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Non-thermal conversion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Non-thermal_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electrostatic_conversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrostatic_conversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Electrostatic conversion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrostatic_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Direct-charging_generator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct-charging_generator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Direct-charging generator</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct-charging_generator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electromechanical_conversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromechanical_conversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Electromechanical conversion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromechanical_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiovoltaic_conversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiovoltaic_conversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Radiovoltaic conversion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiovoltaic_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alphavoltaic_conversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphavoltaic_conversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Alphavoltaic conversion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alphavoltaic_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Betavoltaic_conversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Betavoltaic_conversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Betavoltaic conversion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Betavoltaic_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gammavoltaic_conversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gammavoltaic_conversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Gammavoltaic conversion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gammavoltaic_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiophotovoltaic_(optoelectric)_conversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiophotovoltaic_(optoelectric)_conversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Radiophotovoltaic (optoelectric) conversion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiophotovoltaic_(optoelectric)_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacemakers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacemakers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Pacemakers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacemakers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radioisotopes_used" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radioisotopes_used"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Radioisotopes used</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radioisotopes_used-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micro-batteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micro-batteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Micro-batteries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micro-batteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بطارية ذرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بطارية ذرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCv%C9%99_batareyas%C4%B1" title="Nüvə batareyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nüvə batareyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF" title="পারমাণবিক ব্যাটারি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পারমাণবিক ব্যাটারি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/He%CC%8Dk_ti%C4%81n-t%C3%AE" title="He̍k tiān-tî – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="He̍k tiān-tî" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B5%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%8F" title="Радыеізатопная батарэя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Радыеізатопная батарэя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria_at%C3%B2mica" title="Bateria atòmica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bateria atòmica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadern%C3%A1_baterie" title="Jaderná baterie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jaderná baterie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atombatteri" title="Atombatteri – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Atombatteri" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuklidbatterie" title="Radionuklidbatterie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Radionuklidbatterie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuumapatarei" title="Tuumapatarei – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tuumapatarei" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bater%C3%ADa_nuclear" title="Batería nuclear – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Batería nuclear" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C" title="باتری اتمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باتری اتمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batterie_atomique" title="Batterie atomique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Batterie atomique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90%EB%A0%A5_%EC%A0%84%EC%A7%80" title="원자력 전지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원자력 전지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterai_atom" title="Baterai atom – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Baterai atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="סוללה גרעינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סוללה גרעינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterai_atom" title="Baterai atom – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Baterai atom" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E9%9B%BB%E6%B1%A0" title="原子力電池 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子力電池" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjernefysisk_batteri" title="Kjernefysisk batteri – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjernefysisk batteri" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_batareyasi" title="Atom batareyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atom batareyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria_j%C4%85drowa" title="Bateria jądrowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bateria jądrowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Радиоизотопные источники энергии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Радиоизотопные источники энергии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ydinparisto" title="Ydinparisto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ydinparisto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D1%88_%D0%B1%D3%99%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80%D3%99%D0%B5" title="Төш бәтәрәе – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Төш бәтәрәе" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%80" title="అటామిక్ బ్యాటరీ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అటామిక్ బ్యాటరీ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%8F" title="Ядерна батарея – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ядерна батарея" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_nguy%C3%AAn_t%E1%BB%AD" title="Pin nguyên tử – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Pin nguyên tử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%83%BD%E9%9B%BB%E6%B1%A0" title="原子能電池 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="原子能電池" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E9%9B%BB%E6%B1%A0" title="核電池 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="核電池" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q195533#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="View the content page [c]" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Devices generating electricity from radioisotope decay</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the generation of radioactive isotopes, see <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide_generator" title="Radionuclide generator">radionuclide generator</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>An <b>atomic battery</b>, <b>nuclear battery</b>, <b>radioisotope battery</b> or <b>radioisotope generator</b> uses energy from the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">decay</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive isotope">radioactive isotope</a> to generate <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. Like a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>, it generates electricity from nuclear energy, but it differs by not using a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">chain reaction</a>. Although commonly called <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">batteries</a>, atomic batteries are technically not <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a> and cannot be charged or recharged. Although they are very costly, they have extremely long lives and high <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a>, so they are typically used as power sources for equipment that must operate unattended for long periods, such as <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial cardiac pacemaker">pacemakers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Underwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater">underwater</a> systems, and <a href="/wiki/Research_station" title="Research station">automated scientific stations</a> in remote parts of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nuclear batteries began in 1913, when <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Henry Moseley</a> first demonstrated a current generated by charged-particle radiation. In the 1950s and 1960s, this field of research got much attention for applications requiring long-life power sources for spacecraft. In 1954, <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a> researched a small atomic battery for small radio receivers and hearing aids.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since RCA's initial research and development in the early 1950s, many types and methods have been designed to extract electrical energy from nuclear sources. The scientific principles are well known, but modern nano-scale technology and new <a href="/wiki/Wide-bandgap_semiconductor" title="Wide-bandgap semiconductor">wide-bandgap semiconductors</a> have allowed the making of new devices and interesting material properties not previously available. </p><p>Nuclear batteries can be classified by their means of <a href="/wiki/Energy_transformation" title="Energy transformation">energy conversion</a> into two main groups: <i>thermal converters</i> and <i>non-thermal converters</i>. The thermal types convert some of the heat generated by the nuclear decay into electricity; an example is the <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a> (RTG), often used in spacecraft. The non-thermal converters, such as <a href="/wiki/Betavoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Betavoltaic cell">betavoltaic cells</a>, extract energy directly from the emitted radiation, before it is degraded into heat; they are easier to miniaturize and do not need a thermal gradient to operate, so they can be used in small machines. </p><p>Atomic batteries usually have an efficiency of 0.1–5%. High-efficiency <a href="/wiki/Betavoltaic_device" title="Betavoltaic device">betavoltaic devices</a> can reach 6–8% efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thermal_conversion">Thermal conversion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Thermal conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermionic_conversion">Thermionic conversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Thermionic conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Thermionic_converter" title="Thermionic converter">thermionic converter</a> consists of a hot electrode, which thermionically emits electrons over a space-charge barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful power output. <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a> vapor is used to optimize the electrode <a href="/wiki/Work_function" title="Work function">work functions</a> and provide an ion supply (by <a href="/wiki/Surface_ionization" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface ionization">surface ionization</a>) to neutralize the electron <a href="/wiki/Space_charge" title="Space charge">space charge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermoelectric_conversion">Thermoelectric conversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Thermoelectric conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HD.17.071_(11966200113).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/HD.17.071_%2811966200113%29.jpg/250px-HD.17.071_%2811966200113%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="241" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/HD.17.071_%2811966200113%29.jpg/500px-HD.17.071_%2811966200113%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2550" /></a><figcaption>Radioisotope-powered cardiac pacemaker being developed by the Atomic Energy Commission, circa 1967.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a> (RTG) uses <a href="/wiki/Thermocouple" title="Thermocouple">thermocouples</a>. Each thermocouple is formed from two wires of different metals (or other materials). A temperature gradient along the length of each wire produces a voltage gradient from one end of the wire to the other; but the different materials produce different voltages per degree of temperature difference. By connecting the wires at one end, heating that end but cooling the other end, a usable, but small (millivolts), voltage is generated between the unconnected wire ends. In practice, many are connected in series (or in parallel) to generate a larger voltage (or current) from the same heat source, as heat flows from the hot ends to the cold ends. Metal thermocouples have low thermal-to-electrical efficiency. However, the carrier density and charge can be adjusted in semiconductor materials such as bismuth telluride and silicon germanium to achieve much higher conversion efficiencies.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermophotovoltaic_conversion">Thermophotovoltaic conversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Thermophotovoltaic conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thermophotovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermophotovoltaic">Thermophotovoltaic</a> (TPV) cells work by the same principles as a <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic cell">photovoltaic cell</a>, except that they convert <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> light (rather than <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible light</a>) emitted by a hot surface, into electricity. Thermophotovoltaic cells have an efficiency slightly higher than thermoelectric couples and can be overlaid on thermoelectric couples, potentially doubling efficiency. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Houston" title="University of Houston">University of Houston</a> <a href="/wiki/Thermophotovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermophotovoltaic">TPV</a> Radioisotope Power Conversion Technology development effort is aiming at combining thermophotovoltaic cells concurrently with <a href="/wiki/Thermocouple" title="Thermocouple">thermocouples</a> to provide a 3- to 4-fold improvement in system efficiency over current thermoelectric radioisotope generators. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stirling_generators">Stirling generators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Stirling generators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stirling_radioisotope_generator" title="Stirling radioisotope generator">Stirling radioisotope generator</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Stirling_radioisotope_generator" title="Stirling radioisotope generator">Stirling radioisotope generator</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Stirling_engine" title="Stirling engine">Stirling engine</a> driven by the temperature difference produced by a radioisotope. A more efficient version, the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Stirling_radioisotope_generator" title="Advanced Stirling radioisotope generator">advanced Stirling radioisotope generator</a>, was under development by <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>, but was cancelled in 2013 due to large-scale cost overruns.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-thermal_conversion">Non-thermal conversion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Non-thermal conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Non-thermal converters extract energy from emitted radiation before it is degraded into heat. Unlike thermoelectric and thermionic converters their output does not depend on the temperature difference. Non-thermal generators can be classified by the type of particle used and by the mechanism by which their energy is converted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrostatic_conversion">Electrostatic conversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Electrostatic conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Energy can be extracted from emitted <a href="/wiki/Charged_particle" title="Charged particle">charged particles</a> when their <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">charge</a> builds up in a <a href="/wiki/Conduction_of_electricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction of electricity">conductor</a>, thus creating an <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">electrostatic potential</a>. Without a dissipation mode the <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> can increase up to the energy of the radiated particles, which may range from several kilovolts (for beta radiation) up to megavolts (alpha radiation). The built up <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">electrostatic energy</a> can be turned into usable electricity in one of the following ways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Direct-charging_generator">Direct-charging generator</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Direct-charging generator"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A direct-charging generator consists of a <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitor</a> charged by the current of <a href="/wiki/Charged_particle" title="Charged particle">charged particles</a> from a radioactive layer deposited on one of the electrodes. Spacing can be either vacuum or <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a>. Negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a> or positively charged <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha particles">alpha particles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission products">fission fragments</a> may be utilized. Although this form of nuclear-electric generator dates back to 1913, few applications have been found in the past for the extremely low currents and inconveniently high voltages provided by direct-charging generators. Oscillator/transformer systems are employed to reduce the voltages, then rectifiers are used to transform the AC power back to direct current. </p><p>English physicist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">H. G. J. Moseley</a> constructed the first of these. Moseley's apparatus consisted of a glass globe <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silvered</a> on the inside with a radium emitter mounted on the tip of a wire at the center. The charged particles from the <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a> created a flow of electricity as they moved quickly from the radium to the inside surface of the sphere. As late as 1945 the Moseley model guided other efforts to build experimental batteries generating electricity from the emissions of radioactive elements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electromechanical_conversion">Electromechanical conversion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Electromechanical conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_piezoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope piezoelectric generator">Radioisotope piezoelectric generator</a></div> <p>Electromechanical atomic batteries use the buildup of charge between two plates to pull one bendable plate towards the other, until the two plates touch, discharge, equalizing the electrostatic buildup, and spring back. The mechanical motion produced can be used to produce electricity through flexing of a <a href="/wiki/Piezoelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Piezoelectric">piezoelectric</a> material or through a linear generator. Milliwatts of power are produced in pulses depending on the charge rate, in some cases multiple times per second (35 Hz).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiovoltaic_conversion">Radiovoltaic conversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Radiovoltaic conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <i>radiovoltaic</i> (RV) device converts the energy of ionizing radiation directly into electricity using a <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor junction">semiconductor junction</a>, similar to the conversion of photons into electricity in a <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic cell">photovoltaic cell</a>. Depending on the type of radiation targeted, these devices are called <i>alphavoltaic</i> (AV, αV), <i>betavoltaic</i> (BV, βV) and/or <i>gammavoltaic</i> (GV, γV). Betavoltaics have traditionally received the most attention since (low-energy) beta emitters cause the least amount of radiative damage, thus allowing a longer operating life and less shielding. Interest in alphavoltaic and (more recently) gammavoltaic devices is driven by their potential higher efficiency. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alphavoltaic_conversion">Alphavoltaic conversion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Alphavoltaic conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alphavoltaic devices use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical energy from energetic <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Betavoltaic_conversion">Betavoltaic conversion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Betavoltaic conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Betavoltaic_device" title="Betavoltaic device">Betavoltaic device</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Betavoltaic_device" title="Betavoltaic device">Betavoltaic devices</a> use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical energy from energetic <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>). A commonly used source is the hydrogen isotope <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>, which is employed in City Labs' <a href="/wiki/NanoTritium_batteries" title="NanoTritium batteries">NanoTritium batteries</a>. </p><p>Betavoltaic devices are particularly well-suited to low-power electrical applications where long life of the energy source is needed, such as implantable medical devices or military and space applications.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chinese startup Betavolt claimed in January 2024 to have a miniature device in the pilot testing stage.<sup id="cite_ref-AC_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AC-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is allegedly generating 100 microwatts of power and a voltage of 3V and has a lifetime of 50 years without any need for charging or maintenance.<sup id="cite_ref-AC_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AC-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Betavolt claims it to be the first such miniaturised device ever developed.<sup id="cite_ref-AC_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AC-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It gains its energy from the isotope <a href="/wiki/Nickel-63" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel-63">nickel-63</a>, held in a module the size of a very small coin.<sup id="cite_ref-Toms_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toms-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As it is consumed, the nickel-63 decays into stable, non-radioactive isotopes of copper, which pose no environmental threat.<sup id="cite_ref-Toms_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toms-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It contains a thin wafer of nickel-63 providing <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particle</a> electrons sandwiched between two thin <a href="/wiki/Crystallographic_defects_in_diamond#Interaction_between_intrinsic_and_extrinsic_defects" title="Crystallographic defects in diamond">crystallographic</a> diamond semiconductor layers.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gammavoltaic_conversion">Gammavoltaic conversion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gammavoltaic conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gammavoltaic devices use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical energy from energetic <a href="/wiki/Gamma_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma particle">gamma particles</a> (high-energy <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>). They have only been considered in the 2010s<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but were proposed as early as 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A gammavoltaic effect has been reported in <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">perovskite solar cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another patented design involves scattering of the gamma particle until its energy has decreased enough to be absorbed in a conventional photovoltaic cell.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gammavoltaic designs using <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schottky_diode" title="Schottky diode">Schottky diodes</a> are also being investigated.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiophotovoltaic_(optoelectric)_conversion"><span id="Radiophotovoltaic_.28optoelectric.29_conversion"></span>Radiophotovoltaic (optoelectric) conversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Radiophotovoltaic (optoelectric) conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Optoelectric_nuclear_battery" title="Optoelectric nuclear battery">Optoelectric nuclear battery</a></div> <p>In a <a href="/wiki/Optoelectric_nuclear_battery" title="Optoelectric nuclear battery"><i>radiophotovoltaic</i> (RPV) device</a> the energy conversion is indirect: the emitted particles are first converted into light using a <a href="/wiki/Radioluminescence" title="Radioluminescence">radioluminescent</a> material (a <a href="/wiki/Scintillator" title="Scintillator">scintillator</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphor</a>), and the light is then converted into electricity using a <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">photovoltaic cell</a>. Depending on the type of particle targeted, the conversion type can be more precisely specified as <i>alphaphotovoltaic</i> (APV or α-PV),<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>betaphotovoltaic</i> (BPV or β-PV)<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>gammaphotovoltaic</i> (GPV or γ-PV).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radiophotovoltaic conversion can be combined with radiovoltaic conversion to increase the conversion efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pacemakers">Pacemakers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Pacemakers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medtronic and Alcatel developed a <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238#Nuclear_powered_pacemakers" title="Plutonium-238">plutonium-powered pacemaker</a>, the Numec NU-5, powered by a 2.5 Ci slug of plutonium 238, first implanted in a human patient in 1970. The 139 Numec NU-5 nuclear pacemakers implanted in the 1970s are expected to never need replacing, an advantage over non-nuclear pacemakers, which require surgical replacement of their batteries every 5 to 10 years. The plutonium "batteries" are expected to produce enough power to drive the circuit for longer than the 88-year halflife of the plutonium-238.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last of these units was implanted in 1988, as lithium-powered pacemakers, which had an expected lifespan of 10 or more years without the disadvantages of radiation concerns and regulatory hurdles, made these units obsolete.<br /> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Betavoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Betavoltaics">Betavoltaic batteries</a> are also being considered as long-lasting power sources for lead-free pacemakers.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radioisotopes_used">Radioisotopes used</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Radioisotopes used"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Atomic batteries use radioisotopes that produce low energy beta particles or sometimes alpha particles of varying energies. Low energy beta particles are needed to prevent the production of high energy penetrating <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a> radiation that would require heavy shielding. Radioisotopes such as <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>-63, <a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">promethium</a>-147, and <a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">technetium</a>-99 have been tested. <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a>-238, <a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">curium</a>-242, <a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">curium</a>-244 and <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>-90 have been used.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides the nuclear properties of the used isotope, there are also the issues of chemical properties and availability. A product deliberately produced via <a href="/wiki/Neutron_irradiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron irradiation">neutron irradiation</a> or in a particle accelerator is more difficult to obtain than a <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission product</a> easily extracted from <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">spent nuclear fuel</a>. </p><p>Plutonium-238 must be deliberately produced via neutron irradiation of Neptunium-237 but it can be easily converted into a stable plutonium oxide ceramic. Strontium-90 is easily extracted from spent nuclear fuel but must be converted into the <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_(structure)" title="Perovskite (structure)">perovskite</a> form <a href="/wiki/Strontium_titanate" title="Strontium titanate">strontium titanate</a> to reduce its chemical mobility, cutting power density in half. Caesium-137, another high yield nuclear fission product, is rarely used in atomic batteries because it is difficult to convert into chemically inert substances. Another undesirable property of Cs-137 extracted from spent nuclear fuel is that it is contaminated with other <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_Caesium" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes of Caesium">isotopes of Caesium</a> which reduce power density further. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Micro-batteries">Micro-batteries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Micro-batteries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the field of microelectromechanical systems (<a href="/wiki/MEMS" title="MEMS">MEMS</a>), nuclear engineers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin,_Madison" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wisconsin, Madison">University of Wisconsin, Madison</a> have explored the possibilities of producing minuscule batteries which exploit radioactive nuclei of substances such as polonium or curium to produce electric energy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As an example of an integrated, self-powered application, the researchers have created an oscillating cantilever beam that is capable of consistent, periodic oscillations over very long time periods without the need for refueling. Ongoing work demonstrate that this cantilever is capable of radio frequency transmission, allowing <a href="/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical systems">MEMS</a> devices to communicate with one another wirelessly. </p><p>These micro-batteries are very light and deliver enough energy to function as power supply for use in MEMS devices and further for supply for nanodevices.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The radiation energy released is transformed into electric energy, which is restricted to the area of the device that contains the <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">processor</a> and the micro-battery that supplies it with energy.<sup id="cite_ref-Waldner08_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waldner08-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 180–181">: 180–181 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Button_cell" title="Button cell">Button cell</a> – Small battery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induced_gamma_emission" title="Induced gamma emission">Induced gamma emission</a> – Bombarding atomic nuclei to give off very short-wavelength light</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_types" title="List of battery types">List of battery types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_electric_rocket" title="Nuclear electric rocket">Nuclear electric rocket</a> – Type of spacecraft propulsion system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_heater_unit" title="Radioisotope heater unit">Radioisotope heater unit</a> – Device that provides heat through radioactive decay</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_rocket" title="Radioisotope rocket">Radioisotope rocket</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gizmag.com/smaller-nuclear-battery/13076/">"A nuclear battery the size and thickness of a penny"</a>. <i>Gizmag</i>, 9 October 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8297934.stm">"Tiny 'nuclear batteries' unveiled"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>, Thursday, 8 October 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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London: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermes_Science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermes Science (page does not exist)">Hermes Science</a>. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7462-1516-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7462-1516-0"><bdi>978-2-7462-1516-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventer+l%27Ordinateur+du+XXI%C3%A8me+Si%C3%A8cle&rft.place=London&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Hermes+Science&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-2-7462-1516-0&rft.aulast=Waldner&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomic+battery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Waldner08-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Waldner08_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaldner2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Waldner" title="Jean-Baptiste Waldner">Waldner, Jean-Baptiste</a> (2008). <i>Nanocomputers and Swarm Intelligence</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/ISTE_Ltd" class="mw-redirect" title="ISTE Ltd">ISTE</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84704-002-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84704-002-2"><bdi>978-1-84704-002-2</bdi></a>. <q>radioactive nuclei releases electrons that shoot the negative pole of the battery</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanocomputers+and+Swarm+Intelligence&rft.place=London&rft.pub=ISTE+John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84704-002-2&rft.aulast=Waldner&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomic+battery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_battery&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citylabs.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/BetavoltaicHistory.pdf">Betavoltaic Historical Review</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Oct02/cantilever.ws.html">Cantilever Electromechanical Atomic Battery</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/~blanchar/res/BlanchardKorea.pdf">Types of Radioisotopic Batteries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070115091842/http://www.tfot.info/content/view/76/64/">Americium Battery Concept Proposed for Space Applications</a>- TFOT article</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2050039,00.html">Nuclear Batteries (25 MW)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8297934.stm">Tiny 'nuclear batteries' unveiled</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> article about the research of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jae_Wan_Kwon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jae Wan Kwon (page does not exist)">Jae Wan Kwon</a> et al. from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Missouri" title="University of Missouri">University of Missouri</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Galvanic_cells" title="Template:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Galvanic_cells" title="Template talk:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Galvanic_cells" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electrochemical_cells543" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">Electrochemical cells</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">Galvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_cell" title="Concentration cell">Concentration cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Electric battery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">Flow battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trough_battery" title="Trough battery">Trough battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermogalvanic_cell" title="Thermogalvanic cell">Thermogalvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">Voltaic pile</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Galvanic_Cell.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Galvanic cell"><img alt="Galvanic cell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/250px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/330px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_battery" title="Primary battery">Primary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(non-rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_battery" title="Alkaline battery">Alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Aluminium–air battery">Aluminium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunsen_cell" title="Bunsen cell">Bunsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromic_acid_cell" title="Chromic acid cell">Chromic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_cell" title="Clark cell">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniell_cell" title="Daniell cell">Daniell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cell" title="Dry cell">Dry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison%E2%80%93Lalande_cell" title="Edison–Lalande cell">Edison–Lalande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grove_cell" title="Grove cell">Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leclanch%C3%A9_cell" title="Leclanché cell">Leclanché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_metal_battery" title="Lithium metal battery">Lithium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_hybrid_organic_battery" title="Lithium hybrid organic battery">Lithium organic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_battery" title="Mercury battery">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery" title="Nickel oxyhydroxide battery">Nickel oxyhydroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Silicon–air battery">Silicon–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_oxide_battery" title="Silver oxide battery">Silver oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weston_cell" title="Weston cell">Weston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamboni_pile" title="Zamboni pile">Zamboni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Zinc–air battery">Zinc–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">Zinc–carbon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Secondary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">Lead–acid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VRLA_battery" title="VRLA battery">gel–VRLA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium ion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_carbon_battery" title="Dual carbon battery">Dual carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">Lithium–iron–phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery" title="Lithium polymer battery">Lithium–polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">Lithium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-titanate_battery" title="Lithium-titanate battery">Lithium–titanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_battery" title="Molten-salt battery">Molten salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanopore_battery" title="Nanopore battery">Nanopore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">Nickel–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93hydrogen_battery" title="Nickel–hydrogen battery">Nickel–hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93iron_battery" title="Nickel–iron battery">Nickel–iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93lithium_battery" title="Nickel–lithium battery">Nickel–lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">Nickel–metal hydride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93zinc_battery" title="Nickel–zinc battery">Nickel–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysulfide%E2%80%93bromide_battery" title="Polysulfide–bromide battery">Polysulfide–bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium-ion_battery" title="Potassium-ion battery">Potassium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_alkaline_battery" title="Rechargeable alkaline battery">Rechargeable alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Silver–cadmium battery">Silver–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_zinc_battery" title="Silver zinc battery">Silver–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery" title="Sodium-ion battery">Sodium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Sodium–sulfur battery">Sodium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_battery" title="Solid-state battery">Solid state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanadium_redox_battery" title="Vanadium redox battery">Vanadium redox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93bromine_battery" title="Zinc–bromine battery">Zinc–bromine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93cerium_battery" title="Zinc–cerium battery">Zinc–cerium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Other cell</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atomic battery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binder_(material)" title="Binder (material)">Binder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">Cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">Electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">Electrolyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-cell" title="Half-cell">Half-cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">Salt bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">Semipermeable membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q195533#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata759" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q195533#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata759" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q195533#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1039899/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td 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