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class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>Edit</span> </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Anecdata" redirects here. For the web portal, see <a href="/wiki/Anecdata.org" title="Anecdata.org">Anecdata.org</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Copy_edit plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Copy_edit" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">copy editing</a> for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You can assist by <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Special:EditPage/Anecdotal evidence">editing it</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An <b>anecdotal evidence</b> (or <b>anecdata</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is a piece of <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> based on descriptions and reports of individual, personal experiences, or observations,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> collected in a non-<a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic</a> manner.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>anecdotal</i> constitutes a variety of forms of evidence. This word refers to personal experiences, self-reported claims,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or eyewitness accounts of others,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including those from fictional sources, making it a broad category that can lead to confusion due to its varied interpretations. </p><p>Anecdotal evidence can be true or false but is not usually subjected to the methodology of <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_method" title="Scholarly method">scholarly method</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, or the rules of legal, historical, academic, or <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_rigor" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual rigor">intellectual rigor</a>, meaning that there are little or no safeguards against fabrication or inaccuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the use of anecdotal reports in <a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a> or promotion of a product, service, or idea may be considered a <a href="/wiki/Testimonial" title="Testimonial">testimonial</a>, which is highly regulated in some jurisdictions.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The persuasiveness of anecdotal evidence compared to that of statistical evidence has been a subject of debate; some studies have argued for the presence a generalized tendency to overvalue anecdotal evidence, whereas others have emphasized the types of argument as a prerequisite or rejected the conclusion altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cognitive-research_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cognitive-research-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Scientific_context"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific context</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Legal"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Legal</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Scientific_context">Scientific context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Anecdotal_evidence&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Scientific context" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a></div> <p>In science, definitions of anecdotal evidence include: </p> <ul><li>"casual observations/indications rather than rigorous or scientific analysis"<sup id="cite_ref-yourdictionary_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yourdictionary-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"information passed along by word-of-mouth but not documented scientifically"<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"evidence that comes from an individual experience. This may be the experience of a person with an illness or the experience of a practitioner based on one or more patients outside a formal research study."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"the report of an experience by one or more persons that is not objectively documented or an experience or outcome that occurred outside of a controlled environment"<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Anecdotal evidence may be considered within the scope of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> as some anecdotal evidence can be both empirical and verifiable, e.g. in the use of <a href="/wiki/Case_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Case studies">case studies</a> in medicine. Other anecdotal evidence, however, does not qualify as <a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">scientific evidence</a>, because its nature prevents it from being investigated by the scientific method, for instance, in that of <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a> or in the case of intentionally fictional anecdotes. Where only one or a few anecdotes are presented, there is a chance that they may be unreliable due to <a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">cherry-picked</a> or otherwise <a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">non-representative</a> samples of typical cases.<sup id="cite_ref-weiten_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weiten-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, psychologists have found that due to <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive bias</a> people are more likely to remember notable or unusual examples rather than typical examples.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, even when accurate, anecdotal evidence is not necessarily representative of a typical experience. Accurate determination of whether an anecdote is typical requires <a href="/wiki/Statistical" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical">statistical</a> evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Misuse of anecdotal evidence in the form of <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_anecdote" title="Argument from anecdote">argument from anecdote</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">informal fallacy</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is sometimes referred to as the "person who" fallacy ("I know a person who..."; "I know of a case where..." etc.) which places undue weight on experiences of close peers which may not be typical. </p><p>Anecdotal evidence can have varying degrees of formality. For instance, in medicine, published anecdotal evidence by a trained observer (a doctor) is called a <a href="/wiki/Case_report" title="Case report">case report</a>, and is subjected to formal <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jenicek_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenicek-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although such evidence is not seen as conclusive, researchers may sometimes regard it as an invitation to more rigorous scientific study of the phenomenon in question.<sup id="cite_ref-Vandenbroucke_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vandenbroucke-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, one study found that 35 of 47 anecdotal reports of drug side-effects were later sustained as "clearly correct."<sup id="cite_ref-Venning_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Venning-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anecdotal evidence is considered the least certain type of scientific information.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-12-588560-1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-12-588560-1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers may use anecdotal evidence for suggesting new <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>, but never as validating evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mebius_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mebius-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If an anecdote illustrates a desired conclusion rather than a logical conclusion, it is considered a <a href="/wiki/Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">faulty</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hasty_generalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasty generalization">hasty generalization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In any case where some factor affects the probability of an outcome, rather than uniquely determining it, selected individual cases prove nothing; e.g. "my grandfather smoked two packs a day until he died at 90" and "my sister never smoked but died of lung cancer". Anecdotes often refer to the exception, rather than the rule: "Anecdotes are useless precisely because they may point to idiosyncratic responses."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In medicine, anecdotal evidence is also subject to <a href="/wiki/Placebo_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Placebo effect">placebo effects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Legal">Legal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Anecdotal_evidence&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Legal" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p>In the legal sphere, anecdotal evidence, if it passes certain legal requirements and is admitted as <a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">testimony</a>, is a common form of evidence used in a court of law. Often this form of anecdotal evidence is the only evidence presented at trial.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific evidence in a court of law is called <a href="/wiki/Physical_evidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical evidence">physical evidence</a>, but this is much rarer. Anecdotal evidence, with a few safeguards, represents the bulk of evidence in court. </p><p>The legal rigors applied to testimony for it to be considered evidence is that it must be given <a href="/wiki/Under_oath" class="mw-redirect" title="Under oath">under oath</a>, that the person is only testifying to their own words and actions, and that someone intentionally lying under oath is subject to <a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">perjury</a>. However, these rigors do not make <a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">testimony</a> in a court of law equal to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">scientific evidence</a> as there are far less legal rigors. Testimony about another person's experiences or words is called <a href="/wiki/Hearsay" title="Hearsay">hearsay</a> and is usually not admissible, though there are certain exceptions. However, any hearsay that is not objected to or thrown out by a judge is considered evidence for a jury. This means that trials contain quite a bit of anecdotal evidence, which is considered as relevant evidence by a jury. Eyewitness testimony (which is a form of anecdotal evidence) is considered the most compelling form of evidence by a jury.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Anecdotal_evidence&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 40px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="40" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anecdotal_evidence" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:anecdotal evidence">anecdotal evidence</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_value" title="Anecdotal value">Anecdotal value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">Argument from ignorance</a> – Informal fallacy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation bias</a> – Bias confirming existing attitudes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Correlation does not imply causation</a> – Refutation of a logical fallacy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a> – Knowledge acquired by means of the senses</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_testimony" title="Eyewitness testimony">Eyewitness testimony</a> – Account a witness gives in the courtroom of what they observed</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> – Argument that uses faulty reasoning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">Faulty generalization</a> – Conclusion made on the basis of one or few instances of a phenomenon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasty_generalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasty generalization">Hasty generalization</a> – Conclusion made on the basis of one or few instances of a phenomenon<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lived_experience" title="Lived experience">Lived experience</a> – Phenomenological concept</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" title="Post hoc ergo propter hoc">Post hoc ergo propter hoc</a> – Fallacy of assumption of causality based on sequence of events</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_guilt" title="Presumption of guilt">Presumption of guilt</a> – Presumption that a person is guilty of a crime</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a> – Interplay between observation, experiment, and theory in science</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Anecdotal_evidence&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px 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data-timestamp="1729798438"> <span>Last edited on 24 October 2024, at 19:33</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekdotiese_bewyse" title="Anekdotiese bewyse – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Anekdotiese bewyse" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84" title="دليل متناقل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دليل متناقل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Анекдотични доказателства – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Анекдотични доказателства" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prova_anecd%C3%B2tica" title="Prova anecdòtica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Prova anecdòtica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekdotick%C3%BD_d%C5%AFkaz" title="Anekdotický důkaz – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Anekdotický důkaz" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekdotisk_evidens" title="Anekdotisk evidens – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Anekdotisk evidens" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekdotische_Evidenz" title="Anekdotische Evidenz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Anekdotische Evidenz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prueba_anecd%C3%B3tica" title="Prueba anecdótica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Prueba anecdótica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebidentzia_anekdotiko" title="Ebidentzia anekdotiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ebidentzia anekdotiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preuve_anecdotique" title="Preuve anecdotique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Preuve anecdotique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EB%A1%80_%EC%A6%9D%EA%B1%B0" title="사례 증거 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사례 증거" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukti_anekdotal" title="Bukti anekdotal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bukti anekdotal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ראיה אנקדוטלית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ראיה אנקדוטלית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%96%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%96" title="ഉപാഖ്യാന രേഖ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഉപാഖ്യാന രേഖ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukti_anekdot" title="Bukti anekdot – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bukti anekdot" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekdotisch_bewijs" title="Anekdotisch bewijs – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Anekdotisch bewijs" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8B%E4%BE%8B%E8%A8%BC%E6%8B%A0" title="事例証拠 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="事例証拠" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekdotisk_bevisf%C3%B8ring" title="Anekdotisk bevisføring – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Anekdotisk bevisføring" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dow%C3%B3d_anegdotyczny" title="Dowód anegdotyczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dowód anegdotyczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evid%C3%AAncia_aned%C3%B3tica" title="Evidência anedótica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Evidência anedótica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Анекдотическое свидетельство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Анекдотическое свидетельство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekdoottinen_todiste" title="Anekdoottinen todiste – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Anekdoottinen todiste" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekdotisk_bevisf%C3%B6ring" title="Anekdotisk bevisföring – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Anekdotisk bevisföring" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2" title="หลักฐานโดยเรื่องเล่า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หลักฐานโดยเรื่องเล่า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Анекдотичні докази – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Анекдотичні докази" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BB%BC%E4%BA%8B%E8%AD%89%E6%93%9A" title="軼事證據 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="軼事證據" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BB%BC%E4%BA%8B%E8%AD%89%E6%93%9A" title="軼事證據 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="軼事證據" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 October 2024, at 19:33<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> 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