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class="mw-page-title-main">Saxon Wars</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Саксонски войни – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Саксонски войни" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_Saxones" title="Guerres Saxones – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerres Saxones" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sask%C3%A9_v%C3%A1lky" title="Saské války – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Saské války" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksiske_krige" title="Saksiske krige – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Saksiske krige" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachsenkriege_Karls_des_Gro%C3%9Fen" title="Sachsenkriege Karls des Großen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sachsenkriege Karls des Großen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksi_s%C3%B5jad" title="Saksi sõjad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Saksi sõjad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_sajonas" title="Guerras sajonas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerras sajonas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_des_Saxons" title="Guerre des Saxons – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre des Saxons" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksekriich" title="Saksekriich – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Saksekriich" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%89%EC%8A%A8_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="색슨 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="색슨 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saski_ratovi_(Karlo_Veliki)" title="Saski ratovi (Karlo Veliki) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Saski ratovi (Karlo Veliki)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Sachsen" title="Perang Sachsen – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Sachsen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_sassoni" title="Guerre sassoni – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerre sassoni" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksenoorlogen" title="Saksenoorlogen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Saksenoorlogen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksenoorlogen" title="Saksenoorlogen – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Saksenoorlogen" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B6%E3%82%AF%E3%82%BB%E3%83%B3%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89_(%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E5%A4%A7%E5%B8%9D)" title="ザクセン戦争 (カール大帝) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ザクセン戦争 (カール大帝)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianiserung_un_Sassenkriege" title="Christianiserung un Sassenkriege – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Christianiserung un Sassenkriege" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Саксонские войны – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Саксонские войны" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saski_ratovi" title="Saski ratovi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Saski ratovi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachsiska_krigen" title="Sachsiska krigen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sachsiska krigen" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Campaigns and insurrections of 772–804</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Wars_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Saxon Wars (disambiguation)">Saxon Wars (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Saxon Wars</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg/300px-Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg/450px-Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg/600px-Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1591" data-file-height="1205" /></a></span><br />Frankish expansion from 481 to 814</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>772–804</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxony" title="Old Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polabian_Slavs" title="Polabian Slavs">Polabian Slav territories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <p>Frankish victory </p> <ul><li>Conversion of the Saxons to Christianity</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxony" title="Duchy of Saxony">Frankish annexation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxony" title="Old Saxony">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordalbingia" title="Nordalbingia">Nordalbingia</a> given to the Obotrite Confederacy</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obotrites" title="Obotrites">Obotrite Confederacy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a></li> <li>Chamberlain Adalgisile <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li>Constable Geilo <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li>Count Palatine Worad <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li>Count Theodoric <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Widukind" title="Widukind">Widukind</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> Unknown</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>4,500 <a href="/wiki/Blood_court_of_Verden" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood court of Verden">executed</a> in 782</li> <li>2,800–4,000 killed in 798</li> <li>7,070 deported in 795</li> <li>1,600 deported in 798</li> <li>10,000 deported in 804</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Saxon_Wars" title="Template:Campaignbox Saxon Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Saxon_Wars" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Saxon Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Saxon_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Saxon Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Saxon_Wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Saxon Wars</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_S%C3%BCntel" title="Battle of Süntel">Süntel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Verden" title="Massacre of Verden">Verden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_L%C3%BCne_and_the_Elbe_(Saxon_Wars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Lüne and the Elbe (Saxon Wars)">Elbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bornh%C3%B6ved_(798)" title="Battle of Bornhöved (798)">Bornhöved</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Saxon Wars</b> were the campaigns and insurrections of the thirty-three years from 772, when <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> first entered <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxony" title="Old Saxony">Saxony</a> with the intent to conquer, to 804, when the last rebellion of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">tribesmen</a> was defeated. In all, 18 campaigns were fought, primarily in what is now northern <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>. They resulted in the incorporation of Saxony into the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> realm and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianization_of_Saxony&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianization of Saxony (page does not exist)">their forcible conversion</a> from <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Saxons were divided into four subgroups in four regions. Nearest to the ancient Frankish kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a> was <a href="/wiki/Westphalia" title="Westphalia">Westphalia</a>, and farthest was <a href="/wiki/Eastphalia" title="Eastphalia">Eastphalia</a>. In between the two kingdoms was that of <a href="/wiki/Engria" class="mw-redirect" title="Engria">Engria</a> (or Engern), and north of the three, at the base of the <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a> peninsula, was <a href="/wiki/Nordalbingia" title="Nordalbingia">Nordalbingia</a>. Despite repeated setbacks, the Saxons resisted steadfastly, returning to raid Charlemagne's domains as soon as he turned his attention elsewhere. Their main leader, <a href="/wiki/Widukind" title="Widukind">Widukind</a>, was a resilient and resourceful opponent, but eventually was defeated and baptized (in 785). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_phase">First phase</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxon_Wars&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: First phase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In mid-January 772, the sacking and burning of the church of <a href="/wiki/Deventer" title="Deventer">Deventer</a> by a Saxon expedition was the <a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a> for the first war waged by Charlemagne against the Saxons. It began with a Frankish invasion of Saxon territory and the subjugation of the Engrians and destruction of their sacred symbol <a href="/wiki/Irminsul" title="Irminsul">Irminsul</a> near <a href="/wiki/Paderborn" title="Paderborn">Paderborn</a> in 772 or 773 at <a href="/wiki/Eresburg" title="Eresburg">Eresburg</a>. Irminsul may have been a hollow tree trunk, presumably representing the pillar supporting the skies — similar to the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic</a> tree <a href="/wiki/Yggdrasil" title="Yggdrasil">Yggdrasil</a> and apparently a common belief among the Germanic peoples. Charlemagne's campaign led all the way to the <a href="/wiki/Weser" title="Weser">Weser</a> River and destroyed several major Saxon strongholds. After negotiating with some Saxon nobles and obtaining hostages, Charlemagne turned his attention to his war against the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>; but Saxon free tenants, led by <a href="/wiki/Widukind" title="Widukind">Widukind</a>, continued to resist and raided Frankish lands in the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> region. Armed confrontations continued unabated for years. </p><p>Charlemagne's second campaign came in the year 775. Then he marched through Westphalia, conquering the fort of <a href="/wiki/Sigiburg" title="Sigiburg">Sigiburg</a>, and crossed Engria, where he defeated the Saxons again. Finally, in Eastphalia, he defeated them, and their leader <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hessi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hessi (page does not exist)">Hessi</a> converted to Christianity. He returned through Westphalia, leaving encampments at Sigiburg and <a href="/wiki/Eresburg" title="Eresburg">Eresburg</a>. All of Saxony except Nordalbingia was under his control, but the recalcitrant Saxons would not submit for long. </p><p>After warring in Italy, he returned very rapidly to Saxony (making it to <a href="/wiki/Lippe" class="mw-redirect" title="Lippe">Lippe</a> before the Saxons knew he left Italy) for the third time in 776, when a rebellion destroyed his fortress at Eresburg. The Saxons were once again brought to heel, though Widukind fled to the <a href="/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danes (Germanic tribe)">Danes</a>. Charlemagne built a new camp at <a href="/wiki/Karlstadt_am_Main" title="Karlstadt am Main">Karlstadt</a>. In 777, he called a national diet at Paderborn to integrate Saxony fully into the Frankish kingdom. Many Saxons were <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptised</a>. The <i><a href="/wiki/Carmen_de_conversione_Saxonum" title="Carmen de conversione Saxonum">Carmen de conversione Saxonum</a></i> celebrates this event. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charlemagne_against_Saxons.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charlemagne_against_Saxons.jpg/220px-Charlemagne_against_Saxons.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charlemagne_against_Saxons.jpg/330px-Charlemagne_against_Saxons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charlemagne_against_Saxons.jpg/440px-Charlemagne_against_Saxons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption>Charlemagne and the Saxons, A. de Neuville, c. 1869</figcaption></figure> <p>The chief purpose of the diet was to bring Saxony closer to Christianity. <a href="/wiki/Missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Missionaries">Missionaries</a>, mainly <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a> from <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, were recruited to carry out this task. Charlemagne issued a number of <a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">decrees</a> designed to break Saxon resistance and to inflict <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a> on anyone observing <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">heathen</a> practices or disrespecting the king's peace. His severe and uncompromising position, which earned him the title "butcher of Saxons", caused his close adviser <a href="/wiki/Alcuin_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcuin of York">Alcuin of York</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">abbot</a> of <a href="/wiki/Marmoutier_Abbey,_Tours" title="Marmoutier Abbey, Tours">Marmoutier Abbey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tours" title="Tours">Tours</a>, to urge leniency, as <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>'s word should be spread not by the sword but by persuasion; but the wars continued. </p><p>In summer 779, Charlemagne again went into Saxony and conquered Eastphalia, Engria, and Westphalia. At a diet near <a href="/wiki/Lippspringe" class="mw-redirect" title="Lippspringe">Lippspringe</a>, he divided the land into missionary districts and Frankish <a href="/wiki/Count" title="Count">countships</a>. He himself assisted in several mass baptisms (780). He then returned to Italy, and there was no Saxon revolt. From 780 to 782, the land had peace. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_phase">Middle phase</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxon_Wars&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Middle phase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Charlemagne returned in 782 to Saxony and instituted a <a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">code of law</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lex_Frisionum" title="Lex Frisionum">Lex Frisionum</a>, and appointed counts, both Saxon and Frank. The laws were severe on religious issues, namely the native paganism of the Saxons. This stirred a renewal of the old conflict. That year, in autumn, Widukind returned and led a revolt that resulted in many assaults on the church. The Saxons invaded the area of the <a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a>, a Germanic tribe already converted by Saint <a href="/wiki/Boniface" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface">Boniface</a> and firmly in Charlemagne's empire. Widukind won over a Frankish army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_S%C3%BCntel" title="Battle of Süntel">Battle of Süntel</a> while Charles was campaigning against the <a href="/wiki/Sorbs" title="Sorbs">Sorbs</a>. It was in response to this setback that Charlemagne, at the <a href="/wiki/Blood_court_of_Verden" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood court of Verden">Blood court of Verden</a>, ordered the beheading of 4,500 Saxons who had rebelled. Upon this <i><a href="/wiki/Blutgericht" class="mw-redirect" title="Blutgericht">Blutgericht</a></i>, some historians have stated the massacre did not happen, or that it was actually a battle, but according to Alessandro Barbero, none of these claims are credible.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The action led to two straight years of constant warfare (783–785), with Charlemagne wintering in central Saxony, at <a href="/wiki/Minden" title="Minden">Minden</a>. Gradually, the Franks gained the upper hand. The turning point came in 785, when Widukind had himself baptized and swore <a href="/wiki/Fealty" title="Fealty">fealty</a> to Charlemagne. It was with the conclusion of this war that Charlemagne could have claimed to have conquered Saxony, and the land had peace for the next seven years, though revolts continued sporadically until 804. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_Conversion_of_the_Saxons.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Christian_Conversion_of_the_Saxons.jpg/220px-Christian_Conversion_of_the_Saxons.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Christian_Conversion_of_the_Saxons.jpg/330px-Christian_Conversion_of_the_Saxons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Christian_Conversion_of_the_Saxons.jpg/440px-Christian_Conversion_of_the_Saxons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="557" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption>Conversion of the Saxons, A. de Neuville, c. 1869</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_phase">Final phase</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxon_Wars&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Final phase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 792, the Westphalians rose up against their masters in response to forcible recruitment for wars against the <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars</a>. The Eastphalians and Nordalbingians joined them in 793, but the insurrection did not catch on as previous ones and was completely put down by 794. </p><p>An Engrian rebellion followed closely in 796, but Charlemagne's personal presence and the presence of loyal Christian Saxons and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavs</a> immediately crushed it. In the battle of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bornh%C3%B6ved_(798)" title="Battle of Bornhöved (798)">Bornhöved</a> in 798, the <a href="/wiki/Obotrite" class="mw-redirect" title="Obotrite">Obotrite</a> allies of Charlemagne under <a href="/wiki/Thrasco_(Obotrite_prince)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrasco (Obotrite prince)">Thrasco</a> defeated the <a href="/wiki/Nordalbingia" title="Nordalbingia">Nordalbingian</a> Saxons, killing 2,800–4,000 of them. The last insurrection of the Engrian people occurred in 804, more than thirty years after Charlemagne's first campaign against them. This time, the most unruly tribe of them all, the Nordalbingians, found themselves effectively disempowered to rebel. Charlemagne deported 10,000 of them to <a href="/wiki/Neustria" title="Neustria">Neustria</a> and gave their now vacant lands to the loyal king of the Obotrites. <a href="/wiki/Einhard" title="Einhard">Einhard</a>, Charlemagne's biographer, said on the closing of the conflict: </p> <blockquote><p>The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the King; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people.</p></blockquote> <p>Towards the end of the wars, Charlemagne had begun to place more emphasis on reconciliation. In 797, he eased the special laws, and in 802, Saxon <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> was codified as the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Saxonum" title="Lex Saxonum">Lex Saxonum</a></i>. This was accompanied by the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesiastic">ecclesiastic</a> structures (including <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">bishoprics</a> in Paderborn, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster" title="Münster">Münster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bremen_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bremen (city)">Bremen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minden" title="Minden">Minden</a>, Verden and <a href="/wiki/Osnabr%C3%BCck" title="Osnabrück">Osnabrück</a>) that secured the conversion of the Saxon people. The last Saxon uprising was the <i><a href="/wiki/Stellinga" title="Stellinga">Stellinga</a></i>, which occurred between 841 and 845. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_nature">Religious nature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxon_Wars&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Religious nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_guerre_entre_Charlemagne_et_les_Saxons.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/La_guerre_entre_Charlemagne_et_les_Saxons.jpg/220px-La_guerre_entre_Charlemagne_et_les_Saxons.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/La_guerre_entre_Charlemagne_et_les_Saxons.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption>Charlemagne fighting the Saxons, from a 13th century miniature</figcaption></figure> <p>Alluding to the Saxons, the contemporary poet of the <a href="/wiki/Paderborn_Epic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paderborn Epic">Paderborn Epic</a> praises terror as a means of conversion: "What the contrary mind and perverse soul refuse to do with persuasion, / Let them leap to accomplish when compelled by fear."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of Charlemagne's famed capitularies outlined part of the religious intent of his interactions with the Saxons. In 785, he issued the <a href="/wiki/Capitulatio_de_partibus_Saxoniae" title="Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae">Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae</a> which asserted, "If any one of the race of the Saxons hereafter concealed among them shall have wished to hide himself unbaptized, and shall have scorned to come to baptism and shall have wished to remain a pagan, let him be punished by death."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a> took issue with the emperor's policy of forcing pagans to be baptised on pain of death, arguing, "Faith is a free act of the will, not a forced act. We must appeal to the conscience, not compel it by violence. You can force people to be baptised, but you cannot force them to believe." His arguments seem to have prevailed – Charlemagne abolished the death penalty for paganism in 797.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxon_Wars&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frisian%E2%80%93Frankish_wars" title="Frisian–Frankish wars">Frisian–Frankish wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Verden" title="Massacre of Verden">Massacre of Verden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxony" title="Duchy of Saxony">Duchy of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxon_Wars&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jennifer R. Davis (2015), <i>Charlemagne's Practice of Empire</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 179. The <i><a href="/wiki/Royal_Frankish_Annals" title="Royal Frankish Annals">Royal Frankish Annals</a></i> record battles in the years 772–780, 782–785, 793–799, 802 and 804.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarbero2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Barbero" title="Alessandro Barbero">Barbero, Alessandro</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F8xCDQHUEIkC&q=charlemagne+saxons+massacre&pg=PA46"><i>Charlemagne: father of a continent</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23943-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23943-2"><bdi>978-0-520-23943-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charlemagne%3A+father+of+a+continent&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23943-2&rft.aulast=Barbero&rft.aufirst=Alessandro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF8xCDQHUEIkC%26q%3Dcharlemagne%2Bsaxons%2Bmassacre%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxon+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Garrison, "The Emergence of Carolingian Latin Literature and the Court of Charlemagne (780–814)," <i>Carolingian Culture: Emulation and Innovation</i>, ed. <a href="/wiki/Rosamond_McKitterick" title="Rosamond McKitterick">Rosamond McKitterick</a> (Cambridge, 1994), 133.: <i>Quod mens laeva vetat suadendo animusque sinister, / Hoc saltim cupiant implere timore coacti</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Munro, Dana Carleton (Trans.) (2004). Selections from the Laws of Charles the Great. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-6511-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-6511-3">978-1-4179-6511-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Needham, N. R. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SYP8SAAACAAJ"><i>2,000 Years of Christ's Power</i></a>. Vol. Part Two: The Middle Ages. Grace Publications Trust. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-946462-56-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-946462-56-8"><bdi>978-0-946462-56-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=2%2C000+Years+of+Christ%27s+Power&rft.pub=Grace+Publications+Trust&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-946462-56-8&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=N.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSYP8SAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxon+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxon_Wars&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Reuter" title="Timothy Reuter">Reuter, Timothy</a>. <i>Germany in the Early Middle Ages 800–1056</i>. New York: Longman, 1991.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Oman" title="Charles Oman">Oman, Charles</a>. <i>The Dark Ages 476–918</i>. London, 1914.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einhard" title="Einhard">Einhard</a>, translated by Samuel Epes Turner. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/einhard.html"><i>The Life of Charlemagne</i></a>. New York, 1880.</li> <li>McGrath, Freddie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leeds.ac.uk/history/studentlife/e-journal/McGrath.pdf"><i>The Longevity of the Saxon Wars</i>.</a> at <a href="/wiki/Leeds_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Leeds University">Leeds University</a></li> <li>König, Daniel G.. Charlemagne's Jihad Revisited. Debating the Islamic Contribution to an Epochal Change in the History of Christianization, in: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medievalworlds.net/medieval_worlds?frames=yes">Medieval Worlds</a></i> 3 (2016), p. 3-40.</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxon_Wars&oldid=1259514167">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxon_Wars&oldid=1259514167</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:8th-century_conflicts" title="Category:8th-century conflicts">8th-century conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:9th-century_conflicts" title="Category:9th-century conflicts">9th-century conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Old_Saxony" title="Category:Old Saxony">Old Saxony</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_North_Rhine-Westphalia" title="Category:History of North Rhine-Westphalia">History of North Rhine-Westphalia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_the_Carolingian_Empire" title="Category:Military history of the Carolingian Empire">Military history of the Carolingian Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Germanic_peoples" title="Category:Wars involving Germanic peoples">Wars involving Germanic peoples</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Charlemagne" title="Category:Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:790s_conflicts" title="Category:790s conflicts">790s conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:8th_century_in_Francia" title="Category:8th century in Francia">8th century in Francia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:8th_century_in_Germany" title="Category:8th century in Germany">8th century in Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:770s_conflicts" title="Category:770s conflicts">770s conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:780s_conflicts" title="Category:780s conflicts">780s conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:800s_conflicts" title="Category:800s conflicts">800s conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Persecution_of_Pagans" title="Category:Persecution of Pagans">Persecution of Pagans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Germanic_paganism" title="Category:Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Francia" title="Category:Wars involving Francia">Wars involving Francia</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 November 2024, at 16:13<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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