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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1871–1921 treaties between Canada's government and First Nations</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size:125%;">Numbered Treaties</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;padding-top:0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Numbered-Treaties-Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Numbered-Treaties-Map.svg/350px-Numbered-Treaties-Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Numbered-Treaties-Map.svg/525px-Numbered-Treaties-Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Numbered-Treaties-Map.svg/700px-Numbered-Treaties-Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="690" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Map of Numbered Treaties of Canada. Borders are approximated.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Context</th><td class="infobox-data plainlist">Treaties to transfer large tracts of land from the First Nations to the Crown in return for different promises laid out in the treaty</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signed</th><td class="infobox-data">1871–1921</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signatories</th><td class="infobox-data attendee plainlist"><i>Key representatives of the Canadian <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">Crown</a></i>: <a href="/wiki/Adams_George_Archibald" title="Adams George Archibald">Adams George Archibald</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Morris_(politician)" title="Alexander Morris (politician)">Alexander Morris</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Laird" title="David Laird">David Laird</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Campbell_Scott" title="Duncan Campbell Scott">Duncan Campbell Scott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wemyss_Mackenzie_Simpson" title="Wemyss Mackenzie Simpson">Wemyss Mackenzie Simpson</a>, S.J. Dawson, <a href="/wiki/William_J._Christie" title="William J. Christie">William J. Christie</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_McKay_(fur_trader)" title="James McKay (fur trader)">James McKay</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Macleod" title="James Macleod">James Macleod</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Hamilton_Ross" title="James Hamilton Ross">James Hamilton Ross</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=J.A.J._McKenna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J.A.J. McKenna (page does not exist)">J.A.J. McKenna</a>, Samuel Stewart, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_G._MacMartin" title="Daniel G. MacMartin">Daniel G. MacMartin</a>, Henry Anthony Conroy, <i>Key representatives of First Nations groups</i>: <a href="/wiki/Crowfoot" title="Crowfoot">Crowfoot</a> (<a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Blackfoot Confederacy">Blackfoot Confederacy</a>), <a href="/wiki/Big_Bear" title="Big Bear">Big Bear</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree Nation</a>), Chief Powassin (Ojibwe Nation), Chief Keenooshayoo (Athabasca First Nations)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Languages</th><td class="infobox-data hlist"><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Numbered Treaties</b> (or <b>Post-Confederation Treaties</b>) are a series of eleven <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaties</a> signed between the <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a>, one of three groups of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Peoples in Canada">Indigenous Peoples in Canada</a>, and the reigning <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada">monarch of Canada</a> (<a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Victoria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a> or <a href="/wiki/George_V" title="George V">George V</a>) from 1871 to 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-Treaties_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treaties-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These agreements were created to allow the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Canada" title="Government of Canada">Government of Canada</a> to pursue settlement and resource extraction in the affected regions, which includes the entirety of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a>, as well as parts of modern-day <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nunavut" title="Nunavut">Nunavut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a>. These treaties expanded the <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Dominion of Canada</a> resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism_in_Canada" title="Settler colonialism in Canada">displacement of Indigenous populations</a> for large tracts of land in exchange for promises made to the indigenous people of the area. These terms were dependent on individual negotiations and so specific terms differed with each treaty. </p><p>These treaties came in two waves—Numbers 1 through 7 from 1871 to 1877 and Numbers 8 through 11 from 1899 to 1921. In the first wave, the treaties were key in advancing European settlement across the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Prairies" title="Canadian Prairies">Prairie regions</a> as well as the development of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway" title="Canadian Pacific Railway">Canadian Pacific Railway</a>. In the second wave, <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource#Extraction" title="Natural resource">resource extraction</a> was the main motive for government officials. During this time, Canada introduced the <i><a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a></i> extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserve</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, these agreements are upheld by the Government of Canada, administered by <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_law" title="Canadian Aboriginal law">Canadian Aboriginal law</a> and overseen by the <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Crown%E2%80%93Indigenous_Relations" title="Minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations">Minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations</a>. They are often criticized and are a leading issue within the fight for First Nation rights. The <i><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1982" title="Constitution Act, 1982">Constitution Act, 1982</a></i> gave protection of First Nations and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">treaty rights</a> under <a href="/wiki/Section_35_of_the_Constitution_Act,_1982" title="Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982">Section 35</a>. It states: "Aboriginal and treaty rights are hereby recognized and affirmed."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phrase was never fully defined. As a result, First Nations must attest their rights in court as the case in <i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Sparrow" title="R v Sparrow">R v Sparrow</a></i>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism_in_Canada" title="Settler colonialism in Canada">Settler colonialism in Canada</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Canadian_Crown_and_Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples of Canada">The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples of Canada</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Status_of_First_Nations_treaties_in_British_Columbia" title="Status of First Nations treaties in British Columbia">Status of First Nations treaties in British Columbia</a></div> <p>The relationship between The Canadian Crown and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous peoples</a> stretches back to the first contact between European colonialists and North American Indigenous peoples. Over centuries of interaction, treaties were established concerning the interaction between the monarch and Indigenous peoples. Both the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a> and the <i>British North America Act, 1867</i> (now the <i><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1867" title="Constitution Act, 1867">Constitution Act, 1867</a></i>) established guidelines that would be later used to create the numbered treaties. </p><p>The Royal Proclamation occurred in 1763, and is considered to be the foundation of treaty-making in Canada. This proclamation established a line between the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a> from <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> to the southern region of the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Georgia" title="Province of Georgia">Province of Georgia</a>, and prevented settlement beyond that specific area by settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-Virgin_Lands_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virgin_Lands-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proclamation also established protocols that needed to be acknowledged by the governing authority in regards to purchasing land from First Nations Peoples in North America and later Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-Proclamation_Government_Can._6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proclamation_Government_Can.-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Royal Proclamation was created as a result of the assertion of British jurisdiction over First Nation territory. While the British laid claim over First Nation territory, uprisings from <a href="/wiki/Pontiac_(Ottawa_leader)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontiac (Ottawa leader)">Pontiac</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Three_Fires" title="Council of Three Fires">Three Fires Confederacy</a>, and other First Nations Peoples resulted in a period of violence between the two peoples as the British attempted to maintain their claim and the Indigenous peoples fought to dislodge British troops from their land. As a result of these uprisings, the intention of the Royal Proclamation was to prevent future disputes.<sup id="cite_ref-Shiri_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shiri-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Royal Proclamation stated that the only authoritative government that was able to purchase land from First Nations People was the <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">British Crown</a>. One of the stipulations of this agreement was that First Nations People were to be informed and attend the public assembly regarding the purchase of lands.<sup id="cite_ref-Alain_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alain-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the <i>British North America Act 1867</i> was enacted, a division of power was established between the Dominion government and its provinces that separated First Nation Peoples and settlers. The federal government retained responsibility for providing health care, education, property rights and creating other laws that would affect the First Nations people.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Milloy_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milloy-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government of Canada replaced the British Crown as the leading authority, and gained control of 19th-century First Nations land transfers.<sup id="cite_ref-Whitehouse_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitehouse-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both the Royal Proclamation and the British North America Act impacted the procedures of governmental and First Nations negotiations. They set the stage for future negotiations that would occur, including the numbered treaties that would begin in 1871 with <i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_1" title="Treaty 1">Treaty 1</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Negotiation">Negotiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Negotiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Negotiation of the Numbered Treaties began in 1871. The first seven affected those living on the prairies, while the remaining were negotiated at a later time between 1899 and 1921 and concerned those living further north. Each treaty delineates a tract of land which was thought to be the traditional territory of the First Nations signing that particular treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Canada it was a necessary step before settlement and development could occur further westward. No two treaties were alike, as they were dependent upon specific geographic and social conditions within the territory being addressed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaschuck201379_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaschuck201379-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government">Government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After confederation, the newly formed Dominion of Canada looked to expand its borders from sea to sea. There was a fear amongst the population that rapid expansion from the United States would leave the country cornered with limited arable land, lack of opportunity for economic growth, and resource extraction.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the west of <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> was <a href="/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land" title="Rupert's Land">Rupert's Land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">fur trading</a> territory operated by the <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a> since 1670, which contained several <a href="/wiki/Trading_post" title="Trading post">trading post</a> and some small settlements, such as the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Colony" title="Red River Colony">Red River Colony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the first session of Parliament many called for the annexation of the territory and letters were sent to the <a href="/wiki/British_Monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="British Monarchy">British Monarchy</a> suggesting that "it would promote the prosperity of the Canadian people, and conduce to the advantage of the whole Empire if the Dominion of Canada ... were extended westward to the shore of the Pacific Ocean".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following years, negotiations took place to acquire full control of the region with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land_Act_1868" title="Rupert's Land Act 1868"><i>Rupert's Land Act</i></a> of 1868 and the <i><a href="/wiki/North-Western_Territory" title="North-Western Territory">North-Western Territory</a> Transfer Act</i> of 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though the government acquired the land from the <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a>, they failed to have full control and use of the land; this transfer solely provided sovereignty over the area. </p><p>One of the conditions to ensure <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> would join <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Confederation" title="Canadian Confederation">Confederation</a> at the time was the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway_in_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Pacific Railway in British Columbia">Canadian Pacific Railway</a> to connect it to the rest of the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This major infrastructure project would have to go through the interior of the newly acquired land and through First Nation territory. <a href="/wiki/Canadian_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian law">Canadian law</a>, as set out in the Royal Proclamation, recognized that the First Nations who inhabited these lands prior to European contact had title to the land. In order to satisfy British Columbia's request and the growing need for land by eastern settlers and new immigrants, treaties had to be created with the First Nation people in the interior. </p><p>Similarly, the later treaties of the turn of the century were not conducted until the land was useful for government purposes. When <a href="/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush" title="Klondike Gold Rush">gold was discovered in the Klondike</a> in the 1890s, <i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_8" title="Treaty 8">Treaty 8</a></i> was established in the hopes of quelling tensions and conflicts between First Nations of the northern reaches and miners and traders.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the fact that First Nations people of the <a href="/wiki/Mackenzie_River" title="Mackenzie River">Mackenzie River Valley</a> were in economic need well before the 1920s, it was not until an abundance of oil was found that treaties needed to be implemented.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Government of Canada lobbied for treaties in the north only when potential development could be supported in the region. For political and economic reasoning, the Government of Canada hastily put treaties into place without regards to First Nation well-being.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Nations">First Nations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: First Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With Treaties 1–7, there was some resistance from members of the First Nations to the treaty process and growing anxiety that it would allow a flood of settlers, but many saw it as a way to secure much needed assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The First Nations at this time were suffering due to the changing dynamics of the west including disease, famine, and conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaschuck201396_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaschuck201396-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First Nations people were being decimated by disease, specifically <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> which had catastrophic ramifications for several groups. <a href="/wiki/Tsuut%27ina_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsuut'ina Nation">Tsuu T'ina</a> for example were decimated by Old World disease. Their population fell from several thousand to only 300 to 400 remaining within the 1800s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaschuck201382_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaschuck201382-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They began to suffer from famine due to the near extinction of the buffalo. Active participation in selling <a href="/wiki/Pemmican" title="Pemmican">pemmican</a> and hide in the fur trade, in addition to hunting for personal sustenance, meant that those living on the plains lacked a vital food source to maintain their livelihood. They were eager to receive food aid and other assistance from the government, which they believed would be offered following the implementation of treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some First Nation groups also sought to ensure some form of education would be provided to them through the implementation of the treaties. Education was crucial to the First Nations because their cultural way of life was diminishing around them quite rapidly. They believed that the promise of education would not only help curb the loss of culture but also ensure their children's future success in a new developed West.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the northern regions of this land that was not covered by any treaty, the First Nations were suffering from similar issues, but had to continue to lobby the Canadian government for years before treaties were negotiated. A focus on materials needed for survival was placed when they did finally occur.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike previous treaties, which included both First Nations and European tradition, the numbered treaties were conducted in a purely <a href="/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Diplomatic_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Her Majesty's Diplomatic Service">British diplomatic</a> manner. First Nations were given translators, either of European or <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis in Canada">Métis</a> descent, who were to translate what was being said during the discussions. What can be seen here is a significant difference between the written documents used by government officials of the time, and the <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral traditions</a> used by the <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> communities throughout the negotiation process. This reality is proven through diaries like those of the Indian commissioner, <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Campbell_Scott" title="Duncan Campbell Scott">Duncan Campbell Scott</a>, who wrote a detailed account of negotiating <i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_9" title="Treaty 9">Treaty 9</a></i> through <i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_11" title="Treaty 11">Treaty 11</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also claims from First Nations people that <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Morris_(politician)" title="Alexander Morris (politician)">Alexander Morris</a> failed to mention the surrender clause in the treaty text at the negotiations for <i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_6" title="Treaty 6">Treaty 6</a></i>, leading to miscommunication between the two groups.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence can also be found amongst the few written documents of the time by First Nations chiefs; during <i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_3" title="Treaty 3">Treaty 3</a></i> negotiations, Chief Powasson took detailed notes during the negotiations, which shows the differences in understanding of what was being offered during the talks because of the language barrier.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of specific wording during the negotiations and within the treaties are also points of contention. The language used by the commissioners during the numbered treaties negotiations addressed First Nations tradition by giving them entitlement of children and <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a> was identified as Queen Mother.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the commissioner recognized First Nations peoples as children and the Crown as Queen Mother it ensured the First Nations people were to always to be protected from danger by their parents and enjoy their freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the numbered treaties negotiations came to an end, the language use was significant to First Nations people. To seal the numbered treaties references to the natural world like, "You will always be cared for, all the time, as long as the sun walks"<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was used to appeal to the First Nations people. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 972px;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Presentation copies of several numbered treaties</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Treatyno4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Treaty 4"><img alt="A large piece of parchment paper with detailed, small text of the treaty." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Treatyno4.jpg/125px-Treatyno4.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Treatyno4.jpg/187px-Treatyno4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Treatyno4.jpg/250px-Treatyno4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3960" data-file-height="3807" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Treaty 4</i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Treatyno600.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Treaty 6"><img alt="A large piece of parchment paper with detailed, small text of the treaty." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Treatyno600.jpg/176px-Treatyno600.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Treatyno600.jpg/264px-Treatyno600.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Treatyno600.jpg/352px-Treatyno600.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5464" data-file-height="3726" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Treaty 6</i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Treatyno7.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Treaty 7"><img alt="A large piece of parchment paper with detailed, small text of the treaty." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Treatyno7.jpg/177px-Treatyno7.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Treatyno7.jpg/266px-Treatyno7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Treatyno7.jpg/354px-Treatyno7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5638" data-file-height="3822" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Treaty 7</i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Treatyno800.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Treaty 8"><img alt="A large piece of parchment paper with detailed, small text of the treaty." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Treatyno800.jpg/173px-Treatyno800.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Treatyno800.jpg/259px-Treatyno800.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Treatyno800.jpg/345px-Treatyno800.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5394" data-file-height="3750" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Treaty 8</i></div> </li> </ul> <p>These treaty presentation copies are held in the Bruce Peel Special Collections at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alberta_Library" title="University of Alberta Library">University of Alberta Library</a>. Each is printed on parchment with text in black and red and a blue and red border. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List">List</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: List"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the table below is information about each numbered treaty including its signing date, its location, the major signers, those affected, and a brief summary of what each group received following the agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Treaty number </th> <th>First signed on </th> <th>Location </th> <th>Major treaty signers </th> <th>Those affected </th> <th>Brief summary </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_1" title="Treaty 1">Treaty 1</a></i></td> <td>3 August 1871</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_Fort_Garry" title="Lower Fort Garry">Lower Fort Garry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Alexander,_Manitoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Alexander, Manitoba">Fort Alexander</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adams_George_Archibald" title="Adams George Archibald">Adams Archibald</a> (Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba), <a href="/wiki/Wemyss_Mackenzie_Simpson" title="Wemyss Mackenzie Simpson">Wemyss Simpson</a> (Indian Commissioner)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chippewa_Cree" title="Chippewa Cree">Chippewa</a> Tribe, <a href="/wiki/Swampy_Cree" title="Swampy Cree">Swampy</a> Cree Tribe, and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter.</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i>Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a> and monetary compensation, farming tools, education. <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; promise of peace, law, and order, and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_2" title="Treaty 2">Treaty 2</a></i></td> <td>21 August 1871</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Manitoba_House" title="Manitoba House">Manitoba Post</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adams_George_Archibald" title="Adams George Archibald">Adams Archibald</a> (Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba), <a href="/wiki/Wemyss_Mackenzie_Simpson" title="Wemyss Mackenzie Simpson">Wemyss Simpson</a> (Indian Commissioner)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Chippewa</a> Tribe of Indians, and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter.</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i>Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a> and monetary compensation; farming tools; education. <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; promise of peace, law, and order, and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_3" title="Treaty 3">Treaty 3</a></i></td> <td>3 October 1873</td> <td>Northwest Angle of the <a href="/wiki/Lake_of_the_Woods" title="Lake of the Woods">Lake of the Woods</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Morris_(politician)" title="Alexander Morris (politician)">Alexander Morris</a> (Lieutenant Governor), S.J. Dawson (Indian Commissioner)</td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Saulteaux_First_Nation" title="Saulteaux First Nation">Saulteaux</a> Tribe of the <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a> Indians and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter.</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i> Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a>, and monetary compensation; farming tools; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves. <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing, and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_4" title="Treaty 4">Treaty 4</a></i></td> <td>15 September 1874</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fort_Qu%27Appelle" title="Fort Qu'Appelle">Fort Qu'Appelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Ellice" title="Fort Ellice">Fort Ellice</a>, Swan Lake, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pelly" title="Fort Pelly">Fort Pelly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Walsh" title="Fort Walsh">Fort Walsh</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Morris_(politician)" title="Alexander Morris (politician)">Alexander Morris</a> (Lieutenant Governor), <a href="/wiki/William_J._Christie" title="William J. Christie">William J. Christie</a> (Indian Commissioner)</td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saulteaux_First_Nation" title="Saulteaux First Nation">Saulteaux</a> Tribes of Indians, and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter.</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i>Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a>, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for gunpowder, shot, bale, and fishing net twine totalling $750/year; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves. <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing, and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a>. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_5" title="Treaty 5">Treaty 5</a></i></td> <td>20 September 1875 (adhesions in February 1889)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Berens_River,_Manitoba" title="Berens River, Manitoba">Beren's River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norway_House" title="Norway House">Norway House</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Rapids,_Manitoba" title="Grand Rapids, Manitoba">Grand Rapids</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Morris_(politician)" title="Alexander Morris (politician)">Alexander Morris</a> (Lieutenant Governor), <a href="/wiki/James_McKay_(fur_trader)" title="James McKay (fur trader)">James McKay</a> (Indian Commissioner)</td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Saulteaux_First_Nation" title="Saulteaux First Nation">Saulteaux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swampy_Cree" title="Swampy Cree">Swampy</a> Cree Tribes of Indians, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter.</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i> Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a>, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for gunpowder, shot, bale, and fishing net twine totalling $300/year; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves when desired by First Nations, and deemed appropriate by Canada. <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a>; and full control of schooling on reserves. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_6" title="Treaty 6">Treaty 6</a></i></td> <td>28 August 1876 (adhesion 9 September 1876, and February 1889)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fort_Carlton" title="Fort Carlton">Fort Carlton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pitt_Provincial_Park" title="Fort Pitt Provincial Park">Fort Pitt</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Morris_(politician)" title="Alexander Morris (politician)">Alexander Morris</a> (Lieutenant Governor), <a href="/wiki/James_McKay_(fur_trader)" title="James McKay (fur trader)">James McKay</a> (Indian Commissioner), <a href="/wiki/William_J._Christie" title="William J. Christie">William J. Christie</a> (Indian Commissioner)</td> <td>The Plain and Wood Cree Tribes of Indians, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter.</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i>Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a>, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for gunpowder, shot, bale, and fishing net twine totalling $1500/year; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves when desired by First Nations, and deemed appropriate by Canada; <a href="/wiki/Medicine_chest" title="Medicine chest">medicine chest</a> clause is implemented; additional assistance is available for pestilence or famine relief <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a>; control of healthcare on reserves through the medicine chest initiative. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_7" title="Treaty 7">Treaty 7</a></i></td> <td>22 September 1877</td> <td>"<a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_Crossing" title="Blackfoot Crossing">Blackfoot Crossing</a>" of the <a href="/wiki/Bow_River" title="Bow River">Bow River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Macleod" title="Fort Macleod">Fort Macleod</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/David_Laird" title="David Laird">David Laird</a> (Government Official), <a href="/wiki/James_Macleod" title="James Macleod">James Macleod</a> (Indian Commissioner),</td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Blackfoot Confederacy">Blackfoot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kainai_Nation" title="Kainai Nation">Blood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piegan_Blackfeet" title="Piegan Blackfeet">Piegan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tsuut%27ina_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsuut'ina Nation">Sarcee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nakoda_(Stoney)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nakoda (Stoney)">Stony</a>, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter.</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i>Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a>, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for ammunition totalling $2000/year; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; have right to build and maintain infrastructure on reserves; salary is allocated to hire a school teacher for reserve school. <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a>. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_8" title="Treaty 8">Treaty 8</a></i></td> <td>8 July 1899 (adhesions until 1901)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Slave_Lake" title="Lesser Slave Lake">Lesser Slave Lake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peace_River,_Alberta" title="Peace River, Alberta">Peace River Landing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Vermilion" title="Fort Vermilion">Fort Vermilion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fond-du-Lac" class="mw-redirect" title="Fond-du-Lac">Fond-du-Lac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunvegan,_Alberta" title="Dunvegan, Alberta">Dunvegan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Chipewyan" title="Fort Chipewyan">Fort Chipewyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fitzgerald,_Alberta" title="Fitzgerald, Alberta">Smiths Landing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_McMurray" title="Fort McMurray">Fort McMurray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wabasca_River" title="Wabasca River">Wapiscow Lake</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/David_Laird" title="David Laird">David Laird</a> (Treaty Commissioner), <a href="/wiki/James_Hamilton_Ross" title="James Hamilton Ross">J.H. Ross</a> (Treaty Commissioner), <a href="/w/index.php?title=J.A.J._McKenna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J.A.J. McKenna (page does not exist)">J.A.J. McKenna</a> (Treaty Commissioner)</td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beaver_First_Nation" title="Beaver First Nation">Beaver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chipewyan" title="Chipewyan">Chipewyan</a>, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter.</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i>Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a>, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for ammunition and fishing net twine totalling $1 per family head; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; money is set aside to hire school teachers as needed. <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a>; ability to buy and sell Aboriginal land with their consent. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_9" title="Treaty 9">Treaty 9</a></i></td> <td>6 November 1905</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mishkeegogamang_First_Nation" title="Mishkeegogamang First Nation">Osnaburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eabametoong_First_Nation" title="Eabametoong First Nation">Fort Hope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marten_Falls_First_Nation" title="Marten Falls First Nation">Marten Falls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Albany_First_Nation" title="Fort Albany First Nation">Fort Albany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moose_Factory" title="Moose Factory">Moose Factory</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Post,_Ontario" title="New Post, Ontario">New Post</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wahgoshig_First_Nation" title="Wahgoshig First Nation">Abitibi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matachewan" title="Matachewan">Matachewan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mattagami_First_Nation" title="Mattagami First Nation">Mattagami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flying_Post" title="Flying Post">Flying Post</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brunswick_House_First_Nation" title="Brunswick House First Nation">New Brunswick House</a>, <a href="/wiki/Long_Lake_58_First_Nation" title="Long Lake 58 First Nation">Long Lake</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Campbell_Scott" title="Duncan Campbell Scott">Duncan Campbell Scott</a> (Treaty Commissioner), Samuel Stewart (Treaty Commissioner), <a href="/wiki/Daniel_G._MacMartin" title="Daniel G. MacMartin">Daniel G. MacMartin</a></td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Ojibway_Nation_of_Saugeen" title="Ojibway Nation of Saugeen">Ojibway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a>, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter.</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i>Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a>, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for ammunition and fishing net twine totalling $1 per family head; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; funds to hire teachers, construct schools, and purchase supplies are available, but with Canada's authorization. <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a>; full control funds for education. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_10" title="Treaty 10">Treaty 10</a></i></td> <td>7 November 1906</td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-%C3%A0-la-Crosse" title="Île-à-la-Crosse">Île-à-la-Crosse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lac_Brochet,_Manitoba" title="Lac Brochet, Manitoba">Lac du Brochet</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=J.A.J._McKenna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J.A.J. McKenna (page does not exist)">J.A.J. McKenna</a> (Treaty Commissioner)</td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Chipewyan" title="Chipewyan">Chipewyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a>, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter.</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i>Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a>, and monetary compensation; farming tools; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; unspecified amount of ammunition and twine distributed as government sees fit; provision for childhood education; furnishings for agricultural assistance <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a>; control of the allocation of ammunition and fishing twine, and the distribution of agricultural assistance. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_11" title="Treaty 11">Treaty 11</a></i></td> <td>27 June 1921 until 22 August 1921</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fort_Providence" title="Fort Providence">Fort Providence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Simpson" title="Fort Simpson">Fort Simpson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wrigley,_Northwest_Territories" title="Wrigley, Northwest Territories">Fort Wrigley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tulita" title="Tulita">Fort Norman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Good_Hope" title="Fort Good Hope">Good Hope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tsiigehtchic" title="Tsiigehtchic">Arctic Red River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_McPherson,_Northwest_Territories" title="Fort McPherson, Northwest Territories">Fort McPherson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Liard" title="Fort Liard">Fort Liard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behchok%C7%AB%CC%80" title="Behchokǫ̀">Fort Rae</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Campbell_Scott" title="Duncan Campbell Scott">Duncan Campbell Scott</a> (Governor General/Major Signer), Henry Anthony Conroy (Indian Commissioner)</td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Slavey" title="Slavey">Slavey</a>, <a href="/wiki/T%C5%82%C4%B1%CC%A8ch%C7%AB" title="Tłı̨chǫ">Dogrib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gwich%27in" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwich'in">Loucheux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sahtu" title="Sahtu">Hare</a>, and other Indians, inhabitants of the territory within the limits hereinafter</td> <td><i>First Nations receive: </i>Limited <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">reserve land</a>, and monetary compensation; farming tools; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; provision for childhood education; furnishings for agricultural assistance; have right to build and maintain infrastructure on reserves; provision for childhood education; each family receives $50 annually for fishing twine and trapping; distribution of agricultural assistance possible. <p><i>Canada obtains</i>: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">restricted alcohol use on reserves</a>; ability to buy and sell Aboriginal land with permission; control of the allocation of ammunition and fishing twine, and the distribution of agricultural assistance. </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Perspectives">Perspectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_2">Government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism_in_Canada" title="Settler colonialism in Canada">Settler colonialism in Canada</a></div> <p>The Crown's intentions were based upon expansion and transition. The treaties allowed the fur trading territory to house a new <a href="/wiki/Settler_society" title="Settler society">settler society</a>. As stated in the written terms of the numbered treaties, the Crown desired "peace and goodwill" between First Nations and Her Majesty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERayMillerTough200259_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERayMillerTough200259-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the view of the Crown, treaties were the agreement to trade First Nations territory for "bounty and benevolence". This language makes the First Nations <a href="/wiki/Ward_(law)" title="Ward (law)">wards</a> of the state and under the government's protection.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERayMillerTough200259_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERayMillerTough200259-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With these agreements, not only could the Dominion of Canada expand west and northward, but also First Nations could make the transition into a new economy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERayMillerTough20025_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERayMillerTough20025-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No longer would First Nations be dependent on a <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> lifestyle, but rather begin to adapt and integrate into a western settlement society through farming and other entrepreneurial means. To treaty makers, the treaties were essentially a beneficial commercial exchange of both land and identity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Nations_2">First Nations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: First Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Originally, First Nations people felt the treaties had the potential to satisfy the needs of their communities and foster mutual respect and understanding between themselves, the Crown, and all people of Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> Throughout the signing of the treaties, First Nations believed that their agreement was everlasting, and had many reasons for believing so. For example, during the signing of <i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_6" title="Treaty 6">Treaty 6</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_pipe" title="Ceremonial pipe">pipe ceremony</a> was conducted before the signing stipulating that nothing but the truth was to be spoken during negotiations.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_and_violations">Effects and violations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effects and violations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples</a></div> <p>Many First Nations groups felt the numbered treaties signed by the Dominion Government and their First Nations chiefs between 1877 and 1921 were rushed and disorganized, limiting to the Indigenous way of life and ultimately had poor results due to unfulfilled promises.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the treaties, Canada was seen as an oppressive colonizer at this time, most prominently because the government was more concerned with changing the various First Nations groups, rather than negotiating and collaborating with them.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the most prominent effects of the numbered treaties for First Nations groups included limited funds for education, supplies (such as fishing net twine) and minimal allocation of land as First Nations reserves. Upon signing the treaties, Canada obtained control of most aspects of society, especially in schooling, resource extraction, land use and implementation of laws for various social issues (such as alcohol policies). </p><p>The Dominion Government also violated many of the treaty terms; in restructuring and mandating education through the creation of <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">residential schools</a>, the government breached the treaty agreements around the question of education.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many First Nations were allocated less reserve lands than they were supposed to according to the Treaty, which resulted in many <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous land claims in Canada">indigenous land claims</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">treaty rights</a> entitlements.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, First Nations felt the agreements from the numbered treaties were dishonoured when their traditional forms of governance were removed and they became "<a href="/wiki/Ward_(law)" title="Ward (law)">wards</a> of the state", and when <a href="/wiki/Indian_agent_(Canada)" title="Indian agent (Canada)">Indian agents</a> began to control the sale of their seeds and livestock.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further restrictions and policies were put in place that controlled First Nations' way of life beyond the original stipulations that were outlined in the numbered treaties. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement</a> of the 1960s interpreted the treaties as being invalid because they were: </p> <ul><li>coerced, accordingly not an agreement between equal partners<sup id="cite_ref-Pithouse_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pithouse-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>breached many times in their history by the government,<sup id="cite_ref-Knight_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> notably by the residential school system and resource extraction</li> <li>not reached by agreement with the lawful hereditary chiefs, and especially without the involvement of women who by tradition often had final authority</li></ul> <p>As a result of the agency asserted during treaty negotiations and the active pursuit of treaty revisions by Indigenous leaders like Plains Cree chiefs Pitikwahanapiwiyin (also known as Pound Maker) and Mistahimaskwa (Big Bear), Crown officials acting to establish and maintain the Numbered Treaties had to resort to exploiting environmental conditions such as epidemics and hunger crises as well as utilizing underhanded tactics of arrest and incarceration of leaders in order to gain control over and coerce First Nations who continuously protested the broken promises, attacks on Indigenous autonomy, and theft of land surrounding the Crown's manipulations of agreed upon Treaty terms and language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1981, all provinces other than <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> agreed to a constitutional amendment, which included a reiteration of the rights of the indigenous peoples of Canada as established by former treaties (<a href="/wiki/Section_35_of_the_Constitution_Act,_1982" title="Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982">Chapter 35</a>). Subsequent attempts (<a href="/wiki/Meech_Lake_Accord" title="Meech Lake Accord">Meech Lake Accord</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charlottetown_Accord" title="Charlottetown Accord">Charlottetown Accord</a>) to try to appease the government of Quebec with certain constitutional provisions, such as the recognition of Quebec as a "distinct society" failed in part due to First Nations opposition. Many aboriginal leaders saw this renegotiation as an opportune time to enshrine the increased rights and powers and recognition that they had been campaigning for since the process of <a href="/wiki/Patriation" title="Patriation">patriating the Canadian constitution</a> began in the 1970s. With Newfoundland and Manitoba as the only provinces yet to sign the Meech Lake Accord, First Nations groups in Manitoba mobilized and managed, with the legislative maneuvering of the then Chief of the Red Sucker Lake First Nation and member of the Manitoba Legislative Assembly <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Harper" title="Elijah Harper">Elijah Harper</a>, to delay the ratification of the accord until the legislative session ended for the summer, essentially "killing" the bill to ratify the accord, and with that, the Meech Lake Accord itself. Later, controversy occurred during the 1995 Quebec independence referendum, with differing points of view regarding the rights of provincial and indigenous nations to end or maintain their union with Canada, though it had never been in dispute that First Nations would have to voluntarily agree with their formal treaty partner, the Canadian Crown, to modify the treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010, Canada signed the United Nations <a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a>. In 2011 and again in 2012 the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> criticized the federal government over <a href="/wiki/Attawapiskat_First_Nation" title="Attawapiskat First Nation">Attawapiskat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CTV_UN_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CTV_UN-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012 in <i><a href="/wiki/Daniels_v_Canada_(Indian_Affairs_and_Northern_Development)" title="Daniels v Canada (Indian Affairs and Northern Development)">Daniels v. Canada</a></i> the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Canada" title="Federal Court of Canada">Federal Court of Canada</a> ruled that 200,000 off-reserve First Nations people and 400,000 <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis in Canada">Métis</a> were also "Indians" under s. 91(24) of the <i><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1867" title="Constitution Act, 1867">Constitution Act, 1867</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Metis_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Metis-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These had no formal representation at the <a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_First_Nations" title="Assembly of First Nations">Assembly of First Nations</a>, which had hitherto been assumed by the federal government to speak authoritatively on all matters involving "Indians". </p><p>In 2012 the <a href="/wiki/Idle_No_More" title="Idle No More">Idle No More</a> movement and subsequent hunger strike by <a href="/wiki/Attawapiskat_First_Nation" title="Attawapiskat First Nation">Attawapiskat First Nation</a> Chief <a href="/wiki/Theresa_Spence" title="Theresa Spence">Theresa Spence</a> brought the assertion that the treaties provide for direct Crown recourse back to public attention. Chief Spence demanded direct Crown attention to the Cabinet's attempt to remove federal government oversight of lands and waters and environmental issues that duplicated provincial oversight of the same. After an agreement by opposition parties was struck to end Chief Spence's hunger strike, the legal analysis that supported the principle of direct Crown recourse was adamantly supported by interim <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada" title="Liberal Party of Canada">Liberal Party of Canada</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Bob_Rae" title="Bob Rae">Bob Rae</a><sup id="cite_ref-CBC_Rae_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBC_Rae-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others. Idle No More itself presented its legal analysis via <a href="/wiki/Pamela_Palmater" title="Pamela Palmater">Pamela Palmater</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bambury_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bambury-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her analysis resembled that of <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Coon_Come" title="Matthew Coon Come">Matthew Coon Come</a>, who summarized the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_of_the_Crees" title="Grand Council of the Crees">Grand Council of the Crees</a> position in a scholarly analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Quebec_sovereignty_movement" title="Quebec sovereignty movement">Quebec sovereignty movement</a> and its authority to withdraw from Confederation taking First Nations territory with it. Both his analysis and Palmater's emphasize the need for voluntary renegotiation of treaties between equal partners, and the impossibility of cutting off any avenue of appeal to the Crown. </p><p>In 2024, <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Peoples_Television_Network" title="Aboriginal Peoples Television Network">APTN</a> premiered <i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Road" title="Treaty Road">Treaty Road</a></i>, a documentary series about the treaties and their impact on Canada's indigenous peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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style="column-width: 23em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Treaty_Process" title="British Columbia Treaty Process">British Columbia Treaty Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Treaties" title="Douglas Treaties">Douglas Treaties</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bay_and_Northern_Quebec_Agreement" title="James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement">James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robinson_Treaties" title="Robinson Treaties">Robinson Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Row_Wampum_Treaty" title="Two Row Wampum Treaty">Two Row Wampum Treaty</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span 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class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Treaties-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Treaties_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040409130903/http://www.canadiana.org/citm/specifique/numtreatyoverview_e.html">"Numbered Treaty Overview"</a>. <i>Canada in the Making</i>. Canadiana.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canadiana.org/citm/specifique/numtreatyoverview_e.html">the original</a> on 9 April 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 November</span> 2009</span>. <q>The Numbered Treaties - also called the Land Cession or Post-Confederation Treaties - were signed between 1871 and 1921, and granted the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Canada" title="Government of Canada">Government of Canada</a> large tracts of land throughout the Prairies, Canadian North and Northwestern Ontario for white settlement and industrial use. In exchange for the land, Canada promised to give the Aboriginal peoples various items, such as cash, blankets, tools, farming supplies, and so on. The impact of these treaties can be still felt in modern times.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Canada+in+the+Making&rft.atitle=Numbered+Treaty+Overview&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.canadiana.org%2Fcitm%2Fspecifique%2Fnumtreatyoverview_e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJacksonJacksonKoop2020" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Robert J.; Jackson, Doreen; Koop, Royce (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u6zNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT186"><i>Canadian Government and Politics</i></a> (7th ed.). Broadview Press. p. 186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4604-0696-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4604-0696-0"><bdi>978-1-4604-0696-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canadian+Government+and+Politics&rft.pages=186&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-4604-0696-0&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Doreen&rft.au=Koop%2C+Royce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du6zNDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHall2015" class="citation book cs1">Hall, David John (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hLoeDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA258"><i>From Treaties to Reserves: The Federal Government and Native Peoples in Territorial Alberta, 1870–1905</i></a>. 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(1999). <i>A National Crime: The Canadian Government and the Residential School System, 1879 to 1986</i>. Manitoba: University of Manitoba Press. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88755-166-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-88755-166-1"><bdi>0-88755-166-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+National+Crime%3A+The+Canadian+Government+and+the+Residential+School+System%2C+1879+to+1986&rft.place=Manitoba&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=University+of+Manitoba+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-88755-166-1&rft.aulast=Milloy&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitehouse-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whitehouse_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhitehouse1994" class="citation journal cs1">Whitehouse, Derek (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/pi/article/view/1373/918">"The Numbered Treaties: Similar Means to Dichotomous Ends"</a>. <i>Past Imperfect</i>. <b>3</b>: 30<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Great Britain. 1869.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copy+Or+Extracts+of+Correspondence+Between+the+Colonial+Office%2C+the+Government+of+the+Canadian+Dominion+and+the+Hudson%27s+Bay+Company+Relating+to+the+Surrender+of+Rupert%27s+Land+by+the+Hudson%27s+Bay+Company%3A+and+for+the+Admission+Thereof+into+the+Dominion+of+Canada&rft.pub=Great+Britain&rft.date=1869&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGovernment_of_Canada2013" class="citation web cs1">Government of Canada (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1360948213124/1360948312708">"The Numbered Treaties (1871–1921)"</a>. <i>Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada</i>. Government of Canada<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aboriginal+Affairs+and+Northern+Development+Canada&rft.atitle=The+Numbered+Treaties+%281871%E2%80%931921%29&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Government+of+Canada&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca%2Feng%2F1360948213124%2F1360948312708&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFriesen1987" class="citation book cs1">Friesen, Gerald (1987). <i>The Canadian Prairies: A History</i>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">171–</span>173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802066488" title="Special:BookSources/0802066488"><bdi>0802066488</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Canadian+Prairies%3A+A+History&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E171-%3C%2Fspan%3E173&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0802066488&rft.aulast=Friesen&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller2000" class="citation book cs1">Miller, J. R. (17 May 2000). <i>Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada</i> (3rd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802081533" title="Special:BookSources/0802081533"><bdi>0802081533</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Skyscrapers+Hide+the+Heavens%3A+A+History+of+Indian-White+Relations+in+Canada&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=276&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press%2C+Scholarly+Publishing+Division&rft.date=2000-05-17&rft.isbn=0802081533&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller2000" class="citation book cs1">Miller, J. R. (May 2000). <i>Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada</i> (3rd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. p. 277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802081533" title="Special:BookSources/0802081533"><bdi>0802081533</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Skyscrapers+Hide+the+Heavens%3A+A+History+of+Indian-White+Relations+in+Canada&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=277&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press%2C+Scholarly+Publishing+Division&rft.date=2000-05&rft.isbn=0802081533&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller2000" class="citation book cs1">Miller, J. R. (17 May 2000). <i>Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian–White Relations in Canada</i>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division; 3rd ed edition. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802081533" title="Special:BookSources/0802081533"><bdi>0802081533</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Skyscrapers+Hide+the+Heavens%3A+A+History+of+Indian%E2%80%93White+Relations+in+Canada&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=276&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press%2C+Scholarly+Publishing+Division%3B+3rd+ed+edition&rft.date=2000-05-17&rft.isbn=0802081533&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cj-jp/victim/rd3-rr3/p3.html">"Aboriginal Victimization in Canada: A Summary of the Literature"</a>. <i>Victims of Crime Research Digest No. 3</i>. 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R. (2009). <i>Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada</i>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802095152" title="Special:BookSources/9780802095152"><bdi>9780802095152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compact%2C+Contract%2C+Covenant%3A+Aboriginal+Treaty-Making+in+Canada&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780802095152&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStewart2001" class="citation journal cs1">Stewart, Sheila (2001). "A Treaty Right to Education". <i>Canadian Society for the Study of Education</i>. <b>26</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">125–</span>143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1602197">10.2307/1602197</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1602197">1602197</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Society+for+the+Study+of+Education&rft.atitle=A+Treaty+Right+to+Education&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E125-%3C%2Fspan%3E143&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1602197&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1602197%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Sheila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhitehouse1994" class="citation journal cs1">Whitehouse, Derek (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/pi/article/viewArticle/1373">"The Numbered Treaties: Similar Means to Dichotomous Ends"</a>. <i>Past Imperfect</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+Imperfect&rft.atitle=The+Numbered+Treaties%3A+Similar+Means+to+Dichotomous+Ends&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Whitehouse&rft.aufirst=Derek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fejournals.library.ualberta.ca%2Findex.php%2Fpi%2Farticle%2FviewArticle%2F1373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller2000" class="citation book cs1">Miller, J. R. (2000). <i>Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada</i>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802081533" title="Special:BookSources/0802081533"><bdi>0802081533</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Skyscrapers+Hide+the+Heavens%3A+A+History+of+Indian-White+Relations+in+Canada&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=276&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0802081533&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTitley1986" class="citation book cs1">Titley, Brian (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/narrowvisiondunc0000titl/page/68"><i>A Narrow Vision: Duncan Campbell Scott and the Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada</i></a>. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/narrowvisiondunc0000titl/page/68">68–69</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0774804203" title="Special:BookSources/0774804203"><bdi>0774804203</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Narrow+Vision%3A+Duncan+Campbell+Scott+and+the+Administration+of+Indian+Affairs+in+Canada&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pages=68-69&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0774804203&rft.aulast=Titley&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnarrowvisiondunc0000titl%2Fpage%2F68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKrasowski2011" class="citation book cs1">Krasowski, Sheldon Kirk (2011). <i>Mediating the Numbered Treaties: Eyewitness Accounts of Treaties Between the Crown and Indigenous Peoples</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UN+envoy+criticizes+government+over+Attawapiskat&rft.pub=CTV+News&rft.date=2011-12-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctvnews.ca%2Fun-envoy-criticizes-government-over-attawapiskat-1.743134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Metis-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Metis_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/federal-court-grants-rights-to-m%C3%A9tis-non-status-indians-1.1319951">"Federal Court grants rights to Métis, non-status Indians"</a>. CBC. 8 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Federal+Court+grants+rights+to+M%C3%A9tis%2C+non-status+Indians&rft.pub=CBC&rft.date=2013-01-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fpolitics%2Ffederal-court-grants-rights-to-m%25C3%25A9tis-non-status-indians-1.1319951&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CBC_Rae-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CBC_Rae_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/player/News/Politics/ID/2328708765/?page=3">"Struggle will continue: Spence Spokesman"</a>. CBC. 24 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Struggle+will+continue%3A+Spence+Spokesman&rft.pub=CBC&rft.date=2013-01-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fplayer%2FNews%2FPolitics%2FID%2F2328708765%2F%3Fpage%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bambury-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bambury_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBambury2013" class="citation web cs1">Bambury, Brent (4 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/day6/blog/2013/01/04/pam-palmater-treaty-rights-bill-c-45-and-idle-no-more/">"Pam Palmater: Treaty Rights, Bill C-45 and Idle No More"</a>. CBC Radio<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pam+Palmater%3A+Treaty+Rights%2C+Bill+C-45+and+Idle+No+More&rft.pub=CBC+Radio&rft.date=2013-01-04&rft.aulast=Bambury&rft.aufirst=Brent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fday6%2Fblog%2F2013%2F01%2F04%2Fpam-palmater-treaty-rights-bill-c-45-and-idle-no-more%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greg David, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tv-eh.com/2024/02/01/treaty-road-the-ground-breaking-docuseries-premieres-march-5-on-aptn/">"Treaty Road, the ground-breaking docuseries, premieres March 5 on APTN"</a>. <i>TV, eh?</i>, February 1, 2024.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAsch1998" class="citation book cs1">Asch, Michael (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PP1"><i>Aboriginal and treaty rights in Canada : essays on law, equality, and respect for difference</i></a>. University of British Columbia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7748-0581-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7748-0581-1"><bdi>0-7748-0581-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+and+treaty+rights+in+Canada+%3A+essays+on+law%2C+equality%2C+and+respect+for+difference&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7748-0581-1&rft.aulast=Asch&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9Uae4mTTyYYC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDaschuck2013" class="citation book cs1">Daschuck, James (13 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mxwwZmSSOssC&pg=PP1"><i>Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life</i></a>. University of Regina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88977-296-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88977-296-0"><bdi>978-0-88977-296-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clearing+the+Plains%3A+Disease%2C+Politics+of+Starvation%2C+and+the+Loss+of+Aboriginal+Life&rft.pub=University+of+Regina+Press&rft.date=2013-05-13&rft.isbn=978-0-88977-296-0&rft.aulast=Daschuck&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmxwwZmSSOssC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRayMillerTough2002" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Arthur J.; Miller, Jim; Tough, Frank (24 January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTTcwNWw47QC&pg=PP1"><i>Bounty and Benevolence: A History of Saskatchewan Treaties</i></a>. McGill-Queens University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-2060-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-2060-8"><bdi>978-0-7735-2060-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bounty+and+Benevolence%3A+A+History+of+Saskatchewan+Treaties&rft.pub=McGill-Queens+University+Press&rft.date=2002-01-24&rft.isbn=978-0-7735-2060-8&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Arthur+J.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Jim&rft.au=Tough%2C+Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmTTcwNWw47QC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumbered+Treaties" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numbered_Treaties&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style 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text" href="https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/viewer?mid=1zqqaI8gnBPa-xZ1NJs-_Pcc_tr70yco">Interactive map of treaty boundaries</a> (Google My Maps)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Numbertreaty" title="Template:Numbertreaty"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Numbertreaty" title="Template talk:Numbertreaty"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Numbertreaty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Numbertreaty"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Numbered_Treaties315" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">The <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Numbered Treaties</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Numbered <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_1" title="Treaty 1">Treaty 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_2" title="Treaty 2">Treaty 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_3" title="Treaty 3">Treaty 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_4" title="Treaty 4">Treaty 4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_5" title="Treaty 5">Treaty 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_6" title="Treaty 6">Treaty 6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_7" title="Treaty 7">Treaty 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_8" title="Treaty 8">Treaty 8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_9" title="Treaty 9">Treaty 9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_10" title="Treaty 10">Treaty 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_11" title="Treaty 11">Treaty 11</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Canadian_Aboriginal_and_Indigenous_law424" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Canadian_Aboriginal_and_Indigenous_law" title="Template:Canadian Aboriginal and Indigenous law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Canadian_Aboriginal_and_Indigenous_law" title="Template talk:Canadian Aboriginal and Indigenous law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Canadian_Aboriginal_and_Indigenous_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Canadian Aboriginal and Indigenous law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Canadian_Aboriginal_and_Indigenous_law424" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_law" title="Canadian Aboriginal law">Canadian Aboriginal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indigenous_law" title="Canadian Indigenous law">Indigenous law</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Note: "Aboriginal law" refers to Canadian law dealing with Indigenous peoples; "Indigenous law" refers to the <a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">customary law</a> of individual Indigenous groups.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources of law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_land_title_in_Canada" title="Aboriginal land title in Canada">Aboriginal land title in Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_25_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms" title="Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms">Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_35_of_the_Constitution_Act,_1982" title="Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982">Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_91(24)_of_the_Constitution_Act,_1867&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 (page does not exist)">Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples_Act_(Canada)" title="United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act (Canada)"><i>United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties and <br />governmental relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-<a href="/wiki/Canadian_Confederation" title="Canadian Confederation">Confederation</a><br />(pre-1867)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_Chain" title="Covenant Chain">Covenant Chain</a> (1670s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Peace_of_Montreal" title="Great Peace of Montreal">Great Peace of Montreal</a> (1701)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanfan_Treaty" title="Nanfan Treaty">Nanfan Treaty</a> (1701)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Friendship_Treaties" title="Peace and Friendship Treaties">Peace and Friendship Treaties</a> (1725–1779)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaties_of_Fort_Niagara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treaties of Fort Niagara (page does not exist)">Treaties of Fort Niagara</a> (1764–1784)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Treaties" title="Douglas Treaties">Douglas Treaties</a> (1850–54)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gradual_Civilization_Act" title="Gradual Civilization Act">Gradual Civilization Act</a></i> (1857–1869)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Upper_Canadatreaties26" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper Canada<br />treaties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toronto_Purchase" title="Toronto Purchase">Toronto Purchase</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetanguishene_Bay_Purchase" title="Penetanguishene Bay Purchase">Penetanguishene Bay Purchase</a> (1798)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=London_Township_Treaty_No._6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="London Township Treaty No. 6 (page does not exist)">London Township Treaty No. 6</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sombra_Township_Treaty_No._7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sombra Township Treaty No. 7 (page does not exist)">Sombra Township Treaty No. 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Simcoe%E2%80%93Lake_Huron_Purchase" title="Lake Simcoe–Lake Huron Purchase">Lake Simcoe–Lake Huron Purchase</a> (1815)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Huron_Tract_Purchase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Huron Tract Purchase (page does not exist)">Huron Tract Purchase</a> (1827)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_45" title="Treaty 45">Treaty 45</a> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saugeen_Tract_Agreement" title="Saugeen Tract Agreement">Saugeen Tract Agreement</a> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robinson_Treaties" title="Robinson Treaties">Robinson Treaties</a> (1850, 1854, 1859)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Confederation<br />(post-1867)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gradual_Enfranchisement_Act" title="Gradual Enfranchisement Act">Gradual Enfranchisement Act</a></i> (1869–1876)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Numbered Treaties</a> (1871–1921) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_1" title="Treaty 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_2" title="Treaty 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_3" title="Treaty 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_4" title="Treaty 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_5" title="Treaty 5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_6" title="Treaty 6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_7" title="Treaty 7">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_8" title="Treaty 8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_9" title="Treaty 9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_10" title="Treaty 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_11" title="Treaty 11">11</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a></i> (1876–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_White_Paper" title="1969 White Paper">White Paper</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bay_and_Northern_Quebec_Agreement" title="James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement">James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunavut_Land_Claims_Agreement" title="Nunavut Land Claims Agreement">Nunavut Land Claims Agreement</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples">RCAP</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisga%27a_Final_Agreement" title="Nisga'a Final Agreement">Nisga'a Final Agreement</a> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paix_des_Braves" title="Paix des Braves">Paix des Braves</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty_to_consult_and_accommodate" title="Duty to consult and accommodate">Duty to consult and accommodate</a> (since 2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan%27s_Principle" title="Jordan's Principle">Jordan's Principle</a> (proposed 2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous land claims in Canada">Land claims</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_specific_land_claims_in_Canada" title="Indigenous specific land claims in Canada">specific claims</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_of_First_Nations_treaties_in_British_Columbia" title="Status of First Nations treaties in British Columbia">Ongoing treaty negotiations in British Columbia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Case law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Canada_(AG)_v_Lavell" title="Canada (AG) v Lavell">Attorney General of Canada v Lavell</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Badger" title="R v Badger">R v Badger</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Calder_v_British_Columbia_(AG)" title="Calder v British Columbia (AG)">Calder v British Columbia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chippewas_of_Sarnia_Band_v_Canada_(AG)" title="Chippewas of Sarnia Band v Canada (AG)">Chippewas of Sarnia Band v Canada</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corbiere_v_Canada_(Minister_of_Indian_and_Northern_Affairs)" title="Corbiere v Canada (Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs)">Corbiere v Canada</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daniels_v_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniels v Canada">Daniels v Canada</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Delgamuukw_v_British_Columbia" title="Delgamuukw v British Columbia">Delgamuukw v British Columbia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Native_Women%27s_Assn_of_Canada_v_Canada" title="Native Women's Assn of Canada v Canada">Native Women's Assn of Canada v Canada</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kruger_v_R" title="Kruger v R">Kruger v R</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Marshall;_R_v_Bernard" title="R v Marshall; R v Bernard">R v Marshall; R v Bernard</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Marshall" title="R v Marshall">R v Marshall</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mitchell_v_MNR" title="Mitchell v MNR">Mitchell v MNR</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paul_v_British_Columbia_(Forest_Appeals_Commission)" title="Paul v British Columbia (Forest Appeals Commission)">Paul v British Columbia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paulette_Caveat" title="Paulette Caveat">Paulette Caveat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Powley_ruling" class="mw-redirect" title="Powley ruling">Powley ruling</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Drybones" title="R v Drybones">R v Drybones</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Gladstone" title="R v Gladstone">R v Gladstone</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Gladue" title="R v Gladue">R v Gladue</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gladue_report" title="Gladue report">Gladue report</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Gonzales" title="R v Gonzales">R v Gonzales</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Guerin" title="R v Guerin">R v Guerin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Jim" title="R v Jim">R v Jim</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Pamajewon" title="R v Pamajewon">R v Pamajewon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Sparrow" title="R v Sparrow">R v Sparrow</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Re_Eskimos" class="mw-redirect" title="Re Eskimos">Re Eskimos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/St_Catharines_Milling_and_Lumber_Co_v_R" title="St Catharines Milling and Lumber Co v R">St Catharines Milling and Lumber Co v R</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Van_der_Peet" title="R v Van der Peet">R v Van der Peet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tsilhqot%27in_Nation_v_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia">Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daniels_v_Canada_(Indian_Affairs_and_Northern_Development)" title="Daniels v Canada (Indian Affairs and Northern Development)">Daniels v Canada</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Restoule_v_Canada" title="Restoule v Canada">Restoule v Canada</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indigenous_law" title="Canadian Indigenous law">Indigenous customary law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_self-government_in_Canada" title="Indigenous self-government in Canada">Self-government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaq)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Council (Miꞌkmaq)">Grand Council</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaq">Miꞌkmaq</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Law_of_Peace" title="Great Law of Peace">Great Law of Peace</a> (<a href="/wiki/Haudenosaunee" class="mw-redirect" title="Haudenosaunee">Haudenosaunee</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pittailiniit" title="Pittailiniit">Pittailiniit</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wahkohtowin" title="Wahkohtowin">Wahkohtowin</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Plains_Cree_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Plains Cree people">Plains Cree</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_Indigenous_Canadians" title="Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians">Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Violence_and_discrimination_against_Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada201" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_against_Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Template:Discrimination against Indigenous peoples in Canada"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_against_Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Template talk:Discrimination against Indigenous peoples in Canada"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_against_Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination against Indigenous peoples in Canada"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Violence_and_discrimination_against_Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada201" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Violence and discrimination against <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism_in_Canada" title="Settler colonialism in Canada">Settler colonialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gradual_Civilization_Act" title="Gradual Civilization Act">Gradual Civilization Act</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Numbered Treaties</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Indian Act</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police#Role_in_colonization" title="Royal Canadian Mounted Police">Role of the RCMP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Genocide</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Residential school system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_gravesites" title="Canadian Indian residential school gravesites">gravesites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_residential_schools_in_Canada" title="List of Indian residential schools in Canada">list</a>  /  <a href="/wiki/Chanie_Wenjack" title="Chanie Wenjack">Chanie Wenjack</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization_in_Canada" title="Compulsory sterilization in Canada">Forced sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nations_nutrition_experiments" title="First Nations nutrition experiments">First Nations nutrition experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixties_Scoop" title="Sixties Scoop">Sixties Scoop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kimelman_Report" title="Kimelman Report">Kimelman Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Arctic_relocation" title="High Arctic relocation">High Arctic relocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Eskimo_Dog#RCMP_dog_killings" title="Canadian Eskimo Dog">RCMP dog killings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada#Indigenous_Peoples" title="Racism in Canada">Racism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_Canada_and_the_United_States" title="Stereotypes of Indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pass_system_(Canadian_history)" title="Pass system (Canadian history)">Pass system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potlatch_ban" title="Potlatch ban">Potlatch ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_agent_(Canada)" title="Indian agent (Canada)">Indian agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_hospital" title="Indian hospital">Indian hospitals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific<br />issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structural violence<span class="wrap"> </span>and discrimination</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_alert" title="Birth alert">Birth alerts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_poverty_in_Canada#Indigenous_child_poverty_in_Canada" title="Child poverty in Canada">Child poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Canada#Indigenous_peoples" title="Climate change in Canada">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_sentencing_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Criminal sentencing of Indigenous peoples in Canada">Criminal sentencing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_and_the_Canadian_criminal_justice_system" title="Indigenous peoples and the Canadian criminal justice system">Mass incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_food_security_in_Canada" title="Indigenous food security in Canada">Food insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care_in_Canada#Aboriginal_children_in_foster_care" title="Foster care in Canada">Foster care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity#Ethnic_and_racial_disparities" title="Health equity">Healthcare inequality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Brian_Sinclair" title="Death of Brian Sinclair">Brian Sinclair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Joyce_Echaquan" title="Death of Joyce Echaquan">Joyce Echaquan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-term_drinking_water_advisories" title="Long-term drinking water advisories">Long-term DWAs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered<span class="wrap"> </span>Indigenous Women</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Highway_of_Tears" title="Highway of Tears">Highway of Tears</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Highway_of_Tears#Victims" title="Highway of Tears">list of victims</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Winnipeg_serial_killings" title="2022 Winnipeg serial killings">Winnipeg serial killings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_Immaculate_Basil" title="Disappearance of Immaculate Basil">Immaculate Basil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Tina_Fontaine" title="Death of Tina Fontaine">Tina Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_Pamela_Holopainen" title="Disappearance of Pamela Holopainen">Pamela Holopainen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Kentner" title="Barbara Kentner">Barbara Kentner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_Tammy_Lamondin-Gagnon" title="Disappearance of Tammy Lamondin-Gagnon">Tammy Lamondin-Gagnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Serena_McKay" title="Murder of Serena McKay">Serena McKay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Helen_Betty_Osborne" title="Murder of Helen Betty Osborne">Helen Betty Osborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_Jean_Virginia_Sampare" title="Disappearance of Jean Virginia Sampare">Jean Virginia Sampare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Loretta_Saunders" title="Murder of Loretta Saunders">Loretta Saunders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Amber_Tuccaro" title="Death of Amber Tuccaro">Amber Tuccaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_Lisa_Marie_Young" title="Disappearance of Lisa Marie Young">Lisa Marie Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women_and_Girls_activists" title="Category:Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls activists">Activists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality_against_Indigenous_Canadians" title="Police brutality against Indigenous Canadians">Police brutality<span class="wrap"> </span>and misconduct</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_GasLink_pipeline#Protests" title="Coastal GasLink pipeline">Violence against Wetʼsuwetʼen protesters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_Canadian_pipeline_and_railway_protests" title="2020 Canadian pipeline and railway protests">2020</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustafsen_Lake_standoff" title="Gustafsen Lake standoff">Gustafsen Lake standoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ipperwash_Crisis" title="Ipperwash Crisis">Ipperwash Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ipperwash_Inquiry" title="Ipperwash Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Regis_Korchinski-Paquet" title="Death of Regis Korchinski-Paquet">Death of Regis Korchinski-Paquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Chantel_Moore" title="Killing of Chantel Moore">Killing of Chantel Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saskatoon_freezing_deaths" title="Saskatoon freezing deaths">Saskatoon freezing deaths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Stonechild" title="Neil Stonechild">Neil Stonechild</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_William_Ramsay" title="David William Ramsay">Judge David William Ramsay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Responses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AmINext" title="AmINext">AmINext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_history_wars" title="Canadian history wars">History wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_for_our_Stolen_Children_Camp" title="Justice for our Stolen Children Camp">Justice for our Stolen Children Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moose_Hide_campaign" title="Moose Hide campaign">Moose Hide campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDress_Project" title="REDress Project">REDress Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Dress_Day" title="Red Dress Day">Red Dress Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sisters_in_Spirit" title="Sisters in Spirit">Sisters in Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking_With_Our_Sisters" title="Walking With Our Sisters">Walking With Our Sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Memorial_March" title="Women's Memorial March">Women's Memorial March</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/An_Act_to_amend_the_Criminal_Code_(minimum_sentence_for_offences_involving_trafficking_of_persons_under_the_age_of_eighteen_years)" title="An Act to amend the Criminal Code (minimum sentence for offences involving trafficking of persons under the age of eighteen years)"><i>An Act to amend the Criminal Code</i> for trafficking of minors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-Pana" title="E-Pana">Project E-Pana</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples_Act_(Canada)" title="United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act (Canada)">United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br 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href="/wiki/Trans_Mountain_pipeline#Protests" title="Trans Mountain pipeline">Trans Mountain pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unist%CA%BCot%CA%BCen_Camp" title="Unistʼotʼen Camp">Unistʼotʼen Camp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayals_of_the_Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Media portrayals of the Canadian Indian residential school system">Portrayals of the residential school system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Works_about_residential_schools_in_Canada" title="Category:Works about residential schools in Canada">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Finding_Dawn" title="Finding Dawn">Finding Dawn</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Foster_Child_(1987_film)" title="Foster Child (1987 film)">Foster Child</a></i></li> <li><i><a 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