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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decommissioning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Decommissioning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decommissioning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_designs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_designs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Future designs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_designs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_liability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_liability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Civil liability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_liability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_nuclear_ships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_nuclear_ships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Military nuclear ships</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military_nuclear_ships-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Military nuclear ships subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military_nuclear_ships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Submarines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Submarines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Submarines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Submarines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aircraft_carriers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aircraft_carriers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Aircraft carriers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aircraft_carriers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-French_Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>French Navy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>United States Navy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Destroyers_and_cruisers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Destroyers_and_cruisers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Destroyers and cruisers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Destroyers_and_cruisers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Russian_Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Russian Navy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_Navy_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_Navy_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>United States Navy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_Navy_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_military_ships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_military_ships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Other military ships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_military_ships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication_and_command_ships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication_and_command_ships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Communication and command ships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication_and_command_ships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear-powered_UUV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear-powered_UUV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Nuclear-powered UUV</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear-powered_UUV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civilian_nuclear_ships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civilian_nuclear_ships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Civilian nuclear ships</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Civilian_nuclear_ships-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Civilian nuclear ships subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Civilian_nuclear_ships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Merchant_ships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Merchant_ships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Merchant ships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Merchant_ships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Merchant_cargo_ships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Merchant_cargo_ships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Merchant cargo ships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Merchant_cargo_ships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Icebreakers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Icebreakers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Icebreakers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Icebreakers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF" title="Атомла карап – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Атомла карап" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propulsi%C3%B3n_nuclear_marina" title="Propulsión nuclear marina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Propulsión nuclear marina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="ناوگان دریایی هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ناوگان دریایی هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propulsion_nucl%C3%A9aire_navale" title="Propulsion nucléaire navale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Propulsion nucléaire navale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propulsi_kelautan_nuklir" title="Propulsi kelautan nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Propulsi kelautan nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Propulsion system for marine vessels utilizing a nuclear powerplant</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:50_Let_Pobedy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/50_Let_Pobedy.jpg/220px-50_Let_Pobedy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/50_Let_Pobedy.jpg/330px-50_Let_Pobedy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/50_Let_Pobedy.jpg/440px-50_Let_Pobedy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>When the nuclear-powered <a href="/wiki/Arktika-class_icebreaker" title="Arktika-class icebreaker"><i>Arktika</i> class</a> <i><a href="/wiki/50_Let_Pobedy" title="50 Let Pobedy">50 Let Pobedy</a></i> was put into service in 2007, it became the world's largest <a href="/wiki/Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">icebreaker</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Nuclear marine propulsion</b> is <a href="/wiki/Marine_propulsion" title="Marine propulsion">propulsion of a ship</a> or submarine with heat provided by a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>. The power plant heats water to produce steam for a turbine used to turn the ship's <a href="/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller">propeller</a> through a <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (mechanics)">gearbox</a> or through an electric generator and motor. Nuclear propulsion is used primarily within naval warships such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_submarines" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear submarines">nuclear submarines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supercarrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercarrier">supercarriers</a>. A small number of experimental civil nuclear ships have been built.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Compared to oil- or coal-fuelled ships, nuclear propulsion offers the advantage of very long intervals of operation before refueling. All the fuel is contained within the nuclear reactor, so no cargo or supplies space is taken up by fuel, nor is space taken up by exhaust stacks or combustion air intakes.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The low fuel cost is offset by high operating costs and investment in infrastructure, however, so nearly all nuclear-powered vessels are military.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Power_plants">Power plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_operation_of_naval_ship_or_submarine">Basic operation of naval ship or submarine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Basic operation of naval ship or submarine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most naval nuclear reactors are of the <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water</a> type, with the exception of a few<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (October 2023)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> attempts<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (October 2023)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> at using liquid sodium-cooled reactors.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A primary water circuit transfers heat generated from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> in the fuel to a <a href="/wiki/Steam_generator_(nuclear_power)" title="Steam generator (nuclear power)">steam generator</a>; this water is kept under pressure so it does not boil. This circuit operates at a temperature of around 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F). Any <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> in the primary water is confined. Water is circulated by pumps; at lower power levels, reactors designed for submarines may rely on natural circulation of the water to reduce noise generated by the pumps.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The hot water from the reactor heats a separate water circuit in the steam generator. That water is converted to steam and passes through <a href="/wiki/Steam_drier" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam drier">steam driers</a> on its way to the <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a>. Spent steam at low pressure runs through a <a href="/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)" title="Condenser (heat transfer)">condenser</a> cooled by seawater and returns to liquid form. The water is pumped back to the steam generator and continues the cycle. Any water lost in the process can be made up by <a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">desalinated</a> sea water added to the steam generator feed water.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the turbine, the steam expands and reduces its pressure as it imparts energy to the rotating blades of the turbine. There may be many stages of rotating blades and fixed guide vanes. The output shaft of the turbine may be connected to a gearbox to reduce rotation speed, then a shaft connects to the vessel's propellers. In another form of drive system, the turbine turns an electrical generator, and the electric power produced is fed to one or more drive motors for the vessel's propellers. The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Navy" title="Russian Navy">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">U.S.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">British</a> navies rely on direct steam turbine propulsion, while French and Chinese ships use the turbine to generate electricity for propulsion (<a href="/wiki/Turbo-electric_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbo-electric transmission">turbo-electric transmission</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Some nuclear submarines have a single reactor, but Russian submarines have two, and so had <a href="/wiki/USS_Triton_(SSRN-586)" title="USS Triton (SSRN-586)">USS <i>Triton</i></a>. Most American aircraft carriers are powered by two reactors, but <a href="/wiki/USS_Enterprise_(CVN-65)" title="USS Enterprise (CVN-65)">USS <i>Enterprise</i></a> had eight. The majority of marine <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">reactors</a> are of the <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water</a> type, although the U.S. and Soviet navies have designed warships powered with <a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">liquid metal cooled reactors</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differences_from_land_power_plants">Differences from land power plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Differences from land power plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marine-type reactors differ from land-based commercial electric power reactors in several respects.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While land-based reactors in nuclear power plants produce up to around 1600 megawatts of net electrical power (the <a href="/wiki/Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">nameplate capacity</a> of the <a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a>), a typical marine propulsion reactor produces no more than a few hundred megawatts. Some <a href="/wiki/Small_modular_reactor" title="Small modular reactor">small modular reactors</a> (SMR) are similar to marine propulsion reactors in capacity and some design considerations and thus nuclear marine propulsion (whether civilian or military) is sometimes proposed as an additional market niche for SMRs. Unlike for land-based applications where hundreds of hectares can be occupied by installations like <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Bruce Nuclear Generating Station">Bruce Nuclear Generating Station</a>, at sea tight space limits dictate that a marine reactor must be physically small, so it must generate higher power per unit of space. This means its components are subject to greater stresses than those of a land-based reactor. Its mechanical systems must operate flawlessly under the adverse conditions encountered at sea, including vibration and the pitching and rolling of a ship operating in rough seas. Reactor shutdown mechanisms cannot rely on gravity to drop control rods into place as in a land-based reactor that always remains upright. Salt water corrosion is an additional problem that complicates maintenance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_fuel_element.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Nuclear_fuel_element.jpg/220px-Nuclear_fuel_element.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Nuclear_fuel_element.jpg/330px-Nuclear_fuel_element.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Nuclear_fuel_element.jpg/440px-Nuclear_fuel_element.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption>A nuclear fuel element for the cargo ship <a href="/wiki/NS_Savannah" title="NS Savannah">NS <i>Savannah</i></a>. The element contains four bundles of 41 fuel rods. The uranium oxide is enriched to 4.2 and 4.6 percent U-235</figcaption></figure> <p>As the core of a seagoing reactor is much smaller than a power reactor, the probability of a neutron intersecting with a fissionable nucleus before it escapes into the shielding is much lower. As such, the fuel is typically more highly enriched (i.e., contains a higher concentration of <sup>235</sup>U vs. <sup>238</sup>U) than that used in a land-based nuclear power plant, which increases the probability of fission to the level where a sustained reaction can occur. Some marine reactors run on relatively low-enriched <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, which requires more frequent refueling. Others run on <a href="/wiki/Highly_enriched_uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Highly enriched uranium">highly enriched uranium</a>, varying from 20% <sup>235</sup>U, to the over 96% <sup>235</sup>U found in U.S. <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the resulting smaller core is quieter in operation (a big advantage to a submarine).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using more-highly enriched fuel also increases the reactor's power density and extends the usable life of the nuclear fuel load, but is more expensive and a greater risk to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear proliferation</a> than less-highly enriched fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-ANTIENRICHED_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANTIENRICHED-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A marine nuclear propulsion plant must be designed to be highly reliable and self-sufficient, requiring minimal maintenance and repairs, which might have to be undertaken many thousands of miles from its home port. One of the technical difficulties in designing fuel elements for a seagoing nuclear reactor is the creation of fuel elements that will withstand a large amount of radiation damage. Fuel elements may crack over time and gas bubbles may form. The fuel used in marine reactors is a metal-<a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a> alloy rather than the ceramic UO<sub>2</sub> (<a href="/wiki/Uranium_dioxide" title="Uranium dioxide">uranium dioxide</a>) often used in land-based reactors. Marine reactors are designed for long core life, enabled by the relatively high enrichment of the uranium and by incorporating a "<a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison#Burnable_poisons" title="Neutron poison">burnable poison</a>" in the fuel elements, which is slowly depleted as the fuel elements age and become less reactive. The gradual dissipation of the "nuclear poison" increases the reactivity of the core to compensate for the lessening reactivity of the aging fuel elements, thereby extending the usable life of the fuel. The compact <a href="/wiki/Reactor_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor vessel">reactor pressure vessel</a> is provided with an internal <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> shield, which reduces the damage to the steel from constant neutron bombardment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decommissioning">Decommissioning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Decommissioning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Decommissioning nuclear-powered submarines has become a major task for U.S. and Russian navies.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After defuelling, U.S. practice is to cut the reactor section from the vessel for disposal in shallow land burial as low-level waste (see the <i><a href="/wiki/Ship-submarine_recycling_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Ship-submarine recycling program">ship-submarine recycling program</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Russia, whole vessels, or sealed reactor sections, typically remain stored afloat, although a new facility near <a href="/wiki/Sayda_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayda Bay">Sayda Bay</a> is to provide storage in a concrete-floored facility on land for some submarines in the far north.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Future_designs">Future designs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Future designs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russia built a <a href="/wiki/Russian_floating_nuclear_power_station" title="Russian floating nuclear power station">floating nuclear power plant</a> for its far eastern territories. The design has two 35 MWe units based on the <a href="/wiki/KLT-40_reactor" title="KLT-40 reactor">KLT-40 reactor</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">icebreakers</a> (with refueling every four years). Some Russian naval vessels have been used to supply electricity for domestic and industrial use in remote far eastern and Siberian towns.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Lloyd%27s_Register" title="Lloyd's Register">Lloyd's Register</a> was investigating the possibility of civilian nuclear marine propulsion and rewriting draft rules (see text under <i>Merchant Ships</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-wnnLL_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wnnLL-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hirdaris_101–130_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirdaris_101–130-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hirdaris_A37-A60_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirdaris_A37-A60-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_liability">Civil liability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Civil liability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Insurance of nuclear vessels is not like the insurance of conventional ships. The consequences of an accident could span national boundaries, and the magnitude of possible damage is beyond the capacity of private insurers.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A special international agreement, the <i>Brussels Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships</i>, developed in 1962, would have made signatory national governments liable for accidents caused by nuclear vessels under their flag<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but was never ratified owing to disagreement on the inclusion of warships under the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nuclear reactors under United States jurisdiction are insured by the provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Price%E2%80%93Anderson_Nuclear_Industries_Indemnity_Act" title="Price–Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act">Price–Anderson Act</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_nuclear_ships">Military nuclear ships</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Military nuclear ships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Nimitz_(CVN-68)_with_California_(CGN-36)_and_South_Carolina_(CGN-37)_c1976.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/USS_Nimitz_%28CVN-68%29_with_California_%28CGN-36%29_and_South_Carolina_%28CGN-37%29_c1976.jpg/220px-USS_Nimitz_%28CVN-68%29_with_California_%28CGN-36%29_and_South_Carolina_%28CGN-37%29_c1976.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/USS_Nimitz_%28CVN-68%29_with_California_%28CGN-36%29_and_South_Carolina_%28CGN-37%29_c1976.jpg/330px-USS_Nimitz_%28CVN-68%29_with_California_%28CGN-36%29_and_South_Carolina_%28CGN-37%29_c1976.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/USS_Nimitz_%28CVN-68%29_with_California_%28CGN-36%29_and_South_Carolina_%28CGN-37%29_c1976.jpg/440px-USS_Nimitz_%28CVN-68%29_with_California_%28CGN-36%29_and_South_Carolina_%28CGN-37%29_c1976.jpg 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption>In addition to nuclear-powered aircraft carriers, the United States once operated nuclear-powered cruisers.</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1990, there were more nuclear reactors powering ships (mostly military) than there were generating electric power in commercial power plants worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the direction of <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> Captain (later Admiral) <a href="/wiki/Hyman_G._Rickover" title="Hyman G. Rickover">Hyman G. Rickover</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the design, development and production of nuclear marine propulsion plants started in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in the 1940s. The first prototype naval reactor was constructed and tested at the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Reactor_Facility" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval Reactor Facility">Naval Reactor Facility</a> at the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho (now called the <a href="/wiki/Idaho_National_Laboratory" title="Idaho National Laboratory">Idaho National Laboratory</a>) in 1953. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Submarines">Submarines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Submarines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_submarine" title="Nuclear submarine">Nuclear submarine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FS_Saphir_06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/FS_Saphir_06.jpg/220px-FS_Saphir_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/FS_Saphir_06.jpg/330px-FS_Saphir_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/FS_Saphir_06.jpg/440px-FS_Saphir_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The nuclear-propelled <a href="/wiki/French_submarine_Saphir_(S602)" title="French submarine Saphir (S602)">French submarine <i>Saphir</i></a> returning to <a href="/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a>, its <a href="/wiki/Home_port" title="Home port">home port</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Mission_H%C3%A9racl%C3%A8s" title="Mission Héraclès">Mission Héraclès</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_submarine" title="Nuclear submarine">nuclear submarine</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Nautilus_(SSN-571)" title="USS Nautilus (SSN-571)">USS <i>Nautilus</i> (SSN-571)</a>, put to sea in 1955 (SS was a traditional <a href="/wiki/Hull_classification_symbol" title="Hull classification symbol">hull classification symbol</a> for U.S. submarines, while SSN denoted the first "nuclear" submarine).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Soviet Union also developed nuclear submarines. The first types developed were the Project 627, NATO-designated <a href="/wiki/November-class_submarine" title="November-class submarine">November class</a> with two water-cooled reactors, the first of which, K-3 <i>Leninsky Komsomol</i>, was underway under nuclear power in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nuclear power revolutionized the submarine, finally making it a true "underwater" vessel, rather than a "submersible" craft, which could only stay underwater for limited periods. It gave the submarine the ability to operate submerged at high speeds, comparable to those of surface vessels, for unlimited periods, dependent only on the endurance of its crew. To demonstrate this <a href="/wiki/USS_Triton_(SSRN-586)" title="USS Triton (SSRN-586)">USS <i>Triton</i></a> was the first vessel to execute a submerged <a href="/wiki/Circumnavigation" title="Circumnavigation">circumnavigation</a> of the Earth (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Sandblast" title="Operation Sandblast">Operation Sandblast</a>), doing so in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Nautilus</i>, with a <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a> (PWR), led to the parallel development of other submarines like a unique liquid metal cooled (sodium) reactor in <a href="/wiki/USS_Seawolf_(SSN-575)" title="USS Seawolf (SSN-575)">USS <i>Seawolf</i></a>, or two reactors in <i>Triton</i>, and then the <a href="/wiki/Skate-class_submarine" title="Skate-class submarine"><i>Skate</i>-class</a> submarines, powered by single reactors, and a cruiser, <a href="/wiki/USS_Long_Beach_(CGN-9)" title="USS Long Beach (CGN-9)">USS <i>Long Beach</i></a>, in 1961, powered by two reactors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By 1962, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> had 26 operational nuclear submarines and another 30 under construction. Nuclear power had revolutionized the Navy. The United States shared its technology with the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, while <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> development proceeded separately.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After the <i>Skate</i>-class vessels, U.S. submarines were powered by a series of standardized, single-reactor designs built by <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation" title="Westinghouse Electric Corporation">Westinghouse</a> and <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_plc" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolls-Royce plc">Rolls-Royce plc</a> built similar units for <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> submarines, eventually developing a modified version of their own, the <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_PWR#PWR2" title="Rolls-Royce PWR">PWR2</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The largest nuclear submarines ever built are the 26,500 tonne Russian <a href="/wiki/Typhoon-class_submarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoon-class submarine">Typhoon class</a>. The smallest nuclear warships to date are the 2,700 tonne French <a href="/wiki/Rubis-class_submarine" title="Rubis-class submarine"><i>Rubis</i>-class</a> attack submarines. The U.S. Navy operated an unarmed nuclear submarine, the <a href="/wiki/NR-1_Deep_Submergence_Craft" class="mw-redirect" title="NR-1 Deep Submergence Craft">NR-1 Deep Submergence Craft</a>, between 1969 and 2008, which was not a combat vessel but was the smallest nuclear-powered submarine at 400 tons.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aircraft_carriers">Aircraft carriers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aircraft carriers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United States and France have built nuclear <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carriers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French_Navy">French Navy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: French Navy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_De_Gaulle_(R91)_underway_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Charles_De_Gaulle_%28R91%29_underway_2009.jpg/220px-Charles_De_Gaulle_%28R91%29_underway_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Charles_De_Gaulle_%28R91%29_underway_2009.jpg/330px-Charles_De_Gaulle_%28R91%29_underway_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Charles_De_Gaulle_%28R91%29_underway_2009.jpg/440px-Charles_De_Gaulle_%28R91%29_underway_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption>The aircraft carrier <a href="/wiki/French_aircraft_carrier_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle"><i>Charles de Gaulle</i></a> of the <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The sole French nuclear <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carrier</a> example is <a href="/wiki/French_aircraft_carrier_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle"><i>Charles de Gaulle</i></a>, commissioned in 2001 (a successor is planned).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French carrier is <a href="/wiki/CATOBAR" title="CATOBAR"> equipped with catapults and arresters</a>. The <a href="/wiki/French_aircraft_carrier_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle"><i>Charles de Gaulle</i></a> has 42,000 tonnes, is the <a href="/wiki/Flagship" title="Flagship">flagship</a> of the French Navy (Marine Nationale). The ship carries a complement of <a href="/wiki/Dassault_Rafale" title="Dassault Rafale">Dassault Rafale M</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grumman_E-2_Hawkeye" title="Grumman E-2 Hawkeye">E‑2C Hawkeye</a> aircraft, <a href="/wiki/Eurocopter_EC725" title="Eurocopter EC725">EC725 Caracal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eurocopter_AS532_Cougar" title="Eurocopter AS532 Cougar">AS532 Cougar</a> helicopters for <a href="/wiki/Combat_search_and_rescue" title="Combat search and rescue">combat search and rescue</a>, as well as modern electronics and <a href="/wiki/MBDA_Aster" class="mw-redirect" title="MBDA Aster">Aster</a> missiles.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States_Navy">United States Navy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: United States Navy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United States Navy operates 11 carriers, all nuclear-powered:<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_Enterprise_(CVN-65)" title="USS Enterprise (CVN-65)">USS <i>Enterprise</i></a>: in service 1962–2012, powered by eight reactor units, is still the only aircraft carrier to house more than two nuclear reactors, with each <a href="/wiki/A2W_reactor" title="A2W reactor">A2W reactor</a> taking the place of one of the conventional boilers in earlier constructions.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimitz-class_aircraft_carrier" title="Nimitz-class aircraft carrier"><i>Nimitz</i> class</a>: ten 101,000-ton, 1,092 ft long fleet carriers, the first of which was commissioned in 1975. A <i>Nimitz</i>-class carrier is powered by two <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> providing steam to four <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbines</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_R._Ford-class_aircraft_carrier" title="Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier"><i>Gerald R. Ford</i> class</a>, one 110,000-ton, 1,106 ft long fleet carrier. The lead of the class <a href="/wiki/USS_Gerald_R._Ford" title="USS Gerald R. Ford"><i>Gerald R. Ford</i></a>, came into service in 2017, with another nine planned.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Destroyers_and_cruisers">Destroyers and cruisers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Destroyers and cruisers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russian_Navy">Russian Navy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Russian Navy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tactical_exercises_of_the_Russian_Navy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tactical_exercises_of_the_Russian_Navy.jpg/220px-Tactical_exercises_of_the_Russian_Navy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tactical_exercises_of_the_Russian_Navy.jpg/330px-Tactical_exercises_of_the_Russian_Navy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tactical_exercises_of_the_Russian_Navy.jpg/440px-Tactical_exercises_of_the_Russian_Navy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>The Russian flagship <i>Pyotr Veliky</i></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kirov-class_battlecruiser" title="Kirov-class battlecruiser">Kirov-class battlecruiser</a></div> <p>The <i>Kirov</i> class, Soviet designation 'Project 1144 Orlan' (<a href="/wiki/Sea_eagle" title="Sea eagle">sea eagle</a>), is a class of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_powered" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear powered">nuclear-powered</a> <a href="/wiki/Guided_missile_cruiser" class="mw-redirect" title="Guided missile cruiser">guided-missile cruisers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Navy" title="Russian Navy">Russian Navy</a>, the largest and heaviest <a href="/wiki/Surface_combatant" title="Surface combatant">surface combatant</a> warships (i.e. not an <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carrier</a> or <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship" title="Amphibious assault ship">amphibious assault ship</a>) in operation in the world. Among modern warships, they are second in size only to large <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carriers" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft carriers">aircraft carriers</a>, and of similar size to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> era <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a>. The Soviet classification of the ship-type is "heavy nuclear-powered guided missile cruiser" (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">тяжёлый атомный ракетный крейсер</span>). The ships are often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Battlecruiser" title="Battlecruiser">battlecruisers</a> by Western defence commentators due to their size and general appearance.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States_Navy_2">United States Navy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United States Navy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_powered_cruisers_of_the_United_States_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear powered cruisers of the United States Navy">Nuclear powered cruisers of the United States Navy</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> at one time had <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_powered" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear powered">nuclear-powered</a> <a href="/wiki/Cruisers" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruisers">cruisers</a> as part of its fleet. The first such ship was <a href="/wiki/USS_Long_Beach_(CGN-9)" title="USS Long Beach (CGN-9)">USS <i>Long Beach</i> (CGN-9)</a>. Commissioned in 1961, she was the world's first nuclear-powered <a href="/wiki/Surface_combatant" title="Surface combatant">surface combatant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was followed a year later by <a href="/wiki/USS_Bainbridge_(CGN-25)" title="USS Bainbridge (CGN-25)">USS <i>Bainbridge</i> (DLGN-25)</a>. While <i>Long Beach</i> was designed and built as a cruiser,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Bainbridge</i> began life as a <a href="/wiki/Frigate" title="Frigate">frigate</a>, though at that time the Navy was using the <a href="/wiki/Hull_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Hull code">hull code</a> "DLGN" for "<a href="/wiki/Destroyer_leader" title="Destroyer leader">destroyer leader</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guided_missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Guided missile">guided missile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last nuclear-powered cruisers the Americans would produce would be the four-ship <a href="/wiki/Virginia-class_cruiser" title="Virginia-class cruiser"><i>Virginia</i> class</a>. <a href="/wiki/USS_Virginia_(CGN-38)" title="USS Virginia (CGN-38)">USS <i>Virginia</i> (CGN-38)</a> was commissioned in 1976, followed by <a href="/wiki/USS_Texas_(CGN-39)" title="USS Texas (CGN-39)">USS <i>Texas</i> (CGN-39)</a> in 1977, <a href="/wiki/USS_Mississippi_(CGN-40)" title="USS Mississippi (CGN-40)">USS <i>Mississippi</i> (CGN-40)</a> in 1978 and finally <a href="/wiki/USS_Arkansas_(CGN-41)" title="USS Arkansas (CGN-41)">USS <i>Arkansas</i> (CGN-41)</a> in 1980. Ultimately, all these ships proved to be too costly to maintain<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and they were all retired between 1993 and 1999.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_military_ships">Other military ships</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other military ships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication_and_command_ships">Communication and command ships</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Communication and command ships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soviet_command_ship_SSV-33.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Soviet_command_ship_SSV-33.jpg/220px-Soviet_command_ship_SSV-33.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Soviet_command_ship_SSV-33.jpg/330px-Soviet_command_ship_SSV-33.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Soviet_command_ship_SSV-33.jpg/440px-Soviet_command_ship_SSV-33.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2972" data-file-height="2355" /></a><figcaption>Command and communications ship SSV-33 <i>Ural</i></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_communications_ship_SSV-33" title="Soviet communications ship SSV-33">Soviet communications ship SSV-33</a></div> <p><i><b>SSV-33 Ural</b></i> (<i>ССВ-33 Урал</i>; <a href="/wiki/NATO_reporting_name" title="NATO reporting name">NATO reporting name</a>: <i>Kapusta</i> [<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> for "<a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a>"]) was a <a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">command and control</a> <a href="/wiki/Naval_ship" title="Naval ship">naval ship</a> operated by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a>. <i>SSV-33</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s hull was derived from that of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear-powered</a> <a href="/wiki/Kirov-class_battlecruiser" title="Kirov-class battlecruiser"><i>Kirov</i>-class battlecruisers</a> with nuclear marine propulsion.<sup id="cite_ref-gs_kapusta_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gs_kapusta-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>SSV-33</i> served in <a href="/wiki/ELINT" class="mw-redirect" title="ELINT">electronic intelligence</a>, missile tracking, space tracking, and communications relay roles. Due to high operating costs, <i>SSV-33</i> was laid up.<sup id="cite_ref-gs_kapusta_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gs_kapusta-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>SSV-33</i> carried only light defensive weapons. These were two AK-176 76 mm guns, four AK-630 30 mm guns, and four quadruple Igla missile mounts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear-powered_UUV">Nuclear-powered UUV</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Nuclear-powered UUV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Status-6_Oceanic_Multipurpose_System" title="Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System">Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System</a></div> <p>The <b>Poseidon</b> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Посейдон</span>, "<a href="/wiki/Poseidon" title="Poseidon">Poseidon</a>", <a href="/wiki/NATO_reporting_name" title="NATO reporting name">NATO reporting name</a> <b>Kanyon</b>), previously known by Russian codename <b>Status-6</b> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Статус-6</span>), is a nuclear-powered and nuclear-armed <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_underwater_vehicle" title="Unmanned underwater vehicle">unmanned underwater vehicle</a> under development by <a href="/wiki/Rubin_Design_Bureau" title="Rubin Design Bureau">Rubin Design Bureau</a>, capable of delivering both conventional and nuclear <a href="/wiki/Payloads" class="mw-redirect" title="Payloads">payloads</a>. According to Russian state TV, it is able to deliver a <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear">thermonuclear</a> <a href="/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">cobalt bomb</a> of up to 200 <a href="/wiki/Megatonne" class="mw-redirect" title="Megatonne">megatonnes</a> (four times as powerful as the most powerful device ever detonated, the <a href="/wiki/Tsar_Bomba" title="Tsar Bomba">Tsar Bomba</a>, and twice its maximum theoretical yield) against an enemy's naval ports and coastal cities.<sup id="cite_ref-urlRussian_media:_nuclear_torpedo_can_destroy_the_US,_Europe,_the_world_-_Business_Insider_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlRussian_media:_nuclear_torpedo_can_destroy_the_US,_Europe,_the_world_-_Business_Insider-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civilian_nuclear_ships">Civilian nuclear ships</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Civilian nuclear ships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ns-savanna-eng.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ns-savanna-eng.jpg/140px-Ns-savanna-eng.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ns-savanna-eng.jpg/210px-Ns-savanna-eng.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Ns-savanna-eng.jpg 2x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>Engineer epaulette from <i>Savannah</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The following are <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ships</a> that are or were in commercial or civilian use and have nuclear marine propulsion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Merchant_ships">Merchant ships</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Merchant ships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nuclear-powered civil merchant ships have not developed beyond a few experimental ships. The U.S.-built <a href="/wiki/NS_Savannah" title="NS Savannah">NS <i>Savannah</i></a>, completed in 1962, was primarily a demonstration of civil nuclear power and was too small and expensive to operate economically as a merchant ship. The design was too much of a compromise, being neither an efficient freighter nor a viable passenger liner. The German-built <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn_(ship)" title="Otto Hahn (ship)"><i>Otto Hahn</i></a>, completed in 1968, a cargo ship and research facility, sailed some 650,000 nautical miles (1,200,000 km) on 126 voyages over 10 years without any technical problems.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It proved too expensive to operate and was converted to diesel. The Japanese <a href="/wiki/RV_Mirai" title="RV Mirai"><i>Mutsu</i></a>, completed in 1972, was dogged by technical and political problems. Its reactor had significant radiation leakage and fishermen protested against the vessel's operation. All of these three ships used low-enriched uranium. <i><a href="/wiki/Sevmorput" title="Sevmorput">Sevmorput</a></i>, a Soviet and later Russian <a href="/wiki/Lighter_aboard_ship" title="Lighter aboard ship">LASH carrier</a> with icebreaking capability, has operated successfully on the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Sea_Route" title="Northern Sea Route">Northern Sea Route</a> since it was commissioned in 1988. As of 2021<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, it is the only nuclear-powered merchant ship in service.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Civilian nuclear ships suffer from the costs of specialized infrastructure. The <i>Savannah</i> was expensive to operate since it was the only vessel using its specialized nuclear shore staff and servicing facility. A larger fleet could share fixed costs among more operating vessels, reducing operating costs. </p><p>Despite this, there is still interest in nuclear propulsion. In November 2010 British Maritime Technology and Lloyd's Register embarked upon a two-year study with U.S.-based Hyperion Power Generation (now <a href="/wiki/Gen4_Energy" title="Gen4 Energy">Gen4 Energy</a>), and the Greek ship operator Enterprises Shipping and Trading SA to investigate the practical maritime applications for small modular reactors. The research intended to produce a concept tanker-ship design, based on a 70 MWt reactor such as Hyperion's. In response to its members' interest in nuclear propulsion, Lloyd's Register has also re-written its 'rules' for nuclear ships, which concern the integration of a reactor certified by a land-based regulator with the rest of the ship. The overall rationale of the rule-making process assumes that in contrast to the current marine industry practice where the designer/builder typically demonstrates compliance with regulatory requirements, in the future the nuclear regulators will wish to ensure that it is the operator of the nuclear plant that demonstrates safety in operation, in addition to the safety through design and construction. Nuclear ships are currently the responsibility of their own countries, but none are involved in international trade. As a result of this work in 2014 two papers on commercial nuclear marine propulsion were published by Lloyd's Register and the other members of this consortium.<sup id="cite_ref-Hirdaris_101–130_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirdaris_101–130-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hirdaris_A37-A60_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirdaris_A37-A60-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These publications review past and recent work in the area of marine nuclear propulsion and describe a preliminary concept design study for a 155,000 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">DWT</a> Suezmax tanker that is based on a conventional hull form with alternative arrangements for accommodating a 70 MWt nuclear propulsion plant delivering up to 23.5 MW shaft power at maximum continuous rating (average: 9.75 MW). The Gen4Energy power module is considered. This is a small fast-neutron reactor using lead–bismuth eutectic cooling and able to operate for ten full-power years before refueling, and in service last for a 25-year operational life of the vessel. They conclude that the concept is feasible, but further maturity of nuclear technology and the development and harmonisation of the regulatory framework would be necessary before the concept would be viable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Nuclear propulsion has been proposed again on the wave of <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">decarbonization</a> of marine shipping, which accounts for 3–4% of global greenhouse gas emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Merchant_cargo_ships">Merchant cargo ships</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Merchant cargo ships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USNS_American_Explorer" title="USNS American Explorer">USNS <i>American Explorer</i></a>; United States tanker, converted to conventional power while under construction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/RV_Mirai" title="RV Mirai"><i>Mutsu</i></a>, Japan (1970–1992); never carried commercial cargo, rebuilt as diesel engine powered <i>RV Mirai</i> in 1996</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn_(ship)" title="Otto Hahn (ship)"><i>Otto Hahn</i></a>, Germany (1968–1979); re-powered with diesel engine in 1979</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NS_Savannah" title="NS Savannah">NS <i>Savannah</i></a>, United States (1962–1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sevmorput" title="Sevmorput">Sevmorput</a></i>, Russia (1988–present), ice-strengthened nuclear-powered <a href="/wiki/Lighter_aboard_ship" title="Lighter aboard ship">lighter aboard ship</a> (LASH) carrier</li></ul> <p>In December 2023, the <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan_Shipyard" title="Jiangnan Shipyard">Jiangnan Shipyard</a> under the <a href="/wiki/China_State_Shipbuilding_Corporation" title="China State Shipbuilding Corporation">China State Shipbuilding Corporation</a> officially released a design of a 24000 <a href="/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unit" title="Twenty-foot equivalent unit">TEU</a>-class <a href="/wiki/Container_ship" title="Container ship">container ship</a> — known as the KUN-24AP — at Marintec China 2023, a premier maritime industry exhibition held in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>. The container ship is reported to be powered by a <a href="/wiki/Thorium-based_nuclear_power" title="Thorium-based nuclear power">thorium-based</a> <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">molten salt reactor</a>, making it a first thorium-powered container ship and, if completed, the largest nuclear-powered container ship in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Icebreakers">Icebreakers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Icebreakers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear-powered_icebreaker" title="Nuclear-powered icebreaker">Nuclear-powered icebreaker</a></div> <p>Nuclear propulsion has proven both technically and economically feasible for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear-powered_icebreaker" title="Nuclear-powered icebreaker">nuclear-powered icebreakers</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>. Nuclear-fuelled ships operate for years without refueling, and the vessels have powerful engines, well-suited to the task of icebreaking.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Lenin_(nuclear_icebreaker)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenin (nuclear icebreaker)">Soviet icebreaker <i>Lenin</i></a> was the world's first nuclear-powered surface vessel in 1959 and remained in service for 30 years (new reactors were fitted in 1970). It led to a series of larger icebreakers, the 23,500 <a href="/wiki/Tonnage" title="Tonnage">ton</a> <a href="/wiki/Arktika-class_icebreaker" title="Arktika-class icebreaker"><i>Arktika</i> class</a> of six vessels, launched beginning in 1975. These vessels have two reactors and are used in deep Arctic waters. <a href="/wiki/Arktika_(1972_nuclear_icebreaker)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arktika (1972 nuclear icebreaker)">NS <i>Arktika</i></a> was the first surface vessel to reach the <a href="/wiki/North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For use in shallow waters such as estuaries and rivers, shallow-draft, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear-powered_icebreaker#Taymyr_class" title="Nuclear-powered icebreaker"><i>Taymyr</i>-class icebreakers</a> were built in <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> and then fitted with their single-reactor nuclear propulsion system in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. They were built to conform to international safety standards for nuclear vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All nuclear-powered icebreakers have been commissioned by the Soviet Union or Russia.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lenin_(1957_icebreaker)" title="Lenin (1957 icebreaker)"><i>Lenin</i></a> (1959–1989; museum ship)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arktika_(1972_icebreaker)" title="Arktika (1972 icebreaker)"><i>Arktika</i></a> (1975–2008; decommissioned)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibir_(1977_icebreaker)" title="Sibir (1977 icebreaker)"><i>Sibir</i></a> (1977–1992; scrapped)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossiya_(1983_icebreaker)" title="Rossiya (1983 icebreaker)"><i>Rossiya</i></a> (1985–2013; decommissioned)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taymyr_(1987_icebreaker)" title="Taymyr (1987 icebreaker)"><i>Taymyr</i></a> (1989–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovetskiy_Soyuz_(icebreaker)" title="Sovetskiy Soyuz (icebreaker)"><i>Sovetskiy Soyuz</i></a> (1989–2014; decommissioned)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaygach_(1989_icebreaker)" title="Vaygach (1989 icebreaker)"><i>Vaygach</i></a> (1990–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamal_(icebreaker)" title="Yamal (icebreaker)"><i>Yamal</i></a> (1992–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/50_Let_Pobedy" title="50 Let Pobedy"><i>50 Let Pobedy</i></a> (2007–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arktika_(2016_icebreaker)" title="Arktika (2016 icebreaker)"><i>Arktika</i></a> (2020–present)<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibir_(2017_icebreaker)" title="Sibir (2017 icebreaker)"><i>Sibir</i></a> (2021–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_(icebreaker)" title="Ural (icebreaker)"><i>Ural</i></a> (2022–present)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakutiya_(icebreaker)" title="Yakutiya (icebreaker)"><i>Yakutiya</i></a> (2024–present)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air-independent_propulsion" title="Air-independent propulsion">Air-independent propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knolls_Atomic_Power_Laboratory" title="Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory">Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Naval_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Naval reactors">List of United States Naval reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Reactors" title="Naval Reactors">Naval Reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_navy" title="Nuclear navy">Nuclear navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-powered_aircraft" title="Nuclear-powered aircraft">Nuclear-powered aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Power_School" title="Nuclear Power School">Nuclear Power School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_naval_reactors" title="Soviet naval reactors">Soviet naval reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_naval_reactors" title="United States naval reactors">United States naval reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="United States Navy Nuclear Propulsion">United States Navy Nuclear Propulsion</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWirt1979" class="citation book cs1">Wirt, John G (1979). 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Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">336–</span>340. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-176480-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-176480-7"><bdi>978-0-12-176480-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Energy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E336-%3C%2Fspan%3E340&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-12-176480-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+marine+propulsion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sudostroenie.info/novosti/31504.html">"На ледоколе 'Арктика' поднят российский флаг"</a>. <i>sudostroenie.info</i> (in Russian). 2020-10-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-02-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sudostroenie.info&rft.atitle=%D0%9D%D0%B0+%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5+%27%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%27+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%82+%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D1%84%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3&rft.date=2020-10-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsudostroenie.info%2Fnovosti%2F31504.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+marine+propulsion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.portnews.ru/news/339556/">"Nuclear-powered icebreaker Ural of Project 22220 leaves Murmansk for the first operational voyage"</a>. PortNews. 2 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nuclear-powered+icebreaker+Ural+of+Project+22220+leaves+Murmansk+for+the+first+operational+voyage&rft.pub=PortNews&rft.date=2022-12-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.portnews.ru%2Fnews%2F339556%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+marine+propulsion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>AFP, 11 November 1998; in "Nuclear Submarines Provide Electricity for Siberian Town," FBIS-SOV-98-315, 11 November 1998.</li> <li>ITAR-TASS, 11 November 1998; in "Russian Nuclear Subs Supply Electricity to Town in Far East," FBIS-SOV-98-316, 12 November 1998.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4132635.stm">Harold Wilson's plan</a> BBC News story</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSarkisovTournyol_du_Clos1999" class="citation book cs1">Sarkisov, Ashot A.; Tournyol du Clos, Alain, eds. (1999). <i>Analysis of Risks Associated with Nuclear Submarine Decommissioning, Dismantling and Disposal</i>. NATO Science Partnership Subseries 1: Disarmament Technologies. Vol. 24. Dordrecht: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-5598-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-5598-4"><bdi>978-0-7923-5598-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analysis+of+Risks+Associated+with+Nuclear+Submarine+Decommissioning%2C+Dismantling+and+Disposal&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=NATO+Science+Partnership+Subseries+1%3A+Disarmament+Technologies&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-5598-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+marine+propulsion" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_marine_propulsion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.world-nuclear.org/">The World Nuclear Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070726214243/https://nnptc.cnet.navy.mil/">Naval Nuclear Power Training Command</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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