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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pictographs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Pictographs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pictographs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indicatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indicatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Indicatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indicatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compound_ideographs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compound_ideographs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Compound ideographs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compound_ideographs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonographs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonographs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Phonographs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonographs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phono-semantic_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phono-semantic_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Phono-semantic compounds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phono-semantic_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loangraphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loangraphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Loangraphs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loangraphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Signs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traditional_Shuowen_Jiezi_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_Shuowen_Jiezi_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Traditional <i>Shuowen Jiezi</i> classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_Shuowen_Jiezi_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Traditional_invention_narrative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_invention_narrative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Traditional invention narrative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_invention_narrative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Neolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oracle_bone_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oracle_bone_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Oracle bone script</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oracle_bone_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zhou_scripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zhou_scripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Zhou scripts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zhou_scripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qin_unification_and_small_seal_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qin_unification_and_small_seal_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Qin unification and small seal script</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qin_unification_and_small_seal_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clerical_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clerical_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Clerical script</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clerical_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cursive_and_semi-cursive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cursive_and_semi-cursive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Cursive and semi-cursive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cursive_and_semi-cursive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regular_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regular_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Regular script</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regular_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Variant_characters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variant_characters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Variant characters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variant_characters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Layout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Layout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Layout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_of_writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_of_writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Methods of writing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods_of_writing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods of writing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calligraphy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calligraphy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Calligraphy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calligraphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Printing_and_typefaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printing_and_typefaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Printing and typefaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printing_and_typefaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_with_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_with_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Use with computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_with_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Input_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Input_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Input methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Input_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Encoding_and_interchange" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encoding_and_interchange"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Encoding and interchange</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encoding_and_interchange-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary_and_adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary_and_adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Vocabulary and adaptation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary_and_adaptation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Vocabulary and adaptation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary_and_adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literary_and_vernacular_Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_and_vernacular_Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Literary and vernacular Chinese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_and_vernacular_Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Japanese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Korean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vietnamese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vietnamese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Vietnamese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnamese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graphically_derived_scripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graphically_derived_scripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Graphically derived scripts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graphically_derived_scripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literacy_and_lexicography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literacy_and_lexicography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Literacy and lexicography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literacy_and_lexicography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Literacy and lexicography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Literacy_and_lexicography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurolinguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurolinguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Neurolinguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurolinguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reform_and_standardization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reform_and_standardization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Reform and standardization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reform_and_standardization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reform and standardization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reform_and_standardization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-People's_Republic_of_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#People's_Republic_of_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>People's Republic of China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-People's_Republic_of_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>South Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>North Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Taiwan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_regional_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_regional_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Other regional standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_regional_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_and_media_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_and_media_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Primary and media sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_and_media_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese characters</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 135 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-135" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">135 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_karakter" title="Chinese karakter – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chinese karakter" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinesische_Schrift" title="Chinesische Schrift – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Chinesische Schrift" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%89%BB%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%93_%E1%8C%BD%E1%88%95%E1%8D%88%E1%89%B5" title="የቻይና ጽሕፈት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የቻይና ጽሕፈት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B7%D8%B9_%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="مقاطع صينية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مقاطع صينية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escritura_chinesa" title="Escritura chinesa – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Escritura chinesa" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0" title="চীনা ভাৱচিত্ৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="চীনা ভাৱচিত্ৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car%C3%A1uteres_chinos" title="Caráuteres chinos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Caráuteres chinos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/China%C3%B1e%27%E1%BA%BD_raiku%C3%A9ra" title="Chinañe'ẽ raikuéra – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Chinañe'ẽ raikuéra" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_yaz%C4%B1s%C4%B1" title="Çin yazısı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çin yazısı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="چین یازیسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چین یازیسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%B0" title="চীনা অক্ষর – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চীনা অক্ষর" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksara_Cina" title="Aksara Cina – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Aksara Cina" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A0n-j%C4%AB" title="Hàn-jī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hàn-jī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D2%99%D1%8B%D1%83%D1%8B" title="Ҡытай яҙыуы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡытай яҙыуы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Кітайскае пісьмо – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кітайскае пісьмо" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Кітайскае пісьмо – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кітайскае пісьмо" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Китайска логограма – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Китайска логограма" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin%C3%A4sische_Schrift" title="Kinäsische Schrift – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Kinäsische Schrift" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82" title="རྒྱ་ཡིག – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རྒྱ་ཡིག" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesko_pismo" title="Kinesko pismo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kinesko pismo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinalun" title="Sinalun – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Sinalun" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D2%AF%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%B3" title="Хитад үзэг – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хитад үзэг" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escriptura_xinesa" title="Escriptura xinesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Escriptura xinesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinulatang_Ininsik" title="Sinulatang Ininsik – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Sinulatang Ininsik" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%ADnsk%C3%A9_znaky" title="Čínské znaky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čínské znaky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A0nz%C3%AC" title="Hànzì – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Hànzì" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arwyddlun_Tsieineaidd" title="Arwyddlun Tsieineaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Arwyddlun Tsieineaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesisk_skrift" title="Kinesisk skrift – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kinesisk skrift" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinesische_Schrift" title="Chinesische Schrift – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chinesische Schrift" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiina_kiri" title="Hiina kiri – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hiina kiri" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%AF_%CF%87%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Κινεζικοί χαρακτήρες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κινεζικοί χαρακτήρες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracteres_chinos" title="Caracteres chinos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Caracteres chinos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88ina_skribo" title="Ĉina skribo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĉina skribo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txinatar_karaktere" title="Txinatar karaktere – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Txinatar karaktere" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="نویسه‌های چینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نویسه‌های چینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaena_akchhar" title="Chaena akchhar – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Chaena akchhar" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinversk_tekn" title="Kinversk tekn – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Kinversk tekn" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caract%C3%A8res_chinois" title="Caractères chinois – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Caractères chinois" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sineeske_karakters" title="Sineeske karakters – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sineeske karakters" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A0nz%C3%AC" title="Hànzì – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Hànzì" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escrita_chinesa" title="Escrita chinesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Escrita chinesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%97" title="字 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="字" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hon-s%E1%B9%B3" title="Hon-sṳ – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Hon-sṳ" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%9C%EC%9E%90" title="한자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="한자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%89%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D5%AB%D6%80" title="Չինական գիր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Չինական գիր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="चीनी भावचित्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चीनी भावचित्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesko_pismo" title="Kinesko pismo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kinesko pismo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karkarakter_nga_Insik" title="Karkarakter nga Insik – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Karkarakter nga Insik" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksara_Han" title="Aksara Han – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aksara Han" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADnverskir_stafir" title="Kínverskir stafir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kínverskir stafir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caratteri_cinesi" title="Caratteri cinesi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Caratteri cinesi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99" title="כתב סיני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כתב סיני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksara_Cinten" title="Aksara Cinten – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Aksara Cinten" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Къытай джазма – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Къытай джазма" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%AC%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ჩინური დამწერლობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩინური დამწერლობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%8B" title="Қытай жазуы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қытай жазуы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideografow_chinek" title="Ideografow chinek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Ideografow chinek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwandiko_wa_Kichina" title="Mwandiko wa Kichina – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mwandiko wa Kichina" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karakt%C3%A8r_chinwa" title="Karaktèr chinwa – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Karaktèr chinwa" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%83%D1%81%D1%83" title="Кытай жазуусу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кытай жазуусу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carateri_cinesc" title="Carateri cinesc – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Carateri cinesc" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B5%E0%BA%99" title="ຕົວອັກສອນຈີນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຕົວອັກສອນຈີນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_Sinicus" title="Character Sinicus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Character Sinicus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B6%C4%ABnie%C5%A1u_rakstz%C4%ABmes" title="Ķīniešu rakstzīmes – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ķīniešu rakstzīmes" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin%C5%B3_ra%C5%A1tas" title="Kinų raštas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kinų raštas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/zdosible%27u" title="zdosible'u – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="zdosible'u" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carater_chines" title="Carater chines – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Carater chines" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADnai_%C3%ADr%C3%A1s" title="Kínai írás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kínai írás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Кинеско писмо – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Кинеско писмо" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin%C3%B4grama" title="Sinôgrama – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Sinôgrama" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ചൈനീസ് അക്ഷരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചൈനീസ് അക്ഷരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AD%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90" title="ჩინური ჭარალუა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჩინური ჭარალუა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2_%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A" title="رموز صيني – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رموز صيني" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulisan_Cina" title="Tulisan Cina – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tulisan Cina" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%88%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A4_%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%8C%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%9B" title="ꯈꯥꯀꯤ ꯃꯌꯦꯛ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯈꯥꯀꯤ ꯃꯌꯦꯛ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1ng-c%C3%AA" title="Háng-cê – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Háng-cê" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D2%AF%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%B3" title="Хятад үсэг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хятад үсэг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="တရုတ်စာလုံးများ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တရုတ်စာလုံးများ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinees_schrift" title="Chinees schrift – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chinees schrift" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF" title="चिनिया लिपि – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="चिनिया लिपि" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97" title="漢字 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="漢字" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Цийн йоза – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Цийн йоза" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjineesk_skraft" title="Sjineesk skraft – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Sjineesk skraft" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiske_tegn" title="Kinesiske tegn – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kinesiske tegn" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanzi" title="Hanzi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Hanzi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escritura_chinesa" title="Escritura chinesa – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Escritura chinesa" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xitoy_yozuvi" title="Xitoy yozuvi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xitoy yozuvi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80" title="ਚੀਨੀ ਲਿਪੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚੀਨੀ ਲਿਪੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B7" title="چینی رسم الخط – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چینی رسم الخط" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%93" title="អក្សរចិន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="អក្សរចិន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car%C3%A0ter_cin%C3%A8is" title="Caràter cinèis – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Caràter cinèis" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chineesche_Schriftteken" title="Chineesche Schriftteken – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Chineesche Schriftteken" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pismo_chi%C5%84skie" title="Pismo chińskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pismo chińskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinograma" title="Sinograma – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sinograma" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_yazuv%C4%B1" title="Çin yazuvı – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Çin yazuvı" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracter_chinez" title="Caracter chinez – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Caracter chinez" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%94_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Китайськоє писаня – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Китайськоє писаня" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Китайское письмо – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Китайское письмо" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%8D" title="Кытай бичигэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Кытай бичигэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheenese_chairacter" title="Cheenese chairacter – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Cheenese chairacter" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simbole_kineze" title="Simbole kineze – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Simbole kineze" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%BB" title="චීන අක්ෂර – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="චීන අක්ෂර" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chinese characters" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B7" title="چيني رسم الخط – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="چيني رسم الخط" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%ADnske_p%C3%ADsmo" title="Čínske písmo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Čínske písmo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitajska_pisava" title="Kitajska pisava – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kitajska pisava" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%C5%84ski_szrajb%C5%AFnek" title="Chiński szrajbůnek – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Chiński szrajbůnek" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="پیتی چینی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پیتی چینی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Кинеско писмо – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кинеско писмо" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesko_pismo" title="Kinesko pismo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kinesko pismo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksara_Tionghoa" title="Aksara Tionghoa – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Aksara Tionghoa" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiinan_kirjoitusj%C3%A4rjestelm%C3%A4" title="Kiinan kirjoitusjärjestelmä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kiinan kirjoitusjärjestelmä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiska_tecken" title="Kinesiska tecken – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kinesiska tecken" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88" title="சீன எழுத்துமுறை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சீன எழுத்துமுறை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iskkiln_icinwiyn" title="Iskkiln icinwiyn – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Iskkiln icinwiyn" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%8B" title="Кытай язуы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Кытай язуы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9A%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BF" title="చైనీస్ లిపి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="చైనీస్ లిపి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99" title="อักษรจีน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อักษรจีน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_karakterleri" title="Çin karakterleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin karakterleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Китайська писемність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Китайська писемність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B7" title="چینی رسم الخط – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چینی رسم الخط" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawgun" title="Sawgun – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Sawgun" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chữ Hán" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97" title="漢字 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="漢字" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsino_nga_agi" title="Tsino nga agi – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Tsino nga agi" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E5%AD%97" title="汉字 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="汉字" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%98" title="כינעזישע שריפט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="כינעזישע שריפט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97" title="漢字 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="漢字" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karakter%C3%AA_%C3%87inki" title="Karakterê Çinki – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Karakterê Çinki" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%97n%C4%97%C5%A1ks_ra%C5%A1ts" title="Kėnėšks rašts – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Kėnėšks rašts" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E5%AD%97" title="汉字 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="汉字" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bbc mw-list-item"><a href="https://bbc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leter_Cina" title="Leter Cina – Batak Toba" lang="bbc" hreflang="bbc" data-title="Leter Cina" data-language-autonym="Batak Toba" data-language-local-name="Batak Toba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Toba</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surat_Cino" title="Surat Cino – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Surat Cino" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulisan_China" title="Tulisan China – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Tulisan China" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kumoring</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%B3%E2%B5%8E%E2%B5%8E%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A2_%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%9B%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8F%E2%B5%A1%E2%B5%89" title="ⴰⴳⵎⵎⴰⵢ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⴳⵎⵎⴰⵢ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Logographic writing system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Hanzi" redirects here. For the Chinese philosopher also known as "Hanzi", see <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a>. For the anthology attributed to him, see <a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi"><i>Han Feizi</i></a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Chinese character" redirects here. For the moth species, see <a href="/wiki/Cilix_glaucata" title="Cilix glaucata"><i>Cilix glaucata</i></a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding:0.25em; background:mistyrose;">Chinese characters<br /><div style="font-weight:normal"></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="padding-top:0.4em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanzi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Hanzi.svg/220px-Hanzi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Hanzi.svg/330px-Hanzi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Hanzi.svg/440px-Hanzi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="350" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">"Chinese character" written in <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified</a> (right) forms</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Script type</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.25em"> Logographic </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Time period</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 13th century BCE</span> – present</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Direction</th><td class="infobox-data"><div><ul><li>Left-to-right</li><li>Top-to-bottom, columns right-to-left</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r979066050">.mw-parser-output ul.cslist,.mw-parser-output ul.sslist{margin:0;padding:0;display:inline-block;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output ul.cslist-embedded{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .cslist li,.mw-parser-output .sslist li{margin:0;padding:0 0.25em 0 0;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:after{content:", "}.mw-parser-output .sslist li:after{content:"; "}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .sslist li:last-child:after{content:none}</style><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese languages">Chinese</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang</a></li></ul> <span class="nowrap"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">among others</a>)</i></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Related scripts</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Parent systems</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="padding-top:0.15em;">(<a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a>)<ul><li>Chinese characters</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Child systems</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen script</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">Khitan small script</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_script" title="Tangut script">Tangut script</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script" title="Yi script">Yi script</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">ISO 15924</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_15924" title="ISO 15924">ISO 15924</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}</style><span class="monospaced">Hani</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734"><span class="monospaced">(500)</span>, Han (Hanzi, Kanji, Hanja)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Unicode alias</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Han</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Unicode_range" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicode range">Unicode range</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U4E00.pdf">U+4E00–U+9FFF</a> <span class="nowrap">CJK Unified Ideographs</span> <span class="nowrap"><i>(<a href="/wiki/CJK_Unified_Ideographs#CJK_Unified_Ideographs_blocks" title="CJK Unified Ideographs">full list</a>)</i></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a></span></span> characters used to write <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>, as well as <span title="Zhuang-language text"><span lang="za"><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">sawndip</a></span></span> characters used to write <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang</a>.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support_(East_Asian)" title="Help:Multilingual support (East Asian)">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Chinese characters</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">汉字</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">漢字</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> characters</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Hànzì</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span lang="zh-Bopo">ㄏㄢˋ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄗˋ</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spelling_in_Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Spelling in Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Hanntzyh</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Han<sup>4</sup>-tzu<sup>4</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Hàn-zìh</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[xân.tsɹ̩̂]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Wu Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="wuu-Latn"><span><sup>5</sup>Hoe-zy</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Romanization</th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Gan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="gan-Latn"><span>Hon<sup>5</sup>-ci<sup>5</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Romanization#Hakka" title="Guangdong Romanization">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Hakka-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="hak-Latn"><span>Hon<sup>55</sup> sii<sup>55</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Hon jih</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Hon3 zi6</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[hɔn˧ tsi˨]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Hàn-jī</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Hàn-jī</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew</a> <a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Romanization#Teochew" title="Guangdong Romanization">Peng'im</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn"><span>Hang<sup>3</sup> ri<sup>7</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a> <a href="/wiki/Foochow_Romanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Foochow Romanized">BUC</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Dong Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="cdo-Latn">Háng-cê</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ltc-Latn">xan<sup>H</sup> dzi<sup>H</sup></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Japanese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">漢字</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hepburn_romanization" title="Hepburn romanization">Revised Hepburn</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ja-Latn">kanji</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kunrei-shiki_romanization" title="Kunrei-shiki romanization">Kunrei-shiki</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ja-Latn">kanzi</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Korean name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko" style="font-size: 1rem;">한자</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko" style="font-size: 1rem;">漢字</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Korean-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ko-Latn">Hanja</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer" title="McCune–Reischauer">McCune–Reischauer</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Korean-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ko-Latn">Hancha</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Vietnamese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div title="Vietnamese-language text"><div lang="vi"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>chữ Hán</li><li>chữ Nho</li><li>Hán tự</li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1n-N%C3%B4m" class="mw-redirect" title="Hán-Nôm">Hán-Nôm</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div title="Vietnamese-language text"><div lang="vi-Hani"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>𡨸漢</li><li>𡨸儒</li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">漢字</span></span></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Zhuang name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang language">Zhuang</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span lang="za" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, sans-serif;">sawgun</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">Sawndip</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Zhuang-language text"><span lang="za-Hani">𭨡倱<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuangxi_Nationalities_Publishing_House1989_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuangxi_Nationalities_Publishing_House1989-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></span></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233430381">.mw-parser-output .characters-body{max-width:22em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-content{padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{background-color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{background-color:lightpink;white-space:nowrap;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .blist ol li,.mw-parser-output .blist ul li{display:list-item;text-align:left;text-indent:hanging 1em;margin-left:1em}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks noprint characters-body"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese characters</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_characters_logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese characters"><img alt="Chinese characters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Chinese_characters_logo.svg/220px-Chinese_characters_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Chinese_characters_logo.svg/330px-Chinese_characters_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Chinese_characters_logo.svg/440px-Chinese_characters_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="177" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nobold"><i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></i></span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Evolution of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_script_styles" title="Chinese script styles">script styles</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_symbols_in_China" title="Neolithic symbols in China">Neolithic symbols in China</a></i></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">Large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">Small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">Bird-worm</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_script" title="Regular script">Regular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_brush_script" title="Flat brush script">Flat brush</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_typography" title="East Asian typography">Modern typefaces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fangsong" title="Fangsong">Fangsong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_typefaces" title="Ming typefaces">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Gothic_typeface" title="East Asian Gothic typeface">Hei</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Properties and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_classification" title="Chinese character classification">classification</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_components" title="Chinese character components">Components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_strokes" title="Chinese character strokes">Strokes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_order" title="Stroke order">order</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_radicals" title="Chinese character radicals">Radicals</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Printing_and_typefaces">Orthography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiu_zixing" title="Jiu zixing"><i>jiu zixing</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xin_zixing" title="Xin zixing"><i>xin zixing</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CJK_characters" title="CJK characters">Digital encoding</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed blist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Collation and standards</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Kangxi Dictionary form"><i>Kangxi Dictionary</i> forms</a> (1716)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Commonly_Used_Standard_Chinese_Characters" title="List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters">Commonly Used Characters</a></i> (PRC, 2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graphemes_of_Commonly-Used_Chinese_Characters" title="List of Graphemes of Commonly-Used Chinese Characters">Commonly-Used Characters</a></i> (Hong Kong, 2007)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Southern_Min_Recommended_Characters" title="Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters">Nan Min Recommended Characters</a></i> (Taiwan, 2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Standard_Form_of_National_Characters" title="Standard Form of National Characters">Standard Form of National Characters</a></i> (Taiwan, 1982)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanji" title="Jōyō kanji"><i>Jōyō</i> kanji</a> (Japan, 2010)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Reforms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_round_of_simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Second round of simplified Chinese characters">second round</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_traditional_and_simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters">debate</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_script_reform" title="Japanese script reform">Japanese script reform</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%ABjitai" title="Kyūjitai">kyūjitai</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Homograph#In_Chinese" title="Homograph">Homographs</a> and readings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings" title="Literary and colloquial readings">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">Kanbun</a></i></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Variant_Chinese_characters" title="Variant Chinese characters">Variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters_of_Empress_Wu" title="Chinese characters of Empress Wu">Zetian characters</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Derived systems</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">man'yōgana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen script</a></li> <li>Khitan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">small</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters_for_transcribing_Slavonic" title="Chinese characters for transcribing Slavonic">Slavonic transcription</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration_of_Chinese" title="Transliteration of Chinese">Transliteration of Chinese</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_characters_sidebar" title="Template:Chinese characters sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_characters_sidebar" title="Template talk:Chinese characters sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_characters_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese characters sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Chinese characters</b><sup id="cite_ref-lead_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lead-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are <a href="/wiki/Logograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Logograph">logographs</a> used <a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">to write the Chinese languages</a> and others from regions historically influenced by <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a>. Chinese characters have a documented history spanning over three millennia, representing one of the four independent inventions of writing accepted by scholars; of these, they comprise the only writing system continuously used since its invention. Over time, the function, style, and means of writing characters have evolved greatly. Unlike letters in alphabets that reflect the sounds of speech, Chinese characters generally represent <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>, the units of meaning in a language. Writing a language's entire vocabulary requires thousands of different characters. Characters are created according to several different principles, where aspects of both shape and pronunciation may be used to indicate the character's meaning. </p><p>The first attested characters are <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle bone inscriptions">oracle bone inscriptions</a> made during the 13th century BCE in what is now <a href="/wiki/Anyang" title="Anyang">Anyang</a>, Henan, as part of divinations conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> royal house. Character forms were originally highly <a href="/wiki/Pictograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictograph">pictographic</a> in style, but evolved over time as writing spread across China. Numerous attempts have been made to reform the script, including the promotion of <a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">small seal script</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> (221–206 BCE). <a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical script</a>, which had matured by the early <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BCE – 220 CE), abstracted the forms of characters—obscuring their pictographic origins in favour of making them easier to write. Following the Han, <a href="/wiki/Regular_script" title="Regular script">regular script</a> emerged as the result of cursive influence on clerical script, and has been the primary style used for characters since. Informed by a long tradition of <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicography</a>, states using Chinese characters have standardized their forms: broadly, <a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">simplified characters</a> are used to write Chinese in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">traditional characters</a> are used in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>. </p><p>After being introduced in order to write <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a>, characters were often adapted to write local languages spoken throughout the <a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>, Chinese characters are known as <a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">kanji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">hanja</a>, and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">chữ Hán</a></span></span> respectively. Writing traditions also emerged for some of the other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">languages of China</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">sawndip</a> script used to write the <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang languages</a> of <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>. Each of these written vernaculars used existing characters to write the language's native vocabulary, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Xenic_vocabularies" title="Sino-Xenic vocabularies">loanwords it borrowed from Chinese</a>. In addition, each invented characters for local use. In written Korean and Vietnamese, Chinese characters have largely been replaced with alphabets, leaving Japanese as the only major non-Chinese language still written using them. </p><p>At the most basic level, characters are composed of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_strokes" title="Chinese character strokes">strokes</a> that are written in a fixed order. Methods of writing characters have historically included being carved into stone, being inked with a brush onto silk, bamboo, or paper, and being printed using <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moveable_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Moveable type">moveable type</a>. Technologies invented since the 19th century allowing for wider use of characters include <a href="/wiki/Telegraph_code" title="Telegraph code">telegraph codes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter">typewriters</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Input_method" title="Input method">input methods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Text_encodings" class="mw-redirect" title="Text encodings">text encodings</a> on computers. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ideograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideograph">Ideograph</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rebus" title="Rebus">Rebus</a></div> <p>Chinese characters are accepted as representing one of four independent inventions of writing in human history.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In each instance, writing evolved from a system using two distinct types of <i><a href="/wiki/Ideograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideograph">ideographs</a></i>. Ideographs could either be <i>pictographs</i> visually depicting objects or concepts, or fixed <i><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">signs</a></i> representing concepts only by shared convention. These systems are classified as <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a>, because the techniques they used were insufficient to carry the meaning of spoken language by themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu20002_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu20002-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various innovations were required for Chinese characters to emerge from proto-writing. Firstly, pictographs became distinct from simple pictures in use and appearance: for example, the pictograph <span lang="und-Hani">大</span>, meaning 'large', was originally a picture of a large man, but one would need to be aware of its specific meaning in order to interpret the sequence <span lang="und-Hani"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B9%BF" class="extiw" title="wikt:鹿">鹿</a></span> as signifying 'large deer', rather than being a picture of a large man and a deer next to one another. Due to this process of abstraction, as well as to make characters easier to write, pictographs gradually became more simplified and regularized—often to the extent that the original objects represented are no longer obvious.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu20003–4_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu20003–4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This proto-writing system was limited to representing a relatively narrow range of ideas with a comparatively small library of symbols. This compelled innovations that allowed for symbols to directly encode spoken language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu20005_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu20005-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In each historical case, this was accomplished by some form of the <a href="/wiki/Rebus" title="Rebus">rebus</a> technique, where the symbol for a word is used to indicate a different word with a similar pronunciation, depending on context.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198859Li202048_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198859Li202048-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allowed for words that lacked a plausible pictographic representation to be written down for the first time. This technique preempted more sophisticated methods of character creation that would further expand the lexicon. The process whereby writing emerged from proto-writing took place over a long period; when the purely pictorial use of symbols disappeared, leaving only those representing spoken words, the process was complete.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200011,_16_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200011,_16-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_classification" title="Chinese character classification">Chinese character classification</a></div> <p>Chinese characters have been used in several different <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a> throughout history. The concept of a writing system includes both the written symbols themselves, called <i><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">graphemes</a></i>—which may include characters, numerals, or punctuation—as well as the rules by which they are used to record language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu20001Handel20194–5_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu20001Handel20194–5-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese characters are <i><a href="/wiki/Logograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Logograph">logographs</a></i>, which are graphemes that represent units of meaning in a language. Specifically, characters represent the smallest units of meaning in a language, which are referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a></i>. Morphemes in Chinese—and therefore the characters used to write them—are nearly always a single syllable in length. In some special cases, characters may denote non-morphemic syllables as well; due to this, <a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">written Chinese</a> is often characterized as <a href="/wiki/Morphosyllabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphosyllabic">morphosyllabic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200022–26Norman198874_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200022–26Norman198874-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Logographs may be contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a>, which generally represent <i><a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a></i>, the distinct units of sound used by speakers of a language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200013–15Coulmas1991104–109_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200013–15Coulmas1991104–109-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their origins in picture-writing, Chinese characters are no longer ideographs capable of representing ideas directly; their comprehension relies on the reader's knowledge of the particular language being written.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi202056–57Boltz19943–4_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi202056–57Boltz19943–4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The areas where Chinese characters were historically used—sometimes collectively termed the <a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a>—have a long tradition of <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicography</a> attempting to explain and refine their use; for most of history, analysis revolved around a model first popularized in the 2nd-century <i><a href="/wiki/Shuowen_Jiezi" title="Shuowen Jiezi">Shuowen Jiezi</a></i> dictionary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201951YongPeng200895–98_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201951YongPeng200895–98-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent models have analysed the methods used to create characters, how characters are structured, and how they function in a given writing system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200019,_162–168_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200019,_162–168-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_analysis">Structural analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Structural analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most characters can be analysed structurally as <i>compounds</i> made of smaller <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_components" title="Chinese character components">components</a></i> (<span lang="zh">部件</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">bùjiàn</span></i>), which are often independent characters in their own right, adjusted to occupy a given position in the compound.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz201157,_60_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz201157,_60-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Components within a character may serve a specific function: <i>phonetic</i> components provide a hint for the character's pronunciation, and <i>semantic</i> components indicate some element of the character's meaning. Components that serve neither function may be classified as pure <i>signs</i> with no particular meaning, other than their presence distinguishing one character from another.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200014–18_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200014–18-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A straightforward structural classification scheme may consist of three pure classes of <i>semantographs</i>, <i>phonographs</i> and <i>signs</i>—having only semantic, phonetic, and form components respectively, as well as classes corresponding to each combination of component types.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYin200797–100Su2014102–111_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYin200797–100Su2014102–111-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003350000000000000♠"></span>3500</span> characters that are frequently used in Standard Chinese, pure semantographs are estimated to be the rarest, accounting for about 5% of the lexicon, followed by pure signs with 18%, and semantic–form and phonetic–form compounds together accounting for 19%. The remaining 58% are phono-semantic compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang2008147–148_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang2008147–148-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chinese palaeographer <a href="/wiki/Qiu_Xigui" title="Qiu Xigui">Qiu Xigui</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="born">b.</abbr> 1935</span>) presents three principles of character function adapted from earlier proposals by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tang_Lan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tang Lan (page does not exist)">Tang Lan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%94%90%E8%98%AD" class="extiw" title="zh:唐蘭">zh</a>]</span> (1901–1979) and <a href="/wiki/Chen_Mengjia" title="Chen Mengjia">Chen Mengjia</a> (1911–1966),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemattè202214_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemattè202214-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <i>semantographs</i> describing all characters whose forms are wholly related to their meaning, regardless of the method by which the meaning was originally depicted, <i>phonographs</i> that include a phonetic component, and <i>loangraphs</i> encompassing existing characters that have been borrowed to write other words. Qiu also acknowledges the existence of character classes that fall outside of these principles, such as pure signs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000163–171_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000163–171-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semantographs">Semantographs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Semantographs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pictographs">Pictographs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pictographs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px;border:none"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Graphical evolution of pictographs</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Evo-r%C3%AC.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Evo-r%C3%AC.svg/300px-Evo-r%C3%AC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Evo-r%C3%AC.svg/450px-Evo-r%C3%AC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Evo-r%C3%AC.svg/600px-Evo-r%C3%AC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="150" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><span lang="zh">日</span> ('Sun')</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Evo-sh%C4%81n.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Evo-sh%C4%81n.svg/300px-Evo-sh%C4%81n.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Evo-sh%C4%81n.svg/450px-Evo-sh%C4%81n.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Evo-sh%C4%81n.svg/600px-Evo-sh%C4%81n.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="150" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><span lang="zh">山</span> ('mountain')</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Evo-xi%C3%A0ng.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Evo-xi%C3%A0ng.svg/300px-Evo-xi%C3%A0ng.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Evo-xi%C3%A0ng.svg/450px-Evo-xi%C3%A0ng.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Evo-xi%C3%A0ng.svg/600px-Evo-xi%C3%A0ng.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><span lang="zh">象</span> ('elephant')</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Most of the oldest characters are <a href="/wiki/Pictograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictograph">pictographs</a> (<span lang="zh">象形</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xiàngxíng</span></i>), representational pictures of physical objects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYongPeng200819_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYongPeng200819-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:日">日</a></span> ('Sun'), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%88#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:月">月</a></span> ('Moon'), and <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%A8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:木">木</a></span> ('tree'). Over time, the forms of pictographs have been simplified in order to make them easier to write.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200044–45Zhou200361_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200044–45Zhou200361-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, modern readers generally cannot deduce what many pictographs were originally meant to resemble; without knowing the context of their origin in picture-writing, they may be interpreted instead as pure signs. However, if a pictograph's use in compounds still reflects its original meaning, as with <span lang="zh">日</span> in <span lang="zh">晴</span> ('clear sky'), it can still be analysed as a semantic component.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200018–19_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200018–19-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000154Norman198868_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000154Norman198868-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pictographs have often been extended from their original meanings to take on additional layers of metaphor and <a href="/wiki/Synecdoche" title="Synecdoche">synecdoche</a>, which sometimes displace the character's original sense. When this process results in excessive ambiguity between distinct senses written with the same character, it is usually resolved by new compounds being derived to represent particular senses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip200039–42_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip200039–42-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indicatives"><span class="anchor" id="Ideographs"></span>Indicatives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Indicatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indicatives (<span lang="zh-Hant">指事</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhǐshì</span></i>), also called <i>simple ideographs</i> or <i>self-explanatory characters</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYongPeng200819_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYongPeng200819-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are visual representations of abstract concepts that lack any tangible form. Examples include <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:上">上</a></span> ('up') and <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:下">下</a></span> ('down')—these characters were originally written as dots placed above and below a line, and later evolved into their present forms with less potential for graphical ambiguity in context.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200046_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200046-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More complex indicatives include <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%87%B8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:凸">凸</a></span> ('convex'), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%87%B9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:凹">凹</a></span> ('concave'), and <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B9%B3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:平">平</a></span> ('flat and level').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198868Qiu2000185–187_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198868Qiu2000185–187-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compound_ideographs">Compound ideographs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Compound ideographs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm/200px--Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="100" data-durationhint="5" data-mwtitle="Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_好.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="960" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="428" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="128" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="214" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="320" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/81/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm/Compound_Chinese_character_demonstration_with_%E5%A5%BD.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="320" /></video></span><figcaption>The compound character <span lang="zh">好</span> illustrated as its component characters <span lang="zh">女</span> and <span lang="zh">子</span> positioned side by side</figcaption></figure> <p>Compound ideographs (<span lang="zh-Hans">会意</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">會意</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">huìyì</span></i>)—also called <i>logical aggregates</i>, <i>associative idea characters</i>, or <i>syssemantographs</i>—combine other characters to convey a new, synthetic meaning. A canonical example is <span lang="zh">明</span> ('bright'), interpreted as the juxtaposition of the two brightest objects in the sky: <span lang="und-Hani">⽇</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'SUN'</span> and <span lang="und-Hani">⽉</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'MOON'</span>, together expressing their shared quality of brightness. Other examples include <span lang="zh">休</span> ('rest'), composed of pictographs <span lang="und-Hani">⼈</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'MAN'</span> and <span lang="und-Hani">⽊</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'TREE'</span>, and <span lang="zh">好</span> ('good'), composed of <span lang="und-Hani">⼥</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'WOMAN'</span> and <span lang="und-Hani">⼦</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'CHILD'</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200015,_190–202_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200015,_190–202-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many traditional examples of compound ideographs are now believed to have actually originated as phono-semantic compounds, made obscure by subsequent changes in pronunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESampsonChen2013261_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESampsonChen2013261-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <i>Shuowen Jiezi</i> describes <span lang="zh">信</span> ('trust') as an ideographic compound of <span lang="und-Hani">⼈</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'MAN'</span> and <span lang="und-Hani">⾔</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'SPEECH'</span>, but modern analyses instead identify it as a phono-semantic compound—though with disagreement as to which component is phonetic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000155_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000155-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Peter_A._Boodberg" title="Peter A. Boodberg">Peter A. Boodberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_G._Boltz" title="William G. Boltz">William G. Boltz</a> go so far as to deny that any compound ideographs were devised in antiquity, maintaining that secondary readings that are now lost are responsible for the apparent absence of phonetic indicators,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994104–110_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994104–110-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but their arguments have been rejected by other scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESampsonChen2013265–268_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESampsonChen2013265–268-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonographs">Phonographs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phonographs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phono-semantic_compounds">Phono-semantic compounds</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phono-semantic compounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phono-semantic compounds (<span lang="zh-Hans">形声</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">形聲</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xíngshēng</span></i>) are composed of at least one semantic component and one phonetic component.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198868_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198868-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may be formed by one of several methods, often by adding a phonetic component to disambiguate a loangraph, or by adding a semantic component to represent a specific extension of a character's meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000154_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000154-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of phono-semantic compounds include <span lang="zh">河</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">hé</span></i>; 'river'), <span lang="zh">湖</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">hú</span></i>; 'lake'), <span lang="zh">流</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">liú</span></i>; 'stream'), <span lang="zh">沖</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">chōng</span></i>; 'surge'), and <span lang="zh">滑</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">huá</span></i>; 'slippery'). Each of these characters have three short strokes on their left-hand side: <span lang="und-Hani">氵</span>, a simplified combining form of <span lang="und-Hani">⽔</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'WATER'</span>. This component serves a semantic function in each example, indicating the character has some meaning related to water. The remainder of each character is its phonetic component: <span lang="zh">湖</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">hú</span></i>) is pronounced identically to <span lang="zh">胡</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">hú</span></i>) in Standard Chinese, <span lang="zh">河</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">hé</span></i>) is pronounced similarly to <span lang="zh">可</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">kě</span></i>), and <span lang="zh">沖</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">chōng</span></i>) is pronounced similarly to <span lang="zh">中</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhōng</span></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttenden2021167–168_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2021167–168-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The phonetic components of most compounds may only provide an approximate pronunciation, even before subsequent sound shifts in the spoken language. Some characters may only have the same initial or final sound of a syllable in common with phonetic components.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2010_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2010-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_series_(Chinese_characters)" title="Phonetic series (Chinese characters)">phonetic series</a> comprises all the characters created using the same phonetic component, which may have diverged significantly in their pronunciations over time. For example, <span lang="zh">茶</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">chá</span></i>; <i><span lang="yue-Latn-jyutping">caa4</span></i>; 'tea') and <span lang="zh">途</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">tú</span></i>; <i><span lang="yue-Latn-jyutping">tou4</span></i>; 'route') are part of the phonetic series of characters using <span lang="zh">余</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">yú</span></i>; <i><span lang="yue-Latn-jyutping">jyu4</span></i>), a literary first-person pronoun. The <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> pronunciations of these characters were similar, but the phonetic component no longer serves as a useful hint for their pronunciation due to subsequent sound shifts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogelsang202151–52_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogelsang202151–52-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loangraphs">Loangraphs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Loangraphs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phenomenon of existing characters being adapted to write other words with similar pronunciations was necessary in the initial development of Chinese writing, and has remained common throughout its subsequent history. Some loangraphs (<span lang="zh">假借</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jiǎjiè</span></i>; 'borrowing') are introduced to represent words previously lacking another written form—this is often the case with abstract grammatical particles such as <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:之">之</a></span> and <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%B6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:其">其</a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000261–265_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000261–265-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process of characters being borrowed as loangraphs should not be conflated with the distinct process of semantic extension, where a word acquires additional senses, which often remain written with the same character. As both processes often result in a single character form being used to write several distinct meanings, loangraphs are often misidentified as being the result of semantic extension, and vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000273–274,_302_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000273–274,_302-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Loangraphs are also used to write words borrowed from other languages, such as the Buddhist terminology introduced to China in antiquity, as well as contemporary non-Chinese words and names. For example, each character in the name <span lang="zh">加拿大</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">Jiānádà</span></i>; 'Canada') is often used as a loangraph for its respective syllable. However, the barrier between a character's pronunciation and meaning is never total: when transcribing into Chinese, loangraphs are often chosen deliberately as to create certain connotations. This is regularly done with corporate brand names: for example, <a href="/wiki/Coca-Cola" title="Coca-Cola">Coca-Cola</a>'s Chinese name is <span lang="zh-Hans">可口可乐</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">可口可樂</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">Kěkǒu Kělè</span></i>; 'delicious enjoyable').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor201430–32_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor201430–32-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey198760_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198760-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan201161_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan201161-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Signs">Signs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Signs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some characters and components are pure <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">signs</a>, whose meaning merely derives from their having a fixed and distinct form. Basic examples of pure signs are found with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">the numerals</a> beyond four, e.g. <span lang="zh">五</span> ('five') and <span lang="zh">八</span> ('eight'), whose forms do not give visual hints to the quantities they represent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000168Norman198860_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000168Norman198860-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_Shuowen_Jiezi_classification">Traditional <i>Shuowen Jiezi</i> classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Traditional Shuowen Jiezi classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Shuowen_Jiezi" title="Shuowen Jiezi">Shuowen Jiezi</a></i> is a character dictionary authored <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 100 CE</span> by the scholar <a href="/wiki/Xu_Shen" title="Xu Shen">Xu Shen</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 58</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 148 CE</span>). In its postface, Xu analyses what he sees as all the methods by which characters are created. Later authors iterated upon Xu's analysis, developing a categorization scheme known as the 'six writings' (<span lang="zh-Hans">六书</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">六書</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">liùshū</span></i>), which identifies every character with one of six categories that had previously been mentioned in the <i>Shuowen Jiezi</i>. For nearly two millennia, this scheme was the primary framework for character analysis used throughout the Sinosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198867–69Handel201948_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198867–69Handel201948-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xu based most of his analysis on examples of Qin seal script that were written down several centuries before his time—these were usually the oldest specimens available to him, though he stated he was aware of the existence of even older forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988170–171_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988170–171-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first five categories are pictographs, indicatives, compound ideographs, phono-semantic compounds, and loangraphs. The sixth category is given by Xu as <span lang="zh">轉注</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhuǎnzhù</span></i>; 'reversed and refocused'); however, its definition is unclear, and it is generally disregarded by modern scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201948–49_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201948–49-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern scholars agree that the theory presented in the <i>Shuowen Jiezi</i> is problematic, failing to fully capture the nature of Chinese writing, both in the present, as well as at the time Xu was writing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000153–154,_161Norman1988170_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000153–154,_161Norman1988170-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditional Chinese lexicography as embodied in the <i>Shuowen Jiezi</i> has suggested implausible etymologies for some characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2013102–108Norman198869_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2013102–108Norman198869-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, several categories are considered to be ill-defined: for example, it is unclear whether characters like <span lang="zh">大</span> ('large') should be classified as pictographs or indicatives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000154_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000154-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, awareness of the 'six writings' model has remained a common component of character literacy, and often serves as a tool for students memorizing characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201943_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201943-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_script_styles" title="Chinese script styles">Chinese script styles</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">History of the Chinese language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform,_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg/180px-Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg/270px-Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg/360px-Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="809" /></a><figcaption>Diagram comparing the abstraction of pictographs in cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Chinese characters – from an 1870 publication by French Egyptologist <a href="/wiki/Gaston_Maspero" title="Gaston Maspero">Gaston Maspero</a><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>A<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The broadest trend in the evolution of Chinese characters over their history has been simplification, both in graphical <i>shape</i> (<span lang="zh">字形</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zìxíng</span></i>), the "external appearances of individual graphs", and in graphical <i>form</i> (<span lang="zh-Hans">字体</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">字體</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zìtǐ</span></i>), "overall changes in the distinguishing features of graphic[al] shape and calligraphic style, [...] in most cases refer[ring] to rather obvious and rather substantial changes".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200044–45_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200044–45-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The traditional notion of an orderly procession of script styles, each suddenly appearing and displacing the one previous, has been disproven by later scholarship and archaeological work. Instead, scripts evolved gradually, with several coexisting in a given area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200059–60,_66_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200059–60,_66-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_invention_narrative">Traditional invention narrative</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Traditional invention narrative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Chinese classics</a> indicate that <a href="/wiki/Chinese_knotting#Recordkeeping" title="Chinese knotting">knotted cords</a> were used to keep records prior to the invention of writing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemattè202279–80_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemattè202279–80-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Works that reference the practice include chapter 80 of the <i><a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>B<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the "<a href="/wiki/Xici" title="Xici">Xici</a> II" commentary to the <i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>C<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one tradition, Chinese characters were invented during the 3rd millennium BCE by <a href="/wiki/Cangjie" title="Cangjie">Cangjie</a>, a scribe of the legendary <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a>. Cangjie is said to have invented symbols called <span lang="zh">字</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">zì</span></i>) due to his frustration with the limitations of knotting, taking inspiration from his study of the tracks of animals, landscapes, and the stars in the sky. On the day that these first characters were created, grain rained down from the sky; that night, the people heard the wailing of ghosts and demons, lamenting that humans could no longer be cheated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYangAn200884–86_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangAn200884–86-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994130–138_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994130–138-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neolithic">Neolithic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Neolithic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_symbols_in_China" title="Neolithic symbols in China">Neolithic symbols in China</a></div> <p>Collections of graphs and pictures have been discovered at the sites of several <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> settlements throughout the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> valley, including <a href="/wiki/Jiahu" title="Jiahu">Jiahu</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6500 BCE</span>), <a href="/wiki/Dadiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Dadiwan">Dadiwan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damaidi" title="Damaidi">Damaidi</a> (6th millennium BCE), and <a href="/wiki/Banpo" title="Banpo">Banpo</a> (5th millennium BCE). Symbols at each site were inscribed or drawn onto artefacts, appearing one at a time and without indicating any greater context. Qiu concludes, "We simply possess no basis for saying that they were already being used to record language."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200031_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200031-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A historical connection with the symbols used by the late Neolithic <a href="/wiki/Dawenkou_culture" title="Dawenkou culture">Dawenkou culture</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 4300</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2600 BCE</span>) in Shandong has been deemed possible by palaeographers, with Qiu concluding that they "cannot be definitively treated as primitive writing, nevertheless they are symbols which resemble most the ancient pictographic script discovered thus far in China... They undoubtedly can be viewed as the forerunners of primitive writing."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200039_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200039-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oracle_bone_script">Oracle bone script</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Oracle bone script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:320px;max-width:320px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Oracle bone script</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg/60px-%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg/90px-%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg/120px-%E5%A4%A9-oracle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">天</span></span><br /><span class="nowrap">'Heaven'</span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%A6%AC-oracle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/%E9%A6%AC-oracle.svg/60px-%E9%A6%AC-oracle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/%E9%A6%AC-oracle.svg/90px-%E9%A6%AC-oracle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/%E9%A6%AC-oracle.svg/120px-%E9%A6%AC-oracle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">馬</span></span><br /><span class="nowrap">'horse'</span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%97%85-oracle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/%E6%97%85-oracle.svg/60px-%E6%97%85-oracle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/%E6%97%85-oracle.svg/90px-%E6%97%85-oracle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/%E6%97%85-oracle.svg/120px-%E6%97%85-oracle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">旅</span></span><br /><span class="nowrap">'travel'</span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A3-oracle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%E6%AD%A3-oracle.svg/60px-%E6%AD%A3-oracle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%E6%AD%A3-oracle.svg/90px-%E6%AD%A3-oracle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%E6%AD%A3-oracle.svg/120px-%E6%AD%A3-oracle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">正</span></span><br /><span class="nowrap">'straight'</span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%9F%8B-oracle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/%E9%9F%8B-oracle.svg/60px-%E9%9F%8B-oracle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/%E9%9F%8B-oracle.svg/90px-%E9%9F%8B-oracle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/%E9%9F%8B-oracle.svg/120px-%E9%9F%8B-oracle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">韋</span></span><br /><span class="nowrap">'leather'</span></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 242px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="width: 240px; height: 300px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -115px; left: -35px; width: 280px"><div class="noresize"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ox scapula inscribed with characters recording the result of divinations – dated c. 1200 BCE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg/280px-Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="431" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg/420px-Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg/560px-Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1733" data-file-height="2669" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg" title="File:Shang dynasty inscribed scapula.jpg"> </a></div>Ox scapula inscribed with characters recording the result of divinations – dated <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200 BCE</span> </div> </div> </div> <p>The oldest attested Chinese writing comprises a body of inscriptions produced during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a> period (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250</span> – 1050 BCE), with the very earliest examples from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Wu_Ding" title="Wu Ding">Wu Ding</a> dated between 1250 and 1200 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199974,_107–108Liu_et_al.2017155–175_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199974,_107–108Liu_et_al.2017155–175-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these inscriptions were made on <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bones</a>—usually either ox <a href="/wiki/Scapula" title="Scapula">scapulae</a> or turtle plastrons—and recorded official <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divinations</a> carried out by the Shang royal house. Contemporaneous inscriptions in a related but distinct style were also made on ritual bronze vessels. This <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">oracle bone script</a> (<span lang="zh">甲骨文</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jiǎgǔwén</span></i>) was first documented in 1899, after specimens were discovered being sold as "dragon bones" for medicinal purposes, with the symbols carved into them identified as early character forms. By 1928, the source of the bones had been traced to a village near <a href="/wiki/Anyang" title="Anyang">Anyang</a> in <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>—discovered to be the site of <a href="/wiki/Yinxu" title="Yinxu">Yin</a>, the final Shang capital—which was excavated by a team led by <a href="/wiki/Li_Ji_(archaeologist)" title="Li Ji (archaeologist)">Li Ji</a> (1896–1979) from the <a href="/wiki/Academia_Sinica" title="Academia Sinica">Academia Sinica</a> between 1928 and 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuChen20126_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuChen20126-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To date, over <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7005150000000000000♠"></span>150<span style="margin-left:.25em;">000</span></span> oracle bone fragments have been found.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKern20101Wilkinson2012681–682_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKern20101Wilkinson2012681–682-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oracle bone inscriptions recorded divinations undertaken to communicate with the spirits of royal ancestors. The inscriptions range from a few characters in length at their shortest, to several dozen at their longest. The Shang king would communicate with his ancestors by means of <a href="/wiki/Scapulimancy" title="Scapulimancy">scapulimancy</a>, inquiring about subjects such as the royal family, military success, and the weather. Inscriptions were made in the divination material itself before and after it had been cracked by exposure to heat; they generally include a record of the questions posed, as well as the answers as interpreted in the cracks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley197828–42_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley197828–42-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKern20101_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKern20101-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A minority of bones feature characters that were inked with a brush before their strokes were incised; the evidence of this also shows that the conventional <a href="/wiki/Stroke_order" title="Stroke order">stroke orders</a> used by later calligraphers had already been established for many characters by this point.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley197846–47_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley197846–47-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oracle bone script is the direct ancestor of later forms of written Chinese. The oldest known inscriptions already represent a well-developed writing system, which suggests an initial emergence predating the late 2nd millennium BCE. Although written Chinese is first attested in official divinations, it is widely believed that writing was also used for other purposes during the Shang, but that the media used in other contexts—likely <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips" title="Bamboo and wooden slips">bamboo and wooden slips</a>—were less durable than bronzes or oracle bones, and have not been preserved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1986424Kern20102_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1986424Kern20102-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zhou_scripts">Zhou scripts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Zhou scripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Chinese bronze inscriptions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips" title="Bamboo and wooden slips">Bamboo and wooden slips</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:320px;max-width:320px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Bronze script</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A9-bronze.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="天" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/%E5%A4%A9-bronze.svg/60px-%E5%A4%A9-bronze.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/%E5%A4%A9-bronze.svg/90px-%E5%A4%A9-bronze.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/%E5%A4%A9-bronze.svg/120px-%E5%A4%A9-bronze.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%A6%AC-bronze.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="馬" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%E9%A6%AC-bronze.svg/60px-%E9%A6%AC-bronze.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%E9%A6%AC-bronze.svg/90px-%E9%A6%AC-bronze.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%E9%A6%AC-bronze.svg/120px-%E9%A6%AC-bronze.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%97%85-bronze.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="旅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/%E6%97%85-bronze.svg/60px-%E6%97%85-bronze.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/%E6%97%85-bronze.svg/90px-%E6%97%85-bronze.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/%E6%97%85-bronze.svg/120px-%E6%97%85-bronze.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A3-bronze.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="正" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/%E6%AD%A3-bronze.svg/60px-%E6%AD%A3-bronze.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/%E6%AD%A3-bronze.svg/90px-%E6%AD%A3-bronze.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/%E6%AD%A3-bronze.svg/120px-%E6%AD%A3-bronze.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%9F%8B-bronze.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="韋" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%E9%9F%8B-bronze.svg/60px-%E9%9F%8B-bronze.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%E9%9F%8B-bronze.svg/90px-%E9%9F%8B-bronze.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/%E9%9F%8B-bronze.svg/120px-%E9%9F%8B-bronze.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 287px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="width: 285px; height: 160px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -30px; left: -6px; width: 300px"><div class="noresize"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shi_Qiang_pan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The Shi Qiang pan, a bronze ritual basin bearing inscriptions describing the deeds and virtues of the first seven Zhou kings – dated c. 900 BCE[64]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Shi_Qiang_pan.jpg/300px-Shi_Qiang_pan.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Shi_Qiang_pan.jpg/450px-Shi_Qiang_pan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Shi_Qiang_pan.jpg/600px-Shi_Qiang_pan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="603" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Shi_Qiang_pan.jpg" title="File:Shi Qiang pan.jpg"> </a></div>The <a href="/wiki/Shi_Qiang_pan" title="Shi Qiang pan">Shi Qiang <i>pan</i></a>, a bronze ritual basin bearing inscriptions describing the deeds and virtues of the first seven Zhou kings – dated <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 900 BCE</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy19911–4_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy19911–4-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div> </div> </div> <p>As early as the Shang, the oracle bone script existed as a simplified form alongside another that was used in bamboo books, in addition to elaborate pictorial forms often used in clan emblems. These other forms have been preserved in what is called <a href="/wiki/Bronze_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze script">bronze script</a> (<span lang="zh">金文</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jīnwén</span></i>), where inscriptions were made using a stylus in a clay mould, which was then used to cast <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_bronzes" title="Chinese ritual bronzes">ritual bronzes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200063–66_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200063–66-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These differences in technique generally resulted in character forms that were less angular in appearance than their oracle bone script counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200088–89_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200088–89-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Study of these bronze inscriptions has revealed that the mainstream script underwent slow, gradual evolution during the late Shang, which continued during the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> – 256 BCE) until assuming the form now known as <a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">small seal script</a> (<span lang="zh">小篆</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xiǎozhuàn</span></i>) within the Zhou <a href="/wiki/State_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Qin">state of Qin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200076–78_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200076–78-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen2003_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2003-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scripts in use during the late Zhou include the <a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">bird-worm seal script</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans">鸟虫书</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">鳥蟲書</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">niǎochóngshū</span></i>), as well as the regional forms used in non-Qin states. Examples of these styles were preserved as variants in the <i>Shuowen Jiezi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouis2003_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouis2003-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, Zhou forms were collectively referred to as <a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">large seal script</a> (<span lang="zh">大篆</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">dàzhuàn</span></i>), a term which has fallen out of favour due to its lack of precision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200077_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200077-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qin_unification_and_small_seal_script">Qin unification and small seal script</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Qin unification and small seal script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">Small seal script</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:320px;max-width:320px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Small seal script</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A9-seal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="天" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%E5%A4%A9-seal.svg/60px-%E5%A4%A9-seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%E5%A4%A9-seal.svg/90px-%E5%A4%A9-seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%E5%A4%A9-seal.svg/120px-%E5%A4%A9-seal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%A6%AC-seal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="馬" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%E9%A6%AC-seal.svg/60px-%E9%A6%AC-seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%E9%A6%AC-seal.svg/90px-%E9%A6%AC-seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%E9%A6%AC-seal.svg/120px-%E9%A6%AC-seal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%97%85-seal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="旅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%E6%97%85-seal.svg/60px-%E6%97%85-seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%E6%97%85-seal.svg/90px-%E6%97%85-seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%E6%97%85-seal.svg/120px-%E6%97%85-seal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A3-seal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="正" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/%E6%AD%A3-seal.svg/60px-%E6%AD%A3-seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/%E6%AD%A3-seal.svg/90px-%E6%AD%A3-seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/%E6%AD%A3-seal.svg/120px-%E6%AD%A3-seal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%9F%8B-seal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="韋" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E9%9F%8B-seal.svg/60px-%E9%9F%8B-seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E9%9F%8B-seal.svg/90px-%E9%9F%8B-seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E9%9F%8B-seal.svg/120px-%E9%9F%8B-seal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Following <a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_wars_of_unification" title="Qin's wars of unification">Qin's conquest</a> of the other Chinese states that culminated in the founding of the imperial <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> in 221 BCE, the Qin small seal script was standardized for use throughout the entire country under the direction of Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 280</span> – 208 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994156_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1994156-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was traditionally believed that Qin scribes only used small seal script, and the later clerical script was a sudden invention during the early Han. However, more than one script was used by Qin scribes: a rectilinear vulgar style had also been in use in Qin for centuries prior to the wars of unification. The popularity of this form grew as writing became more widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000104–107_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000104–107-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clerical_script">Clerical script</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Clerical script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical script</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:320px;max-width:320px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Clerical script</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A9-clerical-han.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="天" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/%E5%A4%A9-clerical-han.svg/60px-%E5%A4%A9-clerical-han.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/%E5%A4%A9-clerical-han.svg/90px-%E5%A4%A9-clerical-han.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/%E5%A4%A9-clerical-han.svg/120px-%E5%A4%A9-clerical-han.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%A6%AC-clerical-han.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="馬" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E9%A6%AC-clerical-han.svg/60px-%E9%A6%AC-clerical-han.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E9%A6%AC-clerical-han.svg/90px-%E9%A6%AC-clerical-han.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E9%A6%AC-clerical-han.svg/120px-%E9%A6%AC-clerical-han.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%97%85-clerical-han.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="旅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%E6%97%85-clerical-han.svg/60px-%E6%97%85-clerical-han.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%E6%97%85-clerical-han.svg/90px-%E6%97%85-clerical-han.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%E6%97%85-clerical-han.svg/120px-%E6%97%85-clerical-han.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A3-clerical-han.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="正" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/%E6%AD%A3-clerical-han.svg/60px-%E6%AD%A3-clerical-han.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/%E6%AD%A3-clerical-han.svg/90px-%E6%AD%A3-clerical-han.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/%E6%AD%A3-clerical-han.svg/120px-%E6%AD%A3-clerical-han.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%9F%8B-clerical-han.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="韋" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/%E9%9F%8B-clerical-han.svg/60px-%E9%9F%8B-clerical-han.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/%E9%9F%8B-clerical-han.svg/90px-%E9%9F%8B-clerical-han.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/%E9%9F%8B-clerical-han.svg/120px-%E9%9F%8B-clerical-han.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <p>By the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 475</span> – 221 BCE), an immature form of <a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">clerical script</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans">隶书</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">隸書</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">lìshū</span></i>) had emerged based on the vulgar form developed within Qin, often called "early clerical" or "proto-clerical".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200059,_119_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200059,_119-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proto-clerical script evolved gradually; by the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BCE – 220 CE), it had arrived at a mature form, also called <span lang="zh">八分</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">bāfēn</span></i>). Bamboo slips discovered during the late 20th century point to this maturation being completed during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu of Han</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 141–87 BCE</span>). This process, called <i><a href="/wiki/Libian" title="Libian">libian</a></i> (<span lang="zh-Hans">隶变</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">隸變</span>), involved character forms being mutated and simplified, with many components being consolidated, substituted, or omitted. In turn, the components themselves were regularized to use fewer, straighter, and more well-defined strokes. The resulting clerical forms largely lacked any of the pictorial qualities that remained in seal script.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000119–124_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000119–124-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around the midpoint of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han">Eastern Han</a> (25–220 CE), a simplified and easier form of clerical script appeared, which Qiu terms 'neo-clerical' (<span lang="zh-Hans">新隶体</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">新隸體</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xīnlìtǐ</span></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000113,_139,_466_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000113,_139,_466-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the Han, this had become the dominant script used by scribes, though clerical script remained in use for formal works, such as engraved <a href="/wiki/Stelae" class="mw-redirect" title="Stelae">stelae</a>. Qiu describes neo-clerical as a transitional form between clerical and <a href="/wiki/Regular_script" title="Regular script">regular script</a> which remained in use through the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> period (220–280 CE) and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000138–139_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000138–139-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cursive_and_semi-cursive">Cursive and semi-cursive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cursive and semi-cursive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:320px;max-width:320px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Cursive script</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A9-caoshu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="天" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E5%A4%A9-caoshu.svg/60px-%E5%A4%A9-caoshu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E5%A4%A9-caoshu.svg/90px-%E5%A4%A9-caoshu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E5%A4%A9-caoshu.svg/120px-%E5%A4%A9-caoshu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%A6%AC-caoshu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="馬" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/%E9%A6%AC-caoshu.svg/60px-%E9%A6%AC-caoshu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/%E9%A6%AC-caoshu.svg/90px-%E9%A6%AC-caoshu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/%E9%A6%AC-caoshu.svg/120px-%E9%A6%AC-caoshu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%97%85-caoshu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="旅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%E6%97%85-caoshu.svg/60px-%E6%97%85-caoshu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%E6%97%85-caoshu.svg/90px-%E6%97%85-caoshu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%E6%97%85-caoshu.svg/120px-%E6%97%85-caoshu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A3-caoshu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="正" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/%E6%AD%A3-caoshu.svg/60px-%E6%AD%A3-caoshu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/%E6%AD%A3-caoshu.svg/90px-%E6%AD%A3-caoshu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/%E6%AD%A3-caoshu.svg/120px-%E6%AD%A3-caoshu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%9F%8B-caoshu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="韋" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/%E9%9F%8B-caoshu.svg/60px-%E9%9F%8B-caoshu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/%E9%9F%8B-caoshu.svg/90px-%E9%9F%8B-caoshu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/%E9%9F%8B-caoshu.svg/120px-%E9%9F%8B-caoshu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive script</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans">草书</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">草書</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">cǎoshū</span></i>) was in use as early as 24 BCE, synthesizing elements of the vulgar writing that had originated in Qin with flowing cursive brushwork. By the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty</a> (266–420), the Han cursive style became known as <span lang="zh">章草</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhāngcǎo</span></i>; 'orderly cursive'), sometimes known in English as 'clerical cursive', 'ancient cursive', or 'draft cursive'. Some attribute this name to the fact that the style was considered more orderly than a later form referred to as <span lang="zh">今草</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">jīncǎo</span></i>; 'modern cursive'), which had first emerged during the Jin and was influenced by semi-cursive and regular script. This later form was exemplified by the work of figures like <a href="/wiki/Wang_Xizhi" title="Wang Xizhi">Wang Xizhi</a> (303–361), who is often regarded as the most important calligrapher in Chinese history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000130–148_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000130–148-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnechtgesChang20141257–1259_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnechtgesChang20141257–1259-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:320px;max-width:320px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Semi-cursive script</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A9-xingshu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="天" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/%E5%A4%A9-xingshu.svg/60px-%E5%A4%A9-xingshu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/%E5%A4%A9-xingshu.svg/90px-%E5%A4%A9-xingshu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/%E5%A4%A9-xingshu.svg/120px-%E5%A4%A9-xingshu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%A6%AC-xingshu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="馬" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/%E9%A6%AC-xingshu.svg/60px-%E9%A6%AC-xingshu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/%E9%A6%AC-xingshu.svg/90px-%E9%A6%AC-xingshu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/%E9%A6%AC-xingshu.svg/120px-%E9%A6%AC-xingshu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%97%85-xingshu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="旅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/%E6%97%85-xingshu.svg/60px-%E6%97%85-xingshu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/%E6%97%85-xingshu.svg/90px-%E6%97%85-xingshu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/%E6%97%85-xingshu.svg/120px-%E6%97%85-xingshu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A3-xingshu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="正" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/%E6%AD%A3-xingshu.svg/60px-%E6%AD%A3-xingshu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/%E6%AD%A3-xingshu.svg/90px-%E6%AD%A3-xingshu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/%E6%AD%A3-xingshu.svg/120px-%E6%AD%A3-xingshu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%9F%8B-xingshu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="韋" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%E9%9F%8B-xingshu.svg/60px-%E9%9F%8B-xingshu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%E9%9F%8B-xingshu.svg/90px-%E9%9F%8B-xingshu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%E9%9F%8B-xingshu.svg/120px-%E9%9F%8B-xingshu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <p>An early form of <a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">semi-cursive script</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans">行书</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">行書</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xíngshū</span></i>; 'running script') can be identified during the late Han, with its development stemming from a cursive form of neo-clerical script. Liu Desheng (<span lang="zh">劉德升</span>; <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 147</span> – 188 CE) is traditionally recognized as the inventor of the semi-cursive style, though accreditations of this kind often indicate a given style's early masters, rather than its earliest practitioners. Later analysis has suggested popular origins for semi-cursive, as opposed to it being an invention of Liu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000113,_139–142_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000113,_139–142-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can be characterized partly as the result of clerical forms being written more quickly, without formal rules of technique or composition: what would be discrete strokes in clerical script frequently flow together instead. The semi-cursive style is commonly adopted in contemporary handwriting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi202051Qiu2000149Norman198870_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi202051Qiu2000149Norman198870-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regular_script">Regular script</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Regular script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Regular_script" title="Regular script">Regular script</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:320px;max-width:320px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Regular script</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A9-kaishu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="天" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%E5%A4%A9-kaishu.svg/60px-%E5%A4%A9-kaishu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%E5%A4%A9-kaishu.svg/90px-%E5%A4%A9-kaishu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%E5%A4%A9-kaishu.svg/120px-%E5%A4%A9-kaishu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%A6%AC-kaishu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="馬" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/%E9%A6%AC-kaishu.svg/60px-%E9%A6%AC-kaishu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/%E9%A6%AC-kaishu.svg/90px-%E9%A6%AC-kaishu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/%E9%A6%AC-kaishu.svg/120px-%E9%A6%AC-kaishu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%97%85-kaishu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="旅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E6%97%85-kaishu.svg/60px-%E6%97%85-kaishu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E6%97%85-kaishu.svg/90px-%E6%97%85-kaishu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E6%97%85-kaishu.svg/120px-%E6%97%85-kaishu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%AD%A3-kaishu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="正" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/%E6%AD%A3-kaishu.svg/60px-%E6%AD%A3-kaishu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/%E6%AD%A3-kaishu.svg/90px-%E6%AD%A3-kaishu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/%E6%AD%A3-kaishu.svg/120px-%E6%AD%A3-kaishu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:62px;max-width:62px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%9F%8B-kaishu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="韋" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/%E9%9F%8B-kaishu.svg/60px-%E9%9F%8B-kaishu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/%E9%9F%8B-kaishu.svg/90px-%E9%9F%8B-kaishu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/%E9%9F%8B-kaishu.svg/120px-%E9%9F%8B-kaishu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A7%93%E8%A7%A3_Digidepo_1287529_00000014(2)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/%E5%A7%93%E8%A7%A3_Digidepo_1287529_00000014%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-%E5%A7%93%E8%A7%A3_Digidepo_1287529_00000014%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/%E5%A7%93%E8%A7%A3_Digidepo_1287529_00000014%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-%E5%A7%93%E8%A7%A3_Digidepo_1287529_00000014%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/%E5%A7%93%E8%A7%A3_Digidepo_1287529_00000014%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-%E5%A7%93%E8%A7%A3_Digidepo_1287529_00000014%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1581" data-file-height="2254" /></a><figcaption>A page from a Song-era publication printed using a regular script style<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>D<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Regular_script" title="Regular script">Regular script</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans">楷书</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">楷書</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">kǎishū</span></i>), based on clerical and semi-cursive forms, is the predominant form in which characters are written and printed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000113,_149_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000113,_149-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its innovations have traditionally been credited to the calligrapher <a href="/wiki/Zhong_Yao" title="Zhong Yao">Zhong Yao</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 151</span> – 230), who was living in the state of <a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a> (220–266); he is often called the "father of regular script".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan2020125_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan2020125-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest surviving writing in regular script comprises copies of Zhong Yao's work, including at least one copy by Wang Xizhi. Characteristics of regular script include the 'pause' (<span lang="zh-Hant">頓</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">dùn</span></i>) technique used to end horizontal strokes, as well as heavy tails on diagonal strokes made going down and to the right. It developed further during the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Jin" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Jin">Eastern Jin</a> (317–420) in the hands of Wang Xizhi and his son <a href="/wiki/Wang_Xianzhi_(calligrapher)" title="Wang Xianzhi (calligrapher)">Wang Xianzhi</a> (344–386).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000143_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000143-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, most Jin-era writers continued to use neo-clerical and semi-cursive styles in their daily writing. It was not until the <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern and Southern period">Northern and Southern period</a> (420–589) that regular script became the predominant form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000144–145_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000144–145-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examinations</a> for the civil service established during the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> (581–618) required test takers to write in <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a> using regular script, which contributed to the prevalence of both throughout later Chinese history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi202041_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi202041-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_strokes" title="Chinese character strokes">Chinese character strokes</a></div> <p>Each character of a text is written within a uniform square allotted for it. As part of the evolution from seal script into clerical script, character components became regularized as discrete series of <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_strokes" title="Chinese character strokes">strokes</a></i> (<span lang="zh-Hans">笔画</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">筆畫</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">bǐhuà</span></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi202054,_196–197Peking_University2004148–152Zhou200388_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi202054,_196–197Peking_University2004148–152Zhou200388-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strokes can be considered both the basic unit of handwriting, as well as the writing system's basic unit of <a href="/wiki/Graphemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphemic">graphemic</a> organization. In clerical and regular script, individual strokes traditionally belong to one of eight categories according to their technique and graphemic function. In what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Principles_of_Yong" title="Eight Principles of Yong">Eight Principles of <i>Yong</i></a>, calligraphers practice their technique using the character <span lang="zh">永</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">yǒng</span></i>; 'eternity'), which can be written with one stroke of each type.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198886Zhou200358Zhang2013_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198886Zhou200358Zhang2013-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In ordinary writing, <span lang="zh">永</span> is now written with five strokes instead of eight, and a system of five basic stroke types is commonly employed in analysis—with certain compound strokes treated as sequences of basic strokes made in a single motion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi200965–66Zhou200388_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi200965–66Zhou200388-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Characters are constructed according to predictable visual patterns. Some components have distinct <i>combining forms</i> when occupying specific positions within a character—for example, the <span lang="und-Hani">⼑</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'KNIFE'</span> component appears as <span lang="und-Hani">刂</span> on the right side of characters, but as <span lang="und-Hani">⺈</span> at the top of characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201943–44_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201943–44-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The order in which components are drawn within a character is fixed. The <a href="/wiki/Stroke_order" title="Stroke order">order in which the strokes of a component are drawn</a> is also largely fixed, but may vary according to several different standards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYin201658–59_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYin201658–59-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyers2019106–116_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyers2019106–116-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is summed up in practice with a few rules of thumb, including that characters are generally assembled from left to right, then from top to bottom, with "enclosing" components started before, then closed after, the components they enclose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi200970_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi200970-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <span lang="und-Hani">永</span> is drawn in the following order: </p> <div class="center" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"> <table class="wikitable" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="3" border="1" style="border-collapse:collapse"> <caption><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1152813436">.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px;white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="sr-only">Sequence and placement of the strokes in <span lang="und-Hani">永</span></span> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Character</th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Stroke </th></tr> <tr> <td scope="rowgroup" rowspan="5"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/%E6%B0%B8-order.webm/300px--%E6%B0%B8-order.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="300" height="300" data-durationhint="8" data-mwtitle="永-order.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/%E6%B0%B8-order.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="300" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/%E6%B0%B8-order.webm/%E6%B0%B8-order.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="300" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/%E6%B0%B8-order.webm/%E6%B0%B8-order.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="144" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/%E6%B0%B8-order.webm/%E6%B0%B8-order.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="240" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <th scope="row">1 </th> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:CJK_Stroke_D_(1).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="㇔" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/CJK_Stroke_D_%281%29.svg/30px-CJK_Stroke_D_%281%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/CJK_Stroke_D_%281%29.svg/45px-CJK_Stroke_D_%281%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/CJK_Stroke_D_%281%29.svg/60px-CJK_Stroke_D_%281%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="148" data-file-height="148" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">2 </th> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:CJK_Stroke_SG.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="㇚" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/CJK_Stroke_SG.svg/30px-CJK_Stroke_SG.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/CJK_Stroke_SG.svg/45px-CJK_Stroke_SG.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/CJK_Stroke_SG.svg/60px-CJK_Stroke_SG.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="148" data-file-height="148" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">3 </th> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Cjk_m_str_ht.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="乛" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Cjk_m_str_ht.svg/30px-Cjk_m_str_ht.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Cjk_m_str_ht.svg/45px-Cjk_m_str_ht.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Cjk_m_str_ht.svg/60px-Cjk_m_str_ht.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">4 </th> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Regular_Style_CJKV_Radical_004_(1).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="丿" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Regular_Style_CJKV_Radical_004_%281%29.svg/30px-Regular_Style_CJKV_Radical_004_%281%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Regular_Style_CJKV_Radical_004_%281%29.svg/45px-Regular_Style_CJKV_Radical_004_%281%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Regular_Style_CJKV_Radical_004_%281%29.svg/60px-Regular_Style_CJKV_Radical_004_%281%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">5 </th> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Cjk_m_str_p.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="㇏" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Cjk_m_str_p.svg/30px-Cjk_m_str_p.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Cjk_m_str_p.svg/45px-Cjk_m_str_p.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Cjk_m_str_p.svg/60px-Cjk_m_str_p.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B0%B8-bw.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A sequence showing the results while writing the character 永 as each stroke is added" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/%E6%B0%B8-bw.png/440px-%E6%B0%B8-bw.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/%E6%B0%B8-bw.png/660px-%E6%B0%B8-bw.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/%E6%B0%B8-bw.png 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="120" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variant_characters">Variant characters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Variant characters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Variant_Chinese_characters" title="Variant Chinese characters">Variant Chinese characters</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Variants_of_Kangxi_radical_213_%27turtle%27.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Variants_of_Kangxi_radical_213_%27turtle%27.svg/310px-Variants_of_Kangxi_radical_213_%27turtle%27.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Variants_of_Kangxi_radical_213_%27turtle%27.svg/465px-Variants_of_Kangxi_radical_213_%27turtle%27.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Variants_of_Kangxi_radical_213_%27turtle%27.svg/620px-Variants_of_Kangxi_radical_213_%27turtle%27.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="93" /></a><figcaption>Variants of the Chinese character for 'turtle', collected <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800</span> from printed sources.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>E<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The traditional form <span lang="zh-Hant">龜</span> (left) is used in Taiwan and Hong Kong. The simplified form <span lang="zh-Hans">龟</span> (not pictured) is used in China, and the simplified form <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">亀</span></span> (top row; third from the right) is used in Japan.</figcaption></figure> <p>Over a character's history, <a href="/wiki/Variant_character_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Variant character form">variant character forms</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans">异体字</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">異體字</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yìtǐzì</span></i>) emerge via several processes. Variant forms have distinct structures, but represent the same morpheme; as such, they can be considered instances of the same underlying character. This is comparable to visually distinct double-storey <span class="nowrap">|<span style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em">a</span>|</span> and single-storey <span class="nowrap">|<span style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em">ɑ</span>|</span> forms both representing the Latin letter <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/A" title="A">A</a>⟩</span>. Variants also emerge for aesthetic reasons, to make handwriting easier, or to correct what the writer perceives to be errors in a character's form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000204–215,_373_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000204–215,_373-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individual components may be replaced with visually, phonetically, or semantically similar alternatives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou200357–60,_63–65_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou200357–60,_63–65-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The boundary between character structure and style—and thus whether forms represent different characters, or are merely variants of the same character—is often non-trivial or unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000297–300,_373_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000297–300,_373-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, prior to the Qin dynasty the character meaning 'bright' was written as either <span title="Literary Chinese-language text"><span lang="lzh">明</span></span> or <span title="Literary Chinese-language text"><span lang="lzh">朙</span></span>—with either <span lang="und-Hani">⽇</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'SUN'</span> or <span title="Literary Chinese-language text"><span lang="lzh">囧</span></span> <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">'WINDOW'</span></span> on the left, and <span lang="und-Hani">⽉</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'MOON'</span> on the right. As part of the Qin programme to standardize small seal script across China, the <span title="Literary Chinese-language text"><span lang="lzh">朙</span></span> form was promoted. Some scribes ignored this, and continued to write the character as <span title="Literary Chinese-language text"><span lang="lzh">明</span></span>. However, the increased usage of <span title="Literary Chinese-language text"><span lang="lzh">朙</span></span> was followed by the proliferation of a third variant: <span title="Literary Chinese-language text"><span lang="lzh">眀</span></span>, with <span lang="und-Hani">⽬</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'EYE'</span> on the left—likely derived as a contraction of <span title="Literary Chinese-language text"><span lang="lzh">朙</span></span>. Ultimately, <span title="Literary Chinese-language text"><span lang="lzh">明</span></span> became the character's standard form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBökset200616,_19_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBökset200616,_19-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Layout">Layout</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Layout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_and_vertical_writing_in_East_Asian_scripts" title="Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts">Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_punctuation" title="Chinese punctuation">Chinese punctuation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_punctuation" title="Japanese punctuation">Japanese punctuation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Korean_punctuation" title="Korean punctuation">Korean punctuation</a></div> <p>From the earliest inscriptions until the 20th century, texts were generally laid out vertically—with characters written from top to bottom in columns, arranged from right to left. <a href="/wiki/Word#Word_boundaries" title="Word">Word boundaries</a> are generally not indicated with <a href="/wiki/Space_(punctuation)" title="Space (punctuation)">spaces</a>. A horizontal writing direction—with characters written from left to right in rows, arranged from top to bottom—only became predominant in the Sinosphere during the 20th century as a result of Western influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi202054Handel201927Keightley197850_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi202054Handel201927Keightley197850-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many publications outside mainland China continue to use the traditional vertical writing direction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014372–373Bachner2014245_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014372–373Bachner2014245-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western influence also resulted in the generalized use of punctuation being widely adopted in print during the 19th and 20th centuries. Prior to this, the context of a passage was considered adequate to guide readers; this was enabled by characters being easier than alphabets to read when written <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Scriptio_continua" title="Scriptio continua">scriptio continua</a></i></span>, due to their more discretized shapes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamHarbsmeier1998175–176TaylorTaylor2014374–375_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamHarbsmeier1998175–176TaylorTaylor2014374–375-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_writing">Methods of writing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Methods of writing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%99%B9%E5%99%B9%E8%8C%B6%E9%A4%90%E5%BB%B32021%E5%B9%B47%E6%9C%88%E5%88%9D%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%88%E9%A4%90%E9%A4%90%E7%89%8C-tweaked.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/%E5%99%B9%E5%99%B9%E8%8C%B6%E9%A4%90%E5%BB%B32021%E5%B9%B47%E6%9C%88%E5%88%9D%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%88%E9%A4%90%E9%A4%90%E7%89%8C-tweaked.jpg/240px-%E5%99%B9%E5%99%B9%E8%8C%B6%E9%A4%90%E5%BB%B32021%E5%B9%B47%E6%9C%88%E5%88%9D%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%88%E9%A4%90%E9%A4%90%E7%89%8C-tweaked.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/%E5%99%B9%E5%99%B9%E8%8C%B6%E9%A4%90%E5%BB%B32021%E5%B9%B47%E6%9C%88%E5%88%9D%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%88%E9%A4%90%E9%A4%90%E7%89%8C-tweaked.jpg/360px-%E5%99%B9%E5%99%B9%E8%8C%B6%E9%A4%90%E5%BB%B32021%E5%B9%B47%E6%9C%88%E5%88%9D%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%88%E9%A4%90%E9%A4%90%E7%89%8C-tweaked.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/%E5%99%B9%E5%99%B9%E8%8C%B6%E9%A4%90%E5%BB%B32021%E5%B9%B47%E6%9C%88%E5%88%9D%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%88%E9%A4%90%E9%A4%90%E7%89%8C-tweaked.jpg/480px-%E5%99%B9%E5%99%B9%E8%8C%B6%E9%A4%90%E5%BB%B32021%E5%B9%B47%E6%9C%88%E5%88%9D%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%88%E9%A4%90%E9%A4%90%E7%89%8C-tweaked.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3041" data-file-height="2224" /></a><figcaption>Ordinary handwriting on a lunch menu in Hong Kong. Here, <span lang="zh">反</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">fǎn</span></i>) is being used as an unofficial short form of <span lang="zh">飯</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">fàn</span></i>; 'meal') by omitting the latter's <span lang="und-Hani">⾷</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'EAT'</span> component.</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest attested Chinese characters were carved into bone, or marked using a stylus in clay moulds used to cast <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_bronzes" title="Chinese ritual bronzes">ritual bronzes</a>. Characters have also been incised into stone, or written in ink onto slips of silk, wood, and bamboo. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_paper" title="History of paper">invention of paper</a> for use as a writing medium occurred during the 1st century CE, and is traditionally credited to <a href="/wiki/Cai_Lun" title="Cai Lun">Cai Lun</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 121 CE</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien200123–25,_38–41_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien200123–25,_38–41-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are numerous styles, or <i>scripts</i> (<span lang="zh-Hans">书</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">書</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">shū</span></i>) in which characters can be written, including the historical forms like seal script and clerical script. Most styles used throughout the Sinosphere originated within China, though they may display regional variation. Styles that have been created outside of China tend to remain localized in their use: these include the Japanese <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Edomoji" title="Edomoji">edomoji</a></i></span> and Vietnamese <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/L%E1%BB%87nh_th%C6%B0" title="Lệnh thư">lệnh thư</a></i></span> scripts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawar2020_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawar2020-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calligraphy">Calligraphy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Calligraphy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Chinese calligraphy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg/180px-This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg/270px-This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg/360px-This_Letter_written_by_Mi_Fei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1227" data-file-height="1567" /></a><figcaption>Chinese calligraphy of mixed styles by Song poet <a href="/wiki/Mi_Fu" title="Mi Fu">Mi Fu</a> (1051–1107)</figcaption></figure> <p>Calligraphy was traditionally one of the <a href="/wiki/Four_arts" title="Four arts">four arts</a> to be mastered by Chinese scholars, considered to be an artful means of expressing thoughts and teachings. Chinese calligraphy typically makes use of an <a href="/wiki/Ink_brush" title="Ink brush">ink brush</a> to write characters. Strict regularity is not required, and character forms may be accentuated to evoke a variety of aesthetic effects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2009180–183_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009180–183-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditional ideals of calligraphic beauty often tie into broader philosophical concepts native to East Asia. For example, aesthetics can be conceptualized using the framework of <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a>, where the extremes of any number of mutually reinforcing dualities are balanced by the calligrapher—such as the duality between strokes made quickly or slowly, between applying ink heavily or lightly, between characters written with symmetrical or asymmetrical forms, and between characters representing concrete or abstract concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2009175–179_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009175–179-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printing_and_typefaces">Printing and typefaces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Printing and typefaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_printing_in_East_Asia" title="History of printing in East Asia">History of printing in East Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_typography" title="East Asian typography">East Asian typography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%9B%A3%E7%8D%84%E9%AB%94%E6%A8%A3%E6%9C%AC.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/%E7%9B%A3%E7%8D%84%E9%AB%94%E6%A8%A3%E6%9C%AC.svg/180px-%E7%9B%A3%E7%8D%84%E9%AB%94%E6%A8%A3%E6%9C%AC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/%E7%9B%A3%E7%8D%84%E9%AB%94%E6%A8%A3%E6%9C%AC.svg/270px-%E7%9B%A3%E7%8D%84%E9%AB%94%E6%A8%A3%E6%9C%AC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/%E7%9B%A3%E7%8D%84%E9%AB%94%E6%A8%A3%E6%9C%AC.svg/360px-%E7%9B%A3%E7%8D%84%E9%AB%94%E6%A8%A3%E6%9C%AC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Sample of <a href="/wiki/Prison_Gothic" title="Prison Gothic">Prison Gothic</a>, a sans-serif typeface</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">Woodblock printing</a> was invented in China between the 6th and 9th centuries,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien2001146–147,_159_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien2001146–147,_159-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by the invention of <a href="/wiki/Moveable_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Moveable type">moveable type</a> by <a href="/wiki/Bi_Sheng" title="Bi Sheng">Bi Sheng</a> (972–1051) during the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien2001201–205_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien2001201–205-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increasing use of print during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> (1368–1644) and <a href="/wiki/Qing" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing">Qing</a> dynasties (1644–1912) led to considerable standardization in character forms, which prefigured later script reforms during the 20th century. This print <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a>, exemplified by the 1716 <i><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i>, was later dubbed the <i><a href="/wiki/Jiu_zixing" title="Jiu zixing">jiu zixing</a></i> ('old character shapes').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYongPeng2008280–282,_293–297_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYongPeng2008280–282,_293–297-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Printed Chinese characters may use different <a href="/wiki/Typeface" title="Typeface">typefaces</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi201362_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi201362-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which there are four broad classes in use:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELunde200823–25_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELunde200823–25-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_typefaces" title="Ming typefaces">Song</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans">宋体</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">宋體</span>) or Ming (<span lang="zh-Hans">明体</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">明體</span>) typefaces—with "Song" generally used with simplified Chinese typefaces, and "Ming" with others—broadly correspond to Western <a href="/wiki/Serif" title="Serif">serif</a> styles. Song typefaces are broadly within the tradition of historical Chinese print; both names for the style refer to eras regarded as high points for printing in the Sinosphere. While type during the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279) generally resembled the regular script style of a particular calligrapher, most modern Song typefaces are intended for general purpose use and emphasize neutrality in their design.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Gothic_typeface" title="East Asian Gothic typeface">Sans-serif typefaces</a> are called 'black form' (<span lang="zh-Hans">黑体</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">黑體</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">hēitǐ</span></i>) in Chinese and 'Gothic' (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">ゴシック体</span></span>) in Japanese. Sans-serif strokes are rendered as simple lines of even thickness.</li> <li>"Kai" typefaces (<span lang="zh-Hans">楷体</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">楷體</span>) imitate handwritten regular script.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fangsong" title="Fangsong">Fangsong</a> typefaces (<span lang="zh-Hans">仿宋体</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">仿宋體</span>), called "Song" in Japan, correspond to semi-<a href="/wiki/Script_typeface" title="Script typeface">script styles</a> in the Western paradigm.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_with_computers">Use with computers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Use with computers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_IT" title="Chinese character IT">Chinese character IT</a></div> <p>Before computers became ubiquitous, earlier electro-mechanical communications devices like <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraphs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter">typewriters</a> were originally designed for use with alphabets, often by means of alphabetic <a href="/wiki/Text_encoding" class="mw-redirect" title="Text encoding">text encodings</a> like <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> and <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a>. Adapting these technologies for use with a writing system comprising thousands of distinct characters was non-trivial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESu2014218_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESu2014218-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney201725_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney201725-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Input_methods">Input methods</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Input methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_input_method" title="Chinese input method">Chinese input method</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_input_method" title="Japanese input method">Japanese input method</a></div> <p>Chinese characters are predominantly input on computers using a standard keyboard. Many input methods (IMEs) are phonetic, where typists enter characters according to schemes like <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">bopomofo</a> for Mandarin, <a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a> for Cantonese, or <a href="/wiki/Hepburn_romanization" title="Hepburn romanization">Hepburn</a> for Japanese. For example, <span lang="zh">香港</span> ('Hong Kong') could be input as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">xiang1gang3</code> using pinyin, or as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">hoeng1gong2</code> using Jyutping.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020152–153_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020152–153-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Character input methods may also be based on form, using the shape of characters and existing rules of handwriting to assign unique codes to each character, potentially increasing the speed of typing. Popular form-based input methods include <a href="/wiki/Wubi_method" title="Wubi method">Wubi</a> on the mainland, and <a href="/wiki/Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie</a>—named after the mythological inventor of writing—in Taiwan and Hong Kong.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020152–153_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020152–153-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often, unnecessary parts are omitted from the encoding according to predictable rules. For example, <span lang="zh">疆</span> ('border') is encoded using the Cangjie method as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">NGMWM</code>, which corresponds to the components <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh" style="font-style: normal;"><code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">弓土一田一</code></span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhang2016422_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhang2016422-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contextual constraints may be used to improve candidate character selection. When ignoring tones, <span lang="zh-Hans">大学</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">大學</span> and <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">大雪</span></span> are both transcribed as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">daxue</code>; the system may prioritize which candidate should appear first based on the surrounding context.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESu2014222_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESu2014222-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Encoding_and_interchange">Encoding and interchange</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Encoding and interchange"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_encoding" title="Chinese character encoding">Chinese character encoding</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Han_unification" title="Han unification">Han unification</a> and <a href="/wiki/CJK_Unified_Ideographs" title="CJK Unified Ideographs">CJK Unified Ideographs</a></div> <p>While special text encodings for Chinese characters were introduced prior to its popularization, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Unicode_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="The Unicode Standard">The Unicode Standard</a></i> is the predominant text encoding worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELunde2008193_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELunde2008193-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Unicode_Consortium" title="Unicode Consortium">Unicode Consortium</a>, each distinct graph is assigned a number in the standard, but specifying its appearance or the particular <a href="/wiki/Allograph" title="Allograph">allograph</a> used is a choice made by the engine rendering the text.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>F<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unicode's <a href="/wiki/Basic_Multilingual_Plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Multilingual Plane">Basic Multilingual Plane</a> (BMP) represents the standard's 2<sup>16</sup> smallest code points. Of these, <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7004209920000000000♠"></span>20<span style="margin-left:.25em;">992</span></span> (or 32%) are assigned to <a href="/wiki/CJK_Unified_Ideographs" title="CJK Unified Ideographs">CJK Unified Ideographs</a>, a designation comprising characters used in each of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a>. As of version 16.0, Unicode defines a total of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7004986820000000000♠"></span>98<span style="margin-left:.25em;">682</span></span> Chinese characters.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>G<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary_and_adaptation">Vocabulary and adaptation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Vocabulary and adaptation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Adoption of Chinese literary culture</a></div> <p>Writing first emerged during the historical stage of the Chinese language known as <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>. Most characters correspond to morphemes that originally functioned as stand-alone Old Chinese words.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198874–75_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198874–75-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a> is the form of written Chinese used in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">classic works</a> of Chinese literature between roughly the 5th century BCE and the 2nd century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogelsang2021xvii–xix_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogelsang2021xvii–xix-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form of the language was imitated by later authors, even as it began to diverge from the language they spoke. This later form, referred to as "Literary Chinese", remained the predominant written language in China until the 20th century. Its use in the Sinosphere was loosely analogous to that of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> in pre-modern Europe. While it was not static over time, Literary Chinese retained many properties of spoken Old Chinese. Informed by the local spoken <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernaculars</a>, texts were read aloud using <a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings" title="Literary and colloquial readings">literary and colloquial readings</a> that varied by region. Over time, sound mergers created ambiguities in vernacular speech as more words became homophonic. This ambiguity was often reduced through the introduction of multi-syllable <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compound words</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson201222_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson201222-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which comprise much of the vocabulary in modern varieties of Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETongLiuMcBride-Chang2009203_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETongLiuMcBride-Chang2009203-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYip200018_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYip200018-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over time, use of Literary Chinese spread to neighbouring countries, including Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. Alongside other aspects of Chinese culture, local elites adopted writing for record-keeping, histories, and official communications, forming what is sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201911–12Kornicki201815–16_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201911–12Kornicki201815–16-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excepting hypotheses by some linguists of the latter two sharing a common ancestor, Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese each belong to different <a href="/wiki/Language_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Language families">language families</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201928,_69,_126,_169_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201928,_69,_126,_169-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and tend to function differently from one another. Reading systems were devised to enable non-Chinese speakers to interpret Literary Chinese texts in terms of their native language, a phenomenon that has been variously described as either a form of diglossia, as <i>reading by gloss</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKin2021XII_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKin2021XII-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or as a process of translation into and out of Chinese. Compared to other traditions that wrote using alphabets or syllabaries, the literary culture that developed in this context was less directly tied to a specific spoken language. This is exemplified by the cross-linguistic phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Brushtalk" title="Brushtalk">brushtalk</a>, where mutual literacy allowed speakers of different languages to engage in face-to-face conversations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenecke2014204–216_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenecke2014204–216-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki201872–73_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki201872–73-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the introduction of Literary Chinese, characters were later adapted to write many non-Chinese languages spoken throughout the Sinosphere. These new writing systems used characters to write both native vocabulary and the numerous <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> each language had borrowed from Chinese, collectively referred to as <a href="/wiki/Sino-Xenic_vocabulary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Xenic vocabulary">Sino-Xenic vocabulary</a>. Characters may have native readings, Sino-Xenic readings, or both.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019212_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019212-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comparison of Sino-Xenic vocabulary across the Sinosphere has been useful in the reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese_phonology" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Chinese phonology">Middle Chinese phonology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2018168_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2018168-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Literary Chinese was used in Vietnam during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_under_Chinese_rule" title="Vietnam under Chinese rule">millennium of Chinese rule</a> that began in 111 BCE. By the 15th century, a system that adapted characters to write Vietnamese called <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a></span></span> had fully matured.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019124–125,_133_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019124–125,_133-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2nd century BCE is the earliest possible period for the introduction of writing to Korea; the oldest surviving manuscripts in the country date to the early 5th century CE. Also during the 5th century, writing spread from Korea to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201964–65_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201964–65-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Characters were being used to write both Korean and Japanese by the 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki201857_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki201857-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 20th century, characters had largely been replaced with alphabets designed to write Vietnamese and Korean. This leaves Japanese as the only major non-Sinitic language typically written using Chinese characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas1997136–138_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas1997136–138-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_and_vernacular_Chinese">Literary and vernacular Chinese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Literary and vernacular Chinese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reconstructions_of_Old_Chinese" title="Reconstructions of Old Chinese">Reconstructions of Old Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Varieties of Chinese</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chineseprimer3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Line drawings of various ordinary objects such as books, baskets, buildings, and musical instruments are displayed beside their corresponding Chinese characters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chineseprimer3.png/180px-Chineseprimer3.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chineseprimer3.png/270px-Chineseprimer3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chineseprimer3.png/360px-Chineseprimer3.png 2x" data-file-width="835" data-file-height="1273" /></a><figcaption>Excerpt from a 1436 primer on Chinese characters<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1996205_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1996205-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Words in Classical Chinese were generally a single character in length.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198858_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198858-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated 25–30% of the vocabulary used in Classical Chinese texts consists of two-character words.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson201222–23_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson201222–23-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, the introduction of multi-syllable vocabulary into vernacular varieties of Chinese was encouraged by phonetic shifts that increased the number of homophones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198886–87_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198886–87-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common process of Chinese word formation after the Classical period has been to create compounds of existing words. Words have also been created by appending <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> to words, by <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a>, and by borrowing words from other languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988155–156_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988155–156-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While multi-syllable words are generally written with one character per syllable, abbreviations are occasionally used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198874_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198874-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <span lang="zh">二十</span> (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">èrshí</span></i>; 'twenty') may be written as the contracted form <span lang="zh">廿</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201934_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201934-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sometimes, different morphemes come to be represented by characters with identical shapes. For example, <span lang="und-Hani">行</span> may represent either 'road' (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">xíng</span></i>) or the extended sense of 'row' (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">háng</span></i>): these morphemes are ultimately <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> that diverged in pronunciation but remained written with the same character. However, Qiu reserves the term <i>homograph</i> to describe identically shaped characters with different meanings that emerge via processes other than semantic extension. An example homograph is <span lang="und-Hani">铊</span>; <span lang="und-Hani">鉈</span>, which originally meant 'weight used at a steelyard' (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">tuó</span></i>). In the 20th century, this character was created again with the meaning '<a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a>' (<i><span lang="zh-Latn">tā</span></i>). Both of these characters are phono-semantic compounds with <span lang="und-Hani">⾦</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'GOLD'</span> as the semantic component and <span lang="und-Hani">它</span> as the phonetic component, but the words represented by each are not related.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000301–302_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000301–302-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are a number of 'dialect characters' (<span lang="zh">方言字</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">fāngyánzì</span></i>) that are not used in standard <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a>, but reflect the vocabulary of other spoken varieties. The most complete example of an orthography based on a variety other than <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> is <a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a>. A common Cantonese character is <span lang="zh">冇</span> (<i><span lang="yue-Latn-jyutping">mou5</span></i>; 'to not have'), derived by removing two strokes from <span lang="zh">有</span> (<i><span lang="yue-Latn-jyutping">jau5</span></i>; 'to have').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201959_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201959-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is common to use standard characters to transcribe previously unwritten words in Chinese dialects when obvious cognates exist. When no obvious cognate exists due to factors like irregular sound changes, semantic drift, or an origin in a non-Chinese language, characters are often borrowed or invented to transcribe the word—either ad hoc, or according to existing principles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheungBauer200212–20_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheungBauer200212–20-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These new characters are generally phono-semantic compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198875–77_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198875–77-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese">Japanese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Japanese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1245169151">.mw-parser-output .jawriting-sidebar{width:20em}.mw-parser-output .jawriting-header{border-top:1px solid #aaa}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks jawriting-sidebar hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%9B%B8.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Japanese writing"><img alt="Japanese writing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/%E6%9B%B8.svg/75px-%E6%9B%B8.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/%E6%9B%B8.svg/113px-%E6%9B%B8.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/%E6%9B%B8.svg/150px-%E6%9B%B8.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_writing_system" title="Japanese writing system">Japanese writing</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading jawriting-header"> Components</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_order" title="Stroke order">Stroke order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_Japanese_kanji_radicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Table of Japanese kanji radicals">Radicals</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanji" title="Jōyō kanji">Jōyō kanji</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_j%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanji" title="List of jōyō kanji">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%8Diku_kanji" title="Kyōiku kanji">Kyōiku kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanji" title="Tōyō kanji">Tōyō kanji</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinmeiy%C5%8D_kanji" title="Jinmeiyō kanji">Jinmeiyō kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hy%C5%8Dgai_kanji" title="Hyōgai kanji">Hyōgai kanji</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hentaigana" title="Hentaigana">Hentaigana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dgana" title="Sōgana">Sōgana</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goj%C5%ABon" title="Gojūon">Gojūon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_typographic_symbols" title="List of Japanese typographic symbols">Typographic symbols</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_punctuation" title="Japanese punctuation">Japanese punctuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iteration_mark#Japanese" title="Iteration mark">Iteration mark</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading jawriting-header"> Uses</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Syllabograms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furigana" title="Furigana">Furigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okurigana" title="Okurigana">Okurigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Braille</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading jawriting-header"> Transliteration</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese" title="Romanization of Japanese">Rōmaji</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepburn_romanization" title="Hepburn romanization">Hepburn</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kunrei-shiki_romanization" title="Kunrei-shiki romanization">Kunrei-shiki</a> / ISO 3602 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nihon-shiki_romanization" title="Nihon-shiki romanization">Nihon-shiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JSL_romanization" title="JSL romanization">JSL</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W%C4%81puro_r%C5%8Dmaji" title="Wāpuro rōmaji">Wāpuro</a> (keyboard input)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Japanese" title="Cyrillization of Japanese">Cyrillization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polivanov_system" title="Polivanov system">Polivanov system</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Japanese_writing" title="Template:Japanese writing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Japanese_writing" title="Template talk:Japanese writing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Japanese_writing" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Japanese writing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In Japanese, Chinese characters are referred to as <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">kanji</i></span>. Beginning in the <a href="/wiki/Nara_period" title="Nara period">Nara period</a> (710–794), readers and writers of <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">kanbun</a></i></span>—the Japanese term for Literary Chinese writing—began employing a system of reading techniques and annotations called <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">kundoku</i></span>. When reading, Japanese speakers would adapt the syntax and vocabulary of Literary Chinese texts to reflect their Japanese-language equivalents. Writing essentially involved the inverse of this process, and resulted in ordinary Literary Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi202088_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi202088-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When adapted to write Japanese, characters were used to represent both <a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Japanese vocabulary">Sino-Japanese vocabulary</a> loaned from Chinese, as well as the corresponding native synonyms. Most kanji were subject to both borrowing processes, and as a result have both Sino-Japanese and native readings, known as <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/On%27yomi" title="On'yomi">on'yomi</a></i></span> and <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kun%27yomi" title="Kun'yomi">kun'yomi</a></i></span> respectively. Moreover, kanji may have multiple readings of either kind. Distinct classes of <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">on'yomi</i></span> were borrowed into Japanese at different points in time from different varieties of Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991122–129_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991122–129-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_writing_system" title="Japanese writing system">Japanese writing system</a> is a mixed script, and has also incorporated syllabaries called <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">kana</a></i></span> to represent phonetic units called <a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">moras</a>, rather than morphemes. Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a> (1868–1912), writers used certain kanji to represent their sound values instead, in a system known as <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">man'yōgana</a></i></span>. Starting in the 9th century, specific <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">man'yōgana</i></span> were graphically simplified to create two distinct syllabaries called <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a></i></span> and <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a></i></span>, which slowly replaced the earlier convention. Modern Japanese retains the use of kanji to represent most <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">word stems</a>, while <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">kana</i></span> syllabograms are generally used for grammatical affixes, particles, and loanwords. The forms of <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">hiragana</i></span> and <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">katakana</i></span> are visually distinct from one another, owing in large part to different methods of simplification: <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">katakana</i></span> were derived from smaller components of each <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">man'yōgana</i></span>, while <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">hiragana</i></span> were derived from the cursive forms of <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">man'yōgana</i></span> in their entirety. In addition, the <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">hiragana</i></span> and <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">katakana</i></span> for some moras were derived from different <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">man'yōgana</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991129–132_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991129–132-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Characters invented for Japanese-language use are called <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kokuji" title="Kokuji">kokuji</a></i></span>. The methods employed to create <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">kokuji</i></span> are equivalent to those used by Chinese-original characters, though most are ideographic compounds. For example, <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">峠</span></span> (<span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">tōge</i></span>; 'mountain pass') is a compound <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">kokuji</i></span> composed of <span lang="und-Hani">⼭</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'MOUNTAIN'</span>, <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">上</span></span> <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">'ABOVE'</span></span>, and <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">下</span></span> <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">'BELOW'</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019192–196_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019192–196-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While characters used to write Chinese are monosyllabic, many kanji have multi-syllable readings. For example, the kanji <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">刀</span></span> has a native <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">kun'yomi</i></span> reading of <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">katana</i></span>. In different contexts, it can also be read with the <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">on'yomi</i></span> reading <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">tō</i></span>, such as in the Chinese loanword <span class="nowrap"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">日本刀</span></span></span> (<span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">nihontō</i></span>; 'Japanese sword'), with a pronunciation corresponding to that in Chinese at the time of borrowing. Prior to the universal adoption of <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">katakana</i></span>, loanwords were typically written with unrelated kanji with <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">on'yomi</i></span> readings matching the syllables in the loanword. These spellings are called <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ateji" title="Ateji">ateji</a></i></span>: for example, <span class="nowrap"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">亜米利加</span></span> (<span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">Amerika</i></span>)</span> was the <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">ateji</i></span> spelling of 'America', now rendered as <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">アメリカ</span></span>. As opposed to <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">man'yōgana</i></span> used solely for their pronunciation, <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">ateji</i></span> still corresponded to specific Japanese words. Some are still in use: the official list of <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanji" title="Jōyō kanji"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">jōyō</i></span> kanji</a> includes 106 <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">ateji</i></span> readings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014275–279_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014275–279-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Korean">Korean</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Korean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></div> <p>In Korean, Chinese characters are referred to as <i>hanja</i>. Literary Chinese may have been written in Korea as early as the 2nd century BCE. During Korea's <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms</a> period (57 BCE – 668 CE), characters were also used to write <span title="Korean-language romanization"><i lang="ko-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">idu</a></i></span>, a form of Korean-language literature that mostly made use of <a href="/wiki/Sino-Korean_vocabulary" title="Sino-Korean vocabulary">Sino-Korean vocabulary</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a> period (918–1392), Korean writers developed a system of phonetic annotations for Literary Chinese called <span title="Korean-language romanization"><i lang="ko-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gugyeol" title="Gugyeol">gugyeol</a></i></span>, comparable to <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">kundoku</i></span> in Japan, though it only entered widespread use during the later <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon</a> period (1392–1897).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi202078–80_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi202078–80-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">hangul</a> alphabet was invented by the Joseon king <a href="/wiki/Sejong" class="mw-redirect" title="Sejong">Sejong</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1418–1450</span>) in 1443, it was not adopted by the Korean literati and was relegated to use in glosses for Literary Chinese texts until the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2004189–194_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2004189–194-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the Korean lexicon consists of Chinese loanwords, especially technical and academic vocabulary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199749TaylorTaylor2014435_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199749TaylorTaylor2014435-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While hanja were usually only used to write this Sino-Korean vocabulary, there is evidence that vernacular readings were sometimes used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2018168_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2018168-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to the other written vernaculars, very few characters were invented to write Korean words; these are called <i><a href="/wiki/Gukja" class="mw-redirect" title="Gukja">gukja</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201988,_102_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201988,_102-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Korean was written either using a mixed script of hangul and hanja, or only using hangul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019112–113Hannas199760–61_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019112–113Hannas199760–61-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>'s occupation of Korea in 1945, the total replacement of hanja with hangul was advocated throughout the country as part of a broader "purification movement" of the national language and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199764–66_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199764–66-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, due to the lack of tones in spoken Korean, there are many Sino-Korean words that are homophones with identical hangul spellings. For example, the phonetic dictionary entry for <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">기사</span></span> (<span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">gisa</i></span>) yields more than 30 different entries. This ambiguity had historically been resolved by also including the associated hanja. While still sometimes used for Sino-Korean vocabulary, it is much rarer for native Korean words to be written using hanja.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198879_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198879-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When learning new characters, Korean students are instructed to associate each one with both its Sino-Korean pronunciation, as well as a native Korean synonym.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201975–82_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201975–82-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1152813436"><span class="sr-only">Example Korean dictionary listings</span> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" scope="col">Hanja </th> <th colspan="2" scope="colgroup">Hangul </th> <th rowspan="2" scope="col">Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Native translation</th> <th scope="col">Sino-Korean </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span lang="ko"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4#Korean" class="extiw" title="wikt:水">水</a></span></span> </th> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">물</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">mul</i></span></td> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">수</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">su</i></span></td> <td>'water' </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span lang="ko"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA#Korean" class="extiw" title="wikt:人">人</a></span></span> </th> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">사람</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">saram</i></span></td> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">인</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">in</i></span></td> <td>'person' </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span lang="ko"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7#Korean" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a></span></span> </th> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">큰</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">keun</i></span></td> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">대</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">dae</i></span></td> <td>'big' </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span lang="ko"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8F#Korean" class="extiw" title="wikt:小">小</a></span></span> </th> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">작을</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">jakeul</i></span></td> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">소</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">so</i></span></td> <td>'small' </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span lang="ko"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B#Korean" class="extiw" title="wikt:下">下</a></span></span> </th> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">아래</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">arae</i></span></td> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">하</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">ha</i></span></td> <td>'down' </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span lang="ko"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%B6#Korean" class="extiw" title="wikt:父">父</a></span></span> </th> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">아비</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">abi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">부</span></span>; <span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">bu</i></span></td> <td>'father' </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vietnamese">Vietnamese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Vietnamese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">Literary Chinese in Vietnam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The characters ｢𤾓𢆥𥪞𡎝𠊛些．𡨸才𡨸命窖𱺵恄𠑬𠑬．｣ corresponding to "Trăm năm trong cõi người ta. Chữ Tài chữ Mệnh khéo là ghét nhau." in the Vietnamese alphabet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg/240px-Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg/360px-Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg/480px-Tale_of_Kieu_parallel_text.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>The first two lines of the 19th-century Vietnamese epic poem <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Kieu" title="The Tale of Kieu">The Tale of Kieu</a></i>, written in both <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi">chữ Nôm</span></span> and the Vietnamese alphabet <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#149f78; color:black;"> </span> Borrowed characters representing Sino-Vietnamese words</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7671b4; color:black;"> </span> Borrowed characters representing native Vietnamese words</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#da5f00; color:black;"> </span> Invented <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi">chữ Nôm</span></span> representing native Vietnamese words</div></figcaption></figure> <p>In Vietnamese, Chinese characters are referred to as <i><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">chữ Hán</a></span></span></i> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">𡨸漢</span></span>), <i><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi">chữ Nho</span></span></i> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">𡨸儒</span></span>; '<a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> characters'), or <i><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi">Hán tự</span></span></i> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">漢字</span></span>). Literary Chinese was used for all formal writing in Vietnam until the modern era,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019124–126Kin2021XI_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019124–126Kin2021XI-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> having first acquired official status in 1010. Literary Chinese written by Vietnamese authors is first attested in the late 10th century, though the local practice of writing is likely several centuries older.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199773_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199773-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Characters used to write Vietnamese called <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a></span></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">𡨸喃</span></span>) are first attested in an inscription dated to 1209 made at the site of a pagoda.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723–24_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723–24-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A mature <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi">chữ Nôm</span></span> script had likely emerged by the 13th century, and was initially used to record Vietnamese folk literature. Some <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi">chữ Nôm</span></span> characters are phono-semantic compounds corresponding to spoken Vietnamese syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki201863_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki201863-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another technique with no equivalent in China created <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi">chữ Nôm</span></span> compounds using two phonetic components. This was done because Vietnamese phonology included consonant clusters not found in Chinese, and were thus poorly approximated by the sound values of borrowed characters. Compounds used components with two distinct consonant sounds to specify the cluster, e.g. <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">𢁋</span></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">blăng</i></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 'Moon') was created as a compound of <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">巴</span></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ba</i></span>) and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">陵</span></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">lăng</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019145,_150_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019145,_150-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a system, <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi">chữ Nôm</span></span> was highly complex, and the literacy rate among the Vietnamese population never exceeded 5%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197719_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197719-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Literary Chinese and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi">chữ Nôm</span></span> fell out of use during the French colonial period, and were gradually replaced by the Latin-based <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a>. Following the end of colonial rule in 1954, the Vietnamese alphabet has been sole official writing system in Vietnam, and is used exclusively in Vietnamese-language media.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991113–115Hannas199773,_84–87_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991113–115Hannas199773,_84–87-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_languages">Other languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several minority languages of <a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southwest_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest China">Southwest China</a> have been written with scripts using both borrowed and locally created characters. The most well-documented of these is the <span title="Zhuang-language text"><span lang="za"><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">sawndip</a></span></span> script for the <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang languages</a> of <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>. While little is known about its early development, a tradition of vernacular Zhuang writing likely first emerged during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907). Modern scholarship characterizes <span title="Zhuang-language text"><span lang="za">sawndip</span></span> writing as a network of regional traditions that have mutually influenced one another while maintaining their local characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019239–240_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019239–240-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Vietnamese, some invented Zhuang characters are phonetic–phonetic compounds, though not primarily ones intended to describe consonant clusters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019251–252_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019251–252-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the Chinese government encouraging its replacement with a Latin-based <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang alphabet">Zhuang alphabet</a>, <span title="Zhuang-language text"><span lang="za">sawndip</span></span> remains in use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019231,_234–235Zhou2003140–142,_151_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019231,_234–235Zhou2003140–142,_151-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other non-Sinitic <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">languages of China</a> written with Chinese characters include <a href="/wiki/Hmongic_languages" title="Hmongic languages">Miao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mienic_languages" title="Mienic languages">Yao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language#Ancient_Bouyei_script" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hani_language" title="Hani language">Hani</a>. Each of these languages are now written with Latin-based alphabets in official contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou1991_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou1991-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graphically_derived_scripts">Graphically derived scripts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Graphically derived scripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Transcription_into_Chinese_characters" title="Transcription into Chinese characters">Transcription into Chinese characters</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SecretHistoryMongols1908.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/SecretHistoryMongols1908.jpg/180px-SecretHistoryMongols1908.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/SecretHistoryMongols1908.jpg/270px-SecretHistoryMongols1908.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/SecretHistoryMongols1908.jpg/360px-SecretHistoryMongols1908.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1127" data-file-height="1615" /></a><figcaption>Excerpt from a 1908 edition of the 13th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Secret_History_of_the_Mongols" title="Secret History of the Mongols">Secret History of the Mongols</a></i>, featuring Chinese characters used to transcribe Mongolian and glosses to the right of each column</figcaption></figure> <p>Between the 10th and 13th centuries, dynasties founded by non-Han peoples in northern China also created scripts for their languages that were inspired by Chinese characters, but did not use them directly: these included the <a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">Khitan large script</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">Khitan small script</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tangut_script" title="Tangut script">Tangut script</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou1991_176-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou1991-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has occurred in other contexts as well: <a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a> was a script used by <a href="/wiki/Yao_people" title="Yao people">Yao</a> women to write the <a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a> language,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhao1998_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao1998-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">bopomofo</a> (<span lang="zh-Hans">注音符号</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">注音符號</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhùyīn fúhào</span></i>) is a <a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabary" title="Semi-syllabary">semi-syllabary</a> first invented in 1907<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuzuoğlu202371_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuzuoğlu202371-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to represent the sounds of Standard Chinese;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1984242TaylorTaylor201414Li2020123_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1984242TaylorTaylor201414Li2020123-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both use forms graphically derived from Chinese characters. Other scripts within China that have adapted some characters but are otherwise distinct include the <a href="/wiki/Geba_syllabary" title="Geba syllabary">Geba syllabary</a> used to write the <a href="/wiki/Naxi_language" title="Naxi language">Naxi language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sui_script" title="Sui script">the script</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Sui_language" title="Sui language">Sui language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yi_script" title="Yi script">the script</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Yi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi languages">Yi languages</a>, and the syllabary for the <a href="/wiki/Lisu_language" title="Lisu language">Lisu language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou1991_176-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou1991-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chinese characters have also been repurposed phonetically to transcribe the sounds of non-Chinese languages. For example, the only manuscripts of the 13th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Secret_History_of_the_Mongols" title="Secret History of the Mongols">Secret History of the Mongols</a></i> that have survived from the medieval era use characters in this manner to write the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHung1951481_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHung1951481-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literacy_and_lexicography">Literacy and lexicography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Literacy and lexicography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_education" title="Chinese character education">Chinese character education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_China" title="Literacy in China">Literacy in China</a></div> <p>The memorization of thousands of different characters is required to achieve literacy in languages written with them, in contrast to the relatively small inventory of graphemes used in phonetic writing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemattè20228TaylorTaylor2014110–111_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemattè20228TaylorTaylor2014110–111-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, character literacy was often acquired via Chinese primers like the 6th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Thousand_Character_Classic" title="Thousand Character Classic">Thousand Character Classic</a></i> and 13th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Three_Character_Classic" title="Three Character Classic">Three Character Classic</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2018273–277_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2018273–277-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as surname dictionaries like the Song-era <i><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Family_Surnames" title="Hundred Family Surnames">Hundred Family Surnames</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYongPeng200855–58_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYongPeng200855–58-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies of Chinese-language literacy suggest that literate individuals generally have an <a href="/wiki/Active_vocabulary" class="mw-redirect" title="Active vocabulary">active vocabulary</a> of three to four thousand characters; for specialists in fields like literature or history, this figure may be between five and six thousand.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198873_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198873-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionaries">Dictionaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Dictionaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dictionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese dictionaries">Chinese dictionaries</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chenzihmyon_typefaces.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="天地玄黃" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chenzihmyon_typefaces.svg/180px-Chenzihmyon_typefaces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chenzihmyon_typefaces.svg/270px-Chenzihmyon_typefaces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chenzihmyon_typefaces.svg/360px-Chenzihmyon_typefaces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="356" /></a><figcaption>The first four characters of the 6th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Thousand_Character_Classic" title="Thousand Character Classic">Thousand Character Classic</a></i> in different styles. From right to left: seal script, clerical script, regular script, Song type, and sans-serif type.</figcaption></figure> <p>According to analyses of mainland Chinese, Taiwanese, Hong Kong, Japanese, and Korean sources, the total number of characters in the modern lexicon is around <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7004150000000000000♠"></span>15<span style="margin-left:.25em;">000</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESu201447,_51_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESu201447,_51-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dozens of schemes have been devised for indexing Chinese characters and arranging them in dictionaries, though relatively few have achieved widespread use. Characters may be ordered according to methods based on their meaning, visual structure, or pronunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESu2014183NeedhamHarbsmeier199865–66_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESu2014183NeedhamHarbsmeier199865–66-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Erya" title="Erya">Erya</a></i> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3rd century BCE</span>) organized the Chinese lexicon into 16 semantic categories, as well as 3 describing abstract characters such as grammatical particles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXue1982152–153_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXue1982152–153-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Shuowen Jiezi</i> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 100 CE</span>) introduced what would ultimately become the predominant method of organization used by later character dictionaries, whereby characters are grouped according to certain visually prominent components called <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_radicals" title="Chinese character radicals">radicals</a></i> (<span lang="zh">部首</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">bùshǒu</span></i>; 'section headers'). The <i>Shuowen Jiezi</i> used a system of 540 radicals, while subsequent dictionaries have generally used fewer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYongPeng2008100–103,_203_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYongPeng2008100–103,_203-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The set of 214 <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_radicals" title="Kangxi radicals">Kangxi radicals</a> was popularized by the <i><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i> (1716), but originally appeared in the earlier <i><a href="/wiki/Zihui" title="Zihui">Zihui</a></i> (1615).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou200388Norman1988170–172NeedhamHarbsmeier199879–80_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou200388Norman1988170–172NeedhamHarbsmeier199879–80-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Character dictionaries have historically been indexed using <a href="/wiki/Radical-and-stroke_sorting" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical-and-stroke sorting">radical-and-stroke sorting</a>, where characters are grouped by radical and <a href="/wiki/Stroke-based_sorting" title="Stroke-based sorting">sorted within each group by stroke number</a>. Some modern dictionaries arrange character entries alphabetically according to their pinyin spelling, while also providing a traditional radical-based index.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYongPeng2008145,_400–401_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYongPeng2008145,_400–401-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the invention of romanization systems for Chinese, the pronunciation of characters was transmitted via <a href="/wiki/Rhyme_dictionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhyme dictionaries">rhyme dictionaries</a>. These used the <i><a href="/wiki/Fanqie" title="Fanqie">fanqie</a></i> (<span lang="zh">反切</span>; 'reverse cut') method, where each entry lists a common character with the same <a href="/wiki/Syllable#Chinese_model" title="Syllable">initial sound</a> as the character in question, alongside one with the same final sound.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198827–28_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198827–28-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Neurolinguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Using <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI), <a href="/wiki/Neurolinguist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurolinguist">neurolinguists</a> have studied the brain activity associated with literacy. Compared to phonetic systems, reading and writing with characters involves additional areas of the brain—including those associated with visual processing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemattè20229_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemattè20229-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the level of memorization required for character literacy is significant, identification of the phonetic and semantic components in compounds—which constitute the vast majority of characters—also plays a key role in reading comprehension. The ease of recognition for a given character is impacted by how regular the positioning of its components is, as well as how reliable its phonetic component is in indicating a specific pronunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2015b_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2015b-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, due to the high level of homophony in Chinese languages and the more irregular correspondences between writing and the sounds of speech, it has been suggested that knowledge of orthography plays a greater role in speech recognition for literate Chinese speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2015aThe_Brain_Network_for_Chinese_Language_Processing_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2015aThe_Brain_Network_for_Chinese_Language_Processing-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Developmental_dyslexia" class="mw-redirect" title="Developmental dyslexia">Developmental dyslexia</a> in readers of character-based languages appears to involve independent visuospatial and phonological disorders co-occurring. This seems to be a distinct phenomenon from dyslexia as experienced with phonetic orthographies, which can result from only one of the aforementioned disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcBrideTongMo2015688–690Ho2015TaylorTaylor2014150–151,_346–349,_393–394_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcBrideTongMo2015688–690Ho2015TaylorTaylor2014150–151,_346–349,_393–394-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reform_and_standardization">Reform and standardization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Reform and standardization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese characters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese characters</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ROC24_SC1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ROC24_SC1.jpg/180px-ROC24_SC1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ROC24_SC1.jpg/270px-ROC24_SC1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ROC24_SC1.jpg/360px-ROC24_SC1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The first official list of simplified character forms, published in 1935 and including 324 characters<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1999153_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1999153-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Attempts to reform and standardize the use of characters—including aspects of form, stroke order, and pronunciation—have been undertaken by states throughout history. Thousands of <a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">simplified characters</a> were standardized and adopted in mainland China during the 1950s and 1960s, with most either already existing as common variants, or being produced via the systematic simplification of their components.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou200360–67_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou200360–67-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After World War II, the Japanese government also simplified hundreds of character forms, including some simplifications distinct from those adopted in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014117–118_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014117–118-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orthodox forms that have not undergone simplification are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">traditional characters</a>. Across Chinese-speaking polities, mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore use simplified characters, while Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau use traditional characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020136_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020136-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, Chinese and Japanese readers can successfully identify characters from all three standards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2016171_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2016171-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to the 20th century, reforms were generally conservative and sought to reduce the use of simplified variants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000404_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000404-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an increasing number of intellectuals in China began to see both the Chinese writing system and the lack of a national spoken dialect as serious impediments to achieving the mass literacy and mutual intelligibility required for the country's successful modernization. Many began advocating for the replacement of Literary Chinese with a written language that more closely reflected speech, as well as for a mass simplification of character forms, or even the total <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">replacement of characters with an alphabet</a> tailored to a specific spoken variety. In 1909, the educator and linguist <a href="/wiki/Lufei_Kui" title="Lufei Kui">Lufei Kui</a> (1886–1941) formally proposed the adoption of simplified characters in education for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou2003xvii–xixLi2020136_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou2003xvii–xixLi2020136-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1911, the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> toppled the Qing dynasty, and resulted in the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> the following year. The early Republican era (1912–1949) was characterized by growing social and political discontent that erupted into the 1919 <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a>, catalysing the replacement of Literary Chinese with <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a> over the subsequent decades. Alongside the corresponding spoken variety now known as <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>, this written vernacular was promoted by intellectuals and writers such as <a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a> (1881–1936) and <a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a> (1891–1962).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou2003xviii–xix_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou2003xviii–xix-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was based on the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing dialect</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197211–13_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197211–13-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as on the existing body of vernacular literature authored over the preceding centuries, which included <a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">classic novels</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_West" title="Journey to the West">Journey to the West</a></i> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1592</span>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber" title="Dream of the Red Chamber">Dream of the Red Chamber</a></i> (mid-18th century).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhong2019113–114Chen199970–74,_80–82_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhong2019113–114Chen199970–74,_80–82-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this time, character simplification and phonetic writing were being discussed within both the ruling <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT) party, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP). In 1935, the Republican government published the first official list of simplified characters, comprising 324 forms collated by <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a> professor <a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuantong" title="Qian Xuantong">Qian Xuantong</a> (1887–1939). However, strong opposition within the party resulted in the list being rescinded in 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1999150–153_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1999150–153-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="People's_Republic_of_China"><span id="People.27s_Republic_of_China"></span>People's Republic of China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: People's Republic of China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:104px;max-width:104px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%80%91-order.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/%E5%80%91-order.gif" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Traditional (<span lang="zh-Hant">們</span>)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%BB%AC-order.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/%E4%BB%AC-order.gif" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Simplified (<span lang="zh-Hans">们</span>)</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Comparison between character forms, showing systematic simplification of the component <span lang="und-Hani">⾨</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'GATE'</span></div></div></div></div> <p>The project of script reform in China was ultimately inherited by the Communists, who resumed work following the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a> in 1949. In 1951, Premier <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> (1898–1976) ordered the formation of a Script Reform Committee, with subgroups investigating both simplification and alphabetization. The simplification subgroup began surveying and collating simplified forms the following year,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBökset200626_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBökset200626-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ultimately publishing a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Character_Simplification_Scheme" title="Chinese Character Simplification Scheme">draft scheme of simplified characters and components</a> in 1956. In 1958, Zhou Enlai announced the government's intent to focus on simplification, as opposed to replacing characters with <a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a>, which had been introduced earlier that year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhong2019157–158_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhong2019157–158-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1956 scheme was largely ratified by a <a href="/wiki/General_List_of_Simplified_Chinese_Characters" title="General List of Simplified Chinese Characters">revised list of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003223500000000000♠"></span>2235</span> characters</a> promulgated in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020142_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020142-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of these characters were drawn from conventional abbreviations or ancient forms with fewer strokes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1999154–156_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1999154–156-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The committee also sought to reduce the total number of characters in use by merging some forms together.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1999154–156_210-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1999154–156-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <span lang="zh">雲</span> ('cloud') was written as <span lang="zh">云</span> in oracle bone script. The simpler form remained in use as a loangraph meaning 'to say'; it was replaced in its original sense of 'cloud' with a form that added a semantic <span lang="und-Hani">⾬</span> <span style="text-transform: lowercase;">'RAIN'</span> component. The simplified forms of these two characters have been merged into <span lang="zh-Hans">云</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou200363_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou200363-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Second_round_of_simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Second round of simplified characters">second round of simplified characters</a> was promulgated in 1977, but was poorly received by the public and quickly fell out of official use. It was ultimately formally rescinded in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1999155–156_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1999155–156-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second-round simplifications were unpopular in large part because most of the forms were completely new, in contrast to the familiar variants comprising the majority of the first round.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1999159–160_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1999159–160-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the rescission of the second round, work toward further character simplification largely came to an end.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1999196–197_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1999196–197-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese</i> was published in 1988 and included <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003700000000000000♠"></span>7000</span> simplified and unsimplified characters. Of these, half were also included in the revised <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Commonly_Used_Characters_in_Modern_Chinese" title="List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese">List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese</a></i>, which specified <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003250000000000000♠"></span>2500</span> common characters and <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003100000000000000♠"></span>1000</span> less common characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhou200379Chen1999136_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou200379Chen1999136-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013, the <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Commonly_Used_Standard_Chinese_Characters" title="List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters">List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters</a></i> was published as a revision of the 1988 lists; it included a total of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003810500000000000♠"></span>8105</span> characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020145–146_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020145–146-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_script_reform" title="Japanese script reform">Japanese script reform</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Differences_between_Shinjitai_and_Simplified_characters" title="Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters">Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CJK_%E6%AC%A1_glyph_variants.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/CJK_%E6%AC%A1_glyph_variants.svg/180px-CJK_%E6%AC%A1_glyph_variants.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/CJK_%E6%AC%A1_glyph_variants.svg/270px-CJK_%E6%AC%A1_glyph_variants.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/CJK_%E6%AC%A1_glyph_variants.svg/360px-CJK_%E6%AC%A1_glyph_variants.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Regional forms of the character <span lang="und-Hani">次</span> in the Noto Serif typeface family. From left to right: forms used in mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong (top), and in Japan and Korea (bottom)</figcaption></figure> <p>After World War II, the Japanese government instituted its own program of orthographic reforms. Some characters were assigned simplified forms called <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shinjitai" title="Shinjitai">shinjitai</a></i></span>; the older forms were then labelled <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%ABjitai" title="Kyūjitai">kyūjitai</a></i></span>. Inconsistent use of different variant forms was discouraged, and lists of characters to be taught to students at each grade level were developed. The first of these was the <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003185000000000000♠"></span>1850</span>-character <a href="/wiki/T%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanji" title="Tōyō kanji"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">tōyō</i></span> kanji</a> list published in 1946, later replaced by the <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003194500000000000♠"></span>1945</span>-character <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanji" title="Jōyō kanji"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">jōyō</i></span> kanji</a> list in 1981. In 2010, the <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">jōyō</i></span> kanji were expanded to include a total of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003213600000000000♠"></span>2136</span> characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014275_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014275-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Japanese government restricts characters that may be used in names to the <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">jōyō</i></span> kanji, plus an additional list of 983 <a href="/wiki/Jinmeiy%C5%8D_kanji" title="Jinmeiyō kanji"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">jinmeiyō</i></span> kanji</a> whose use are historically prevalent in names.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELunde200882–84_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELunde200882–84-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Korea">South Korea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: South Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hanja are still used in South Korea, though not to the extent that kanji are used in Japan. In general, there is a trend toward the exclusive use of hangul in ordinary contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199748_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199748-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Characters remain in use in place names, newspapers, and to disambiguate homophones. They are also used in the practice of calligraphy. Use of hanja in education is politically contentious, with official policy regarding the prominence of hanja in curricula having vacillated since the country's independence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199765–66,_69–72_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199765–66,_69–72-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChooO'Grady1996ix_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChooO'Grady1996ix-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some support the total abandonment of hanja, while others advocate an increase in use to levels previously seen during the 1970s and 1980s. Students in grades 7–12 are presently taught with a principal focus on simple recognition and attaining sufficient literacy to read a newspaper.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2004189–194_158-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2004189–194-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The South Korean Ministry of Education published the <i><a href="/wiki/Basic_Hanja_for_Educational_Use" title="Basic Hanja for Educational Use">Basic Hanja for Educational Use</a></i> in 1972, which specified <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003180000000000000♠"></span>1800</span> characters meant to be learned by secondary school students.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELunde200884_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELunde200884-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1991, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Korea" title="Supreme Court of Korea">Supreme Court of Korea</a> published the <i>Table of Hanja for Use in Personal Names</i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">인명용한자</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language romanization"><i lang="ko-Latn">Inmyeong-yong hanja</i></span>), which initially included <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003285400000000000♠"></span>2854</span> characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014179_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014179-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The list has been expanded several times since; as of 2022<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, it includes <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003831900000000000♠"></span>8319</span> characters.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Korea">North Korea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: North Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the years following its establishment, the North Korean government sought to eliminate the use of hanja in standard writing; by 1949, characters had been almost entirely replaced with hangul in North Korean publications.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019113Hannas199766–67_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019113Hannas199766–67-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While mostly unused in writing, hanja remain an important part of North Korean education: a 1971 textbook for university history departments contained <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003332300000000000♠"></span>3323</span> distinct characters, and in the 1990s North Korean school children were still expected to learn <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003200000000000000♠"></span>2000</span> characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199767–68_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199767–68-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2013 textbook appears to integrate the use of hanja in secondary school education.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been estimated that North Korean students learn around <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003300000000000000♠"></span>3000</span> hanja by the time they graduate university.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Taiwan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Chart_of_Standard_Forms_of_Common_National_Characters" title="Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters">Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters</a></i> was published by Taiwan's Ministry of Education in 1982, and lists <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003480800000000000♠"></span>4808</span> traditional characters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELunde200881_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELunde200881-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ministry of Education also compiles dictionaries of characters used in <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese Hokkien</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>H<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_regional_standards">Other regional standards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Other regional standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Singapore's Ministry of Education promulgated three successive rounds of simplifications: the first round in 1969 included 502 simplified characters, and the second round in 1974 included <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003228700000000000♠"></span>2287</span> simplified characters—including 49 that differed from those in the PRC, which were ultimately removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted the revisions made in mainland China in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShangZhao2017320_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShangZhao2017320-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Hong Kong Education and Manpower Bureau's <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graphemes_of_Commonly-Used_Chinese_Characters" title="List of Graphemes of Commonly-Used Chinese Characters">List of Graphemes of Commonly-Used Chinese Characters</a></i> includes <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003476200000000000♠"></span>4762</span> traditional characters used in elementary and junior secondary education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1999161_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1999161-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-lead-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lead_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span lang="und-Hani">漢字</span>; <a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">simplified</a> as <span title="undetermined-language text"><span lang="und-Hans">汉字</span></span> <ul><li>Chinese <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Hànzì</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">Han<sup>4</sup>-tzŭ<sup>4</sup></span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a>: <i><span lang="yue-Latn-jyutping">Hon3 zi6</span></i></li> <li>Japanese <a href="/wiki/Hepburn_romanization" title="Hepburn romanization">Hepburn</a>: <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">kanji</i></span></li> <li>Korean <a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Revised Romanization">Revised Romanization</a>: <span title="Korean-language romanization"><i lang="ko-Latn">Hanja</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer" title="McCune–Reischauer">McCune–Reischauer</a>: <span title="Korean-language romanization"><i lang="ko-Latn">Hancha</i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>: <i lang="vi">Hán tự</i></li></ul> Also referred to as <b>sinographs</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETam202029_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETam202029-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>sinograms</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2004166DeFrancis198471_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2004166DeFrancis198471-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zev Handel lists:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel20191_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel20191-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <div><ol><li>Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> emerging <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3200 BCE</span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> emerging <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100 BCE</span></li><li>Chinese characters emerging <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 13th century BCE</span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a> emerging <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1 CE</span></li></ol></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Handel: "While monosyllabism generally trumps morphemicity—that is to say, a bisyllabic morpheme is nearly always written with two characters rather than one—there is an unmistakable tendency for script users to impose a morphemic identity on the linguistic units represented by these characters."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201933_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201933-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Vietnamese" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Vietnamese">Middle Vietnamese</a> pronunciation; the word is pronounced in modern Vietnamese as <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">trăng</i></span>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuangxi_Nationalities_Publishing_House1989-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuangxi_Nationalities_Publishing_House1989_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuangxi_Nationalities_Publishing_House1989">Guangxi Nationalities Publishing House 1989</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel20191-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel20191_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2019">Handel 2019</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu20002-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu20002_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQiu2000">Qiu 2000</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu20003–4-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu20003–4_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQiu2000">Qiu 2000</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu20005-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu20005_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQiu2000">Qiu 2000</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198859Li202048-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198859Li202048_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman 1988</a>, p. 59; <a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200011,_16-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200011,_16_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQiu2000">Qiu 2000</a>, pp. 11, 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu20001Handel20194–5-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu20001Handel20194–5_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQiu2000">Qiu 2000</a>, p. 1; <a href="#CITEREFHandel2019">Handel 2019</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200022–26Norman198874-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200022–26Norman198874_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQiu2000">Qiu 2000</a>, pp. 22–26; <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman 1988</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201933-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201933_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2019">Handel 2019</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200013–15Coulmas1991104–109-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200013–15Coulmas1991104–109_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQiu2000">Qiu 2000</a>, pp. 13–15; <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas1991">Coulmas 1991</a>, pp. 104–109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi202056–57Boltz19943–4-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi202056–57Boltz19943–4_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, pp. 56–57; <a href="#CITEREFBoltz1994">Boltz 1994</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel201951YongPeng200895–98-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel201951YongPeng200895–98_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2019">Handel 2019</a>, p. 51; <a href="#CITEREFYongPeng2008">Yong & Peng 2008</a>, pp. 95–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200019,_162–168-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200019,_162–168_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQiu2000">Qiu 2000</a>, pp. 19, 162–168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz201157,_60-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz201157,_60_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoltz2011">Boltz 2011</a>, pp. 57, 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200014–18-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu200014–18_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQiu2000">Qiu 2000</a>, pp. 14–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYin200797–100Su2014102–111-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYin200797–100Su2014102–111_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYin2007">Yin 2007</a>, pp. 97–100; <a href="#CITEREFSu2014">Su 2014</a>, pp. 102–111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang2008147–148-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYang2008147–148_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYang2008">Yang 2008</a>, pp. 147–148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemattè202214-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemattè202214_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDemattè2022">Demattè 2022</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu2000163–171-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQiu2000163–171_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQiu2000">Qiu 2000</a>, pp. 163–171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYongPeng200819-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYongPeng200819_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYongPeng200819_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYongPeng2008">Yong & Peng 2008</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQiu200044–45Zhou200361-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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.cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXNASDG22043_U0A121C1CR0000/"><bdi lang="ja">改定常用漢字表、30日に内閣告示閣議で正式決定</bdi></a> [The amended list of <i>jōyō kanji</i> receives cabinet notice on 30th: to be officially confirmed in cabinet meeting]. <i>The Nikkei</i> (in Japanese). 24 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nikkei&rft.atitle=%E6%94%B9%E5%AE%9A%E5%B8%B8%E7%94%A8%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97%E8%A1%A8%E3%80%8130%E6%97%A5%E3%81%AB%E5%86%85%E9%96%A3%E5%91%8A%E7%A4%BA+%E9%96%A3%E8%AD%B0%E3%81%A7%E6%AD%A3%E5%BC%8F%E6%B1%BA%E5%AE%9A&rft.date=2010-11-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nikkei.com%2Farticle%2FDGXNASDG22043_U0A121C1CR0000%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASDG24H0N_U7A920C1000000/"><bdi lang="ja">人名用漢字に「渾」追加司法判断を受け法務省改正戸籍法施行規則を施行、計863字に</bdi></a> ["渾" added to kanji usable in personal names; Ministry of Justice enacts revised Family Registration Law Enforcement Regulations following judicial ruling, totaling 863 characters]. <i>The Nikkei</i> (in Japanese). 25 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nikkei&rft.atitle=%E4%BA%BA%E5%90%8D%E7%94%A8%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97%E3%81%AB%E3%80%8C%E6%B8%BE%E3%80%8D%E8%BF%BD%E5%8A%A0+%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E5%88%A4%E6%96%AD%E3%82%92%E5%8F%97%E3%81%91%E6%B3%95%E5%8B%99%E7%9C%81+%E6%94%B9%E6%AD%A3%E6%88%B8%E7%B1%8D%E6%B3%95%E6%96%BD%E8%A1%8C%E8%A6%8F%E5%89%87%E3%82%92%E6%96%BD%E8%A1%8C%E3%80%81%E8%A8%88863%E5%AD%97%E3%81%AB&rft.date=2017-09-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nikkei.com%2Farticle%2FDGXLASDG24H0N_U7A920C1000000%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELunde200882–84-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELunde200882–84_220-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLunde2008">Lunde 2008</a>, pp. 82–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199748-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199748_221-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199765–66,_69–72-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199765–66,_69–72_222-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, pp. 65–66, 69–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChooO'Grady1996ix-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChooO'Grady1996ix_223-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChooO'Grady1996">Choo & O'Grady 1996</a>, p. ix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELunde200884-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELunde200884_224-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLunde2008">Lunde 2008</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014179-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor2014179_225-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylorTaylor2014">Taylor & Taylor 2014</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chosun.com/national/court_law/2021/12/26/OZCAQQTHSFANXKF4UU2C7GEBQM"><bdi lang="ko">乻(땅이름 늘)·賏(목치장 영)... ‘인명용 한자’ 40자 추가된다</bdi></a> [乻 · 賏... 40 <i>Hanja for Use in Personal Names</i> added]. <i>The Chosun Ilbo</i> (in Korean). 26 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chosun+Ilbo&rft.atitle=%E4%B9%BB%28%EB%95%85%EC%9D%B4%EB%A6%84+%EB%8A%98%29%C2%B7%E8%B3%8F%28%EB%AA%A9%EC%B9%98%EC%9E%A5+%EC%98%81%29...+%E2%80%98%EC%9D%B8%EB%AA%85%EC%9A%A9+%ED%95%9C%EC%9E%90%E2%80%99+40%EC%9E%90+%EC%B6%94%EA%B0%80%EB%90%9C%EB%8B%A4&rft.date=2021-12-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chosun.com%2Fnational%2Fcourt_law%2F2021%2F12%2F26%2FOZCAQQTHSFANXKF4UU2C7GEBQM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019113Hannas199766–67-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019113Hannas199766–67_227-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2019">Handel 2019</a>, p. 113; <a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, pp. 66–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199767–68-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199767–68_228-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, pp. 67–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=155532"><bdi lang="ko">북한의 한문교과서를 보다</bdi></a> [A look at North Korea's "Literary Chinese" textbooks]. <i>Chosun NK</i> (in Korean). The Chosun Ilbo. 14 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chosun+NK&rft.atitle=%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C%EC%9D%98+%ED%95%9C%EB%AC%B8%EA%B5%90%EA%B3%BC%EC%84%9C%EB%A5%BC+%EB%B3%B4%EB%8B%A4&rft.date=2014-03-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnk.chosun.com%2Fnews%2FarticleView.html%3Fidxno%3D155532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2001" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kim Mi-young (김미영) (4 June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=7252"><bdi lang="ko">'3000자까지 배우되 쓰지는 마라'</bdi></a> ["Learn up to 3000 characters, but don't write them"]. <i>Chosun NK</i> (in Korean). The Chosun Ilbo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chosun+NK&rft.atitle=%273000%EC%9E%90%EA%B9%8C%EC%A7%80+%EB%B0%B0%EC%9A%B0%EB%90%98+%EC%93%B0%EC%A7%80%EB%8A%94+%EB%A7%88%EB%9D%BC%27&rft.date=2001-06-04&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Kim+Mi-young&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnk.chosun.com%2Fnews%2FarticleView.html%3Fidxno%3D7252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELunde200881-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELunde200881_231-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLunde2008">Lunde 2008</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShangZhao2017320-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShangZhao2017320_233-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShangZhao2017">Shang & Zhao 2017</a>, p. 320.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen1999161-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen1999161_234-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen1999">Chen 1999</a>, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETam202029-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETam202029_235-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTam2020">Tam 2020</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2004166DeFrancis198471-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2004166DeFrancis198471_236-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2004">Fischer 2004</a>, p. 166; <a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1984">DeFrancis 1984</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBachner2014" class="citation book cs1">Bachner, Andrea (2014). <i>Beyond Sinology: Chinese Writing and the Scripts of Culture</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-16452-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-16452-8"><bdi>978-0-231-16452-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Sinology%3A+Chinese+Writing+and+the+Scripts+of+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-231-16452-8&rft.aulast=Bachner&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBökset2006" class="citation book cs1">Bökset, Roar (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200810/FULLTEXT01"><i>Long Story of Short Forms: The Evolution of Simplified Chinese Characters</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Stockholm East Asian Monographs. Vol. 11. Stockholm University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-628-6832-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-628-6832-1"><bdi>978-91-628-6832-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Long+Story+of+Short+Forms%3A+The+Evolution+of+Simplified+Chinese+Characters&rft.series=Stockholm+East+Asian+Monographs&rft.pub=Stockholm+University&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-91-628-6832-1&rft.aulast=B%C3%B6kset&rft.aufirst=Roar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsu.diva-portal.org%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A200810%2FFULLTEXT01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltz1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_G._Boltz" title="William G. Boltz">Boltz, William G.</a> (1986). "Early Chinese Writing". <i>World Archaeology</i>. <b>17</b> (3): 420–436. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1986.9979980">10.1080/00438243.1986.9979980</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/124705">124705</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Early+Chinese+Writing&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=420-436&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00438243.1986.9979980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F124705%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Boltz&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltz1994" class="citation book cs1">——— (1994). <i>The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System</i>. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-940490-78-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-940490-78-9"><bdi>978-0-940490-78-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+and+Early+Development+of+the+Chinese+Writing+System&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=American+Oriental+Society&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-940490-78-9&rft.aulast=Boltz&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltz1999" class="citation book cs1">——— (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&pg=PA108">"Language and Writing"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Loewe, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Shaughnessy" title="Edward L. Shaughnessy">Shaughnessy, Edward L.</a> (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 106–123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47030-8</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+and+Writing&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Ancient+China%3A+From+the+Origins+of+Civilization+to+221+BC&rft.pages=106-123&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47030-8&rft.aulast=Boltz&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcHA7Ey0-pbEC%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521470308.004">10.1017/CHOL9780521470308.004</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltz2011" class="citation book cs1">——— (2011). "Literacy and the Emergence of Writing in China". In Li, Feng; Branner, David Prager (eds.). <i>Writing & Literacy in Early China</i>. University of Washington Press. pp. 51–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-80450-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-80450-7"><bdi>978-0-295-80450-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literacy+and+the+Emergence+of+Writing+in+China&rft.btitle=Writing+%26+Literacy+in+Early+China&rft.pages=51-84&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-295-80450-7&rft.aulast=Boltz&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2016" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Sin-Wai, ed. (2016). <i>The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese Language</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-38249-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-38249-2"><bdi>978-1-317-38249-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+the+Chinese+Language&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-38249-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFWang2016" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/William_Shi-Yuan_Wang" title="William Shi-Yuan Wang">Wang, William S.-Y.</a> "Chinese Linguistics". In <a href="#CITEREFChan2016">Chan (2016)</a>, pp. 152–184.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFYin2016" class="citation">Yin, John Jing-hua. "Chinese Characters". In <a href="#CITEREFChan2016">Chan (2016)</a>, pp. 51–63.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFZhang2016" class="citation">Zhang Xiaoheng (张小衡). "Computational Linguistics". In <a href="#CITEREFChan2016">Chan (2016)</a>, pp. 420–437.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">———, ed. (2020). "The Three Kingdoms Period". <i>The Routledge Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Culture</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-21115-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-21115-5"><bdi>978-1-138-21115-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Three+Kingdoms+Period&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Traditional+Chinese+Culture&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-138-21115-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen1999" class="citation book cs1">Chen Ping (陳平) (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernchinesehis00chen"><i>Modern Chinese: History and Sociolinguistics</i></a></span> (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64572-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64572-0"><bdi>978-0-521-64572-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Chinese%3A+History+and+Sociolinguistics&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64572-0&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Ping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernchinesehis00chen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Chen Zhaorong (陳昭容) (2003). <bdi lang="zh">秦系文字研究﹕从漢字史的角度考察</bdi> [<i>Research on the Qin Writing System: Through the Lens of the History of Writing in China</i>] (in Chinese). Academia Sinica. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-957-671-995-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-957-671-995-0"><bdi>978-957-671-995-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%A7%A6%E7%B3%BB%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%EF%B9%95%E4%BB%8E%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97%E5%8F%B2%E7%9A%84%E8%A7%92%E5%BA%A6%E8%80%83%E5%AF%9F&rft.pub=Academia+Sinica&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-957-671-995-0&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Zhaorong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheungBauer2002" class="citation journal cs1">Cheung Kwan-hin (張系顯); <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bauer_(linguist)" title="Robert Bauer (linguist)">Bauer, Robert S.</a> (2002). 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Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1815-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1815-9"><bdi>978-0-8248-1815-9</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Korean+Vocabulary%3A+A+Resource+for+Word+Recognition+and+Comprehension&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1815-9&rft.aulast=Choo&rft.aufirst=Mi-Ho&rft.au=O%27Grady%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpsO_Oli22m8C%26q%3Dsino-korean%2Bwords%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulmas1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Florian_Coulmas" title="Florian Coulmas">Coulmas, Florian</a> (1991) [1989]. <i>The Writing Systems of the World</i>. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18028-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18028-9"><bdi>978-0-631-18028-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Writing+Systems+of+the+World&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-631-18028-9&rft.aulast=Coulmas&rft.aufirst=Florian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCruttenden2021" class="citation book cs1">Cruttenden, Alan (2021). <i>Writing Systems and Phonetics</i>. Routledge. pp. 167–168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-33404-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-33404-3"><bdi>978-1-000-33404-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+Systems+and+Phonetics&rft.pages=167-168&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-000-33404-3&rft.aulast=Cruttenden&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">DeFrancis, John</a> (1972) [1950]. <i>Nationalism and Language Reform in China</i>. New York: Octagon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-92095-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-92095-1"><bdi>978-0-374-92095-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalism+and+Language+Reform+in+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Octagon&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-374-92095-1&rft.aulast=DeFrancis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1977" class="citation book cs1">——— (1977). <i>Colonialism and Language Policy in Viet Nam</i>. Contributions to the Sociology of Language. Vol. 19. Mouton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7643-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7643-7"><bdi>978-90-279-7643-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism+and+Language+Policy+in+Viet+Nam&rft.series=Contributions+to+the+Sociology+of+Language&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-90-279-7643-7&rft.aulast=DeFrancis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1984" class="citation book cs1">——— (1984). <a href="/wiki/The_Chinese_Language:_Fact_and_Fantasy" title="The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy"><i>The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy</i></a>. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1068-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1068-9"><bdi>978-0-8248-1068-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Language%3A+Fact+and+Fantasy&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1068-9&rft.aulast=DeFrancis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemattè2022" class="citation book cs1">Demattè, Paola (2022). <i>The Origins of Chinese Writing</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-763576-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-763576-6"><bdi>978-0-19-763576-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Chinese+Writing&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-19-763576-6&rft.aulast=Dematt%C3%A8&rft.aufirst=Paola&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenecke2014" class="citation book cs1">Denecke, Wiebke (2014). "Worlds Without Translation: Premodern East Asia and the Power of Character Scripts". In Bermann, Sandra; Porter, Catherine (eds.). <i>A Companion to Translation Studies</i>. 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New York: Routledge. pp. 202–221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-49716-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-49716-9"><bdi>978-0-415-49716-9</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Metalinguistic+and+Subcharacter+Skills+in+Chinese+Literacy+Acquisition&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Perspectives+on+Reading+and+Spelling&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=202-221&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-49716-9&rft.aulast=Tong&rft.aufirst=Xiuli&rft.au=Liu%2C+Phil+D.&rft.au=McBride-Chang%2C+Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz6d5AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogelsang2021" class="citation book cs1">Vogelsang, Kai (2021). <i>Introduction to Classical Chinese</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-883497-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-883497-7"><bdi>978-0-19-883497-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Classical+Chinese&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-883497-7&rft.aulast=Vogelsang&rft.aufirst=Kai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Endymion_Wilkinson" title="Endymion Wilkinson">Wilkinson, Endymion</a> (2012). <a href="/wiki/Chinese_History:_A_New_Manual" title="Chinese History: A New Manual"><i>Chinese History: A New Manual</i></a>. Harvard–Yenching Institute Monograph Series. Vol. 85. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06715-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06715-8"><bdi>978-0-674-06715-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+History%3A+A+New+Manual&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.series=Harvard%E2%80%93Yenching+Institute+Monograph+Series&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06715-8&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Endymion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2010" class="citation thesis cs1">Williams, Clay H. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/bitstream/10150/195163/1/azu_etd_10830_sip1_m.pdf"><i>Semantic vs. Phonetic Decoding Strategies in Non-Native Readers of Chinese</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (PhD thesis). University of Arizona Graduate College of Second Language Acquisition & Teaching. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10150%2F195163">10150/195163</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Semantic+vs.+Phonetic+Decoding+Strategies+in+Non-Native+Readers+of+Chinese&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Arizona+Graduate+College+of+Second+Language+Acquisition+%26+Teaching&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10150%2F195163&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Clay+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farizona.openrepository.com%2Farizona%2Fbitstream%2F10150%2F195163%2F1%2Fazu_etd_10830_sip1_m.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXue1982" class="citation journal cs1">Xue, Shiqi (1982). "Chinese Lexicography Past and Present". <i>Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 151–169. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fdic.1982.0009">10.1353/dic.1982.0009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2160-5076">2160-5076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Dictionary+Society+of+North+America&rft.atitle=Chinese+Lexicography+Past+and+Present&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=151-169&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fdic.1982.0009&rft.issn=2160-5076&rft.aulast=Xue&rft.aufirst=Shiqi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangAn2008" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Lihui; An, Deming (2008). <i>Handbook of Chinese Mythology</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533263-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533263-6"><bdi>978-0-19-533263-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Chinese+Mythology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533263-6&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Lihui&rft.au=An%2C+Deming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yang Runlu (杨润陆) (2008). <bdi lang="zh">现代汉字学</bdi> [<i>Modern Chinese Characters</i>] (in Chinese). Beijing Normal University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-303-09437-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-303-09437-0"><bdi>978-7-303-09437-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E6%B1%89%E5%AD%97%E5%AD%A6&rft.pub=Beijing+Normal+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-7-303-09437-0&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Runlu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYin2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yin Jiming (殷寄明); et al. (2007). <bdi lang="zh">现代汉语文字学</bdi> [<i>Modern Chinese Writing</i>] (in Chinese). Shanghai: Fudan University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-309-05525-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-309-05525-2"><bdi>978-7-309-05525-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%AD%A6&rft.place=Shanghai&rft.pub=Fudan+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-7-309-05525-2&rft.aulast=Yin&rft.aufirst=Jiming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYip2000" class="citation book cs1">Yip, Po-ching (2000). <i>The Chinese Lexicon: A Comprehensive Survey</i>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15174-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15174-0"><bdi>978-0-415-15174-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Lexicon%3A+A+Comprehensive+Survey&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-15174-0&rft.aulast=Yip&rft.aufirst=Po-ching&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYongPeng2008" class="citation book cs1">Yong, Heming; Peng, Jing (2008). <i>Chinese Lexicography: A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-156167-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-156167-2"><bdi>978-0-19-156167-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Lexicography%3A+A+History+from+1046+BC+to+AD+1911&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-156167-2&rft.aulast=Yong&rft.aufirst=Heming&rft.au=Peng%2C+Jing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhang Xiaoheng (张小衡); Li Xiaotong (李笑通) (2013). <bdi lang="zh">一二三笔顺检字手册</bdi> [<i>Handbook of the YES Sorting Method</i>] (in Chinese). Beijing: The Language Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-80241-670-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-80241-670-3"><bdi>978-7-80241-670-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%8C%E4%B8%89%E7%AC%94%E9%A1%BA%E6%A3%80%E5%AD%97%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=The+Language+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-7-80241-670-3&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Xiaoheng&rft.au=Li%2C+Xiaotong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao1998" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Liming (1998). 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New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7312%2Fzhon19262">10.7312/zhon19262</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54989-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54989-9"><bdi>978-0-231-54989-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Grammatology%3A+Script+Revolution+and+Literary+Modernity%2C+1916%E2%80%931958&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7312%2Fzhon19262&rft.isbn=978-0-231-54989-9&rft.aulast=Zhong&rft.aufirst=Yurou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhou1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Youguang" title="Zhou Youguang">Zhou Youguang</a> (1991). <a href="/wiki/Victor_H._Mair" title="Victor H. 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Pathways to Advanced Skills (in English and Chinese). Vol. 8. Translated by Zhang Liqing (张立青). Columbus: National East Asian Languages Resource Center, Ohio State University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87415-349-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87415-349-1"><bdi>978-0-87415-349-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Evolution+of+Chinese+Languages+and+Scripts+%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%87%E7%9A%84%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%BC%94%E8%BF%9B&rft.place=Columbus&rft.series=Pathways+to+Advanced+Skills&rft.pub=National+East+Asian+Languages+Resource+Center%2C+Ohio+State+University&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-87415-349-1&rft.aulast=Zhou&rft.aufirst=Youguang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_and_media_sources">Primary and media sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Primary and media sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-upper-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaspero1870" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Maspero" title="Gaston Maspero">Maspero, Gaston</a> (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/recueildetravaux27masp/page/244/mode/2up"><i>Recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l'archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes</i></a> (in French). Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion. p. 243.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recueil+de+travaux+relatifs+%C3%A0+la+philologie+et+%C3%A0+l%27arch%C3%A9ologie+%C3%A9gyptiennes+et+assyriennes&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=243&rft.pub=Librairie+Honor%C3%A9+Champion&rft.date=1870&rft.aulast=Maspero&rft.aufirst=Gaston&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frecueildetravaux27masp%2Fpage%2F244%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaozi1891" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2"><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing/ens#n11671">"80"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching"> <bdi lang="zh">道德經</bdi></a> [<i>Tao Te Ching</i>] (in Literary Chinese and English). Translated by <a href="/wiki/James_Legge" title="James Legge">Legge, James</a> – via the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Text_Project" title="Chinese Text Project">Chinese Text Project</a>. [I would make the people return to the use of knotted cords (instead of the written characters).]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=80&rft.btitle=%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7%E7%B6%93&rft.date=1891&rft.au=Laozi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fctext.org%2Fdao-de-jing%2Fens%23n11671&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctext.org/book-of-changes/xi-ci-xia#n46944"><bdi lang="zh">係辭下</bdi></a> [Xi Ci II]. <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching"> <bdi lang="zh">易經</bdi></a> [<i>I Ching</i>] (in Literary Chinese and English). Translated by <a href="/wiki/James_Legge" title="James Legge">Legge, James</a>. 1899 – via the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Text_Project" title="Chinese Text Project">Chinese Text Project</a>. [In the highest antiquity, government was carried on successfully by the use of knotted cords (to preserve the memory of things). In subsequent ages the sages substituted for these written characters and bonds.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E4%BF%82%E8%BE%AD%E4%B8%8B&rft.btitle=%E6%98%93%E7%B6%93&rft.date=1899&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fctext.org%2Fbook-of-changes%2Fxi-ci-xia%23n46944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShao1035" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2">Shao Si (邵思) (1035). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.ndl.go.jp/en/pid/1287529/1/2"><i>Explaining Surnames</i> <bdi lang="zh">姓解</bdi></a> (in Literary Chinese). Vol. 1. Tokyo. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11501%2F1287529">10.11501/1287529</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2024</span> – via the <a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">National Diet Library</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Explaining+Surnames+%E5%A7%93%E8%A7%A3&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1035&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11501%2F1287529&rft.aulast=Shao&rft.aufirst=Si&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.ndl.go.jp%2Fen%2Fpid%2F1287529%2F1%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrisonMontucci1817" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morrison_(missionary)" title="Robert Morrison (missionary)">Morrison, Robert</a>; Montucci, Antonio (1817). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_2va5Ayf9u-sC/bub_gb_2va5Ayf9u-sC/page/n29/mode/2up"><i>Urh-chih-tsze-tëen-se-yin-pe-keáou: Being a Parallel Drawn Between the Two Intended Chinese Dictionaries</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Cadell_%26_Davies" title="Cadell & Davies">Cadell & Davies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boosey_%26_Hawkes" title="Boosey & Hawkes">T. Boosey</a>. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urh-chih-tsze-t%C3%ABen-se-yin-pe-ke%C3%A1ou%3A+Being+a+Parallel+Drawn+Between+the+Two+Intended+Chinese+Dictionaries&rft.place=London&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Cadell+%26+Davies%2C+T.+Boosey&rft.date=1817&rft.aulast=Morrison&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Montucci%2C+Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_2va5Ayf9u-sC%2Fbub_gb_2va5Ayf9u-sC%2Fpage%2Fn29%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/standard/principles.html"><i>Technical Introduction</i></a>. The Unicode Consortium. 22 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technical+Introduction&rft.pub=The+Unicode+Consortium&rft.date=2019-08-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2Fstandard%2Fprinciples.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnicode_16.0.0" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ken_Lunde" title="Ken Lunde">Lunde, Ken</a>; Cook, Richard, eds. (31 July 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr38/tr38-37.html#BlockListing">"Standard Annex #38: Unicode Han Database (Unihan)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode16.0.0"><i>The Unicode Standard, Version 16.0.0</i></a>. South San Francisco, CA: The Unicode Consortium. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-936213-34-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-936213-34-4"><bdi>978-1-936213-34-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Standard+Annex+%2338%3A+Unicode+Han+Database+%28Unihan%29&rft.btitle=The+Unicode+Standard%2C+Version+16.0.0&rft.place=South+San+Francisco%2C+CA&rft.pub=The+Unicode+Consortium&rft.date=2024-07-31&rft.isbn=978-1-936213-34-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2Freports%2Ftr38%2Ftr38-37.html%23BlockListing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">"Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sutian.moe.edu.tw/zh-hant/introduction/"><bdi lang="zh">常用詞辭典</bdi></a> [<i>Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan</i>]. Taiwan Ministry of Education. 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=%E5%B8%B8%E7%94%A8%E8%A9%9E%E8%BE%AD%E5%85%B8&rft.pub=Taiwan+Ministry+of+Education&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsutian.moe.edu.tw%2Fzh-hant%2Fintroduction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">"Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hakkadict.moe.edu.tw/introduction/"><bdi lang="zh">客語辭典</bdi></a> [<i>Dictionary of Taiwan Hakka</i>]. Taiwan Ministry of Education. 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=%E5%AE%A2%E8%AA%9E%E8%BE%AD%E5%85%B8&rft.pub=Taiwan+Ministry+of+Education&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhakkadict.moe.edu.tw%2Fintroduction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Chinese_language_and_writing_system" title="Bibliography of the Chinese language and writing system">Bibliography of the Chinese language and writing system</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">DeFrancis, John</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pinyin.info/readings/texts/visible/index.html">"Chinese"</a>. <i>Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1207-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1207-2"><bdi>978-0-8248-1207-2</bdi></a> – via pinyin.info.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chinese&rft.btitle=Visible+Speech%3A+The+Diverse+Oneness+of+Writing+Systems&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1207-2&rft.aulast=DeFrancis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinyin.info%2Freadings%2Ftexts%2Fvisible%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalambos2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Imre_Galambos" title="Imre Galambos">Galambos, Imre</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shahon.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/Galambos-2006-Orthography-of-early-Chinese-writing.pdf"><i>Orthography of Early Chinese Writing: Evidence from Newly Excavated Manuscripts</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Budapest: Eötvös Loránd University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-463-811-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-463-811-7"><bdi>978-963-463-811-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orthography+of+Early+Chinese+Writing%3A+Evidence+from+Newly+Excavated+Manuscripts&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s+Lor%C3%A1nd+University&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-963-463-811-7&rft.aulast=Galambos&rft.aufirst=Imre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fshahon.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2010%2F02%2FGalambos-2006-Orthography-of-early-Chinese-writing.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2023" class="citation book cs1">King, Ross, ed. (2023). <i>Cosmopolitan and Vernacular in the World of </i>Wen 文<i><span></span></i>. Language, Writing and Literary Culture in the Sinographic Cosmopolis. Vol. 5. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-43769-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-43769-2"><bdi>978-90-04-43769-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmopolitan+and+Vernacular+in+the+World+of+Wen+%E6%96%87&rft.series=Language%2C+Writing+and+Literary+Culture+in+the+Sinographic+Cosmopolis&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-90-04-43769-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_H._Mair" title="Victor H. Mair">Mair, Victor H.</a> (2 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=3330">"Polysyllabic Characters in Chinese Writing"</a>. <i>Language Log</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Language+Log&rft.atitle=Polysyllabic+Characters+in+Chinese+Writing&rft.date=2011-08-02&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flanguagelog.ldc.upenn.edu%2Fnll%2F%3Fp%3D3330&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMullaney2024" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Mullaney" title="Thomas S. Mullaney">Mullaney, Thomas S.</a> (2024). <i>The Chinese Computer: A Global History of the Information Age</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-04751-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-04751-7"><bdi>978-0-262-04751-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Computer%3A+A+Global+History+of+the+Information+Age&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-0-262-04751-7&rft.aulast=Mullaney&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Pulleyblank, Edwin G.</a> (1984). <i>Middle Chinese: A Study in Historical Phonology</i>. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0192-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0192-8"><bdi>978-0-7748-0192-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Chinese%3A+A+Study+in+Historical+Phonology&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0192-8&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmons2022" class="citation book cs1">Simmons, Richard VanNess, ed. (2022). <i>Studies in Colloquial Chinese and Its History: Dialect and Text</i>. Hong Kong University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-988-8754-09-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-988-8754-09-0"><bdi>978-988-8754-09-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Colloquial+Chinese+and+Its+History%3A+Dialect+and+Text&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-988-8754-09-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsu2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jing_Tsu" title="Jing Tsu">Tsu, Jing</a> (2022). <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Characters" title="Kingdom of Characters"><i>Kingdom of Characters: The Language Revolution That Made China Modern</i></a>. New York: Riverhead. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7352-1472-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7352-1472-9"><bdi>978-0-7352-1472-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kingdom+of+Characters%3A+The+Language+Revolution+That+Made+China+Modern&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Riverhead&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-7352-1472-9&rft.aulast=Tsu&rft.aufirst=Jing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+characters" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characters&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Chinese characters</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 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href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_characters" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Chinese characters">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Chinese_characters" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Chinese characters">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Chinese_characters" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Chinese characters">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Chinese_characters" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Chinese characters">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Chinese_characters" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Chinese characters">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Chinese_characters" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Chinese characters">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/unihan.html">Unihan Database</a> – Reference glyphs, readings, and meanings for characters in <i>The Unicode Standard</i>, with information about the history of Han unification</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=en">Chinese Text Project Dictionary</a> – Comprehensive character dictionary, including examples of Classical Chinese usage</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zi.tools/">zi.tools</a> – Character lookup by orthography, phonology, and etymology</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hanziyuan.net/">Chinese Etymology</a> by Richard Sears</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_language" title="Template:Chinese language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_language" title="Template talk:Chinese language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changchun_dialect" title="Changchun dialect">Changchun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbin_dialect" title="Harbin dialect">Harbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenyang_Mandarin" title="Shenyang Mandarin">Shenyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taz_dialect" title="Taz dialect">Taz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Jilu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_dialect" title="Tianjin dialect">Tianjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalian_dialect" title="Dalian dialect">Dalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingdao_dialect" title="Qingdao dialect">Qingdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihai_dialect" title="Weihai dialect">Weihai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dongping_dialect" title="Dongping dialect">Dongping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangou_language" title="Gangou language">Gangou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanzhong_dialect" title="Guanzhong dialect">Guanzhong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi'an dialect">Xi'an</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoyang_dialect" title="Luoyang dialect">Luoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhou_dialect" title="Xuzhou dialect">Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengdu-Chongqing_dialect" title="Chengdu-Chongqing dialect">Chengdu–Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leshan_dialect" title="Leshan dialect">Leshan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renshou%E2%80%93Fushun_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renshou–Fushun Mandarin (page does not exist)">Renshou–Fushun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zigong_dialect" title="Zigong dialect">Zigong</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gui%E2%80%93Liu_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gui–Liu Mandarin (page does not exist)">Gui–Liu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuming_Mandarin" title="Wuming Mandarin">Wuming</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Jianghuai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lanyin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Lanzhou dialect</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B0%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:兰州话">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urumqi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urumqi dialect (page does not exist)">Urumqi dialect</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:乌鲁木齐话">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junjiahua" title="Junjiahua">Junjiahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinjiang_Mandarin" title="Qinjiang Mandarin">Qinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyami language">Gyami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou%E2%80%93Hohhot_dialect" title="Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect">Zhangjiakou–Hohhot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi-Yan_dialect" title="Zhi-Yan dialect">Zhi–Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxi_dialect" title="Wuxi dialect">Wuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangyin_dialect" title="Jiangyin dialect">Jiangyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadi_dialect" title="Shadi dialect">Shadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Oujiang</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rui%27an_dialect" title="Rui'an dialect">Rui'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wencheng_dialect" title="Wencheng dialect">Wencheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Qu_Wu" title="Chu–Qu Wu">Chu–Qu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuancheng_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuancheng dialect">Xuancheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ji-She&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ji-She (page does not exist)">Ji-She</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%A9%E6%AD%99%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:绩歙片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiu-Yi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiu-Yi (page does not exist)">Xiu-Yi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%91%E9%BB%9F%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:休黟片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qi-De&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qi-De (page does not exist)">Qi-De</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%81%E5%A9%BA%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:祁婺片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Yanzhou</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%8C%E5%8D%A0%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:旌占片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jing-Zhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jing-Zhan (page does not exist)">Jing-Zhan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A5%E5%B7%9E%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:严州片">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang%E2%80%93Du_Gan" title="Chang–Du Gan">Chang–Du</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi%E2%80%93Liu_Gan" title="Yi–Liu Gan">Yi–Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying%E2%80%93Yi_Gan" title="Ying–Yi Gan">Ying–Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%E2%80%93Tong_Gan" title="Da–Tong Gan">Da–Tong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">Changyi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Loushao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangxiang_dialect" title="Xiangxiang dialect">Xiangxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wugang_dialect" title="Wugang dialect">Wugang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji%E2%80%93Xu_Xiang" title="Ji–Xu Xiang">Ji–Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Quan_Xiang" title="Yong–Quan Xiang">Yong–Quan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyang_dialect" title="Qiyang dialect">Qiyang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Houguan_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Houguan language group (page does not exist)">Houguan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuqing_dialect" title="Fuqing dialect">Fuqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changle_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Changle dialect">Changle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dialect" title="Gutian dialect">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fu%E2%80%93Ning_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fu–Ning language group (page does not exist)">Fu–Ning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ningde_dialect" title="Ningde dialect">Ningde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu%27an_dialect" title="Fu'an dialect">Fu'an</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manjiang_dialect" title="Manjiang dialect">Manjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longdu_dialect" title="Longdu dialect">Longdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanlang_dialect" title="Nanlang dialect">Nanlang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhou dialect">Quanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangzhou dialect">Zhangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chawan_dialect" title="Chawan dialect">Chawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medan_Hokkien" title="Medan Hokkien">Pedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penang_Hokkien" title="Penang Hokkien">Penang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Peninsular_Malaysian_Hokkien" title="Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien">Malaysian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teochew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_dialect" title="Swatow dialect">Swatow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haklau_Min" title="Haklau Min">Haklau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanxiang_dialect" title="Sanxiang dialect">Sanxiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhenan_Min" title="Zhenan Min">Zhenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longyan_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Longyan Min">Longyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou_dialect" title="Jian'ou dialect">Jian'ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianyang_dialect" title="Jianyang dialect">Jianyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Pu–Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shao–Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Min" title="Leizhou Min">Leizhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang_dialect" title="Zhanjiang dialect">Zhanjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenchang_dialect" title="Wenchang dialect">Wenchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haikou_dialect" title="Haikou dialect">Haikou</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Banqiao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Banqiao dialect (page does not exist)">Banqiao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhua_dialect" title="Wuhua dialect">Wuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingzhou_dialect" title="Tingzhou dialect">Tingzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changting_dialect" title="Changting dialect">Changting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Sixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hailu_dialect" title="Hailu dialect">Hailu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoping_Hakka" title="Raoping Hakka">Raoping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yuehai_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuehai dialects">Yuehai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Cantonese" title="Malaysian Cantonese">Malaysia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiguan_dialect" title="Xiguan dialect">Xiguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiujiang_dialect" title="Jiujiang dialect">Jiujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiqi_dialect" title="Shiqi dialect">Shiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weitou_dialect" title="Weitou dialect">Weitou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapeng_dialect" title="Dapeng dialect">Dapeng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xinhui_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xinhui dialect (page does not exist)">Xinhui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gao%E2%80%93Yang_Yue" title="Gao–Yang Yue">Gao–Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%E2%80%93Hua_Yue" title="Wu–Hua Yue">Wu–Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Xun_Yue" title="Yong–Xun Yue">Yong–Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo%E2%80%93Guang_Yue" title="Luo–Guang Yue">Luo–Guang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin%E2%80%93Lian_Yue" title="Qin–Lian Yue">Qin–Lian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongdao_Pinghua" title="Tongdao Pinghua">Tongdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younian_dialect" title="Younian dialect">Younian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Yongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guandao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guandao dialect (page does not exist)">Guandao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Rongjiang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badong_Yao_language" title="Badong Yao language">Badong Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeheni_language" title="Yeheni language">Yeheni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai-Long</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuanqing_people#Language" title="Chuanqing people">Laobeizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/350px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="785" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/525px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/700px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="920" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_national_standards_of_Chinese" title="Comparison of national standards of Chinese">Standard<br />forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_Standard_Chinese" title="Sichuanese Standard Chinese">Sichuanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Mandarin">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Mandarin" title="Malaysian Mandarin">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Standard Singaporean Mandarin">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singdarin" title="Singdarin">Singdarin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka">Hakka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_National_Pronunciation" title="Old National Pronunciation">Old National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">Classifiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_honorifics" title="Chinese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Idioms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chengyu" title="Chengyu">Chengyu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xiehouyu" title="Xiehouyu">Xiehouyu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_input_methods_for_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese input methods for computers">Input</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biaoxingma_method" title="Biaoxingma method">Biaoxingma</a></li> <li>Boshiamy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Cangjie" title="Simplified Cangjie">Simplified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CKC_Chinese_Input_System" title="CKC Chinese Input System">CKC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayi_method" title="Dayi method">Dayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin method">Pinyin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Pinyin" title="Google Pinyin">Google</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Pinyin_IME" title="Microsoft Pinyin IME">Microsoft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogou_Pinyin" title="Sogou Pinyin">Sogou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_count_method" title="Stroke count method">Stroke count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wubi_method" title="Wubi method">Wubi (Wang Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengma_method" title="Zhengma method">ZhengMa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Middle Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gan_Chinese" title="History of Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Literary<br /> forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Official" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">in Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Vernacular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabets" title="Dungan alphabets">Written Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Hokkien" title="Written Hokkien">Written Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_characters" title="Sichuanese characters">Written Sichuanese</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Logographic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">Logographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Script_styles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Script_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Script styles">Script styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_punctuation" title="Chinese punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Phonetic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language#Writing_system" title="Dungan language">Dungan Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Phonetic_Symbols_II" title="Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II">MPS II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFEO_Chinese_transcription" title="EFEO Chinese transcription">EFEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessing-Othmer" title="Lessing-Othmer">Lessing-Othmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Bopomofo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese Bopomofo">Cantonese Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Phonetic_Symbols" title="Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols">Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_kana" title="Taiwanese kana">Taiwanese kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hangul" title="Taiwanese Hangul">Taiwanese Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao%27erjing" title="Xiao'erjing">Xiao'erjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_writing_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template talk:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_writing_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a> of <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Grapheme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">undeciphered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_constructed_scripts" title="List of constructed scripts">constructed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Languages by writing system / <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by first written accounts">by first written accounts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abjads" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerals</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatran alphabet">Hatran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elifba_alphabet" title="Elifba alphabet">Elifba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elymaic" title="Elymaic">Elymaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_script" title="Manichaean script">Manichaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Book Pahlavi">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Pahlavi" title="Inscriptional Pahlavi">Inscriptional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Parthian" title="Inscriptional Parthian">Inscriptional Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalter_Pahlavi" title="Psalter Pahlavi">Psalter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pegon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitman_shorthand" title="Pitman shorthand">Pitman shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic alphabet">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">South Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Zabur_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Zabur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Musnad" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Musnad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#Classical_ʾEsṭrangēlā" title="Syriac alphabet">ʾEsṭrangēlā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#West_Syriac_Serṭā" title="Syriac alphabet">Serṭā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#East_Syriac_Maḏnḥāyā" title="Syriac alphabet">Maḏnḥāyā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teeline_Shorthand" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeline Shorthand">Teeline Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abugidas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali%E2%80%93Assamese_script" title="Bengali–Assamese script">Bengali–Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaiksuki_script" title="Bhaiksuki script">Bhaiksuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_script" title="Dogri script">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaithi" title="Kaithi">Kaithi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_script" title="Kalinga script">Kalinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema_script" title="Khema script">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khojki_script" title="Khojki script">Khojki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khudabadi_script" title="Khudabadi script">Khudabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8D%C4%81_scripts" title="Laṇḍā scripts">Laṇḍā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_script" title="Lepcha script">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajani" title="Mahajani">Mahajani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchen_script" title="Marchen script">Marchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modi_script" title="Modi script">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multani_script" title="Multani script">Multani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81gar%C4%AB_script" title="Nāgarī script">Nagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Nepalese scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhujimol_script" title="Bhujimol script">Bhujimol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Golmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Golmol script (page does not exist)">Golmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Himmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Himmol script (page does not exist)">Himmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kummol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kummol script (page does not exist)">Kummol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kvemmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kvemmol script (page does not exist)">Kvemmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pachumol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pachumol script (page does not exist)">Pachumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pracalit_script" title="Pracalit script">Pracalit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamyig_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamyig script">Tamyig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirhuta_script" title="Tirhuta script">Tirhuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_script" title="Limbu script">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Litumol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karani_script" title="Karani script">Karani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyombo_script" title="Soyombo script">Soyombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_Nagri" title="Sylheti Nagri">Sylheti Nagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takri_script" title="Takri script">Takri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uchen_script" title="Uchen script">Uchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Um%C3%AA_script" title="Umê script">Umê</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanabazar_square_script" title="Zanabazar square script">Zanabazar square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_script" title="Ahom script">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baybayin" title="Baybayin">Baybayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhattiprolu_script" title="Bhattiprolu script">Bhattiprolu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buda_script" title="Buda script">Buda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhid_script" title="Buhid script">Buhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cham_script" title="Cham script">Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakkham_script" title="Fakkham script">Fakkham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goykanadi" title="Goykanadi">Goykanadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadamba_script" title="Kadamba script">Kadamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%27gaw_Karen_alphabet" title="S'gaw Karen alphabet">Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khom_Thai_script" title="Khom Thai script">Khom Thai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulitan" title="Kulitan">Kulitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Lanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdi" title="Langdi">Langdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_script" title="Lao script">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leke_script" title="Leke script">Leke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_Bilang-bilang_script" title="Lontara Bilang-bilang script">Bilang-bilang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Old Maldivian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhives_Akuru" title="Dhives Akuru">Dhives Akuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eveyla_Akuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Eveyla Akuru">Eveyla Akuru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_script" title="Pyu script">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_script" title="Saurashtra script">Saurashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_alphabet" title="Shan alphabet">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhothai_script" title="Sukhothai script">Sukhothai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Sundanese_script" title="Old Sundanese script">Old Sundanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagbanwa_script" title="Tagbanwa script">Tagbanwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Le_script" title="Tai Le script">Tai Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Tai_Lue_alphabet" title="New Tai Lue alphabet">New Tai Lue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Noi_script" title="Tai Noi script">Tai Noi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Tai Tham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Viet_script" title="Tai Viet script">Tai Viet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Tay_script" title="Lai Tay script">Lai Tay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanchangya_script" title="Tanchangya script">Tanchangya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulu_scripts" title="Ulu scripts">Ulu scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Incung_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Incung script (page does not exist)">Incung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampung_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lampung script">Lampung</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lembak_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lembak script (page does not exist)">Lembak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogan_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ogan script (page does not exist)">Ogan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasemah_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasemah script (page does not exist)">Pasemah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejang_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Rejang script">Rejang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Serawai_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serawai script (page does not exist)">Serawai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharati_script" title="Bharati script">Bharati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyd%27s_syllabic_shorthand" title="Boyd's syllabic shorthand">Boyd's syllabic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language#Writing_system" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_syllabics" title="Carrier syllabics">Déné syllabics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dham_script" title="Dham script">Dham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunjala_Gondi_script" title="Gunjala Gondi script">Gunjala Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarati" title="Sarati">Sarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandombe_script" title="Mandombe script">Mandombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondi_writing" title="Gondi writing">Masaram Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_script" title="Meroitic script">Meroitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollard_script" title="Pollard script">Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengwar" title="Tengwar">Tengwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Natural_Shorthand" title="Thomas Natural Shorthand">Thomas Natural Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_language" title="Qiang language">Rma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Alphabets" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adlam_script" title="Adlam script">Adlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariyaka_script" title="Ariyaka script">Ariyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pazend" title="Pazend">Pazend</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avoiuli" title="Avoiuli">Avoiuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassa_Vah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bassa Vah script">Bassa Vah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carian_alphabets" title="Carian alphabets">Carian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_script" title="Caucasian Albanian script">Caucasian Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirth" title="Cirth">Cirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coelbren_y_Beirdd" title="Coelbren y Beirdd">Coelbren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coorgi%E2%80%93Cox_alphabet" title="Coorgi–Cox alphabet">Coorgi–Cox alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Cyrillic" title="Bosnian Cyrillic">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Early Cyrillic alphabet">Early</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deseret_alphabet" title="Deseret alphabet">Deseret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand" title="Duployan shorthand">Duployan shorthand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand#Chinook_writing" title="Duployan shorthand">Chinook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclectic_shorthand" title="Eclectic shorthand">Eclectic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbasan_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbasan script">Elbasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enochian" title="Enochian">Enochian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Psalmanazar#Pseudo-lexicographer" title="George Psalmanazar">Formosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_script" title="Fraser script">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabelsberger_shorthand" title="Gabelsberger shorthand">Gabelsberger shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadabuursi_Somali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadabuursi Somali script">Gadabuursi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garay_alphabet" title="Garay alphabet">Garay alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asomtavruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Asomtavruli">Asomtavruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuskhuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuskhuri">Nuskhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mkhedruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Mkhedruli">Mkhedruli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veso_Bey_alphabet" title="Veso Bey alphabet">Veso Bey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregg_shorthand" title="Gregg shorthand">Gregg shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Archaic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Iberian_alphabet" title="Greco-Iberian alphabet">Greco-Iberian alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanifi_Rohingya_script" title="Hanifi Rohingya script">Hanifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddare_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaddare script">Kaddare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayah_Li_alphabet" title="Kayah Li alphabet">Kayah Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_scripts" title="Klingon scripts">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beneventan_script" title="Beneventan script">Beneventan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">Blackletter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraktur" title="Fraktur">Fraktur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlac" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlac">Interlac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurrent" title="Kurrent">Kurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merovingian_script" title="Merovingian script">Merovingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">Sigla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCtterlin" title="Sütterlin">Sütterlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tironian_notes" title="Tironian notes">Tironian notes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_script" title="Visigothic script">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_script" title="Luo script">Luo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycian_alphabet" title="Lycian alphabet">Lycian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_alphabet" title="Lydian alphabet">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medefaidrin" title="Medefaidrin">Medefaidrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molodtsov_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Molodtsov alphabet">Molodtsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mru_language#Script" title="Mru language">Mru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_Bani" title="Mundari Bani">Mundari Bani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%27Ko_script" title="N'Ko script">N'Ko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Chiki_script" title="Ol Chiki script">Ol Chiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hungarian_script" title="Old Hungarian script">Old Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Permic_script" title="Old Permic script">Old Permic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Orkhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Old Uyghur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenki alphabet">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galik_alphabet" title="Galik alphabet">Galik alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_Script" title="Clear Script">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagindra_script" title="Vagindra script">Vagindra</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Onal" title="Ol Onal">Ol Onal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmanya_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmanya script">Osmanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pau_Cin_Hau_script" title="Pau Cin Hau script">Pau Cin Hau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_alphabet" title="Phrygian alphabet">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cipher_runes" title="Cipher runes">Cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_runes" title="Dalecarlian runes">Dalecarlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_runic_inscriptions" title="Gothic runic inscriptions">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcomannic runes">Marcomannic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_runes" title="Medieval runes">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staveless_runes" title="Staveless runes">Staveless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavian_alphabet" title="Shavian alphabet">Shavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunuwar_alphabet" title="Sunuwar alphabet">Sunuwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todhri_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Todhri script">Todhri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language#Writing_systems" title="Kurukh language">Tolong Siki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellara_alphabet" title="Vellara alphabet">Vellara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vithkuqi_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Vithkuqi script">Vithkuqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wancho_language#Orthography" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_alphabets#Yezidi" title="Kurdish alphabets">Yezidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaghawa script">Zaghawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Non-linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags" title="International maritime signal flags">Maritime flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph_code" title="Telegraph code">Telegraph code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Flag semaphore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ideograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adinkra_symbols" title="Adinkra symbols">Adinkra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blissymbols" title="Blissymbols">Blissymbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba_symbols" title="Dongba symbols">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersu_Shaba_script" title="Ersu Shaba script">Ersu Shaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emoji" title="Emoji">Emoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotype_(picture_language)" title="Isotype (picture language)">Isotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaid%C4%81_glyphs" title="Kaidā glyphs">Kaidā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaw_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaw hieroglyphic writing">Miꞌkmaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_writing" title="Mixtec writing">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Epoch_Notation_Painting" class="mw-redirect" title="New Epoch Notation Painting">New Epoch Notation Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsibidi" title="Nsibidi">Nsibidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_writing_systems#Ojibwe_"hieroglyphs"" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_hieroglyphs" title="Olmec hieroglyphs">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siglas_poveiras" title="Siglas poveiras">Siglas poveiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testerian" title="Testerian">Testerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_script" title="Zapotec script">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Logograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">bird-worm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">Sawndip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowen script">Bowen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Chinese-influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">Khitan large script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_script" title="Sui script">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_script" title="Tangut script">Tangut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadian cuneiform">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian cuneiform">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_cuneiform" title="Elamite cuneiform">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform Luwian">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other logosyllabic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hieroglyphs" title="Anatolian hieroglyphs">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagam_script" title="Bagam script">Bagam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmian_script" title="Isthmian script">Isthmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite_script" title="Proto-Elamite script">Proto-Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenevil" title="Tenevil">Tenevil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Classical_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi (Classical)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Logoconsonantal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Numerals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Abjad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic (Greek)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sitelen_Pona" title="Sitelen Pona">Sitelen Pona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Semi-syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-syllabaries">Semi-syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Full</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_script" title="Celtiberian script">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Iberian_script" title="Northeastern Iberian script">Northeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Iberian_script" title="Southeastern Iberian script">Southeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khom_script_(Ong_Kommadam)" title="Khom script (Ong Kommadam)">Khom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunging_script" title="Dunging script">Dunging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Redundant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Espanca_script" title="Espanca script">Espanca script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">Khitan small script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Paleohispanic_script" title="Southwest Paleohispanic script">Southwest Paleohispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam#Quốc_Âm_Tân_Tự" title="History of writing in Vietnam">Quốc Âm Tân Tự</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sign_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASLwrite" title="ASLwrite">ASLwrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Si5s" title="Si5s">si5s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe notation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afaka_syllabary" title="Afaka syllabary">Afaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamum_script" title="Bamum script">Bamum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9t%C3%A9_syllabary" title="Bété syllabary">Bété</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos_syllabary" title="Byblos syllabary">Byblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypro-Minoan_syllabary" title="Cypro-Minoan syllabary">Cypro-Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditema_tsa_Dinoko" title="Ditema tsa Dinoko">Ditema tsa Dinoko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskayan_script" title="Eskayan script">Eskayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geba_syllabary" title="Geba syllabary">Geba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Algonquian_syllabics" title="Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics">Great Lakes Algonquian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iban_language#Alphabet" title="Iban language">Iban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hentaigana" title="Hentaigana">Hentaigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dgana" title="Sōgana">Sōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindai_moji" title="Jindai moji">Jindai moji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Kikakui_script" title="Mende Kikakui script">Kikakui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpelle_syllabary" title="Kpelle syllabary">Kpelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language#Lisu_syllabary" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loma_language#writing_systems" title="Loma language">Loma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nwagu_Aneke_script" title="Nwagu Aneke script">Nwagu Aneke script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_syllabary" title="Vai syllabary">Vai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woleai_script" title="Woleai script">Woleai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Modern_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugtun_script" title="Yugtun script">Yugtun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Braille" title="Template:Braille"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Braille" title="Template talk:Braille"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Braille" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Braille"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Braille_⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a><span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span>⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille cell</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1829_braille" title="1829 braille">1829 braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_uniformity_of_braille_alphabets" title="International uniformity of braille alphabets">International uniformity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_ASCII" title="Braille ASCII">ASCII braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Patterns" title="Braille Patterns">Unicode braille patterns</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:French-ordered_braille_alphabets" title="Category:French-ordered braille alphabets">French-ordered</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Braille" title="Albanian Braille">Albanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azeri_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Azeri Braille">Azerbaijani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Braille" title="Catalan Braille">Catalan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Chinese (mainland Mandarin)</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Braille" title="Czech Braille">Czech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Braille" title="Dutch Braille">Dutch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">English</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unified_English_Braille" title="Unified English Braille">Unified English</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_Braille" title="Esperanto Braille">Esperanto</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Braille" title="French Braille">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_Braille" title="German Braille">German</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_braille" title="Ghanaian braille">Ghanaian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Guarani_Braille" title="Guarani Braille">Guarani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Braille" title="Hawaiian Braille">Hawaiian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Braille" title="Hungarian Braille">Hungarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I%C3%B1upiaq_Braille" title="Iñupiaq Braille">Iñupiaq</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">IPA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Braille" title="Irish Braille">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Braille" title="Italian Braille">Italian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Braille" title="Latvian Braille">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Braille" title="Lithuanian Braille">Lithuanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a> (extended to 8-dot)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_Braille" title="Māori Braille">Māori</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Braille" title="Navajo Braille">Navajo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_braille" title="Nigerian braille">Nigerian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Braille" title="Philippine Braille">Philippine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_Braille" title="Polish Braille">Polish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Braille" title="Portuguese Braille">Portuguese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Braille" title="Romanian Braille">Romanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samoan_Braille" title="Samoan Braille">Samoan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Braille" title="Slovak Braille">Slovak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_braille" title="South African braille">South African</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Braille" title="Spanish Braille">Spanish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Braille" title="Turkish Braille">Turkish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Braille" title="Welsh Braille">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Braille" title="Yugoslav Braille">Yugoslav</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zambian_Braille" title="Zambian Braille">Zambian</a></span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nordic family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Braille" title="Estonian Braille">Estonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Faroese_Braille" title="Faroese Braille">Faroese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Braille" title="Icelandic Braille">Icelandic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Braille" title="Scandinavian Braille">Scandinavian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Danish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Finnish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Greenlandic</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Northern_S%C3%A1mi_Braille" title="Northern Sámi Braille">Northern Sámi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Norwegian</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Swedish</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" title="Cyrillic alphabets">Cyrillic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Braille" title="Belarusian Braille">Belarusian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Braille" title="Bulgarian Braille">Bulgarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Braille" title="Kazakh Braille">Kazakh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Braille" title="Kyrgyz Braille">Kyrgyz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Braille" title="Mongolian Braille">Mongolian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Braille" title="Russian Braille">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Braille" title="Tatar Braille">Tatar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Braille" title="Ukrainian Braille">Ukrainian</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Egyptian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_Braille" title="Persian Braille">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (Pakistan)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Bharati_Braille" title="Bharati Braille">Bharati Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Devanagari_Braille" title="Devanagari Braille">Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Braille" title="Bengali Braille">Bengali (Bangla / Assamese)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Braille" title="Gujarati Braille">Gujarati</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kannada_Braille" title="Kannada Braille">Kannada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odia_Braille" title="Odia Braille">Odia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Braille" title="Punjabi Braille">Punjabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_Braille" title="Sinhala Braille">Sinhala</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Braille" title="Tamil Braille">Tamil</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telugu_Braille" title="Telugu Braille">Telugu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (India)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez Braille">Amharic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Braille" title="Armenian Braille">Armenian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Braille" title="Burmese Braille">Burmese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_Braille" title="Dzongkha Braille">Dzongkha</a> (Bhutanese)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Braille" title="Georgian Braille">Georgian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Braille" title="Greek Braille">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_Braille" title="Inuktitut Braille">Inuktitut</a> (reassigned vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Braille" title="Khmer Braille">Khmer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thai_and_Lao_Braille" title="Thai and Lao Braille">Thai and Lao</a> (Japanese vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Braille" title="Tibetan Braille">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reordered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Braille" title="American Braille">American Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Chinese semi-syllabaries</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin)</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Braille" title="Korean Braille">Korean</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eight-dot</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_kanji" title="Braille kanji">Kanji</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (GS8)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols in braille</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_currency_tactile_feature" title="Canadian currency tactile feature">Canadian currency marks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Computer_Braille_Code" title="Computer Braille Code">Computer Braille Code</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (science; GS8/GS6)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nemeth_Braille" title="Nemeth Braille">Nemeth braille code</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Braille_technology" title="Braille technology">Braille technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_e-book" title="Braille e-book">Braille e-book</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_embosser" title="Braille embosser">Braille embosser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_translator" title="Braille translator">Braille translator</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_watch" title="Braille watch">Braille watch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mountbatten_Brailler" title="Mountbatten Brailler">Mountbatten Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Optical_braille_recognition" title="Optical braille recognition">Optical braille recognition</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perforation" title="Perforation">Perforation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perkins_Brailler" title="Perkins Brailler">Perkins Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slate_and_stylus" title="Slate and stylus">Slate and stylus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braigo" title="Braigo">Braigo</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Braille" title="Louis Braille">Louis Braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Barbier" title="Charles Barbier">Charles Barbier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3%C5%BCa_Czacka" title="Róża Czacka">Róża Czacka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Ha%C3%BCy" title="Valentin Haüy">Valentin Haüy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harris_Mowbray" title="Harris Mowbray">Harris Mowbray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thakur_Vishva_Narain_Singh" title="Thakur Vishva Narain Singh">Thakur Vishva Narain Singh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sabriye_Tenberken" title="Sabriye Tenberken">Sabriye Tenberken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Bell_Wait" title="William Bell Wait">William Bell Wait</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Institute_of_America" title="Braille Institute of America">Braille Institute of America</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Without_Borders" title="Braille Without Borders">Braille Without Borders</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japan_Braille_Library" title="Japan Braille Library">Japan Braille Library</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Braille_Association" title="National Braille Association">National Braille Association</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Blindness_organizations" title="Category:Blindness organizations">Blindness organizations</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_for_the_blind" title="Category:Schools for the blind">Schools for the blind</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Printing_House_for_the_Blind" title="American Printing House for the Blind">American Printing House for the Blind</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Tactile_alphabet" title="Tactile alphabet">tactile alphabets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Decapoint" title="Decapoint">Decapoint</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Night_writing" title="Night writing">Night writing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vibratese" title="Vibratese">Vibratese</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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Template:Efn-ua"," 4.70% 161.525 11 Template:Navbox"," 4.54% 156.211 3 Template:Reflist"," 4.49% 154.583 1 Template:Contains_special_characters"," 4.41% 151.625 1 Template:Contains_special_characters/core"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.153","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24723947,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBachner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoltz1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoltz1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoltz1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoltz2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBökset2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheungBauer2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChooO\u0026#039;Grady1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoulmas1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCruttenden2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeFrancis1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeFrancis1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeFrancis1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeFrancis1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDemattè2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenecke2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEbrey1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischer2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalambos2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGnanadesikan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuangxi_Nationalities_Publishing_House1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHandel2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHannas1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHo2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHung1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeightley1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKern2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKin2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnechtgesChang2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKornicki2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuzuoğlu2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaozi1891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2015a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2015b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiuChen2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu_et_al.2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLunde2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLundeCook2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMair2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaspero1870\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcBrideTongMo2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrisonMontucci1817\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMullaney2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMullaney2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyers2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNawar2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedhamHarbsmeier1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedhamTsien2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeking_University2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPulleyblank1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQiu2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQiu2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamsey1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSampsonChen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShangZhao2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShao1035\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaughnessy1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimmons2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSu2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSybesma2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTam2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorTaylor2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTongLiuMcBride-Chang2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsu2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVogelsang2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkinson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXue1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYang2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYangAn2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYip2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYongPeng2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhong2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhou1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhou2003\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"Angbr\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blist\"] = 1,\n [\"Born-in\"] = 1,\n [\"Bots\"] = 1,\n [\"Bpmfsp\"] = 1,\n [\"CS1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"CSS image crop\"] = 2,\n [\"Chinese characters sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Chinese language\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 21,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite Unicode\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 74,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Code\"] = 5,\n [\"Contains special characters\"] = 1,\n [\"Cslist\"] = 1,\n [\"DOI\"] = 1,\n [\"Died-in\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 5,\n [\"Efn-ua\"] = 8,\n [\"Further\"] = 8,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Gph\"] = 2,\n [\"Hani\"] = 10,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 6,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-cmn\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-yue\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox Chinese\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox writing system\"] = 1,\n [\"Japanese writing\"] = 1,\n [\"Kxr\"] = 21,\n [\"Lang\"] = 53,\n [\"Langr\"] = 18,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 3,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 17,\n [\"List of writing systems\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 15,\n [\"Mim\"] = 9,\n [\"Multiref\"] = 1,\n [\"Normal\"] = 6,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist-ua\"] = 1,\n [\"Nwr\"] = 10,\n [\"Olist\"] = 1,\n [\"Pb\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 2,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 2,\n [\"Sc\"] = 3,\n [\"See also\"] = 10,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 187,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 40,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 4,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sigfig\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 16,\n [\"Sronly\"] = 2,\n [\"Tlit\"] = 67,\n [\"Tonesup\"] = 5,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 2,\n [\"Unicode version\"] = 1,\n [\"Use Oxford spelling\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Val\"] = 22,\n [\"Zh\"] = 1,\n [\"Zhc\"] = 41,\n [\"Zhi\"] = 42,\n [\"Zhl\"] = 9,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","600","26.1"],["?","400","17.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","7.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","140","6.1"],["recursiveClone 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Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-09-25T13:29:42Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T07:34:37Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/99\/Hanzi.svg","headline":"logographic writing system with Han origin used in the Sinosphere for Chinese, Japanese, Korean and traditional Vietnamese languages"}</script> </body> </html>