greiner Bio-One, Austria) were filled with 2 ml of exposure medium and 10 nauplii were placed in each well using a pipette. On each plate, 5 columns (4 wells each) contained exposure medium with different concentrations of Hg while the remaining 4 wells were filled with matrix matched unspiked medium, serving as an internal negative control. In total, <i>n</i> = 40 organisms were exposed to each concentration per replicate. The plates were incubated in complete darkness at 25 °C for 24 h, after which the dead nauplii were counted. Here, death was defined as complete quiescence in accordance with Corner and Sparrow (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1957" title="Corner EDS, Sparrow BW (1957) The modes of action of toxic agents: II. Factors influencing the toxicities of mercury compounds to certain Crustacea. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 36:459–472. 
 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025315400025765
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e532">1957</a>). The assay would be considered valid if mortality in the control did not exceed 10%. A positive control was not used as the impact of media composition was assumed to also change the positive control toxicity (Kalčíková et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Kalčíková G, Zagorc-Končan J, Žgajnar Gotvajn A (2012) Artemia salina acute immobilization test: a possible tool for aquatic ecotoxicity assessment. Water Sci Technol 66:903–908. 
 https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.271
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e536">2012</a>; Deese et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Deese RD, LeBlanc MR, Cook RL (2016) Surfactant toxicity to Artemia franciscana and the influence of humic acid and chemical composition. Environ Chem 13:507. 
 https://doi.org/10.1071/EN15108
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e539">2016</a>). Test solution concentration was monitored stochastically using a direct mercury analyzer (DMA-80evo, Milestone, USA). Concentrations stayed within 97–103% of assumed value (data not shown). All assays were conducted in independent triplicate.</p><p>Exposure of unhatched cysts in the hatching assay followed the above-described acute toxicity assay protocol. Instead of Instar I nauplii, 10 <i>Artemia</i> cysts were placed in each well of 24-well plates with the same concentration/negative control layout as described above. Hatching was defined as the ‘release of a free-swimming larval stage organisms upon rupture of the hatching membrane’ (Go et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Go EC, Pandey AS, MacRae TH (1990) Effect of inorganic mercury on the emergence and hatching of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana. Mar Biol 107:93–102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01313246
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e548">1990</a>). After 24 h incubation at 25 °C with constant illumination (1600 lumens), plates were checked for free swimming larvae using a stereomicroscope. In total, <i>n</i> = 40 organisms were exposed to each concentration. All assays were conducted in independent triplicate. Failure to hatch as a result of Hg exposure does not translate to mortality as embryonic development may continue inside the cuticle (Go et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Go EC, Pandey AS, MacRae TH (1990) Effect of inorganic mercury on the emergence and hatching of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana. Mar Biol 107:93–102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01313246
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e554">1990</a>). As cyst mortality was not further verified, data were expressed as EC<sub>50</sub> rather than LC<sub>50</sub> values.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec6"> <i>Artemia</i> bioaccumulation and adsorption assay</h3><p>To offer additional insight, a simple bioaccumulation and adsorption assay was devised with the hypothesis that toxicity values would correlate with body burden. <i>Artemia</i> sp. were hatched according to the above-described protocol and pre-concentrated (i.e., filtered through a 0.15-mm mesh screen and resuspended in a minimal amount of ASW). Approximately 1-ml aliquots of pre-concentrated suspension were dispensed onto 70-µm mesh nylon cell strainers (Falcon, USA) and the water removed by gently applying a paper towel to the bottom of the mesh. Concurrently, 3 cells within 6-well plates (Greiner Bio-One, Austria) were filled with 5 ml of exposure medium (10 mg/l Hg). Strainers with live <i>Artemia</i> were immersed in 5-ml exposure medium for 1, 2, 4, and 8 h for the bioaccumulation assay. Upon retrieval at the stipulated time points, Artemia nauplii were immersed in 70% ethanol (analytical grade, Thermo Fisher Scientific) to sacrifice and to halt bioaccumulation processes. To control for organism surface adsorption the procedure was repeated however, <i>Artemia</i> nauplii were first immersed in 70% ethanol before being exposed in the respective media. Both assays were conducted in independent triplicate. Following both assays, <i>Artemia</i> were washed thoroughly with deionized water and fresh ethanol before being scraped into 10-ml glass bottles and lyophilized overnight at − 55 °C using a Modulyo 4 K Freeze Dryer (Edwards High Vacuum International, UK). Freeze dried <i>Artemia</i> were analyzed for total Hg in triplicate using the DMA. A certified reference material (fish muscle ERM MBB422) was run every 10 samples. Limit of detection (LOD) was 0.001 ng, and recovery was 99.3% with a relative standard deviation of 3.1%.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec7">Statistics</h3><p>All data are given as mean ± standard error unless otherwise indicated. LC<sub>50</sub> and EC<sub>50</sub> values in the acute toxicity and hatching assay were computed using four-parameter logistic curve fitting (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Equ1">1</a>).</p><div id="Equ1" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\mathrm{y}=\mathrm{min}+\frac{\left(\mathrm{max}-\mathrm{min}\right)}{1+{\left(\frac{\mathrm{x}}{\mathrm{C}}\right)}^{-\mathrm{Hill slope}}}$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (1) </div></div><p>In Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Equ1">1</a>, ‘min’ denotes the bottom of the curve; ‘max’ denotes the top of the curve; <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> are the exposure medium concentrations and mortality, respectively; <i>C</i> defines the LC<sub>50</sub> and EC<sub>50</sub> concentrations, and ‘Hill slope’ characterizes the slope of the curve at its midpoint (Systat Software <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Systat Software (2020) SigmaPlot 14.5 User’s guide" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e707">2020</a>).</p><p>Computed LC<sub>50</sub> and EC<sub>50</sub> values were compared using ANOVA on ranks (Kruskal–Wallis <i>H</i> test), with a Dunnett’s post hoc test. Probability values (<i>p</i>) lower than 0.05 were deemed to be statistically significant and were marked with * for <i>p</i> < 0.05, ** for <i>p</i> < 0.005, and *** for <i>p</i> < 0.001.</p><p>Bioaccumulation data were assessed using the one-compartment model developed by Janssen et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Janssen MPM, Bruins A, De Vries TH, Van Straalen NM (1991) Comparison of cadmium kinetics in four soil arthropod species. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 20:305–312. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01064395
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e736">1991</a>):</p><div id="Equ2" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$${C}_{\mathrm{I}}(t)={C}_{\mathrm{I}0}+{C}_{\mathrm{E}}\frac{{k}_{\mathrm{A}}}{{k}_{\mathrm{E}}}\left(1-{e}^{{-k}_{\mathrm{E}}t}\right)$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (2) </div></div><p>where <i>C</i><sub>I</sub> is the internal concentration; <i>C</i><sub>I0</sub> is the initial metal body burden; <i>k</i><sub>A</sub> and <i>k</i><sub>E</sub> are accumulation and excretion rates, respectively; and <i>t</i> is the time. Comparison of body burden concentrations at time intervals was done using the Kruskal–Wallis <i>H</i> test. Obtained adsorption data were fitted with a pseudo-second-order (II) kinetic model. The linear form is given as follows:</p><div id="Equ3" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\frac{1}{{q}_{t}}=\left(\frac{1}{{k}_{2}{{q}_{e}}^{2}}\right)\times \left(\frac{1}{t}\right)+\frac{1}{{q}_{e}}$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (3) </div></div><p>where <i>q</i><sub><i>t</i></sub> is the concentration of adsorbate on the adsorbant at time point <i>t</i>, <i>q</i><sub>e</sub> is the adsorbant saturation at equilibrium, and <i>k</i><sub>2</sub> is the pseudo-second-order rate constant (Robati <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Robati D (2013) Pseudo-second-order kinetic equations for modeling adsorption systems for removal of lead ions using multi-walled carbon nanotube. J Nanostructure Chem 3:55. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-8865-3-55
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e992">2013</a>).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Results"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec8-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec8">Results</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec8-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec9">Organic matter characterization</h3><p>Both DOM#2 and DOM#3 were comparably high in total carbon and nitrogen content (33.7 and 47.4%, respectively); however, the sulfur content was markedly different with DOM#2 having the highest content out of all three organic materials (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Tab1">1</a>). DOM#1 was measured at < 10% total carbon, < 0.2% total nitrogen, and below LOD total sulfur content which is very low in comparison with the other materials. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 Elemental composition of three dissolved organic carbon materials. Values are means ± standard error (<i>n</i> = 3)</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The FTIR spectra of the humic acids exhibited similar general characteristics such as the broad absorption band ranging from 3400 to 3200 cm<sup>−1</sup> due to O–H stretching of phenol and alcohol groups, sharp peaks around 2920 and 2850 cm<sup>−1</sup> in varying intensities (DOM#2 > DOM#1 > DOM#3) attributed to asymmetric and symmetric stretching of aliphatic bonds (CH<sub>2</sub> and CH<sub>3</sub> respectively), and several peaks spanning 1600–1000 cm<sup>−1</sup> indicating a variety of functional groups (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Fig1">1</a>). After media preparation and filtration, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations in the three DOM-rich media were determined to be 3.31, 5.07, and 14.29 mg/l for DOM#2, DOM#3, and DOM#1, respectively.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="269"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>FTIR spectra of three types of organic matter. Raw absorbance spectra data were transformed to transmittance data and normalized against 100% transmittance</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec10">Acute toxicity and hatching assays</h3><p>Exposure of <i>Artemia</i> nauplii in unspiked media did not result in statistically different background mortalities between the different media (<i>p</i> = 0.715). The mortality recorded in the negative controls of the acute toxicity setup was 1.09 ± 0.04, 1.56 ± 0.05, 1.09 ± 0.05, and 2.03 ± 0.06% for ASW and DOM#1–3, respectively. Single and coexposure of Instar I <i>Artemia</i> sp. nauplii with HgCl<sub>2</sub> and HgOAc<sub>2</sub> in ASW (single exposure) and DOM-rich media (coexposure) caused dose-dependent increases in mortality rates relative to the negative control (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Fig2">2</a>). There was no observable precipitation of HgCl<sub>2</sub> and HgOAc<sub>2</sub> within the used concentration ranges in pure ASW. However, a precipitation of red solids was observed during the preparation of DOM-rich stock solutions. This precipitate was not further investigated and did not seem to permanently exist in solution. Single and coexposure of <i>Artemia sp.</i> cysts with HgCl<sub>2</sub> and HgOAc<sub>2</sub> in ASW (single exposure) and DOM-rich media (coexposure) caused dose-dependent increases in mortality rates relative to the negative control (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Fig2">2</a>). Computed LC<sub>50</sub> values derived from DOM coexposure were compared against those derived from single exposure in ASW. For coexposure with HgCl<sub>2</sub> and HgOAc<sub>2</sub>, LC<sub>50</sub> values were significantly lower in coexposure with DOM#2 and DOM#3 in comparison with single exposure in ASW. In the case of DOM#1, the increase in LC<sub>50</sub> value was not statistically significant. When comparing LC<sub>50</sub> values between equal media, no statistically significant difference was found.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Fig. 2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Fig2_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Fig2_HTML.png" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy" width="685" height="307"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p>Lethal effects in Instar I <i>Artemia</i> sp<i>.</i> after 24 h coexposure to <b>A</b> HgCl<sub>2</sub> and <b>B</b> HgOAc<sub>2</sub> with DOM#1–3 media (see respective colors). Assays were conducted in independent triplicate, solid lines show the combined four parameter logistic fit, and error bars show the standard error of the mean</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Rearing of <i>Artemia</i> cysts in unspiked media did not result in statistically different hatching rates between the different media (<i>p</i> = 0.715). The hatching rate recorded in the negative controls of the hatching success setup was 67.03 ± 1.75, 67.08 ± 2.45, 67.03 ± 1.60, and 70.78 ± 1.96% for ASW and DOM#1–3, respectively. Mercury coexposure in different media did not significantly affect hatching rates in comparison with single exposure in ASW (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Tab2">2</a>). </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-2"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab2" data-test="table-caption">Table 2 Computed LC<sub>50</sub> (µmol) and hatching EC<sub>50</sub> (nmol) values after 24 h exposure of Instar I <i>Artemia</i> sp. nauplii and cysts to HgCl<sub>2</sub> and HgOAc<sub>2</sub></b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/tables/2" aria-label="Full size table 2"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec11">Bioaccumulation assay</h3><p>The increase in Hg body burden during exposure followed different patterns depending on media composition. In all cases, the fitted models provided a good description of the data (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Fig3">3</a> and Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Tab3">3</a>). Throughout the bioaccumulation assay, each treatment exhibited a substantial initial rise in concentration, which was subsequently followed by a period of stabilization. Pure ASW and DOM#1 coexposure resulted in lower final body burdens (153 and 165 ng/mg dry weight (dw), respectively) when compared with DOM#2 and DOM#3 coexposure treatments (200.4 and 249.3 ng/mg dw, respectively). For the ASW and DOM#1 coexposure group, an uptake plateau (no statistically significant body burden change) was reached after 2 and 4 h, respectively. In the case of pure ASW and DOM#1 coexposure, both accumulation and excretion rates were higher than those computed for DOM#2 and DOM#3 coexposure (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Tab3">3</a>). Further, the ratio of accumulation to excretion was greater for DOM#2 and DOM#3 coexposure resulting in overall lower elimination and higher body burden over time (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Fig3">3</a>). In the adsorption assay, all DOM coexposures led to generally decreased final body burdens in comparison with pure ASW media (− 60%). All adsorption data were characterized by a slow initial uptake followed by an exponential increase.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Fig. 3"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Fig3_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Fig3_HTML.png" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy" width="685" height="305"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>Mercury body burden measured in the <b>A</b> bioaccumulation assay and <b>B</b> the adsorption assay using Instar I nauplii of <i>Artemia</i> sp. Assays were conducted in independent triplicate. Solid lines denote <b>A</b> the one compartment accumulation model and <b>B</b> the non-linear pseudo-second order kinetic adsorption model</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-3"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab3" data-test="table-caption">Table 3 Parameters derived from the one compartment bioaccumulation model (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Equ1">1</a>) and the pseudo-second order kinetic adsorption model (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Equ2">2</a>)</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/tables/3" aria-label="Full size table 3"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Discussion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec12-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec12">Discussion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec12-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec13">FTIR spectra of DOM compounds</h3><p>DOM#1 has a unique band at 3692 cm<sup>−1</sup>, which, in combination with a peak at 913 cm<sup>−1</sup>, is commonly attributed to the hydroxyl groups of kaolinite, indicating an aluminosilicate contamination of the sample (Merlin et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Merlin N, Lima VA, Santos-Tonial LM (2015) Instrumental and experimental conditions for the application of Fourier transform infrared analysis on soil and humic acid samples, combined with chemometrics tools and scanning electron microscopy. J Braz Chem Soc. 
 https://doi.org/10.5935/0103-5053.20150170
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1888">2015</a>). This is further supported by the peak at 1089 cm<sup>−1</sup> which may be caused by Si–O stretching. The prominent peaks at 1563 and 1378 cm<sup>−1</sup> are characteristic of carboxylic ions, with the latter typically being attributed to antisymmetric stretching of carboxylic groups (Stevenson and Goh <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1971" title="Stevenson FJ, Goh KM (1971) Infrared spectra of humic acids and related substances. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 35:471–483. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(71)90044-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1896">1971</a>; Wu et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Wu M, Song M, Liu M et al (2016) Fungicidal activities of soil humic/fulvic acids as related to their chemical structures in greenhouse vegetable fields with cultivation chronosequence. Sci Rep 6:32858. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32858
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1899">2016</a>). Finally, the double peak at 1040–1020 cm<sup>−1</sup> may be assigned to C-O stretching of polysaccharides or polysaccharide-like substances (Stevenson and Goh <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1971" title="Stevenson FJ, Goh KM (1971) Infrared spectra of humic acids and related substances. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 35:471–483. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(71)90044-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1904">1971</a>; Machado et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Machado W, Franchini JC, de Fátima GM, Filho JT (2020) Spectroscopic characterization of humic and fulvic acids in soil aggregates, Brazil. Heliyon 6:e04078. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04078
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1907">2020</a>).</p><p>The spectrum of DOM#2 has a unique peak at 1614 cm<sup>−1</sup> associated with carbon double bond stretching in either aromatic, conjugated carbonyl, or carboxylate functional groups (Niu et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Niu H, Yang H, Tong L et al (2019) Spectral study of humic substance extract from pressurized oxidizing slag of Carlin-typed gold deposit. J Phys Conf Ser 1347:012027. 
 https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1347/1/012027
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1915">2019</a>). The shoulder at 1720 cm<sup>−1</sup> indicates the presence of small amounts of ketonic or aldehydic C = O groups (Stevenson and Goh <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1971" title="Stevenson FJ, Goh KM (1971) Infrared spectra of humic acids and related substances. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 35:471–483. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(71)90044-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1920">1971</a>). Additionally, the spectrum has a unique additional peak at 1536 cm<sup>−1</sup> attributed to amide functional groups or peptide linkage of proteins (Stevenson and Goh <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1971" title="Stevenson FJ, Goh KM (1971) Infrared spectra of humic acids and related substances. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 35:471–483. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(71)90044-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1926">1971</a>). The bands at 1470 and 1430 cm<sup>−1</sup> have previously been assigned to aliphatic C-H stretching and deformation (Wu et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Wu M, Song M, Liu M et al (2016) Fungicidal activities of soil humic/fulvic acids as related to their chemical structures in greenhouse vegetable fields with cultivation chronosequence. Sci Rep 6:32858. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32858
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1931">2016</a>; Machado et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Machado W, Franchini JC, de Fátima GM, Filho JT (2020) Spectroscopic characterization of humic and fulvic acids in soil aggregates, Brazil. Heliyon 6:e04078. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04078
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1934">2020</a>). Tatzber et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Tatzber M, Stemmer M, Spiegel H et al (2007) FTIR-spectroscopic characterization of humic acids and humin fractions obtained by advanced NaOH, Na 4 P 2 O 7, and Na 2 CO 3 extraction procedures. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 170:522–529. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200622082
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR91" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1937">2007</a>) identified the small peak at 1260 cm<sup>−1</sup> as either nitrate, = C–O–C groups, phenolic groups, or even P = O vibrations. The small peak at 1197 cm<sup>−1</sup> may correspond to C-O stretching and O–H deformation of carboxylic groups or a contribution by aryl ethers (Stevenson and Goh <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1971" title="Stevenson FJ, Goh KM (1971) Infrared spectra of humic acids and related substances. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 35:471–483. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(71)90044-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1945">1971</a>). The small bands at 1123 cm<sup>−1</sup> and 1084 cm<sup>−1</sup> indicate the presence of C-O bonds in esters, ethers, alcoholic, or phenolic groups (Niu et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Niu H, Yang H, Tong L et al (2019) Spectral study of humic substance extract from pressurized oxidizing slag of Carlin-typed gold deposit. J Phys Conf Ser 1347:012027. 
 https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1347/1/012027
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1952">2019</a>), and C-O of alcoholic and aliphatic ethers, respectively (Tatzber et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Tatzber M, Stemmer M, Spiegel H et al (2007) FTIR-spectroscopic characterization of humic acids and humin fractions obtained by advanced NaOH, Na 4 P 2 O 7, and Na 2 CO 3 extraction procedures. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 170:522–529. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200622082
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR91" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1955">2007</a>). Similarly to the spectra of DOM#1, the group of low intensity bands between 1000 cm<sup>−1</sup> and 1100 cm<sup>−1</sup> may either be caused by Si–O stretching or C-O stretching of polysaccharides.</p><p>The spectrum of DOM#3 has a lower abundance of absorption bands and an overall lower absorption intensity. The most prominent peaks at 1560 and 1370 cm<sup>−1</sup> are characteristic of carboxylic ions (Stevenson and Goh <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1971" title="Stevenson FJ, Goh KM (1971) Infrared spectra of humic acids and related substances. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 35:471–483. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(71)90044-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1968">1971</a>), while the smaller peak at 1112 cm<sup>−1</sup> is assigned to C-O bonds in esters, ethers, alcoholic, or phenolic groups (Niu et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Niu H, Yang H, Tong L et al (2019) Spectral study of humic substance extract from pressurized oxidizing slag of Carlin-typed gold deposit. J Phys Conf Ser 1347:012027. 
 https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1347/1/012027
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1973">2019</a>). Similarly to the spectra of DOM#2, the small peak at 1034 cm<sup>−1</sup> is attributed to C-O stretching of polysaccharide or polysaccharide-like substances (Stevenson and Goh <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1971" title="Stevenson FJ, Goh KM (1971) Infrared spectra of humic acids and related substances. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 35:471–483. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(71)90044-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1979">1971</a>; Machado et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Machado W, Franchini JC, de Fátima GM, Filho JT (2020) Spectroscopic characterization of humic and fulvic acids in soil aggregates, Brazil. Heliyon 6:e04078. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04078
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1982">2020</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec14">Environmental relevance of Hg and DOM concentrations tested</h3><p>Environmental levels of Hg in open marine ecosystems typically range between 0.8 and 2.5 pM (Gworek et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Gworek B, Bemowska-Kałabun O, Kijeńska M, Wrzosek-Jakubowska J (2016) Mercury in marine and oceanic waters—a review. Water Air Soil Pollut 227:371. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-016-3060-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1993">2016</a>) depending on sampling depth and regional differences affecting, e.g., surface evasion (Zhang et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Zhang Y, Zhang P, Song Z et al (2023) An updated global mercury budget from a coupled atmosphere-land-ocean model: 40% more re-emissions buffer the effect of primary emission reductions. One Earth 6:316–325. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2023.02.004
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1996">2023</a>). Hotspots of marine water pollution can be found in semi-enclosed marine systems due to limited water exchange and proximity to anthropogenic pollution (Thongra-Ar and Parkpian <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Thongra-Ar W, Parkpian P (2002) Total mercury concentrations in coastal areas of Thailand: A Review. ScienceAsia 28:301–312" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e1999">2002</a>; Shadrin et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Shadrin N, Stetsiuk A, Latushkin A, Anufriieva E (2021) Mercury in the world’s largest hypersaline lagoon Bay Sivash, the Sea of Azov. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:28704–28712. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12745-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2002">2021</a>). Consequently, some of the highest concentrations measured outside of freshwater systems include lagoons (285 pM, Lacerda and Gonçalves <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Lacerda LD, Gonçalves GO (2001) Mercury distribution and speciation in waters of the coastal lagoons of Rio de Janeiro, SE Brazil. Mar Chem 76:47–58. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4203(01)00046-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2005">2001</a>) and inland shelf seas (1670 pM, Shadrin et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Shadrin N, Stetsiuk A, Latushkin A, Anufriieva E (2021) Mercury in the world’s largest hypersaline lagoon Bay Sivash, the Sea of Azov. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:28704–28712. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12745-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2009">2021</a>). Like Hg, DOM and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) are typically found in lower concentrations in the marine environment than in freshwater environments (Del Vecchio and Blough <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Del Vecchio R, Blough NV (2004) Spatial and seasonal distribution of chromophoric dissolved organic matter and dissolved organic carbon in the Middle Atlantic Bight. Mar Chem 89:169–187. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2004.02.027
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2012">2004</a>). Environmental DOC concentrations may range between 0.4 and 0.8 mg/l in the open ocean (Dittmar and Stubbins <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Dittmar T, Stubbins A (2014) Dissolved organic matter in aquatic systems. In: Treatise on geochemistry. Elsevier, pp 125–156. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.01010-X
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2015">2014</a>), average 1.24 mg/l in coastal waters (Lønborg et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2024" title="Lønborg C, Carreira C, Abril G et al (2024) A global database of dissolved organic matter (DOM) concentration measurements in coastal waters (CoastDOM v1). Earth Syst Sci Data 16:1107–1119. 
 https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-1107-2024
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2018">2024</a>), and reach higher concentrations in semi-enclosed systems depending on regional parameters (Connolly et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Connolly CT, Crump BC, Dunton KH, McClelland JW (2021) Seasonality of dissolved organic matter in lagoon ecosystems along the Alaska Beaufort Sea coast. Limnol Oceanogr 66:4299–4313. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.11962
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2021">2021</a>; Amaral et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Amaral V, Santos-Echeandía J, Ortega T et al (2023) Dissolved organic matter distribution in the water column and sediment pore water in a highly anthropized coastal lagoon (Mar Menor, Spain): characteristics, sources, and benthic fluxes. Sci Total Environ 896:165264. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165264
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2024">2023</a>). According to an approximation by Krogh (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1934" title="Krogh A (1934) Conditions of life in the ocean. Ecol Monogr 4:421–429. 
 https://doi.org/10.2307/1961648
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2028">1934</a>), DOC makes up about half of DOM, which is reflected in the high carbon contents measured for DOM#2 and DOM#3 (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Tab1">1</a>).</p><p>The Hg concentrations used in this study are not environmentally relevant and were chosen to induce acute toxicity. The concentrations of DOC used in this study (~ 3–14 mg/l) fall within ranges reported for semi-enclosed marine systems, where <i>Artemia</i> are most prevalent. Further dilutions of DOM-enriched media were not carried out to observe the maximum impact of Hg-DOM coexposure.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec15">Acute toxicity and hatching assay</h3><p>DOM#1 coexposure resulted in a non-significant decrease in toxicity in comparison with single exposure in ASW medium. DOM#2 coexposure significantly increased toxicity almost fourfold while DOM#3 coexposure increased toxicity more than tenfold. Humic substances are known to elicit cellular responses although the exact modes of action seem to be dependent on molecular characteristics. While some in vitro and in vivo studies report an induction of oxidative stress leading to a multitude of mutagenic and cytotoxic effects (Bernacchi et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Bernacchi F, Ponzanelli I, Minunni M et al (1996) In vivo cytogenetic effects of natural humic acid. Mutagenesis 11:467–469. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/mutage/11.5.467
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2048">1996</a>; Cheng et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Cheng M-L, Ho H-Y, Huang Y-W et al (2003) Humic acid induces oxidative DNA damage, growth retardation, and apoptosis in human primary fibroblasts. Exp Biol Med 228:413–423. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/153537020322800412
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2051">2003</a>; Qi et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Qi S, den Hartog GJM, Bast A (2008) Damage to lung epithelial cells and lining fluid antioxidant defense by humic acid. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 26:96–101. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2008.02.007
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2054">2008</a>; Kihara et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Kihara Y, Yustiawati TM et al (2014) Mechanism of the toxicity induced by natural humic acid on human vascular endothelial cells. Environ Toxicol 29:916–925. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.21819
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2057">2014</a>), others suggest humic acid coexposure to alleviate heavy metal-induced oxidative stress by scavenging reactive oxygen species (Wang et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Wang X, Liu L, Liang D et al (2021) Influence of humic acid on oxidative stress induced by arsenite and arsenate waterborne exposure in Danio rerio. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 106:786–791. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-021-03197-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR97" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2060">2021</a>; Li et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Li X, Yan Y, Li X et al (2022) Humic acids alleviate the toxicity of reduced graphene oxide modified by nanosized palladium in microalgae. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 241:113794. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113794
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2064">2022</a>). Oxidative stress caused by humic acids leads to a depletion of intracellular antioxidant levels including glutathione which also acts as an unspecific line of defence against heavy metal exposure (Qi et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Qi S, den Hartog GJM, Bast A (2008) Damage to lung epithelial cells and lining fluid antioxidant defense by humic acid. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 26:96–101. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2008.02.007
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2067">2008</a>; Krupp et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Krupp EM, Gajdosechova Z, Schwerdtle T, Lohren H (2016) Mercury toxicity and speciation analysis. Metallomics. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Germany, pp 285–304" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2070">2016</a>). Coexposure to DOM#3 may have induced an additive toxic impact, consequently causing a notable decrease in the derived LC<sub>50</sub> values (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Tab2">2</a>). In comparison, the added polysaccharide moiety of DOM#1 (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Fig1">1</a>) may have inhibited an effective uptake of potentially toxic amounts of humic acid as it is most likely incapable of crossing lipid bilayer membranes. <i>Artemia</i> use DOM as a food source (Baylor and Sutcliffe <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1963" title="Baylor ER, Sutcliffe WH (1963) Dissolved organic matter in seawater as a source of particulate food. Limnol Oceanogr 8:369–371. 
 https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1963.8.4.0369
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2085">1963</a>), which allows for the potential retention of Hg-DOM complexes within their gastrointestinal tract, thereby prolonging the time window to penetrate the epithelium. In the case of DOM#2, the abundance of functional groups and high sulfur content are ideal properties to effectively bind Hg. Additionally, alginate, the main constituent of DOM#2, is not known to elicit any toxicity which could have had an additive effect during coexposure.</p><p>A direct comparison of toxicological data derived in this study with existing literature is convoluted due to the use of non-standardized protocols in existing studies as well as this one. While both studies reporting LC<sub>50</sub> data for Instar I nauplii used synthetic sea salts to prepare their exposure media (Sleet and Brendel <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1985" title="Sleet RB, Brendel K (1985) Homogeneous populations of Artemia nauplii and their potential use for in vitro testing in developmental toxicology. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen 5:41–54. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/tcm.1770050106
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2093">1985</a>; Ñañez Pacheco et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Ñañez Pacheco GK, Sanabio Maldonado NS, Pastrana Alta RY, Aguilar Vitorino H (2021) Short exposure of Artemia salina to group-12 metals: comparing hatchability, mortality, lipid peroxidation, and swimming speed. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 213:112052. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112052
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2096">2021</a>), differences in their ionic composition are known to cause differences in metal toxicity (Arnold et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Arnold WR, Cotsifas JS, Winter AR et al (2007) Effects of using synthetic sea salts when measuring and modeling copper toxicity in saltwater toxicity tests. Environ Toxicol Chem 26:935–943. 
 https://doi.org/10.1897/06-215R1.1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2099">2007</a>). Further, Ñañez Pacheco et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Ñañez Pacheco GK, Sanabio Maldonado NS, Pastrana Alta RY, Aguilar Vitorino H (2021) Short exposure of Artemia salina to group-12 metals: comparing hatchability, mortality, lipid peroxidation, and swimming speed. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 213:112052. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112052
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2102">2021</a>) conducted their experiments at 28 °C rather than 25 °C, while Sleet and Brendel (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1985" title="Sleet RB, Brendel K (1985) Homogeneous populations of Artemia nauplii and their potential use for in vitro testing in developmental toxicology. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen 5:41–54. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/tcm.1770050106
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2106">1985</a>) conducted their experiments at an undefined exposure salinity, both of which have been reported to affect toxicity (Blust et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1992" title="Blust R, Kockelbergh E, Baillieul M (1992) Effect of salinity on the uptake of cadmium by the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 84:245–254" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2109">1992</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Blust R, Van Ginneken L, Decleir W (1994) Effect of temperature on the uptake of copper by the brine shrimp, Artemia franciscana. Aquat Toxicol 30:343–356. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-445X(94)00049-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2112">1994</a>).</p><p>(Epi)genetic variability may also play a role, as strains differ in their susceptibility to Hg (Sarabia et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Sarabia R, Torreblanca A, Del Ramo JJ, Dı́az-Mayans J (1998) Effects of low mercury concentration exposure on hatching, growth and survival in the Artemia strain La Mata parthenogenetic diploid. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 120:93–97. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1095-6433(98)10015-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2118">1998</a>). Comparative studies assessing potential differences in toxicant resilience between different <i>Artemia</i> strains report contrasting results. While Leis et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Leis M, Manfra L, Taddia L et al (2014) A comparative toxicity study between an autochthonous Artemia and a non native invasive species. Ecotoxicology 23:1143–1145. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-014-1252-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2124">2014</a>) reported no significant difference in Hg toxicity between <i>franciscana</i> and <i>parthenogenetica</i> strains reared under laboratory conditions (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Fig4">4</a>), Pais-Costa et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Pais-Costa AJ, Sánchez MI, Vieira N et al (2020) Effect of acute exposure of Hg and Zn on survival of native and invasive Artemia from wild populations exposed to different degrees of environmental contamination. Ecol Indic 118:106739. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106739
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2137">2020</a>) concluded that naturally occurring <i>Artemia</i> species may have adapted to locally elevated Hg concentrations, resulting in a significantly higher resilience. Similar results were obtained by Saliba and Krzyz (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1976" title="Saliba LJ, Krzyz RM (1976) Acclimation and tolerance of Artemia salina to copper salts. Mar Biol 38:231–238. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00388936
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2143">1976</a>) who reported an increased tolerance of copper acclimated <i>Artemia.</i> Brown and Ahsanullah (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1971" title="Brown B, Ahsanullah M (1971) Effect of heavy metals on mortality and growth. Mar Pollut Bull 2:182–187. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X(71)90087-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2149">1971</a>) even reported an increased toxicity in A<i>rtemia</i> nauplii with decreasing Hg concentration which they could not explain. The LC<sub>50</sub> values derived from the single exposure in ASW medium in this study fall within the range of previously reported data, although the susceptibility of the here used Artemia is slightly lower (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Fig4">4</a>).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4" data-title="Fig. 4"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 4</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/figures/4" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Fig4_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig4" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Fig4_HTML.png" alt="figure 4" loading="lazy" width="685" height="376"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-4-desc"><p>Literature 24 h LC<sub>50</sub> values derived from <i>Artemia</i> Instar I (yellow half) and Instar II + III nauplii (blue half) after exposure to Hg. Values are given as mean and the error bars denote the 95% confidence interval if provided. Red and blue datapoints were derived from HgCl<sub>2</sub> exposure, orange datapoints were derived with HgOAc<sub>2</sub></p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/figures/4" data-track-dest="link:Figure4 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 4" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The major complexing groups in marine waters are chloride and DOM with the latter being more spatiotemporally variable. Gebhardt (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1976" title="Gebhardt K (1976) Effects of heavy metals (cadmium, copper, and mercury) on reproduction, growth, and survival of brine shrimp (Artemia salina) from the Great Salt Lake. Utah State University. 
 https://doi.org/10.26076/52e0-6cfe
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2190">1976</a>), Lavtizar et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Lavtizar V, Kimura D, Asaoka S, Okamura H (2018) The influence of seawater properties on toxicity of copper pyrithione and its degradation product to brine shrimp Artemia salina. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 147:132–138. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.08.039
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2193">2018</a>), and Deese et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Deese RD, LeBlanc MR, Cook RL (2016) Surfactant toxicity to Artemia franciscana and the influence of humic acid and chemical composition. Environ Chem 13:507. 
 https://doi.org/10.1071/EN15108
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2196">2016</a>) reported a decrease in the toxicity of Hg, copper, and organic surfactants with elevated DOM concentrations. Penttinen et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Penttinen S, Kostamo A, Kukkonen JVK (1998) Combined effects of dissolved organic material and water hardness on toxicity of cadmium to Daphnia magna. Environ Toxicol Chem 17:2498–2503. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620171217
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2199">1998</a>), Lawrence and Mason (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Lawrence AL, Mason RP (2001) Factors controlling the bioaccumulation of mercury and methylmercury by the estuarine amphipod Leptocheirus plumulosus. Environ Pollut 111:217–231. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(00)00072-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2202">2001</a>), and Day (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Day KE (1991) Effects of dissolved organic carbon on accumulation and acute toxicity of fenvalerate, deltamethrin and cyhalothrin to Daphnia magna (straus). Environ Toxicol Chem 10:91–101. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620100111
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2206">1991</a>) observed the same effects during their studies on the effect of DOM on the toxicity and bioaccumulation of cadmium, Hg, and synthetic pyrethroids in <i>Daphnia magna</i> and <i>Leptocheirus plumulosus</i>. Penttinen et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Penttinen S, Kostamo A, Kukkonen JVK (1998) Combined effects of dissolved organic material and water hardness on toxicity of cadmium to Daphnia magna. Environ Toxicol Chem 17:2498–2503. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620171217
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2215">1998</a>) further hypothesized that water hardness decreased the cadmium-DOM binding coefficient which may be due to cadmium being outcompeted by calcium ions. This is further supported by the works of Mantoura et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1978" title="Mantoura RFC, Dickson A, Riley JP (1978) The complexation of metals with humic materials in natural waters. Estuar Coast Mar Sci 6:387–408. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0302-3524(78)90130-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2218">1978</a>) who reported that more than 90% of Hg is chelated by humic acids in freshwaters, while in seawater more than 99% of humic substances are chelated by calcium and magnesium. This may explain the lack of impact of DOM coexposure on Hg toxicity in <i>Ceriodaphnia dubia</i> larvae reported by Mcnaughton (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Mcnaughton C (2007) Influence of mercury-dissolved organic matter (DOM) complexation on toxicity in natural waters. Dissertation, Clemson University" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2225">2007</a>).</p><p>In contrast, Olivero-Verbel et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Olivero-Verbel J, Padilla-Bottet C, De la Rosa O (2008) Relationships between physicochemical parameters and the toxicity of leachates from a municipal solid waste landfill. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 70:294–299. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2007.05.016
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2232">2008</a>) determined the toxicity of landfill leachate to <i>Artemia</i> and reported that organic matter concentrations correlated positively with increasing toxicity. They hypothesized that apart from an inherent toxicity of uncharacterized organic compounds, their complexation of other inorganic elements may elicit an increased biological activity in comparison with free ions. Indeed, previous studies have observed increased toxicities due to organic complexation (Winner <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1984" title="Winner RW (1984) The toxicity and bioaccumulation of cadmium and copper as affected by humic acid. Aquat Toxicol 5:267–274. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-445X(84)90025-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR98" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2238">1984</a>; Winner and Gauss <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1986" title="Winner RW, Gauss JD (1986) Relationship between chronic toxicity and bioaccumulation of copper, cadmium and zinc as affected by water hardness and humic acid. Aquat Toxicol 8:149–161. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-445X(86)90061-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR99" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2241">1986</a>), although this was highly dependent on the type of heavy metal used during exposure as has been noted by other researchers (Mcnaughton <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Mcnaughton C (2007) Influence of mercury-dissolved organic matter (DOM) complexation on toxicity in natural waters. Dissertation, Clemson University" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2244">2007</a>).</p><p>Hatching success is time and temperature dependent and is more sensitive to Hg exposure relative to the acute toxicity assay with hatched organisms. The hatching success of approximately 70% at 25 °C following a 24-h incubation in the control group was consistent with findings from prior studies (Sorgeloos et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1978" title="Sorgeloos P, Remiche-Van Der Wielen C, Persoone G (1978) The use of Artemia nauplii for toxicity tests—a critical analysis. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2:249–255. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-6513(78)80003-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2250">1978</a>; Go et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Go EC, Pandey AS, MacRae TH (1990) Effect of inorganic mercury on the emergence and hatching of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana. Mar Biol 107:93–102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01313246
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2253">1990</a>). There was no statistically significant difference in toxicity between the different exposure groups in the hatching assay (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Tab2">2</a>). <i>Artemia</i> cysts are highly resistant to a range of physicochemical stressors due to embedded matrix peptides and the shells’ properties as a charge barrier (Dai et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Dai L, Chen D-F, Liu Y-L et al (2011) Extracellular matrix peptides of artemia cyst shell participate in protecting encysted embryos from extreme environments. PLoS One 6:e20187. 
 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020187
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2262">2011</a>). It is known that Hg speciates in saline matrices to form the stabilized tetrachlorido complex (HgCl<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>), which significantly decreases hatching toxicity by impeding cyst penetration (Okasako and Siegel <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1980" title="Okasako J, Siegel S (1980) Mercury antagonists: effects of sodium chloride and sulfur group (VIa) compounds on excystment of the brine shrimp artemia. Water Air Soil Pollut 14:235–240. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00291838
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2269">1980</a>). The data reported by Wright and Mason (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Wright DA, Mason RP (2000) Biological and chemical influences on trace metal toxicity and bioaccumulation in the marine and estuarine environment. Int J Environ Pollut 13:226. 
 https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEP.2000.002317
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2272">2000</a>) further support the hypothesis that Hg uptake is not dependent on free ion concentration but rather amount and form of neutral Hg complexes in solution. The similarity between LC<sub>50</sub> values in all exposure scenarios demonstrates that, although some DOM chelation occurred, the excess free Hg equally speciated to form charged chloride complexes which equally impacted their ability to cross membranes. A significant impact of chelation on hatching success was reported by Okasako and Siegel (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1980" title="Okasako J, Siegel S (1980) Mercury antagonists: effects of sodium chloride and sulfur group (VIa) compounds on excystment of the brine shrimp artemia. Water Air Soil Pollut 14:235–240. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00291838
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2277">1980</a>) and Siegel et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Siegel BZ, Siegel SM, Correa T et al (1991) The protection of invertebrates, fish, and vascular plants against inorganic mercury poisoning by sulfur and selenium derivatives. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 20:241–246. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01055910
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2281">1991</a>) who used equimolar amounts of nucleophilic and chalcogenidic compounds. However, while the outer shell acts as a charge barrier, the underlying embryonic cuticle is permeable for lipophilic chemicals (Siegel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Siegel BZ, Siegel SM, Correa T et al (1991) The protection of invertebrates, fish, and vascular plants against inorganic mercury poisoning by sulfur and selenium derivatives. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 20:241–246. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01055910
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2284">1991</a>; Patterson et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Patterson LN, Paulson DM, Colucciello VJ, Covi JA (2021) Sediment from lake with missing egg bank is toxic to hatchlings of model zooplankton: a reason to consider obligate dormancy in toxicological assessment. Aquat Toxicol 236:105862. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2021.105862
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2287">2021</a>). Indeed, Go et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Go EC, Pandey AS, MacRae TH (1990) Effect of inorganic mercury on the emergence and hatching of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana. Mar Biol 107:93–102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01313246
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2290">1990</a>) reported that Hg entered <i>Artemia</i> cysts only after the outer shell had cracked, exposing the permeable embryonic cuticle. HgCl<sub>2</sub> does not fully dissociate like other heavy metal salts and, due to having a low dipole moment, behaves more like a non-polar compound (Deng and Li <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Deng H, Li H (2022) Specific cation effects on surface reactions of HgCl2 in clay-water systems. Appl Clay Sci 224:106523. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2022.106523
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2299">2022</a>). This unique phenomenon enables HgCl<sub>2</sub> to cross lipid bilayer membranes without requiring an active transport protein (Gutknecht <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1981" title="Gutknecht J (1981) Inorganic mercury (Hg2+) transport through lipid bilayer membranes. J Membr Biol 61:61–66. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01870753
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2304">1981</a>). Still, lipophilicity is a necessary but not sufficient condition for transport of Hg species across membranes. The reactivity with cell constituents determines the generation of a concentration gradient and thus the direction of diffusion. Mason et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Mason RP, Reinfelder JR, Morel FMM (1996) Uptake, toxicity, and trophic transfer of mercury in a coastal diatom. Environ Sci Technol 30:1835–1845. 
 https://doi.org/10.1021/es950373d
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2307">1996</a>) and Braeckman et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Braeckman B, Cornelis R, Rzeznik U, Raes H (1998) Uptake of HgCl2 and MeHgCl in an insect cell line (Aedes albopictusC6/36). Environ Res 79:33–40. 
 https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.1998.3841
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2310">1998</a>) were able to demonstrate that inorganic Hg targets inner cellular membranes resulting in a constant diffusion into cells.</p><p>It is difficult to compare the here produced results with previous hatching studies as reported EC<sub>50</sub> values are either an order of magnitude higher (100 mg/l, Liu and Chen <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1987" title="Liu P, Chen J (1987) Effects of heavy metals on the hatching rates of brine shrimp Artemia salina cysts. J World Aquac Soc 18:78–83. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.1987.tb00421.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2318">1987</a>) or were never determined due to and inadequate choice of concentration range (Ñañez Pacheco et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Ñañez Pacheco GK, Sanabio Maldonado NS, Pastrana Alta RY, Aguilar Vitorino H (2021) Short exposure of Artemia salina to group-12 metals: comparing hatchability, mortality, lipid peroxidation, and swimming speed. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 213:112052. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112052
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2321">2021</a>). It should be noted that the hatching process did not follow a proportional dose–response curve but rather exhibited a threshold concentration at which the hatching success pivoted (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Fig5">5</a>). So far, Go et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Go EC, Pandey AS, MacRae TH (1990) Effect of inorganic mercury on the emergence and hatching of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana. Mar Biol 107:93–102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01313246
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2327">1990</a>) have provided the most comprehensive explanation of the effect of Hg on <i>Artemia</i> hatching. They hypothesized that Hg affects the Na,K-ATPase in the larval salt gland, resulting in a disruption of the required osmotic potential to break the inner cuticle., Hg inhibits multiple transmembrane ion exchange mechanisms through non-competitive inhibition of membrane transport ligands (Wright and Welbourn <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Wright DA, Welbourn PM (1991) Effect of mercury on unidirectional sodium and calcium influx in Asellus aquaticus. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 21:567–570. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01183879
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2334">1991</a>; Anner et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1992" title="Anner BM, Moosmayer M, Imesch E (1992) Mercury blocks Na-K-ATPase by a ligand-dependent and reversible mechanism. Am J Physiol-Renal Physiol 262:F830–F836. 
 https://doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.1992.262.5.F830
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2337">1992</a>). Furthermore, Hg is known to affect the osmoregulation capacity in various crustaceans (Lignot et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Lignot J-H, Spanings-Pierrot C, Charmantier G (2000) Osmoregulatory capacity as a tool in monitoring the physiological condition and the effect of stress in crustaceans. Aquaculture 191:209–245. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(00)00429-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2340">2000</a>), which supports the hypothesis of Go et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Go EC, Pandey AS, MacRae TH (1990) Effect of inorganic mercury on the emergence and hatching of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana. Mar Biol 107:93–102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01313246
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2343">1990</a>).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-5" data-title="Fig. 5"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig5" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 5</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/figures/5" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Fig5_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig5" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-024-35558-y/MediaObjects/11356_2024_35558_Fig5_HTML.png" alt="figure 5" loading="lazy" width="685" height="307"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-5-desc"><p>Hatching success of <i>Artemia</i> sp. cysts after 24 h coexposure to <b>A</b> HgCl<sub>2</sub> and <b>B</b> HgOAc<sub>2</sub> with DOM#1–3 media (see respective colors). Assays were conducted in independent triplicate, solid lines show the combined four parameter logistic fit, and error bars denote the standard error of the mean</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y/figures/5" data-track-dest="link:Figure5 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 5" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p><i>Artemia</i> have been recommended for use in routine ecotoxicological testing due to their easy procurement and convenient deployment (Wisely and Blick <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1967" title="Wisely B, Blick R (1967) Mortality of marine invertebrate larvae in mercury, copper, and zinc solutions. Mar Freshw Res 18:63. 
 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF9670063
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2382">1967</a>), leading to the development of additional endpoint assays (Libralato et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Libralato G, Prato E, Migliore L et al (2016) A review of toxicity testing protocols and endpoints with Artemia spp. Ecol Indic 69:35–49. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.04.017
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2385">2016</a>). However, <i>Artemia</i> are uniquely resistant to metals (in the case of Hg by a factor > 300), in comparison with other marine and freshwater organism assays (Calleja et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Calleja MC, Persoone G, Geladi P (1994) Comparative acute toxicity of the first 50 multicentre evaluation of in vitro cytotoxicity chemicals to aquatic non-vertebrates. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 26:69–78. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00212796
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2391">1994</a>; Kalčíková et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Kalčíková G, Zagorc-Končan J, Žgajnar Gotvajn A (2012) Artemia salina acute immobilization test: a possible tool for aquatic ecotoxicity assessment. Water Sci Technol 66:903–908. 
 https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.271
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2394">2012</a>). Mercury still affects <i>Artemia</i> at sublethal concentration as documented in phototaxy studies by Palmer Saunders et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1985" title="Palmer Saunders J, Trieff NM, Kalmaz EE, Uchida T (1985) Effect of mercuric ion on attraction to light of Artemia sp nauplii. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 9:112–120. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-6513(85)90042-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2401">1985</a>) and Trieff et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1987" title="Trieff NM, Saunders JP, Kalmaz EE, Uchida T (1987) Measurement of photoattraction of Artemia nauplii: effect of mercuric ion. In: Sorgeloos P, Bengston DA, Decleir W, Jaspers E (eds) Artemia research and its applications: 1. Morphology, genetics, strain characterisation, toxicology, vol 1. Universa Press, Wetteren, Belgium, p 380" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR93" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2404">1987</a>), who reported an increased photomotility during low level Hg exposure. Sarabia et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Sarabia R, Torreblanca A, Del Ramo JJ, Dı́az-Mayans J (1998) Effects of low mercury concentration exposure on hatching, growth and survival in the Artemia strain La Mata parthenogenetic diploid. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 120:93–97. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1095-6433(98)10015-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2407">1998</a>), and more recently, Kim et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Kim M, Lee W, Park J et al (2020) Advanced tracking system of multiple Artemia and various behavioral endpoints for ecotoxicological analysis. Ecol Indic 116:106503. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106503
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2410">2020</a>) hypothesize that this may be caused by a general hormesis effect of Hg exposure on <i>Artemia</i> nauplii. However, contrasting studies by Yaeger et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1986" title="Yaeger E, Siegel BZ, Siegel SM et al (1986) Mercury antagonists: loss of phototactic response in the brine shrimp artemia and its prevention by thiamine. Water Air Soil Pollut 28:293–297. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00583495
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR105" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2417">1986</a>) and Siegel et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Siegel BZ, Siegel SM, Correa T et al (1991) The protection of invertebrates, fish, and vascular plants against inorganic mercury poisoning by sulfur and selenium derivatives. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 20:241–246. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01055910
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2420">1991</a>) showed that early-stage nauplii exhibited a decreased phototaxy at concentrations as low as 0.1–1 µM and put emphasis on the importance of developmental stage during the exposure period as pointed out by other researchers (Vanhaecke and Persoone <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1984" title="Vanhaecke P, Persoone G (1984) The ARC-test: a standardized short-term routine toxicity test with Artemia nauplii: methodology and evaluation. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Ecotoxicological Testing for the Marine Environment" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2423">1984</a>). Indeed, <i>Artemia</i> exhibit an increasing susceptibility with progressing development (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#Fig4">4</a>, Kalčíková et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Kalčíková G, Zagorc-Končan J, Žgajnar Gotvajn A (2012) Artemia salina acute immobilization test: a possible tool for aquatic ecotoxicity assessment. Water Sci Technol 66:903–908. 
 https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.271
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2432">2012</a>), originally explained by the absence of fluid ingestion and the subsequent protection of the digestive tract epithelium (Sorgeloos et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1978" title="Sorgeloos P, Remiche-Van Der Wielen C, Persoone G (1978) The use of Artemia nauplii for toxicity tests—a critical analysis. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2:249–255. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-6513(78)80003-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2436">1978</a>). However, later works by Sleet and Brendel (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1985" title="Sleet RB, Brendel K (1985) Homogeneous populations of Artemia nauplii and their potential use for in vitro testing in developmental toxicology. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen 5:41–54. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/tcm.1770050106
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2439">1985</a>) investigating the underlying reasons for this progression suggested that Hg targets specific moulting processes. Cotou et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Cotou E, Castritsi-Catharios I, Moraitou-Apostolopoulou M (2001) Surfactant-based oil dispersant toxicity to developing nauplii of Artemia: effects on ATPase enzymatic system. Chemosphere 42:959–964. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(00)00108-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2442">2001</a>) were able to identify ATPase inhibition as a dominant factor in perturbing naupliar stage advancement thus further supporting a development stage dependent toxicant susceptibility.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec16">Adsorption and bioaccumulation assay</h3><p>DOM complexation is known to decrease Hg diffusivity through chelation (Gade et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2024" title="Gade C, Mbadugha L, Paton G (2024) Use of diffusive gradient in thin-films (DGTs) to advance environmental mercury research: development, growth, and tomorrow. Trends Environ Anal Chem 42:e00230. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teac.2024.e00230
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2453">2024</a>), which may explain the significantly lower adsorption rates in DOM coexposures in comparison with pure ASW. The rate limiting step in this experiment is the chemisorption onto the adsorbate which is considered in the herein used pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The experimental data does not follow the typical trend of adsorption data (exponential rise to a maximum), thus making a comparison difficult. Similar Hg adsorption data were produced by Lopes et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Lopes ECN, dos Anjos FSC, Vieira EFS, Cestari AR (2003) An alternative Avrami equation to evaluate kinetic parameters of the interaction of Hg(II) with thin chitosan membranes. J Colloid Interface Sci 263:542–547. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9797(03)00326-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2456">2003</a>) and Cestari et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Cestari AR, Vieira EFS, Lopes ECN, da Silva RG (2004) Kinetics and equilibrium parameters of Hg(II) adsorption on silica–dithizone. J Colloid Interface Sci 272:271–276. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2003.09.019
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2459">2004</a>), who used the Avrami kinetic model to describe their sigmoid values (Avrami <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1939" title="Avrami M (1939) Kinetics of phase change. I general theory. J Chem Phys 7:1103–1112. 
 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1750380
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2462">1939</a>). However, the use of the Avrami kinetic model outside its intended purpose, including adsorption studies, is disputed as it was originally developed to describe phase changes in materials science (Oladoja <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Oladoja NA (2016) A critical review of the applicability of Avrami fractional kinetic equation in adsorption-based water treatment studies. Desalin Water Treat 57:15813–15825. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2015.1076355
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2465">2016</a>; Lima et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Lima EC, Cestari AR, Adebayo MA (2016) Comments on the paper: a critical review of the applicability of Avrami fractional kinetic equation in adsorption-based water treatment studies. Desalin Water Treat 57:19566–19571. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2015.1095129
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2469">2016</a>; Shirzad and Viney <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Shirzad K, Viney C (2023) A critical review on applications of the Avrami equation beyond materials science. J R Soc Interface 20:20230242. 
 https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2023.0242
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2472">2023</a>).</p><p>Bioaccumulation studies are pivotal in understanding analyte behaviour in complex food webs. <i>Artemia</i> have been observed to thrive in Hg contaminated habitats and possess the concentrate it by a factor of 100 over ambient concentrations (Liu and Chen <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1987" title="Liu P, Chen J (1987) Effects of heavy metals on the hatching rates of brine shrimp Artemia salina cysts. J World Aquac Soc 18:78–83. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.1987.tb00421.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2481">1987</a>; Naftz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Naftz D, Angeroth C, Kenney T et al (2008) Anthropogenic influences on the input and biogeochemical cycling of nutrients and mercury in Great Salt Lake, Utah, USA. Appl Geochem 23:1731–1744. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2008.03.002
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2484">2008</a>; Wright et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Wright J, Yang S, Johnson WP et al (2020) Temporal correspondence of selenium and mercury, among brine shrimp and water in Great Salt Lake, Utah, USA. Sci Total Environ 749:141273. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141273
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2487">2020</a>). As previously mentioned, the combined effect of coexposure to DOM and the potential retention of DOM complexes in the gastrointestinal tract may adversely affect the organism's ability to eliminate toxins, allowing complexed Hg to accumulate and penetrate the epithelium over time. Initial studies on the accumulation of Hg compounds in <i>Artemia</i> proposed that their high resistance to Hg exposure could be attributed to a slow uptake rate (Corner and Rigler <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1958" title="Corner EDS, Rigler FH (1958) The mode of action of toxic agents III. Mercuric chloride and n-amylmercuric chloride on crustaceans. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 37:85–96" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2494">1958</a>). However, the data generated in this study suggest that, instead, an unobstructed depuration mechanism results in a decrease and eventual plateau in Hg uptake. Similar data were reported by Corner and Rigler (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1958" title="Corner EDS, Rigler FH (1958) The mode of action of toxic agents III. Mercuric chloride and n-amylmercuric chloride on crustaceans. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 37:85–96" href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2497">1958</a>) and Liu and Chen (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1987" title="Liu P, Chen J (1987) Effects of heavy metals on the hatching rates of brine shrimp Artemia salina cysts. J World Aquac Soc 18:78–83. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.1987.tb00421.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2500">1987</a>) in their investigations of Hg accumulation in <i>Artemia</i>, as well as by Heugens et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Heugens EHW, Jager T, Creyghton R et al (2003) Temperature-dependent effects of cadmium on Daphnia magna : accumulation versus sensitivity. Environ Sci Technol 37:2145–2151. 
 https://doi.org/10.1021/es0264347
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2506">2003</a>) in their study of cadmium accumulation in <i>Daphnia magna</i>, indicating a shared physiological depuration process. Saxton et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Saxton HJ, Goodman JR, Collins JN, Black FJ (2013) Maternal transfer of inorganic mercury and methylmercury in aquatic and terrestrial arthropods. Environ Toxicol Chem 32:n/a-n/a. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.2350
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2513">2013</a>) demonstrated that the transfer of maternal Hg into cysts is restricted, which serves as a crucial safeguard since exposure to concentrations as low as 10 nM may impede organism development (Go et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Go EC, Pandey AS, MacRae TH (1990) Effect of inorganic mercury on the emergence and hatching of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana. Mar Biol 107:93–102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01313246
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2516">1990</a>). Organisms that do hatch after low level exposure show signs of abnormal segmentation, reduced size at hatching, and a hormetic effect on the growth rate as well as a significantly shorter lifespan (Go et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Go EC, Pandey AS, MacRae TH (1990) Effect of inorganic mercury on the emergence and hatching of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana. Mar Biol 107:93–102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01313246
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2519">1990</a>; Sarabia et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Sarabia R, Torreblanca A, Del Ramo JJ, Dı́az-Mayans J (1998) Effects of low mercury concentration exposure on hatching, growth and survival in the Artemia strain La Mata parthenogenetic diploid. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 120:93–97. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1095-6433(98)10015-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2522">1998</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec17">Environmental implications</h3><p>Acute Hg toxicity is typically not considered a risk in environmental pollution research as natural levels are insufficient. However, uptake by benthic biota and biomagnification along the food chain are considered important factors in environment risk assessment (von Hellfeld et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023b" title="von Hellfeld R, Gade C, Koppel DJ et al (2023b) An approach to assess potential environmental mercury release, food web bioaccumulation, and human dietary methylmercury uptake from decommissioning offshore oil and gas infrastructure. J Hazard Mater 452:131298. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131298
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR96" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2534">2023b</a>). Filter feeding crustaceans such as Artemia serve as a springboard for pollutants into larger food webs such as waterfowl (Jones and Wurtsbaugh <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Jones EF, Wurtsbaugh WA (2014) The Great Salt Lake’s monimolimnion and its importance for mercury bioaccumulation in brine shrimp ( Artemia franciscana ). Limnol Oceanogr 59:141–155. 
 https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2014.59.1.0141
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2537">2014</a>; Shadrin et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Shadrin N, Stetsiuk A, Anufriieva E (2022) Differences in mercury concentrations in water and hydrobionts of the Crimean Saline Lakes: does only salinity matter? Water (Switzerland) 14:2613. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/w14172613
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2540">2022</a>). As such, Hg chelation by naturally occurring DOM may increase overall bioaccumulation rates, depending on their molecular makeup. In a comparative study, Schartup et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Schartup AT, Ndu U, Balcom PH et al (2015) Contrasting effects of marine and terrestrially derived dissolved organic matter on mercury speciation and bioavailability in seawater. Environ Sci Technol 49:5965–5972. 
 https://doi.org/10.1021/es506274x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d31770258e2543">2015</a>) compared the effects of marine and terrestrially derived DOM on aquatic Hg speciation and bioavailability. They concluded that marine DOM seems to facilitate cellular uptake of Hg, which in turn may influence bioaccumulation or benthic methylation rates. Due to its spatiotemporal variability, DOM remains an important dynamic factor in contaminant cycling and may affect uptake rates and patterns.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Conclusion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec18-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec18">Conclusion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec18-content"><p>Despite the lack in standardization concerning assay parameters and media composition, microcrustaceans, including <i>Artemia,</i> remain a quick and simple in vivo test system for high-throughput toxicity testing with the potential to be an asset in future routine screening. This work highlights the profound impact of diverse types of DOM on the toxicity of Hg, which so far remains underexplored in ecotoxicity testing. While DOM coexposure did have a significant impact on hatched organisms, encysted <i>Artemia</i> sp. are not affected by varying amounts of DOM in the surrounding medium. Our results demonstrate that a definitive statement on DOM-Hg interactions cannot be made as the type of DOM is directly affecting Hg toxicity. We recommend future studies to investigate the DOM-mediated toxicity and bioavailability for other metals, with special focus on the chemical composition of the organic ligands and their functional groups.</p></div></div></section> </div> <section data-title="Data availability"><div class="c-article-section" id="data-availability-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="data-availability">Data availability</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="data-availability-content"> <p>Data will be made available on reasonable request.</p> </div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ul class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Amaral V, Santos-Echeandía J, Ortega T et al (2023) Dissolved organic matter distribution in the water column and sediment pore water in a highly anthropized coastal lagoon (Mar Menor, Spain): characteristics, sources, and benthic fluxes. 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We also acknowledge funding and in-kind support from the Net Zero Technology Centre and the University of Aberdeen through their partnership with the UK National Decommissioning Centre.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">National Decommissioning Centre, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Christoph Gade & Rebecca von Hellfeld</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Cruickshank Building, St. Machar Drive, Aberdeen, Scotland, AB24 3UU, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Christoph Gade, Rebecca von Hellfeld, Lenka Mbadugha & Graeme Paton</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Christoph-Gade-Aff1-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Christoph Gade</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Christoph%20Gade" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Christoph%20Gade" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Christoph%20Gade%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Rebecca-Hellfeld-Aff1-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Rebecca von Hellfeld</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Rebecca%20von%20Hellfeld" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Rebecca%20von%20Hellfeld" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Rebecca%20von%20Hellfeld%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Lenka-Mbadugha-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Lenka Mbadugha</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Lenka%20Mbadugha" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Lenka%20Mbadugha" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Lenka%20Mbadugha%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Graeme-Paton-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Graeme Paton</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Graeme%20Paton" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Graeme%20Paton" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Graeme%20Paton%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="contributions">Contributions</h3><p>Christoph Gade: conceptualization, methodology, writing—original draft preparation, visualization, and formal analysis. Rebecca von Hellfeld: investigation, writing—reviewing and editing, validation, and formal analysis. Lenka Mbadugha: supervision, writing—reviewing and editing, resources, and funding acquisition. Graeme Paton: funding acquisition, project administration, supervision, writing—reviewing and editing, resources, and supervision.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding author</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:c.gade.20@abdn.ac.uk">Christoph Gade</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Ethics declarations"><div class="c-article-section" id="ethics-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="ethics">Ethics declarations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="ethics-content"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar1">Ethics approval</h3> <p>Not applicable.</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar2">Consent to participate</h3> <p>Not applicable.</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar3">Consent to publish</h3> <p>Not applicable.</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar4">Competing interests</h3> <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Additional information"><div class="c-article-section" id="additional-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="additional-information">Additional information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="additional-information-content"><p>Responsible Editor: Cinta Porte</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Publisher's Note</h3><p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="rightslink">Rights and permissions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="rightslink-content"> <p><b>Open Access</b> This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Gade, C., von Hellfeld, R., Mbadugha, L. <i>et al.</i> Variable toxicity of inorganic mercury compounds to <i>Artemia</i> elicited by coexposure with dissolved organic matter. <i>Environ Sci Pollut Res</i> (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Received<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2024-04-03">03 April 2024</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Accepted<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2024-11-08">08 November 2024</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Published<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2024-11-21">21 November 2024</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item c-bibliographic-information__list-item--full-width"><p><abbr title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</abbr><span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35558-y</span></p></li></ul><div data-component="share-box"><div class="c-article-share-box u-display-none" 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