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vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle New Testament manuscripts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-New_Testament_manuscripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Transmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manuscript_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manuscript_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Manuscript construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manuscript_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Script_and_other_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Script_and_other_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Script and other features</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Script_and_other_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cataloging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cataloging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Cataloging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cataloging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Von_Soden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Von_Soden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Von Soden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Von_Soden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gregory–Aland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gregory–Aland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Gregory–Aland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gregory–Aland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Dating</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Earliest_extant_manuscripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earliest_extant_manuscripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Earliest extant manuscripts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earliest_extant_manuscripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Textual_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textual_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Textual criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textual_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Listings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Listings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Listings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Listings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Biblical manuscript</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another 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Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%B3" title="مخطوطات الكتاب المقدس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مخطوطات الكتاب المقدس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D1%8A%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Библейски ръкопис – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Библейски ръкопис" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscrit_b%C3%ADblic" title="Manuscrit bíblic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Manuscrit bíblic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalogisierung_biblischer_Handschriften" title="Katalogisierung biblischer Handschriften – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Katalogisierung biblischer Handschriften" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscrito_b%C3%ADblico" title="Manuscrito bíblico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Manuscrito bíblico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%B3" title="دست‌نوشته‌های کتاب مقدس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دست‌نوشته‌های کتاب مقدس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscrits_bibliques" title="Manuscrits bibliques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Manuscrits bibliques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1%EA%B2%BD_%EC%82%AC%EB%B3%B8" title="성경 사본 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성경 사본" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblijski_rukopisi" title="Biblijski rukopisi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Biblijski rukopisi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naskah_Alkitab" title="Naskah Alkitab – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Naskah Alkitab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscripto_biblic" title="Manuscripto biblic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Manuscripto biblic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%99%D7%93_%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99" title="כתב יד מקראי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כתב יד מקראי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%B3" title="مخطوطات الكتاب المقدس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مخطوطات الكتاب المقدس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijbelse_handschriften" title="Bijbelse handschriften – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bijbelse handschriften" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscrito_b%C3%ADblico" title="Manuscrito bíblico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Manuscrito bíblico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Рукописи Библии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Рукописи Библии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_manuscript" title="Biblical manuscript – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Biblical manuscript" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblijski_rukopisi" title="Biblijski rukopisi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Biblijski rukopisi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raamatun_k%C3%A4sikirjoitukset" title="Raamatun käsikirjoitukset – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Raamatun käsikirjoitukset" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8%D9%84%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="بائبلی مخطوطات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بائبلی مخطوطات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%96%E7%B6%93%E6%8A%84%E6%9C%AC" title="聖經抄本 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="聖經抄本" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1266076#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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(NT)</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">Deuterocanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antilegomena" title="Antilegomena">Antilegomena</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chapters_and_verses_of_the_Bible" title="Chapters and verses of the Bible">Chapters and verses</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist nowrap"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">Apocrypha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_apocrypha" title="Jewish apocrypha">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">OT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament_apocrypha" title="New Testament apocrypha">NT</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Bible" title="Authorship of the Bible">Authorship</a> and development</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Bible" title="Authorship of the Bible">Authorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">Dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">Hebrew canon</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Old_Testament_canon" title="Development of the Old Testament canon">Old Testament canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">New Testament canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_of_the_Torah" title="Composition of the Torah">Composition of the Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_authorship" title="Mosaic authorship">Mosaic authorship</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Pauline_epistles" title="Authorship of the Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Petrine_epistles" title="Authorship of the Petrine epistles">Petrine epistles</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Johannine_works" title="Authorship of the Johannine works">Johannine works</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations">Translations</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">manuscripts</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Masoretic Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Pentateuch" title="Samaritan Pentateuch">Samaritan Pentateuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targumim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vetus_Latina" title="Vetus Latina">Vetus Latina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Luther Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_English" title="Bible translations into English">English Bibles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bible_translations_by_language" title="List of Bible translations by language">by language</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Biblical studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Archeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology" title="List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology">Artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">Dating</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible" title="Historicity of the Bible">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_consistency_of_the_Bible" title="Internal consistency of the Bible">Internal consistency</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources" title="List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_places" title="List of biblical places">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_names" title="List of biblical names">Names</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Biblia_Hebraica_Stuttgartensia" title="Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia">Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rahlfs%27_edition_of_the_Septuagint" title="Alfred Rahlfs' edition of the Septuagint">Rahlfs' Septuagint</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Novum_Testamentum_Graece" title="Novum Testamentum Graece">Novum Testamentum Graece</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis" title="Documentary hypothesis">Documentary hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synoptic_Gospels#The_synoptic_problem" title="Synoptic Gospels">Synoptic problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categories_of_New_Testament_manuscripts" title="Categories of New Testament manuscripts">NT textual categories</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">Textual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_criticism_(biblical_studies)" title="Source criticism (biblical studies)">Source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_criticism" title="Form criticism">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redaction_criticism" title="Redaction criticism">Redaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canonical_criticism" title="Canonical criticism">Canonical</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Interpretation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_hermeneutics" title="Biblical hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist nowrap"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesher" title="Pesher">Pesher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_(exegesis)" title="Pardes (exegesis)">Pardes</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretation_of_the_Bible" title="Allegorical interpretation of the Bible">Allegorical interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical-grammatical_method" title="Historical-grammatical method">Historical-grammatical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_inspiration" title="Biblical inspiration">Inspiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_literalism" title="Biblical literalism">Literalism</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_the_Bible" title="Alcohol in the Bible">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_conspiracy_theory" title="Bible conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_the_Bible" title="Ethics in the Bible">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Bible" title="Capital punishment in the Bible">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_homosexuality" title="The Bible and homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_humor" title="The Bible and humor">Humor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest_in_the_Bible" title="Incest in the Bible">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_and_the_Bible" title="Muhammad and the Bible">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_prophecy" title="Bible prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="Rape in the Hebrew Bible">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpents_in_the_Bible" title="Serpents in the Bible">Serpents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="Sex in the Hebrew Bible">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_violence" title="The Bible and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="War in the Hebrew Bible">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Bible" title="Women in the Bible">Women</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Perspectives</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnostic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_the_Bible" title="Islamic view of the Bible">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_narratives_in_the_Quran" title="Biblical narratives in the Quran">Quranic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_inerrancy" title="Biblical inerrancy">Inerrancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_infallibility" title="Biblical infallibility">Infallibility</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Bible" title="Criticism of the Bible">Criticism of the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_authority" title="Biblical authority">Biblical authority</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Bible-related_topics" title="Outline of Bible-related topics">Outline of Bible-related topics</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/32px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/48px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/64px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1300" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Bible" title="Portal:Bible">Bible portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bible_sidebar" title="Template:Bible sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bible_sidebar" title="Template talk:Bible sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bible_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bible sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>A <b>biblical manuscript</b> is any handwritten copy of a portion of the text of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. Biblical manuscripts vary in size from tiny <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scrolls</a> containing individual verses of the <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> scriptures (see <i><a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">Tefillin</a></i>) to huge <a href="/wiki/Polyglot_(book)" title="Polyglot (book)">polyglot</a> <a href="/wiki/Codices" class="mw-redirect" title="Codices">codices</a> (multi-lingual books) containing both the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> (Tanakh) and the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">extracanonical</a> works. </p><p>The study of biblical manuscripts is important because handwritten copies of books can contain errors. <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">Textual criticism</a> attempts to reconstruct the original text of books, especially those published prior to the <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">invention of the printing press</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hebrew_Bible_(or_Tanakh)_manuscripts"><span id="Hebrew_Bible_.28or_Tanakh.29_manuscripts"></span>Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh) manuscripts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh) manuscripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Hebrew_Bible_manuscripts" title="List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts">List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aleppo_Codex_(Deut).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg/170px-Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg/255px-Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg/340px-Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="741" /></a><figcaption>A page from the <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Codex" title="Aleppo Codex">Aleppo Codex</a>, Deuteronomy</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Codex" title="Aleppo Codex">Aleppo Codex</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 920 CE</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Leningrad_Codex" title="Leningrad Codex">Leningrad Codex</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1008 CE</span>) were once the oldest known manuscripts of the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a> in Hebrew. In 1947, the finding of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a> at <a href="/wiki/Qumran" title="Qumran">Qumran</a> pushed the manuscript history of the Tanakh back a millennium from such codices. Before this discovery, the earliest extant manuscripts of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> were in Greek, in manuscripts such as the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Vaticanus" title="Codex Vaticanus">Codex Vaticanus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">Codex Sinaiticus</a>. Out of the roughly 800 manuscripts found at Qumran, 220 are from the Tanakh. Every book of the Tanakh is represented except for the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Esther" title="Book of Esther">Book of Esther</a>; however, most are fragmentary. Notably, there are two <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scrolls</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Book of Isaiah</a>, one complete (<a href="/wiki/1QIs-a" class="mw-redirect" title="1QIs-a">1QIs<sup>a</sup></a>), and one around 75% complete (<a href="/wiki/1QIsab" title="1QIsab">1QIs<sup>b</sup></a>). These manuscripts generally date between 150 BCE to 70 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruce1964_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruce1964-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extant_Tanakh_manuscripts">Extant Tanakh manuscripts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Extant Tanakh manuscripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table border="0" align="center" width=""> <tbody><tr> <td> </td></tr> <tr bgcolor="#FFE4C4" align="center"> <th width="">Version</th> <th>Examples</th> <th width="">Language</th> <th>Date of Composition</th> <th>Oldest Copy </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ketef_Hinnom_scrolls" title="Ketef Hinnom scrolls">Ketef Hinnom scrolls</a></td> <td></td> <td>Hebrew written in the <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a></td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 650</span>–587 BCE</td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 650</span>–587 BCE<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarkayVaughnLundbergZuckerman200441–71_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkayVaughnLundbergZuckerman200441–71-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Amulet" title="Amulet">amulets</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Priestly_Blessing" title="Priestly Blessing">Priestly Blessing</a> recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Numbers" title="Book of Numbers">Book of Numbers</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a></td> <td></td> <td>Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek</td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150 BCE</span> – 70 CE</td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150 BCE</span> – 70 CE (fragments) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Codex_Vaticanus" title="Codex Vaticanus">Codex Vaticanus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">Codex Sinaiticus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Septuagint_manuscripts" title="Septuagint manuscripts">other earlier papyri</a> </td> <td>Greek</td> <td>300–100 BCE</td> <td>2nd century BCE (fragments)<br />4th century CE (complete) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a></td> <td></td> <td>early 5th century CE </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Codex_Amiatinus" title="Codex Amiatinus">Codex Amiatinus</a></td> <td>Latin</td> <td></td> <td>early 5th century CE<br />early 8th century CE (complete) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Masoretic" class="mw-redirect" title="Masoretic">Masoretic</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Codex" title="Aleppo Codex">Aleppo Codex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leningrad_Codex" title="Leningrad Codex">Leningrad Codex</a> and other, incomplete MSS<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Hebrew</td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 100 CE</span></td> <td>10th century CE (complete) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Pentateuch" title="Samaritan Pentateuch">Samaritan Pentateuch</a></td> <td></td> <td>Hebrew</td> <td>200–100 BCE</td> <td>Oldest extant MSS, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 11th century CE</span>; oldest MSS available to scholars, 16th century CE </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></td> <td>500–1000 CE</td> <td>5th century CE </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Coptic_versions_of_the_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic versions of the Bible">Coptic</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_Coptic_New_Testament_manuscripts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of the Coptic New Testament manuscripts">Crosby-Schøyen Codex</a>, British Library MS. Oriental 7594</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a></td> <td></td> <td>3rd or 4th century CE </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#FFE4C4;"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_Testament_manuscripts">New Testament manuscripts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: New Testament manuscripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Alexandrinus_f41v_-_Luke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Codex_Alexandrinus_f41v_-_Luke.jpg/170px-Codex_Alexandrinus_f41v_-_Luke.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Codex_Alexandrinus_f41v_-_Luke.jpg/255px-Codex_Alexandrinus_f41v_-_Luke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Codex_Alexandrinus_f41v_-_Luke.jpg/340px-Codex_Alexandrinus_f41v_-_Luke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1318" data-file-height="1698" /></a><figcaption>Folio 41v from <a href="/wiki/Codex_Alexandrinus" title="Codex Alexandrinus">Codex Alexandrinus</a> contains the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke" title="Gospel of Luke">Gospel of Luke</a> with decorative tailpiece.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_New_Testament_manuscripts" title="Lists of New Testament manuscripts">Lists of New Testament manuscripts</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> has been preserved in more manuscripts than any other ancient work of literature, with over 5,800 complete or fragmented <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> manuscripts catalogued, 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ethiopic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Nubian" title="Old Nubian">Nubian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>. The dates of these manuscripts range from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 125</span> (the <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_52" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyrus 52">𝔓<sup>52</sup></a></span> papyrus, oldest copy of John fragment) to the introduction of printing in Germany in the 15th century. </p><p>Often, especially in monasteries, a manuscript <a href="/wiki/Hoard" title="Hoard">cache</a> was little more than a former manuscript recycling centre, where imperfect and incomplete copies of manuscripts were stored while the monastery or scriptorium decided what to do with them.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There were several options. The first was to simply "wash" the manuscript and reuse it. Such reused manuscripts were called <a href="/wiki/Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">palimpsests</a> and were very common in the ancient world until the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. One notable palimpsest is the <a href="/wiki/Archimedes_Palimpsest" title="Archimedes Palimpsest">Archimedes Palimpsest</a>. When washing was no longer an option, the second choice was burning. Since the manuscripts contained the words of Christ, they were thought to have had a level of sanctity;<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> burning them was considered more reverent than simply throwing them into a garbage pit, which occasionally happened (as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus_840" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxyrhynchus 840">Oxyrhynchus 840</a>). The third option was to leave them in what has become known as a manuscript gravesite. When scholars come across manuscript caches, such as at <a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a> (the source of the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">Codex Sinaiticus</a>), or Saint Sabbas Monastery outside <a href="/wiki/Bethlehem" title="Bethlehem">Bethlehem</a>, they are finding not libraries but storehouses of rejected texts<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> sometimes kept in boxes or back shelves in libraries due to space constraints. The texts were unacceptable because of their scribal errors and contain corrections inside the lines,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> possibly evidence that monastery scribes compared them to a master text. In addition, texts thought to be complete and correct but that had deteriorated from heavy usage or had missing <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/folio" class="extiw" title="wikt:folio">folios</a> would also be placed in the caches. Once in a cache, insects and humidity would often contribute to the continued deterioration of the documents.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Complete and correctly copied texts would usually be immediately placed in use and so wore out fairly quickly, which required frequent recopying. Manuscript copying was very costly when it required a scribe's attention for extended periods so a <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a> might be made only when it was commissioned. The size of the <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">script</a> used, any illustrations (thus raising the effective cost) and whether it was one book or a collection of several would be determined by the one commissioning the work. Stocking extra copies would likely have been considered wasteful and unnecessary since the form and the presentation of a manuscript were typically customized to the aesthetic tastes of the buyer. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Distribution of Greek manuscripts by century <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199581_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199581-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td colspan="3"><b>New Testament manuscripts</b> </td> <td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_lectionaries" title="List of New Testament lectionaries"><b>Lectionaries</b></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan=""><b>Century</b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_papyri" title="List of New Testament papyri">Papyri</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_uncials" title="List of New Testament uncials">Uncials</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_minuscules" class="mw-redirect" title="List of New Testament minuscules">Minuscules</a> </td> <td>Uncials </td> <td>Minuscules </td></tr> <tr> <td>2nd </td> <td>2 </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>2nd/3rd </td> <td>5 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>3rd </td> <td>28 </td> <td>2 </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>3rd/4th </td> <td>8 </td> <td>2 </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>4th </td> <td>14 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>- </td> <td>1 </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>4th/5th </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>5th </td> <td>2 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>- </td> <td>1 </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>5th/6th </td> <td>4 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>6th </td> <td>7 </td> <td>51 </td> <td>- </td> <td>3 </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>6th/7th </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>- </td> <td>1 </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>7th </td> <td>8 </td> <td>28 </td> <td>- </td> <td>4 </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>7th/8th </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>8th </td> <td>2 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>- </td> <td>22 </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>8th/9th </td> <td>- </td> <td>4 </td> <td>- </td> <td>5 </td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td>9th </td> <td>- </td> <td>53 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>113 </td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>9th/10th </td> <td>- </td> <td>1 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>- </td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10th </td> <td>- </td> <td>17 </td> <td>124 </td> <td>108 </td> <td>38 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10th/11th </td> <td>- </td> <td>3 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11th </td> <td>- </td> <td>1 </td> <td>429 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>227 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11th/12th </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>33 </td> <td>- </td> <td>13 </td></tr> <tr> <td>12th </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>555 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>486 </td></tr> <tr> <td>12th/13th </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>26 </td> <td>- </td> <td>17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>13th </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>547 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>394 </td></tr> <tr> <td>13th/14th </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>28 </td> <td>- </td> <td>17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>14th </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>511 </td> <td>- </td> <td>308 </td></tr> <tr> <td>14th/15th </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>8 </td> <td>- </td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>15th </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>241 </td> <td>- </td> <td>171 </td></tr> <tr> <td>15th/16th </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>4 </td> <td>- </td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>16th </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td> <td>136 </td> <td>- </td> <td>194 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Total</b> </td> <td>94 </td> <td>269 </td> <td>2667 </td> <td>286 </td> <td>1879 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission">Transmission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Transmission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The task of copying manuscripts was generally done by <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a> who were trained professionals in the arts of writing and bookmaking. Scribes would work in difficult conditions, for up to 48 hours a week, with little pay beyond room and board.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some manuscripts were also proofread, and scholars closely examining a text can sometimes find the original and corrections found in certain manuscripts. In the 6th century, a special room devoted to the practice of manuscript writing and <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illumination</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Scriptorium" title="Scriptorium">scriptorium</a> came into use, typically inside medieval European monasteries. Sometimes a group of scribes would make copies at the same time as one individual read from the text.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manuscript_construction">Manuscript construction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Manuscript construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An important issue with manuscripts is preservation. The earliest New Testament manuscripts were written on <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, made from a reed that grew abundantly in the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a>. This tradition continued as late as the 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman20053gf_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman20053gf-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Papyrus eventually becomes brittle and deteriorates with age. The dry climate of Egypt allowed some papyrus manuscripts to be partially preserved, but, with the exception of <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_72" title="Papyrus 72">𝔓<sup>72</sup></a></span>, no New Testament papyrus manuscript is complete; many consist only of a single fragmented page.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in the fourth century, <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a>) began to be a common medium for New Testament manuscripts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman20053–10_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman20053–10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It wasn't until the twelfth century that <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a> (made from cotton or plant fibers) began to gain popularity in biblical manuscripts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199577_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199577-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of the 476 non-Christian manuscripts dated to the second century, 97% of the manuscripts are in the form of <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scrolls</a>; however, eight Christian manuscripts are <a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">codices</a>. In fact, virtually all New Testament manuscripts are codices. The adaptation of the codex form in non-Christian text did not become dominant until the fourth and fifth centuries, showing a preference for that form amongst early Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The considerable length of some New Testament books (such as the <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a>), and the New Testament itself, was not suited to the limited space available on a single scroll; in contrast a codex could be expanded to hundreds of pages. On its own, however, length alone is an insufficient reason – after all, the Jewish scriptures would continue to be transmitted on scrolls for centuries to come.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKruger2012249_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKruger2012249-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars have argued that the codex was adopted as a product of the formation of the New Testament canon, allowing for specific collections of documents like the Gospels and the Pauline Epistles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKruger2012250_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKruger2012250-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Canon and codex go hand in hand in the sense that the adoption of a fixed canon could be more easily controlled and promulgated when the codex was the means of gathering together originally separate compositions."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Script_and_other_features">Script and other features</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Script and other features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BookOfDurrowBeginMarkGospel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/BookOfDurrowBeginMarkGospel.jpg/170px-BookOfDurrowBeginMarkGospel.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/BookOfDurrowBeginMarkGospel.jpg/255px-BookOfDurrowBeginMarkGospel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/BookOfDurrowBeginMarkGospel.jpg/340px-BookOfDurrowBeginMarkGospel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1236" /></a><figcaption>The beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Mark" title="Gospel of Mark">Gospel of Mark</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Durrow" title="Book of Durrow">Book of Durrow</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>The handwriting found in New Testament manuscripts varies. One way of classifying handwriting is by formality: book-hand vs. cursive. More formal, literary Greek works were often written in a distinctive style of even, capital letters called book-hand. Less formal writing consisted of cursive letters which could be written quickly. Another way of dividing handwriting is between <a href="/wiki/Uncial_script" title="Uncial script">uncial script</a> (or majuscule) and <a href="/wiki/Roman_cursive#New_Roman_cursive" title="Roman cursive">minuscule</a>. The uncial letters were a consistent height between the <a href="/wiki/Baseline_(typography)" title="Baseline (typography)">baseline</a> and the cap height, while the minuscule letters had <a href="/wiki/Ascender_(typography)" title="Ascender (typography)">ascenders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Descender" title="Descender">descenders</a> that moved past the baseline and cap height. Generally speaking, the majuscules are earlier than the minuscules, with a dividing line roughly in the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman200517–18,_20_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman200517–18,_20-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest manuscripts had negligible punctuation and breathing marks. The manuscripts also lacked word spacing, so words, sentences, and paragraphs would be a continuous string of letters (<a href="/wiki/Scriptio_continua" title="Scriptio continua">scriptio continua</a>), often with line breaks in the middle of words. Bookmaking was an expensive endeavor, and one way to reduce the number of pages used was to save space. Another method employed was to abbreviate frequent words, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Nomina_sacra" title="Nomina sacra">nomina sacra</a></i>. Yet another method involved the <a href="/wiki/Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">palimpsest</a>, a manuscript which recycled an older manuscript. Scholars using careful examination can sometimes determine what was originally written on the material of a document before it was erased to make way for a new text (for example <i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Ephraemi_Rescriptus" title="Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus">Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Sinaiticus" title="Syriac Sinaiticus">Syriac Sinaiticus</a></i>). </p><p>The original New Testament books did not have section headings or <a href="/wiki/Chapters_and_verses_of_the_Bible" title="Chapters and verses of the Bible">verse and chapter divisions</a>. These were developed over the years as "helps for readers". The <a href="/wiki/Eusebian_Canons" title="Eusebian Canons">Eusebian Canons</a> were an early system of division written in the margin of many manuscripts. The Eusebian Canons are a series of tables that grouped parallel stories among the gospels. Starting in the fifth century, subject headings (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:κεφαλαία">κεφαλαία</a>) were used. </p><p>Manuscripts became more ornate over the centuries, which developed into a rich <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscript</a> tradition, including the famous Irish <a href="/wiki/Gospel_Book" title="Gospel Book">Gospel Books</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Kells" title="Book of Kells">Book of Kells</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Durrow" title="Book of Durrow">Book of Durrow</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cataloging">Cataloging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cataloging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SinopeGospelsFolio29rChristHealingBlind.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/SinopeGospelsFolio29rChristHealingBlind.jpg/170px-SinopeGospelsFolio29rChristHealingBlind.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/SinopeGospelsFolio29rChristHealingBlind.jpg/255px-SinopeGospelsFolio29rChristHealingBlind.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/SinopeGospelsFolio29rChristHealingBlind.jpg/340px-SinopeGospelsFolio29rChristHealingBlind.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1371" data-file-height="1623" /></a><figcaption>A page from the <a href="/wiki/Sinope_Gospels" title="Sinope Gospels">Sinope Gospels</a>. The miniature at the bottom shows <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> healing the blind.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a> compiled the first published edition of the Greek New Testament in 1516, basing his work on several manuscripts because he did not have a single complete work and because each manuscript had small errors. In the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Jakob_Wettstein" title="Johann Jakob Wettstein">Johann Jakob Wettstein</a> was one of the first biblical scholars to start cataloging biblical manuscripts. He divided the manuscripts based on the writing used (<a href="/wiki/Uncial" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncial">uncial</a>, minuscule) or format (<a href="/wiki/Lectionary" title="Lectionary">lectionaries</a>) and based on content (<a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline letters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a> + <a href="/wiki/General_epistles" class="mw-redirect" title="General epistles">General epistles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a>). He assigned the uncials letters and minuscules and lectionaries numbers for each grouping of content, which resulted in manuscripts being assigned the same letter or number.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199572_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199572-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For manuscripts that contained the whole New Testament, such as <a href="/wiki/Codex_Alexandrinus" title="Codex Alexandrinus">Codex Alexandrinus</a> (A) and <a href="/wiki/Codex_Ephraemi_Rescriptus" title="Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus">Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus</a> (C), the letters corresponded across content groupings. For significant early manuscripts such as <a href="/wiki/Codex_Vaticanus_Graecus_1209" class="mw-redirect" title="Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209">Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209</a> (B), which did not contain Revelation, the letter B was also assigned to a later 10th-century manuscript of Revelation, thus creating confusion. <a href="/wiki/Constantin_von_Tischendorf" title="Constantin von Tischendorf">Constantin von Tischendorf</a> found one of the earliest, nearly complete copies of the Bible, <a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">Codex Sinaiticus</a>, over a century after Wettstein's cataloging system was introduced. Because he felt the manuscript was so important, Von Tischendorf assigned it the Hebrew letter <a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">aleph</a> (א). Eventually enough uncials were found that all the letters in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> had been used, and scholars moved on to first the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>, and eventually started reusing characters by adding a <a href="/wiki/Superscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Superscript">superscript</a>. Confusion also existed in the minuscules, where up to seven different manuscripts could have the same number or a single manuscript of the complete New Testament could have 4 different numbers to describe the different content groupings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199572_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199572-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Von_Soden"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Von_Soden">Von Soden</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Von Soden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hermann,_Freiherr_von_Soden" title="Hermann, Freiherr von Soden">Hermann von Soden</a> published a complex cataloging system for manuscripts in 1902–1910.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Soden1902_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Soden1902-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He grouped the manuscripts based on content, assigning them a Greek prefix: δ for the complete New Testament, ε for the Gospels, and α for the remaining parts. This grouping was flawed because some manuscripts grouped in δ did not contain Revelation, and many manuscripts grouped in α contained either the general epistles or the Pauline epistles, but not both. After the Greek prefix, von Soden assigned a numeral that roughly corresponded to a date (for example δ1–δ49 were from before the 10th century, δ150–δ249 for the 11th century). This system proved to be problematic when manuscripts were re-dated, or when more manuscripts were discovered than the number of spaces allocated to a certain century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199540–41_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199540–41-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Gregory-Aland"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gregory–Aland"><span id="Gregory.E2.80.93Aland"></span>Gregory–Aland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gregory–Aland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Caspar_Ren%C3%A9_Gregory" title="Caspar René Gregory">Caspar René Gregory</a> published another cataloging system in 1908 in <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Die griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments</i></span>, which is the system still in use today. Gregory divided the manuscripts into four groupings: papyri, uncials, minuscules, and <a href="/wiki/Lectionary" title="Lectionary">lectionaries</a>. This division is partially arbitrary. The first grouping is based on the physical material (<a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>) used in the manuscripts. The second two divisions are based on script: uncial and minuscule. The last grouping is based on content: lectionary. Most of the papyrus manuscripts and the lectionaries before the year 1000 are written in uncial script. There is some consistency in that the majority of the papyri are very early because parchment began to replace papyrus in the 4th century (although the latest papyri date to the 8th century). Similarly, the majority of the uncials date to before the 11th century, and the majority of the minuscules to after.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199573–77_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199573–77-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gregory assigned the papyri a prefix of <b>P</b>, often written in <a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">blackletter</a> script (<span class="nowrap">𝔓<sup>n</sup></span>), with a superscript numeral. The uncials were given a prefix of the number 0, and the established letters for the major manuscripts were retained for redundancy (<i>e.g.</i> <a href="/wiki/Codex_Claromontanus" title="Codex Claromontanus">Codex Claromontanus</a> is assigned both <b>06</b> and <b>D</b>). The minuscules were given plain numbers, and the lectionaries were prefixed with <i><b>l</b></i> often written in script (<b>ℓ</b>). <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Aland" title="Kurt Aland">Kurt Aland</a> continued Gregory's cataloging work through the 1950s and beyond. Because of this, the numbering system is often referred to as "Gregory-Aland numbers". The most recent manuscripts added to each grouping are <span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Papyrus_131&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Papyrus 131 (page does not exist)">𝔓<sup>131</sup></a></span>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Uncial_323&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uncial 323 (page does not exist)">0323</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Minuscule_2928&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minuscule 2928 (page does not exist)">2928</a>, and <i>ℓ</i> 2463.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the cataloging heritage and because some manuscripts which were initially numbered separately were discovered to be from the same codex, there is some redundancy in the list (i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Magdalen_papyrus" title="Magdalen papyrus">Magdalen papyrus</a> has both the numbers of <span class="nowrap">𝔓<sup>64</sup></span> and <span class="nowrap">𝔓<sup>67</sup></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199573_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199573-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of New Testament textual criticism deals with Greek manuscripts because the scholarly opinion is that the original books of the New Testament were written in Greek. The text of the New Testament is also found both translated in manuscripts of many different languages (called <i>versions</i>) and quoted in manuscripts of the writings of the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Critical_apparatus" title="Critical apparatus">critical apparatus</a> of the <i><a href="/wiki/Novum_Testamentum_Graece" title="Novum Testamentum Graece">Novum Testamentum Graece</a></i>, a series of abbreviations and prefixes designate different language versions (it for Old Latin, lowercase letters for individual Old Latin manuscripts, vg for <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>, lat for Latin, sy<sup>s</sup> for <a href="/wiki/Sinaitic_Palimpsest" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinaitic Palimpsest">Sinaitic Palimpsest</a>, sy<sup>c</sup> for <a href="/wiki/Curetonian_Gospels" title="Curetonian Gospels">Curetonian Gospels</a>, sy<sup>p</sup> for the <a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a>, co for Coptic, ac for Akhmimic, bo for Bohairic, sa for Sahidic, arm for Armenian, geo for Georgian, got for Gothic, aeth for Ethiopic, and slav for Old Church Slavonic).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dating">Dating</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tavernier_Jean_Mielot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Tavernier_Jean_Mielot.jpg/220px-Tavernier_Jean_Mielot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Tavernier_Jean_Mielot.jpg/330px-Tavernier_Jean_Mielot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Tavernier_Jean_Mielot.jpg/440px-Tavernier_Jean_Mielot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1259" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of a European <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribe</a> at work</figcaption></figure> <p>The original manuscripts of the New Testament books are not known to have survived. The <a href="/wiki/Autograph_(manuscript)" title="Autograph (manuscript)">autographs</a> are believed to have been lost or destroyed a long time ago. What survives are copies of the original. Generally speaking, these copies were made centuries after the originals from other copies rather than from the autograph. <a href="/wiki/Paleography" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleography">Paleography</a>, a science of dating manuscripts by typological analysis of their scripts, is the most precise and objective means known for determining the age of a manuscript. Script groups belong typologically to their generation; and changes can be noted with great accuracy over relatively short periods of time. Dating of manuscript material by a <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating test</a> requires that a small part of the material be destroyed in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both radiocarbon and paleographical dating only give a range of possible dates, and it is still debated just how narrow this range might be. Dates established by radiocarbon dating can present a range of 10 to over 100 years. Similarly, dates established by paleography can present a range of 25 to over 125 years.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Earliest_extant_manuscripts">Earliest extant manuscripts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Earliest extant manuscripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest manuscript of a New Testament text is a business-card-sized fragment from the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rylands_Library_Papyrus_P52" title="Rylands Library Papyrus P52">Rylands Library Papyrus P52</a>, which may be as early as the first half of the 2nd century. The first complete copies of single New Testament books appear around 200, and the earliest complete copy of the New Testament, the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">Codex Sinaiticus</a>, dates to the 4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004479–480_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004479–480-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following table lists the earliest extant manuscripts for the books of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> <p><b>Book</b> </p> </td> <td> <p><b>Earliest extant manuscripts</b> </p> </td> <td> <p><b>Date</b> </p> </td> <td> <p><b>Condition</b> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Matthew</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_1" title="Papyrus 1">𝔓<sup>1</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_37" title="Papyrus 37">𝔓<sup>37</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_45" title="Papyrus 45">𝔓<sup>45</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_53" title="Papyrus 53">𝔓<sup>53</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_64" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyrus 64">𝔓<sup>64</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_67" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyrus 67">𝔓<sup>67</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_70" title="Papyrus 70">𝔓<sup>70</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_77" title="Papyrus 77">𝔓<sup>77</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_101" title="Papyrus 101">𝔓<sup>101</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_103" title="Papyrus 103">𝔓<sup>103</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_104" title="Papyrus 104">𝔓<sup>104</sup></a></span><sup id="cite_ref-Willker_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willker-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150</span>–300 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Large fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Mark" title="Gospel of Mark">Mark</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_45" title="Papyrus 45">𝔓<sup>45</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_137" title="Papyrus 137">𝔓<sup>137</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p>2nd–3rd century </p> </td> <td> <p>Large fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke" title="Gospel of Luke">Luke</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_4" title="Papyrus 4">𝔓<sup>4</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_69" title="Papyrus 69">𝔓<sup>69</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_75" title="Papyrus 75">𝔓<sup>75</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_45" title="Papyrus 45">𝔓<sup>45</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>–250 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Large fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">John</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_5" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyrus 5">𝔓<sup>5</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_6" title="Papyrus 6">𝔓<sup>6</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_22" title="Papyrus 22">𝔓<sup>22</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_28" title="Papyrus 28">𝔓<sup>28</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_39" title="Papyrus 39">𝔓<sup>39</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_45" title="Papyrus 45">𝔓<sup>45</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_52" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyrus 52">𝔓<sup>52</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_66" title="Papyrus 66">𝔓<sup>66</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_75" title="Papyrus 75">𝔓<sup>75</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_80" title="Papyrus 80">𝔓<sup>80</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_90" title="Papyrus 90">𝔓<sup>90</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_95" title="Papyrus 95">𝔓<sup>95</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_106" title="Papyrus 106">𝔓<sup>106</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 125</span>–250 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Large fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_29" title="Papyrus 29">𝔓<sup>29</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_38" title="Papyrus 38">𝔓<sup>38</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_45" title="Papyrus 45">𝔓<sup>45</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_48" title="Papyrus 48">𝔓<sup>48</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_53" title="Papyrus 53">𝔓<sup>53</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_74" title="Papyrus 74">𝔓<sup>74</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_91" title="Papyrus 91">𝔓<sup>91</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p>Early 3rd century<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComfortBarrett200165_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComfortBarrett200165-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td> <td> <p>Large fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_27" title="Papyrus 27">𝔓<sup>27</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_40" title="Papyrus 40">𝔓<sup>40</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">𝔓<sup>46</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>–225 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/1_Corinthians" class="mw-redirect" title="1 Corinthians">1 Corinthians</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_14" title="Papyrus 14">𝔓<sup>14</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_15" title="Papyrus 15">𝔓<sup>15</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">𝔓<sup>46</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>–225 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/2_Corinthians" class="mw-redirect" title="2 Corinthians">2 Corinthians</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">𝔓<sup>46</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>–225 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Galatians" title="Epistle to the Galatians">Galatians</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">𝔓<sup>46</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>–225 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Ephesians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephesians">Ephesians</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">𝔓<sup>46</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_49" title="Papyrus 49">𝔓<sup>49</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>–225 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Philippians" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippians">Philippians</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_16" title="Papyrus 16">𝔓<sup>16</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">𝔓<sup>46</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>–225 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Colossians" class="mw-redirect" title="Colossians">Colossians</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">𝔓<sup>46</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>–225 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/1_Thessalonians" class="mw-redirect" title="1 Thessalonians">1 Thessalonians</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_30" title="Papyrus 30">𝔓<sup>30</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">𝔓<sup>46</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_65" title="Papyrus 65">𝔓<sup>65</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>–225 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/2_Thessalonians" class="mw-redirect" title="2 Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_30" title="Papyrus 30">𝔓<sup>30</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p>Early 3rd century </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/1_Timothy" class="mw-redirect" title="1 Timothy">1 Timothy</a> </p> </td> <td> <p>𝔓<sup>133</sup> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250</span> (3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/2_Timothy" class="mw-redirect" title="2 Timothy">2 Timothy</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">א</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 350</span> (4th century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Complete </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_Titus" title="Epistle to Titus">Titus</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_32" title="Papyrus 32">𝔓<sup>32</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 200</span> (late 2nd – early 3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragment </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_Philemon" title="Epistle to Philemon">Philemon</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_87" title="Papyrus 87">𝔓<sup>87</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p>3rd century </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragment </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews" title="Epistle to the Hebrews">Hebrews</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_12" title="Papyrus 12">𝔓<sup>12</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_13" title="Papyrus 13">𝔓<sup>13</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_17" title="Papyrus 17">𝔓<sup>17</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">𝔓<sup>46</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>–225 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_James" title="Epistle of James">James</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_20" title="Papyrus 20">𝔓<sup>20</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_23" title="Papyrus 23">𝔓<sup>23</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_100" title="Papyrus 100">𝔓<sup>100</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p>3rd Century </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/1_Peter" class="mw-redirect" title="1 Peter">1 Peter</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_81" title="Papyrus 81">𝔓<sup>81</sup></a></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-Willker_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willker-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_72" title="Papyrus 72">𝔓<sup>72</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300</span> (late 3rd – early 4th century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/2_Peter" class="mw-redirect" title="2 Peter">2 Peter</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_72" title="Papyrus 72">𝔓<sup>72</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300</span> (late 3rd – early 4th century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/1_John" class="mw-redirect" title="1 John">1 John</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_9" title="Papyrus 9">𝔓<sup>9</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p>3rd century </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragment </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/2_John" class="mw-redirect" title="2 John">2 John</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">א</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 350</span> (4th century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Complete </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/3_John" class="mw-redirect" title="3 John">3 John</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">א</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 350</span> (4th century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Complete </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Jude" title="Epistle of Jude">Jude</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_72" title="Papyrus 72">𝔓<sup>72</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_78" title="Papyrus 78">𝔓<sup>78</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300</span> (late 3rd – early 4th century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragments </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a> </p> </td> <td> <p><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_18" title="Papyrus 18">𝔓<sup>18</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_24" title="Papyrus 24">𝔓<sup>24</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_47" title="Papyrus 47">𝔓<sup>47</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_98" title="Papyrus 98">𝔓<sup>98</sup></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_115" title="Papyrus 115">𝔓<sup>115</sup></a></span> </p> </td> <td> <p><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150</span>–250 (2nd–3rd century) </p> </td> <td> <p>Fragment </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Textual_criticism">Textual criticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Textual criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">Textual criticism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Textual_variants_in_the_New_Testament" title="Textual variants in the New Testament">Textual variants in the New Testament</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Bible_verses_not_included_in_modern_translations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Bible verses not included in modern translations">List of Bible verses not included in modern translations</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Palaeography</a> is the study of ancient writing, and <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">textual criticism</a> is the study of manuscripts in order to reconstruct a probable original or initially copied text. </p><p>None of the original documents of the New Testament is known to scholars to be extant; and the existing manuscripts differ from one another. The textual critic seeks to ascertain from the divergent copies which form of the text should be regarded as most conforming to the original.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzger1992_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzger1992-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> has been preserved in three major manuscript traditions: the 4th-century-CE <a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_text-type" title="Alexandrian text-type">Alexandrian text-type</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Western_text-type" title="Western text-type">Western text-type</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_text-type" title="Byzantine text-type">Byzantine text-type</a>, which includes over 80% of all manuscripts, the majority comparatively very late in the tradition. </p><p>Since the mid-19th century, eclecticism, in which there is no <i>a priori</i> bias to a single manuscript, has been the dominant method of editing the Greek text of the New Testament. This is reflected in the <i><a href="/wiki/Novum_Testamentum_Graece" title="Novum Testamentum Graece">Novum Testamentum Graece</a></i>, which since 2014 corresponds to both the United Bible Society, 5th edition and Nestle-Aland, 28th edition. In textual criticism, eclecticism is the practice of examining a wide number of text witnesses and selecting the variant that seems best. The result of the process is a text with readings drawn from many witnesses. In a purely eclectic approach, no single witness is theoretically favored. Instead, the critic forms opinions about individual witnesses, relying on both external and internal evidence. Even so, the oldest manuscripts, being of the Alexandrian text-type, are the most favored in these two publications; and the critical text has an Alexandrian disposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandDelobel1994138_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandDelobel1994138-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most English translations of the New Testament made in the 20th Century were based on these copies. </p><p>Textual scholar <a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Bart D. Ehrman</a> writes: "It is true, of course, that the New Testament is abundantly attested in the manuscripts produced through the ages, but most of these manuscripts are many centuries removed from the originals, and none of them perfectly accurate. They all contain mistakes – altogether many thousands of mistakes. It is not an easy task to reconstruct the original words of the New Testament...."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004449_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004449-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In reference to the textual evidence for the New Testament, <a href="/wiki/Bruce_M._Metzger" title="Bruce M. Metzger">Bruce M. Metzger</a> wrote, </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In evaluating the significance of these statistics...one should consider, by way of contrast, the number of manuscripts which preserve the text of the ancient classics. Homer's <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i>...is preserved by 457 papyri, 2 uncial manuscripts, and 188 minuscule manuscripts. Among the tragedians the witnesses to <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a> are the most abundant; his extant works are preserved in 54 papyri and 276 parchment manuscripts, almost all of the later dating from the Byzantine period...the time between the composition of the books of the New Testament and the earliest extant copies is relatively brief. Instead of the lapse of a millennium or more, as is the case of not a few classical authors, several papyrus manuscripts of portions of the New Testament are extant which were copies within a century or so after the composition of the original documents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzger199233–35_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzger199233–35-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>Biblical scholar <a href="/wiki/Gary_Habermas" title="Gary Habermas">Gary Habermas</a> adds, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What is usually meant is that the New Testament has far more manuscript evidence from a far earlier period than other classical works. There are just under 6000 NT manuscripts, with copies of most of the NT dating from just 100 years or so after its writing. Classical sources almost always have fewer than 20 copies each and usually date from 700-1400 years after the composition of the work. In this regard, the classics are not as well attested. While this doesn't guarantee truthfulness, it means that it is much easier to reconstruct the New Testament text. Regarding genre, the Gospels are usually taken today to be examples of Roman biographies.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Every year, several New Testament manuscripts handwritten in the original Greek format are discovered. The latest substantial find was in 2008, when 47 new manuscripts were discovered in <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>; at least 17 of them unknown to Western scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been an estimate of 400,000 variations among all these manuscripts (from the 2nd to 15th century).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If those 400,000 variations are spread over 5,600 manuscripts, the average manuscript has only about 71 variations, although some of these manuscripts are the equivalent of several hundred pages of text, hand-written (see <a href="/wiki/Codex_Vaticanus" title="Codex Vaticanus">Codex Vaticanus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Codex_Alexandrinus" title="Codex Alexandrinus">Codex Alexandrinus</a>, et al.). The number of variants is additionally less significant than may appear since it is a comparison across linguistic boundaries. More important estimates focus on comparing texts within languages. Those variations are considerably fewer. The vast majority of these are accidental errors made by <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a>, and are easily identified as such: <a href="/wiki/Haplography" title="Haplography">an omitted word</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homoioteleuton" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoioteleuton">a duplicate line</a>, a misspelling, a rearrangement of words. Some variations involve apparently intentional changes, which often make more difficult a determination of whether they were corrections from better exemplars, <a href="/wiki/Harmonization" title="Harmonization">harmonizations</a> between readings, or ideologically motivated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Variants are listed in critical editions of the text, the most important of which is the <i>Novum Testamentum Graece</i>, which is the basis for most modern translations. For over 250 years, Christian scholars have argued that no textual variant affects key Christian doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Listings">Listings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Listings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_papyri" title="List of New Testament papyri">List of New Testament papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_uncials" title="List of New Testament uncials">List of New Testament uncials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_minuscules" class="mw-redirect" title="List of New Testament minuscules">List of New Testament minuscules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_lectionaries" title="List of New Testament lectionaries">List of New Testament lectionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_Latin_manuscripts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of New Testament Latin manuscripts">List of New Testament Latin manuscripts</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Deadseascrolls.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fragments of the Dead Sea scrolls on display at the Archeological Museum, Amman"><img alt="Fragments of the Dead Sea scrolls on display at the Archeological Museum, Amman" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Deadseascrolls.jpg/120px-Deadseascrolls.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Deadseascrolls.jpg/180px-Deadseascrolls.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Deadseascrolls.jpg/240px-Deadseascrolls.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fragments of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_scrolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead Sea scrolls">Dead Sea scrolls</a> on display at the Archeological Museum, Amman</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P52_recto.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="𝔓52 is the oldest known manuscript fragment of the New Testament, containing a portion of the Gospel of John"><img alt="𝔓52 is the oldest known manuscript fragment of the New Testament, containing a portion of the Gospel of John" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/P52_recto.jpg/76px-P52_recto.jpg" decoding="async" width="76" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/P52_recto.jpg/114px-P52_recto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/P52_recto.jpg/152px-P52_recto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="549" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_52" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyrus 52">𝔓<sup>52</sup></a></span> is the oldest known manuscript fragment of the New Testament, containing a portion of the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P46.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="𝔓46 is the earliest (nearly) complete manuscript of the Epistles written by Paul in the new testament."><img alt="𝔓46 is the earliest (nearly) complete manuscript of the Epistles written by Paul in the new testament." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/85px-P46.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/127px-P46.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/170px-P46.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="819" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">𝔓<sup>46</sup></a></span> is the earliest (nearly) complete manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Epistles written by Paul in the new testament</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P._Chester_Beatty_I,_folio_13-14,_recto.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="𝔓45 is a manuscript of Gospels and Acts. It contains the earliest known text of Mark. Scholars find it hard to read it because of its fragmentary state."><img alt="𝔓45 is a manuscript of Gospels and Acts. It contains the earliest known text of Mark. Scholars find it hard to read it because of its fragmentary state." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/P._Chester_Beatty_I%2C_folio_13-14%2C_recto.jpg/120px-P._Chester_Beatty_I%2C_folio_13-14%2C_recto.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/P._Chester_Beatty_I%2C_folio_13-14%2C_recto.jpg/180px-P._Chester_Beatty_I%2C_folio_13-14%2C_recto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/P._Chester_Beatty_I%2C_folio_13-14%2C_recto.jpg/240px-P._Chester_Beatty_I%2C_folio_13-14%2C_recto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="287" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_45" title="Papyrus 45">𝔓<sup>45</sup></a></span> is a manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a>. It contains the earliest known text of <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Mark" title="Gospel of Mark">Mark</a>. Scholars find it hard to read it because of its fragmentary state.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fragmento_filemon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="𝔓87 is the earliest known manuscript of Philemon."><img alt="𝔓87 is the earliest known manuscript of Philemon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Fragmento_filemon.jpg/106px-Fragmento_filemon.jpg" decoding="async" width="106" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Fragmento_filemon.jpg/159px-Fragmento_filemon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Fragmento_filemon.jpg/212px-Fragmento_filemon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="409" data-file-height="463" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_87" title="Papyrus 87">𝔓<sup>87</sup></a></span> is the earliest known manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_Philemon" title="Epistle to Philemon">Philemon</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Papyrus_37_-_verso.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="𝔓37 is a fragment of the Gospel of Matthew containing nomina sacra."><img alt="𝔓37 is a fragment of the Gospel of Matthew containing nomina sacra." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Papyrus_37_-_verso.jpg/75px-Papyrus_37_-_verso.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Papyrus_37_-_verso.jpg/112px-Papyrus_37_-_verso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Papyrus_37_-_verso.jpg/150px-Papyrus_37_-_verso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="5440" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_37" title="Papyrus 37">𝔓<sup>37</sup></a></span> is a fragment of the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Gospel of Matthew</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Nomina_sacra" title="Nomina sacra">nomina sacra</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Papyrus1.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="𝔓1 is an early third century fragment of the Gospel of Matthew."><img alt="𝔓1 is an early third century fragment of the Gospel of Matthew." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Papyrus1.JPG/83px-Papyrus1.JPG" decoding="async" width="83" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Papyrus1.JPG/125px-Papyrus1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Papyrus1.JPG/167px-Papyrus1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="840" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_1" title="Papyrus 1">𝔓<sup>1</sup></a></span> is an early third century fragment of the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Gospel of Matthew</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinaiticus_text.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Codex Sinaiticus (c. 350) contains the oldest complete copy of the New Testament, as well as most of the Greek Old Testament, known as the Septuagint"><img alt="Codex Sinaiticus (c. 350) contains the oldest complete copy of the New Testament, as well as most of the Greek Old Testament, known as the Septuagint" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sinaiticus_text.jpg/120px-Sinaiticus_text.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sinaiticus_text.jpg/180px-Sinaiticus_text.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sinaiticus_text.jpg/240px-Sinaiticus_text.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="619" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">Codex Sinaiticus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 350</span>) contains the oldest complete copy of the New Testament, as well as most of the Greek Old Testament, known as the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Vaticanus_B,_2Thess._3,11-18,_Hebr._1,1-2,2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 is one of the best available Greek manuscripts of almost the entire bible."><img alt="Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 is one of the best available Greek manuscripts of almost the entire bible." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Codex_Vaticanus_B%2C_2Thess._3%2C11-18%2C_Hebr._1%2C1-2%2C2.jpg/116px-Codex_Vaticanus_B%2C_2Thess._3%2C11-18%2C_Hebr._1%2C1-2%2C2.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Codex_Vaticanus_B%2C_2Thess._3%2C11-18%2C_Hebr._1%2C1-2%2C2.jpg/174px-Codex_Vaticanus_B%2C_2Thess._3%2C11-18%2C_Hebr._1%2C1-2%2C2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Codex_Vaticanus_B%2C_2Thess._3%2C11-18%2C_Hebr._1%2C1-2%2C2.jpg/232px-Codex_Vaticanus_B%2C_2Thess._3%2C11-18%2C_Hebr._1%2C1-2%2C2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="620" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Codex_Vaticanus_Graecus_1209" class="mw-redirect" title="Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209">Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209</a> is one of the best available Greek manuscripts of almost the entire bible.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P._Chester_Beatty_VI_fragments,_recto.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="P. Chester Beatty VI showing portions of Deuteronomy"><img alt="P. Chester Beatty VI showing portions of Deuteronomy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/P._Chester_Beatty_VI_fragments%2C_recto.jpg/120px-P._Chester_Beatty_VI_fragments%2C_recto.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/P._Chester_Beatty_VI_fragments%2C_recto.jpg/180px-P._Chester_Beatty_VI_fragments%2C_recto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/P._Chester_Beatty_VI_fragments%2C_recto.jpg/240px-P._Chester_Beatty_VI_fragments%2C_recto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7070" data-file-height="6060" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Chester_Beatty_VI" title="Papyrus Chester Beatty VI">P. Chester Beatty VI</a> showing portions of <a href="/wiki/Deuteronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Uncial_0308_POxy_4500_recto.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Uncial 0308 is a fragment of the Book of Revelation."><img alt="Uncial 0308 is a fragment of the Book of Revelation." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Uncial_0308_POxy_4500_recto.jpg/95px-Uncial_0308_POxy_4500_recto.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Uncial_0308_POxy_4500_recto.jpg/142px-Uncial_0308_POxy_4500_recto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Uncial_0308_POxy_4500_recto.jpg/190px-Uncial_0308_POxy_4500_recto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Uncial_0308" title="Uncial 0308">Uncial 0308</a> is a fragment of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Argenteus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The first page of the Gothic language Codex Argenteus"><img alt="The first page of the Gothic language Codex Argenteus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Codex_Argenteus.jpg/93px-Codex_Argenteus.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Codex_Argenteus.jpg/139px-Codex_Argenteus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Codex_Argenteus.jpg/185px-Codex_Argenteus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="286" data-file-height="370" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The first page of the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic language</a> <a href="/wiki/Codex_Argenteus" title="Codex Argenteus">Codex Argenteus</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CodxAmiatinusFolio5rEzra.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Folio 5r of the Codex Amiatinus, manuscript of Vulgate"><img alt="Folio 5r of the Codex Amiatinus, manuscript of Vulgate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/CodxAmiatinusFolio5rEzra.jpg/86px-CodxAmiatinusFolio5rEzra.jpg" decoding="async" width="86" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/CodxAmiatinusFolio5rEzra.jpg/129px-CodxAmiatinusFolio5rEzra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/CodxAmiatinusFolio5rEzra.jpg/172px-CodxAmiatinusFolio5rEzra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1475" data-file-height="2052" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Folio 5r of the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Amiatinus" title="Codex Amiatinus">Codex Amiatinus</a>, manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/32px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/48px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/64px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1300" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Bible" title="Portal:Bible">Bible portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apographa" title="Apographa">Apographa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">Dating the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">Textual criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categories_of_New_Testament_manuscripts" title="Categories of New Testament manuscripts">Categories of New Testament manuscripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_text-type" title="Alexandrian text-type">Alexandrian text-type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_text-type" title="Byzantine text-type">Byzantine text-type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_text-type" title="Caesarean text-type">Caesarean text-type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_text-type" title="Western text-type">Western text-type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_major_textual_variants_in_the_New_Testament" class="mw-redirect" title="List of major textual variants in the New Testament">List of major textual variants in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher criticism">Higher criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript_culture" title="Manuscript culture">Manuscript culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nag_Hammadi_library" title="Nag Hammadi library">Nag Hammadi library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifty_Bibles_of_Constantine" title="Fifty Bibles of Constantine">Fifty Bibles of Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hebrew_Bible_manuscripts" title="List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts">List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_illuminated_manuscripts" title="List of illuminated manuscripts">List of illuminated manuscripts</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A manuscript is abbreviated <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">MS</a> for singular and <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">MSS</a> for plural.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As a footnote to his comments, <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Metzger" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruce Metzger">Metzger</a> also said, "Lest, however, the wrong impression be conveyed from the statistics given above regarding the total number of Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, it should be pointed out that most of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament_papyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="New Testament papyrus">papyri</a> are relatively fragmentary and that only about fifty manuscripts (of which the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">Codex Sinaiticus</a> is the only <a href="/wiki/Uncial_script" title="Uncial script">Uncial manuscript</a>) contain the entire New Testament."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzger199234_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzger199234-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruce1964-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruce1964_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBruce1964">Bruce 1964</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkayVaughnLundbergZuckerman200441–71-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarkayVaughnLundbergZuckerman200441–71_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarkayVaughnLundbergZuckerman2004">Barkay et al. 2004</a>, pp. 41–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/">"Codex Sinaiticus"</a>. <i>Codex Sinaiticus Website</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081231104440/http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Codex+Sinaiticus+Website&rft.atitle=Codex+Sinaiticus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.codexsinaiticus.org%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199581-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199581_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlandAland1995">Aland & Aland 1995</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStory2018" class="citation web cs1">Story, J. Lyle (25 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://greektomeonline.com/greek-nt-scribe-job-description/">"Greek NT Scribe – Job Description"</a>. <i>Greek to Me</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Greek+to+Me&rft.atitle=Greek+NT+Scribe+%E2%80%93+Job+Description&rft.date=2018-07-25&rft.aulast=Story&rft.aufirst=J.+Lyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgreektomeonline.com%2Fgreek-nt-scribe-job-description%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlham.edu/~seidti/iam/mss_trans.html">"Seid"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Seid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlham.edu%2F~seidti%2Fiam%2Fmss_trans.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman20053gf-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman20053gf_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetzgerEhrman2005">Metzger & Ehrman 2005</a>, pp. 3gf.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skypoint.com/members/waltzmn/intro.html#MSTypes">"Waltz"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Waltz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skypoint.com%2Fmembers%2Fwaltzmn%2Fintro.html%23MSTypes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman20053–10-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman20053–10_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetzgerEhrman2005">Metzger & Ehrman 2005</a>, pp. 3–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199577-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199577_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlandAland1995">Aland & Aland 1995</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlham.edu/~seidti/iam/codex.html">"Seid"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Seid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlham.edu%2F~seidti%2Fiam%2Fcodex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKruger2012249-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKruger2012249_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKruger2012">Kruger 2012</a>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKruger2012250-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKruger2012250_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKruger2012">Kruger 2012</a>, p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott1996" class="citation journal cs1">Elliott, J.K. (1996). "Manuscripts, the Codex, and the Canon". <i>Journal for the Study of the New Testament</i>. <b>19</b> (63): 111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0142064X9701906306">10.1177/0142064X9701906306</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162215529">162215529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+Study+of+the+New+Testament&rft.atitle=Manuscripts%2C+the+Codex%2C+and+the+Canon&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=63&rft.pages=111&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0142064X9701906306&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162215529%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=J.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman200517–18,_20-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzgerEhrman200517–18,_20_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetzgerEhrman2005">Metzger & Ehrman 2005</a>, pp. 17–18, 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199572-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199572_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199572_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlandAland1995">Aland & Aland 1995</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Soden1902-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Soden1902_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Soden1902">von Soden 1902</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199540–41-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199540–41_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlandAland1995">Aland & Aland 1995</a>, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199573–77-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199573–77_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlandAland1995">Aland & Aland 1995</a>, pp. 73–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/liste">New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180220015104/http://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/liste/">Archived</a> 2018-02-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="University of Münster">University of Münster</a> website</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199573-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandAland199573_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlandAland1995">Aland & Aland 1995</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Nestle-Aland Novum Testamentum Graece</i>, pp. 64*–76*.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/biblical-literature/Determination-of-the-canon-in-the-4th-century">"Britannica Online: Types of manuscript errors"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Britannica+Online%3A+Types+of+manuscript+errors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fbiblical-literature%2FDetermination-of-the-canon-in-the-4th-century&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreifenhagen2002" class="citation book cs1">Greifenhagen, F. V. (2002). <i>Egypt on the Pentateuch's Ideological Map</i>. London: Sheffield Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-6211-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-6211-1"><bdi>0-8264-6211-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+on+the+Pentateuch%27s+Ideological+Map&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Sheffield+Academic+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8264-6211-1&rft.aulast=Greifenhagen&rft.aufirst=F.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004479–480-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004479–480_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEhrman2004">Ehrman 2004</a>, pp. 479–480.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Willker-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Willker_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Willker_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillker2008" class="citation web cs1">Willker, Wieland (17 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140312191807/http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/texte/Papyri-list.html">"Complete List of Greek NT Papyri"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/texte/Papyri-list.html">the original</a> on 12 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Complete+List+of+Greek+NT+Papyri&rft.date=2008-04-17&rft.aulast=Willker&rft.aufirst=Wieland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-user.uni-bremen.de%2F~wie%2Ftexte%2FPapyri-list.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComfortBarrett200165-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComfortBarrett200165_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFComfortBarrett2001">Comfort & Barrett 2001</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzger1992-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzger1992_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetzger1992">Metzger 1992</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlandDelobel1994138-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlandDelobel1994138_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlandDelobel1994">Aland & Delobel 1994</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004449-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004449_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEhrman2004">Ehrman 2004</a>, p. 449.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzger199233–35-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzger199233–35_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetzger1992">Metzger 1992</a>, pp. 33–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetzger199234-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetzger199234_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetzger1992">Metzger 1992</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.garyhabermas.com/qa/qa_index.htm">"The Reliability and Inspiration of the Bible"</a>. <i>Dr. Habermas Answers Important Questions</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dr.+Habermas+Answers+Important+Questions&rft.atitle=The+Reliability+and+Inspiration+of+the+Bible&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.garyhabermas.com%2Fqa%2Fqa_index.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVu2008" class="citation web cs1">Vu, Michelle A (21 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christiantoday.com/article/nt.scholar.on.discovery.of.giant.trove.of.bible.manuscripts/18204.htm">"NT scholar on discovery of giant trove of Bible manuscripts"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Christianity_Today" title="Christianity Today">Christianity Today</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Christianity+Today&rft.atitle=NT+scholar+on+discovery+of+giant+trove+of+Bible+manuscripts&rft.date=2008-04-21&rft.aulast=Vu&rft.aufirst=Michelle+A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christiantoday.com%2Farticle%2Fnt.scholar.on.discovery.of.giant.trove.of.bible.manuscripts%2F18204.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2009" class="citation web cs1">Wallace, Daniel (13 April 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.org/article/number-textual-variants-evangelical-miscalculation">"The Number of Textual Variants: An Evangelical Miscalculation"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Number+of+Textual+Variants%3A+An+Evangelical+Miscalculation&rft.date=2009-04-13&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbible.org%2Farticle%2Fnumber-textual-variants-evangelical-miscalculation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrman2004_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEhrman2004">Ehrman 2004</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2004" class="citation web cs1">Wallace, Daniel (3 June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.org/article/majority-text-and-original-text-are-they-identical">"The Majority Text and the Original Text: Are They Identical?"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Majority+Text+and+the+Original+Text%3A+Are+They+Identical%3F&rft.date=2004-06-03&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbible.org%2Farticle%2Fmajority-text-and-original-text-are-they-identical&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">c.f. Bruce, F.F. "Are the New Testament Documents Reliable?"</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlandAland1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Aland" title="Kurt Aland">Aland, Kurt</a>; Aland, Barbara (1995). <i>The Text of The New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism</i>. Translated by Erroll F. Rhodes (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: <a href="/wiki/Wm._B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company">Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company</a>. pp. 40f, 72f. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-4098-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-4098-1"><bdi>0-8028-4098-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Text+of+The+New+Testament%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Critical+Editions+and+to+the+Theory+and+Practice+of+Modern+Textual+Criticism&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pages=40f%2C+72f&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-8028-4098-1&rft.aulast=Aland&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rft.au=Aland%2C+Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlandDelobel1994" class="citation book cs1">Aland, Barbara; Delobel, Joël (1994). <i>New Testament textual criticism, exegesis and church history: a discussion of methods</i>. Kampen: Kok Pharos. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-03-900105-7" title="Special:BookSources/9-03-900105-7"><bdi>9-03-900105-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Testament+textual+criticism%2C+exegesis+and+church+history%3A+a+discussion+of+methods&rft.place=Kampen&rft.pub=Kok+Pharos&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9-03-900105-7&rft.aulast=Aland&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft.au=Delobel%2C+Jo%C3%ABl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkayVaughnLundbergZuckerman2004" class="citation book cs1">Barkay, G.; Vaughn, A.G.; Lundberg, M.J.; Zuckerman, B. (2004). "The Amulets from Ketef Hinnom: A New Edition and Evaluation". <i>Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research</i>. Vol. 334. pp. 41–71. <q>An innovation in the report was the simultaneous publication of an accompanying "digital article," a CD version of the article and the images</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Amulets+from+Ketef+Hinnom%3A+A+New+Edition+and+Evaluation&rft.btitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Schools+of+Oriental+Research&rft.pages=41-71&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Barkay&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Vaughn%2C+A.G.&rft.au=Lundberg%2C+M.J.&rft.au=Zuckerman%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruce1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/F._F._Bruce" title="F. F. Bruce">Bruce, F. F.</a> (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldinvisible.com/library/kenyon/storyofbible/2ck11.htm">"The Last Thirty Years"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Frederic_G._Kenyon" title="Frederic G. Kenyon">Frederic G. Kenyon</a> (ed.). <i>Story of the Bible</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Last+Thirty+Years&rft.btitle=Story+of+the+Bible&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Bruce&rft.aufirst=F.+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldinvisible.com%2Flibrary%2Fkenyon%2Fstoryofbible%2F2ck11.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruce2003" class="citation book cs1">Bruce, F. F. (2003). <i>The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802822192" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802822192"><bdi>978-0802822192</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Testament+Documents%3A+Are+They+Reliable%3F&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0802822192&rft.aulast=Bruce&rft.aufirst=F.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComfortBarrett2001" class="citation book cs1">Comfort, Philip W.; Barrett, David P. (2001). <i>The Text of the Earliest New Testament Greek Manuscripts</i>. Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8423-5265-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8423-5265-1"><bdi>0-8423-5265-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Text+of+the+Earliest+New+Testament+Greek+Manuscripts&rft.place=Wheaton%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=Tyndale+House&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8423-5265-1&rft.aulast=Comfort&rft.aufirst=Philip+W.&rft.au=Barrett%2C+David+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Ehrman, Bart D.</a> (2004). <i>The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings</i>. New York: Oxford. pp. 480f. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-515462-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-515462-2"><bdi>0-19-515462-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Testament%3A+A+Historical+Introduction+to+the+Early+Christian+Writings&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=480f&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-515462-2&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruger2012" class="citation book cs1">Kruger, Michael J. (2012). <i>Canon revisited : establishing the origins and authority of the New Testament books</i> (1st ed.). Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781433505003" title="Special:BookSources/9781433505003"><bdi>9781433505003</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canon+revisited+%3A+establishing+the+origins+and+authority+of+the+New+Testament+books&rft.place=Wheaton%2C+Ill.&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Crossway&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781433505003&rft.aulast=Kruger&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetzger1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Metzger" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruce Metzger">Metzger, Bruce M.</a> (1992). <i>The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption and Restoration</i> (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507297-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507297-9"><bdi>0-19-507297-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Text+of+the+New+Testament%3A+Its+Transmission%2C+Corruption+and+Restoration&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-19-507297-9&rft.aulast=Metzger&rft.aufirst=Bruce+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetzgerEhrman2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Metzger" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruce Metzger">Metzger, Bruce M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Ehrman, Bart D.</a> (2005). <i>The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption and Restoration</i> (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516667-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-516667-1"><bdi>0-19-516667-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Text+of+the+New+Testament%3A+Its+Transmission%2C+Corruption+and+Restoration&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-516667-1&rft.aulast=Metzger&rft.aufirst=Bruce+M.&rft.au=Ehrman%2C+Bart+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=waROAgAACAAJ"><i>Nestle-Aland Novum Testamentum Graece</i></a>. Vol. 27. Hendrickson Publishers. 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59856-172-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-59856-172-3"><bdi>1-59856-172-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nestle-Aland+Novum+Testamentum+Graece&rft.pub=Hendrickson+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-59856-172-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwaROAgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeid" class="citation web cs1">Seid, Timothy W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://interp-mss.com">"Interpreting Ancient Manuscripts"</a>. <i>Interpreting Ancient Manuscripts Web</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Interpreting+Ancient+Manuscripts+Web&rft.atitle=Interpreting+Ancient+Manuscripts&rft.aulast=Seid&rft.aufirst=Timothy+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finterp-mss.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltz" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Waltz, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skypoint.com/members/waltzmn/intro.html">"An Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism"</a>. <i>A Site Inspired By: The Encyclopedia of New Testament Textual Criticism</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070618171708/http://www.skypoint.com/members/waltzmn/intro.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+New+Testament+Textual+Criticism&rft.btitle=A+Site+Inspired+By%3A+The+Encyclopedia+of+New+Testament+Textual+Criticism&rft.aulast=Waltz&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skypoint.com%2Fmembers%2Fwaltzmn%2Fintro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Soden1902" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">von Soden, Hermann (1902). <i>Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments, in ihrer ältesten erreichbaren Textgestalt hergestellt auf Grund ihrer Textgeschichte</i> (in German). Berlin: Glaue. <q>4 vols., 1902–1910</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Schriften+des+Neuen+Testaments%2C+in+ihrer+%C3%A4ltesten+erreichbaren+Textgestalt+hergestellt+auf+Grund+ihrer+Textgeschichte&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Glaue&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=von+Soden&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1929" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, Robert Dick (1929). "The Textual Criticism of the Old Testament". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Princeton_Theological_Review" title="The Princeton Theological Review">The Princeton Theological Review</a></i>. <b>27</b>: 40.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Princeton+Theological+Review&rft.atitle=The+Textual+Criticism+of+the+Old+Testament&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=40&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Robert+Dick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_manuscript&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bible_manuscripts" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bible manuscripts">Bible manuscripts</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/manuscript" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:manuscript">manuscript</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.CSNTM.org">Center for the Study of New Testament Manuscripts</a></li> <li>Michael D. Marlowe's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bible-researcher.com/index.html">Bible Research</a> site</li> <li>Micheal W. Palmer's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greek-language.com/Manuscripts.html">Greek-Language.com</a> Manuscripts page</li> <li>TextCrit.com: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.textcrit.com/tc001/eusebian.htm">Eusebian Canon in Codex A</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~gv0/Papyri/VBP_V/130/VBP_V_130_R_(150).html">Fragment of Psalms</a> at the Heidelberger Papyrus-Sammlung</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbermann1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Manuscripts of the Bible"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Manuscripts_of_the_Bible">"Manuscripts of the Bible" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Manuscripts+of+the+Bible&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+manuscript" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philologus.gr/2008-08-02-10-20-04/37/280-oldest-manuscript-of-the-bible">Contantinus Siamakis, Oldest Manuscript of the Bible</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Books_of_the_Bible" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Books_of_the_Bible" title="Template:Books of the Bible"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Books_of_the_Bible" title="Template talk:Books of the Bible"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Books_of_the_Bible" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Books of the Bible"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Books_of_the_Bible" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Books</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Protocanonical_books" title="Protocanonical books">(protocanon)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Leviticus" title="Book of Leviticus">Leviticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Numbers" title="Book of Numbers">Numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy" title="Book of Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua" title="Book of Joshua">Joshua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Judges" title="Book of Judges">Judges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ruth" title="Book of Ruth">Ruth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_of_Samuel" title="Books of Samuel">1–2 Samuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_of_Kings" title="Books of Kings">1–2 Kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles" title="Books of Chronicles">1–2 Chronicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezra" title="Book of Ezra">Ezra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Nehemiah" title="Book of Nehemiah">Nehemiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Esther" title="Book of Esther">Esther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Job" title="Book of Job">Job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Proverbs" title="Book of Proverbs">Proverbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes" title="Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_of_Songs" title="Song of Songs">Song of Songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Isaiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jeremiah" title="Book of Jeremiah">Jeremiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lamentations" title="Book of Lamentations">Lamentations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezekiel" title="Book of Ezekiel">Ezekiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Hosea" title="Book of Hosea">Hosea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joel" title="Book of Joel">Joel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Amos" title="Book of Amos">Amos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Obadiah" title="Book of Obadiah">Obadiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jonah" title="Book of Jonah">Jonah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Micah" title="Book of Micah">Micah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Nahum" title="Book of Nahum">Nahum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Habakkuk" title="Book of Habakkuk">Habakkuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zephaniah" title="Book of Zephaniah">Zephaniah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Haggai" title="Book of Haggai">Haggai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zechariah" title="Book of Zechariah">Zechariah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Malachi" title="Book of Malachi">Malachi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">Deuterocanon</a><br /> or <a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">apocrypha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> & others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Tobit" title="Book of Tobit">Tobit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Judith" title="Book of Judith">Judith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Esther#Additions_to_Esther" title="Book of Esther">Additions to Esther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1_Maccabees" title="1 Maccabees">1 Maccabees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Maccabees" title="2 Maccabees">2 Maccabees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Wisdom" title="Book of Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Sirach" title="Book of Sirach">Sirach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Baruch" title="Book of Baruch">Baruch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_Jeremiah" title="Letter of Jeremiah">Letter of Jeremiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Additions_to_Daniel" title="Additions to Daniel">Additions to Daniel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_(Book_of_Daniel)" title="Susanna (Book of Daniel)">Susanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prayer_of_Azariah_and_Song_of_the_Three_Holy_Children" class="mw-redirect" title="The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children">Song of the Three Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bel_and_the_Dragon" title="Bel and the Dragon">Bel and the Dragon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Eastern Orthodox & others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1_Esdras" title="1 Esdras">1 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_of_Manasseh" title="Prayer of Manasseh">Prayer of Manasseh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalm_151" title="Psalm 151">Psalm 151</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_Maccabees" title="3 Maccabees">3 Maccabees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4_Maccabees" title="4 Maccabees">4 Maccabees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Odes_(Bible)" title="Book of Odes (Bible)">Odes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Tewahedo" title="Orthodox Tewahedo">Orthodox Tewahedo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">Enoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jubilees" title="Book of Jubilees">Jubilees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meqabyan" title="Meqabyan">1, 2, and 3 Meqabyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_of_the_Words_of_Baruch" title="Rest of the Words of Baruch">Paralipomena of Baruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Tewahedo_biblical_canon#Broader_canon" title="Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon">Broader canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syriac <a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psalms_152%E2%80%93155" title="Psalms 152–155">Psalms 152–155</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Baruch" title="2 Baruch">2 Baruch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testaments_of_the_Three_Patriarchs" title="Testaments of the Three Patriarchs">Testaments of the Three Patriarchs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testament_of_Abraham" title="Testament of Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testament_of_Isaac" title="Testament of Isaac">Isaac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testament_of_Jacob" title="Testament of Jacob">Jacob</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_Testament_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="New Testament canon">Canon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Matthew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Mark" title="Gospel of Mark">Mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke" title="Gospel of Luke">Luke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians" title="First Epistle to the Corinthians">1 Corinthians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians" title="Second Epistle to the Corinthians">2 Corinthians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Galatians" title="Epistle to the Galatians">Galatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Ephesians" title="Epistle to the Ephesians">Ephesians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Philippians" title="Epistle to the Philippians">Philippians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Colossians" title="Epistle to the Colossians">Colossians</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Laodiceans" title="Epistle to the Laodiceans">Laodiceans</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="First Epistle to the Thessalonians">1 Thessalonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_to_Timothy" title="First Epistle to Timothy">1 Timothy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_Timothy" title="Second Epistle to Timothy">2 Timothy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_Titus" title="Epistle to Titus">Titus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_Philemon" title="Epistle to Philemon">Philemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews" title="Epistle to the Hebrews">Hebrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_James" title="Epistle of James">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_Peter" title="First Epistle of Peter">1 Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_Peter" title="Second Epistle of Peter">2 Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_John" title="First Epistle of John">1 John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_John" title="Second Epistle of John">2 John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Epistle_of_John" title="Third Epistle of John">3 John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Jude" title="Epistle of Jude">Jude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antilegomena" title="Antilegomena">Antilegomena</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Paul" title="Acts of Paul">Acts of Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse_of_Peter" title="Apocalypse of Peter">Apocalypse of Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didache" title="Didache">Didache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_the_Hebrews" title="Gospel of the Hebrews">Gospel of the Hebrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabas" title="Epistle of Barnabas">Epistle of Barnabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_Clement" title="First Epistle of Clement">1 Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_Clement" title="Second Epistle of Clement">2 Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians" title="Third Epistle to the Corinthians">3 Corinthians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shepherd_of_Hermas" class="mw-redirect" title="Shepherd of Hermas">Shepherd of Hermas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chapters_and_verses_of_the_Bible" title="Chapters and verses of the Bible">Chapters and verses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torah#Pentateuch" title="Torah">Pentateuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_books" title="Historical books">Historical books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_literature#Sapiential_Books" title="Wisdom literature">Wisdom books</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poetic_Books" title="Poetic Books">Poetic Books</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_books" title="Prophetic books">Prophetic books</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_prophet" title="Major prophet">Major prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Minor_Prophets" title="Twelve Minor Prophets">Minor prophets</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gospels" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Gospels">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synoptic_Gospels" title="Synoptic Gospels">Synoptic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">Epistles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannine_epistles" title="Johannine epistles">Johannine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_epistles" title="Pastoral epistles">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">Catholic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Bible" title="Authorship of the Bible">Authorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">Jewish canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertestamental_period" title="Intertestamental period">Intertestamental period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian biblical canon">Christian canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Old_Testament_canon" title="Development of the Old Testament canon">Old Testament canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">New Testament canon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antilegomena" title="Antilegomena">Antilegomena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">Apocrypha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_apocrypha" title="Jewish apocrypha">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament_apocrypha" title="New Testament apocrypha">New Testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudepigrapha" title="Pseudepigrapha">Pseudepigrapha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Old_Testament_pseudepigrapha" title="List of Old Testament pseudepigrapha">Old Testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">Dating the Bible</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Manuscripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Pentateuch" title="Samaritan Pentateuch">Samaritan Pentateuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diatessaron" title="Diatessaron">Diatessaron</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muratorian_fragment" title="Muratorian fragment">Muratorian fragment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vetus_Latina" title="Vetus Latina">Vetus Latina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Masoretic Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categories_of_New_Testament_manuscripts" title="Categories of New Testament manuscripts">New Testament manuscript categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_papyri" title="List of New Testament papyri">New Testament papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_uncials" title="List of New Testament uncials">New Testament uncials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_version_debate" title="Bible version debate">Bible version debate</a></li> <li><a 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