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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="Yes"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>The “greywacke problem” explored in the Neoproterozoic of Saxo-Thuringia: new insights into sediment composition and metamorphic overprint | International Journal of Earth Sciences </title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="The “greywacke problem” explored in the Neoproterozoic of Saxo-Thuringia: new insights into sediment composition and metamorphic overprint"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="International Journal of Earth Sciences - Greywackes make up a substantial part of the Cadomian basement of Saxo-Thuringia. Here, their classification as greywackes and the timing of metamorphic..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Figa_HTML.png"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="531"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="The “greywacke problem” explored in the Neoproterozoic of Saxo-Thuringia: new insights into sediment composition and metamorphic overprint"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="International Journal of Earth Sciences 2024 114:1"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-10-28"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="Greywackes make up a substantial part of the Cadomian basement of Saxo-Thuringia. Here, their classification as greywackes and the timing of metamorphic overprint are re-evaluated using a multi-method approach. Immature monotonous greywacke sequences from the Lausitz (Lausitz Block) and Leipzig groups (North Saxon Anticline), as well as from the eastern Thuringian Basin and parts of the Weesenstein Group (Elbe Zone) probably belong to a coherent unit, based on microscopic investigations supported by SEM Automated Mineralogy analyses and point counting data. However, due to the low matrix content (&lt; 15%), the sedimentary rocks are more likely classified as lithic sandstones. The heterogeneous composition and in particular the highly mature character of the Clanzschwitz Group (North Saxon Anticline) and parts of the Weesenstein Group (Seidewitz Formation) suggest a younger, Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician sedimentation age. Typically, the metamorphic overprint of the “greywacke units” is very weak. Previous assumptions of Cadomian contact metamorphism triggered by Early Cambrian intrusions (ca. 540&nbsp;Ma) could not be confirmed due to the local differences in the determined metamorphic ages. Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician (521–461&nbsp;Ma) Th–U–Pb monazite ages are likely related to the tectonic transition from the collisional regime of the Cadomian orogeny to extensional processes in the course of the opening of the Rheic Ocean. Sporadic Late Ordovician (458–445&nbsp;Ma) Th–U–Pb monazite and K–Ar fine-fraction ages were also obtained but the specific thermal trigger is still subject of debate. The Permo-Carboniferous metamorphic ages (314–286&nbsp;Ma) indicate high-temperature metamorphism related to the post-Variscan extensional processes of Central Europe during this period. The youngest dated monazites are Jurassic in age and may have grown in association with the hydrothermal activity known from Central Europe at that time."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1437-3262"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="International Journal of Earth Sciences"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-10-28"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="114"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="1"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="23"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="54"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="International Journal of Earth Sciences"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer Berlin Heidelberg"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1437-3262"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="The “greywacke problem” explored in the Neoproterozoic of Saxo-Thuringia: new insights into sediment composition and metamorphic overprint"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="114"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="1"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2025/02"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/10/28"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="23"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="54"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Original Paper"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x"/> <meta name="size" content="422655"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="Greywackes make up a substantial part of the Cadomian basement of Saxo-Thuringia. 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Here, their classification as greywackes and the timing of metamorphic overprint are re-evaluated using a multi-method approach. Immature monotonous greywacke sequences from the Lausitz (Lausitz Block) and Leipzig groups (North Saxon Anticline), as well as from the eastern Thuringian Basin and parts of the Weesenstein Group (Elbe Zone) probably belong to a coherent unit, based on microscopic investigations supported by SEM Automated Mineralogy analyses and point counting data. However, due to the low matrix content (< 15%), the sedimentary rocks are more likely classified as lithic sandstones. The heterogeneous composition and in particular the highly mature character of the Clanzschwitz Group (North Saxon Anticline) and parts of the Weesenstein Group (Seidewitz Formation) suggest a younger, Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician sedimentation age. Typically, the metamorphic overprint of the “greywacke units” is very weak. Previous assumptions of Cadomian contact metamorphism triggered by Early Cambrian intrusions (ca. 540 Ma) could not be confirmed due to the local differences in the determined metamorphic ages. Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician (521–461 Ma) Th–U–Pb monazite ages are likely related to the tectonic transition from the collisional regime of the Cadomian orogeny to extensional processes in the course of the opening of the Rheic Ocean. Sporadic Late Ordovician (458–445 Ma) Th–U–Pb monazite and K–Ar fine-fraction ages were also obtained but the specific thermal trigger is still subject of debate. The Permo-Carboniferous metamorphic ages (314–286 Ma) indicate high-temperature metamorphism related to the post-Variscan extensional processes of Central Europe during this period. The youngest dated monazites are Jurassic in age and may have grown in association with the hydrothermal activity known from Central Europe at that time. Graphical abstract"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Figa_HTML.png"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-c6d59aafac.ico> <meta name="theme-color" content="#e6e6e6">   <link rel="stylesheet" media="print" href=/oscar-static/app-springerlink/css/print-b8af42253b.css> <style> 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Here, their classification as greywackes and the timing of metamorphic overprint are re-evaluated using a multi-method approach. Immature monotonous greywacke sequences from the Lausitz (Lausitz Block) and Leipzig groups (North Saxon Anticline), as well as from the eastern Thuringian Basin and parts of the Weesenstein Group (Elbe Zone) probably belong to a coherent unit, based on microscopic investigations supported by SEM Automated Mineralogy analyses and point counting data. However, due to the low matrix content (< 15%), the sedimentary rocks are more likely classified as lithic sandstones. The heterogeneous composition and in particular the highly mature character of the Clanzschwitz Group (North Saxon Anticline) and parts of the Weesenstein Group (Seidewitz Formation) suggest a younger, Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician sedimentation age. Typically, the metamorphic overprint of the “greywacke units” is very weak. Previous assumptions of Cadomian contact metamorphism triggered by Early Cambrian intrusions (ca. 540 Ma) could not be confirmed due to the local differences in the determined metamorphic ages. Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician (521–461 Ma) Th–U–Pb monazite ages are likely related to the tectonic transition from the collisional regime of the Cadomian orogeny to extensional processes in the course of the opening of the Rheic Ocean. Sporadic Late Ordovician (458–445 Ma) Th–U–Pb monazite and K–Ar fine-fraction ages were also obtained but the specific thermal trigger is still subject of debate. The Permo-Carboniferous metamorphic ages (314–286 Ma) indicate high-temperature metamorphism related to the post-Variscan extensional processes of Central Europe during this period. The youngest dated monazites are Jurassic in age and may have grown in association with the hydrothermal activity known from Central Europe at that time. \n\n \n \n \n ","datePublished":"2024-10-28T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2024-10-28T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"23","pageEnd":"54","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x","keywords":["Saxo-Thuringia","Neoproterozoic","Greywacke","Metamorphism","K–Ar fine-fraction dating","Th–U–Pb monazite dating","Geology","Geophysics/Geodesy","Sedimentology","Structural Geology","Mineral 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Journal of Earth Sciences","issn":["1437-3262","1437-3254"],"volumeNumber":"114","@type":["Periodical","PublicationVolume"]},"publisher":{"name":"Springer Berlin Heidelberg","logo":{"url":"https://www.springernature.com/app-sn/public/images/logo-springernature.png","@type":"ImageObject"},"@type":"Organization"},"author":[{"name":"Victoria Kühnemann","url":"http://orcid.org/0009-0007-2567-2734","affiliation":[{"name":"TU Bergakademie Freiberg","address":{"name":"Institut für Geologie, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"email":"victoria.kuehnemann@gmail.com","@type":"Person"},{"name":"Guido Meinhold","url":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8375-8375","affiliation":[{"name":"TU Bergakademie Freiberg","address":{"name":"Institut für Geologie, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Bernhard Schulz","url":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5003-3431","affiliation":[{"name":"TU Bergakademie Freiberg","address":{"name":"Institut für Mineralogie, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Sabine Gilbricht","affiliation":[{"name":"TU Bergakademie Freiberg","address":{"name":"Institut für Mineralogie, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Sebastian Weber","affiliation":[{"name":"Landesaufnahme und Geophysik","address":{"name":"Sächsisches Landesamt für Umwelt, Landwirtschaft und Geologie (LfULG), Landesaufnahme und Geophysik, Freiberg, Germany","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Klaus Wemmer","url":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7818-5135","affiliation":[{"name":"Abteilung Geochemie und Isotopengeologie","address":{"name":"Geowissenschaftliches Zentrum der Georg-August-Universität 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The “greywacke problem” explored in the Neoproterozoic of Saxo-Thuringia: new insights into sediment composition and metamorphic overprint </div> <div data-test="inCoD" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Victoria-K_hnemann-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Victoria-K_hnemann-Aff1" data-author-search="Kühnemann, Victoria" data-corresp-id="c1">Victoria Kühnemann<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0009-0007-2567-2734"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0009-0007-2567-2734</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Guido-Meinhold-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Guido-Meinhold-Aff1" data-author-search="Meinhold, Guido">Guido Meinhold</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8375-8375"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-8375-8375</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Bernhard-Schulz-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Bernhard-Schulz-Aff2" data-author-search="Schulz, Bernhard">Bernhard Schulz</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5003-3431"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-5003-3431</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item 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</div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>Greywackes make up a substantial part of the Cadomian basement of Saxo-Thuringia. Here, their classification as greywackes and the timing of metamorphic overprint are re-evaluated using a multi-method approach. Immature monotonous greywacke sequences from the Lausitz (Lausitz Block) and Leipzig groups (North Saxon Anticline), as well as from the eastern Thuringian Basin and parts of the Weesenstein Group (Elbe Zone) probably belong to a coherent unit, based on microscopic investigations supported by SEM Automated Mineralogy analyses and point counting data. However, due to the low matrix content (< 15%), the sedimentary rocks are more likely classified as lithic sandstones. The heterogeneous composition and in particular the highly mature character of the Clanzschwitz Group (North Saxon Anticline) and parts of the Weesenstein Group (Seidewitz Formation) suggest a younger, Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician sedimentation age. Typically, the metamorphic overprint of the “greywacke units” is very weak. Previous assumptions of Cadomian contact metamorphism triggered by Early Cambrian intrusions (ca. 540 Ma) could not be confirmed due to the local differences in the determined metamorphic ages. Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician (521–461 Ma) Th–U–Pb monazite ages are likely related to the tectonic transition from the collisional regime of the Cadomian orogeny to extensional processes in the course of the opening of the Rheic Ocean. Sporadic Late Ordovician (458–445 Ma) Th–U–Pb monazite and K–Ar fine-fraction ages were also obtained but the specific thermal trigger is still subject of debate. The Permo-Carboniferous metamorphic ages (314–286 Ma) indicate high-temperature metamorphism related to the post-Variscan extensional processes of Central Europe during this period. The youngest dated monazites are Jurassic in age and may have grown in association with the hydrothermal activity known from Central Europe at that time.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" data-test="abstract-sub-heading">Graphical abstract</h3> <div class="c-article-section__figure" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure"><figure><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Figa_HTML.png?as=webp"><img src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Figa_HTML.png" alt="" loading="lazy" width="685" height="366"></picture></div></div></figure></div></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-020-01864-2/MediaObjects/531_2020_1864_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00531-020-01864-2?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 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3" data-track-label="10.1007/s12517-024-12094-0">Lithofacies and microfacies and depositional environment model of the Cenozoic carbonate platform: an example from the Upper Jafnayn Formation of Jafnayn area in north-east Oman </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">19 November 2024</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1739750719, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=531" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>The rock designation greywacke entails some problems, concerning for instance definition and application, and has been lengthy discussed in the literature (e.g., Naumann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1858" title="Naumann CF (1858) Lehrbuch der Geognosie. Engelmann, Leipzig" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e533">1858</a>; Salomon <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1916" title="Salomon W (1916) Die Definitionen von Grauwacke, Arkose und Ton. Geol Rundsch 6:398–404" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR118" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e536">1916</a>; Krynine <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1948" title="Krynine PD (1948) The megascopic study and field classification of sedimentary rocks. J Geol Soc 56:130–165" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e539">1948</a>; Cummins <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1962" title="Cummins WA (1962) The greywacke problem. Geol J 3:51–72. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3350030105
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e542">1962</a>; Dott <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1964" title="Dott RL Jr (1964) Wacke, graywacke, matrix—What approach to immature sandstone classification? J Sediment Res 34:625–632. 
 https://doi.org/10.1306/74D71109-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e545">1964</a>; Pettijohn <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1954" title="Pettijohn FJ (1954) Classification of sandstones. J Geol Soc 62:360–365" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR105" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e549">1954</a> and most recently Hussain et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Hussain A, Morris EA, Al-Ramadan K, Shannon PM, Haughton PD (2022) Hybrid event beds (HEBs) and the ‘greywacke problem’ revisited. Earth-Sci Rev 237:104297. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104297
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e552">2022</a>)—with still unsatisfactory results. Greywackes can be highly variable in their composition. The term greywacke is only a very imprecisely defined term (for detail see the “<a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Sec2">The “greywacke problem”</a>” section). Burial diagenesis alone can result in the loss of primary signatures (e.g., the content of detrital matrix or feldspar components), which are necessary for characterising the rock according to the usual classifications. For the study presented here on the Neoproterozoic greywackes of Saxo-Thuringia, however, the historical rock designation from the literature was adopted for the samples under investigation. However, the authors are aware that some of the rocks were probably not greywackes when they were primarily deposited. A classification with nomenclature would only be speculative, as we are not in a position to determine whether the sediment was initially already a greywacke or perhaps rather a lithic sandstone that owes its recent high matrix content to alteration or a high proportion of primary mudstone and siltstone clasts. The term greywacke used in this paper is intended more as a collective term for the immature, poorly sorted and mostly matrix-dominated sedimentary rocks.</p><p>The study aims to investigate the Neoproterozoic units of the Weesenstein Group (Elbe Zone), the Clanzschwitz Group (North Saxon Anticline) and the greywacke zone extending from the Lausitz via Leipzig to eastern Thuringia using modern, uniform and comprehensive methods. Comparing the modal composition and the pebble assemblage of the sedimentary rocks is intended to shed light on the genetic relationship among the units. So far, there is a lack of information on the post-depositional processes that the investigated Neoproterozoic lithologies have experienced. In addition to petrographic analyses, the main focus will be therefore on the metamorphic overprinting of these units. Previous investigations (e.g., Klemm <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1891" title="Klemm G (1891) Chiastolithschiefer und Hornblende-Porphyrit im Oberlausitzer Flachland. Z Dtsch Ges Geowiss 43:526–530" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e561">1891</a>; Nasdala and Ullrich <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1988" title="Nasdala L, Ullrich B (1988) Kontaktmetamorphe Veränderungen in der Nordsächsischen Grauwacke und damit verbundenen Mineralneubildungen. Veröffentlichungen Des Museums der Westlausitz (Kamenz) 15:3–14" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e564">1988</a>; Kemnitz <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Kemnitz H (2007) The Lausitz graywackes, Saxo-Thuringia, Germany—Witness to the Cadomian orogeny. In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The Evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:97–141. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.2423(04)
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e567">2007</a>; Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e570">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e573">1994</a>; Kemnitz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1992" title="Kemnitz H, Naumann R, Gottesmann B (1992) Detrital micas from Upper Brioverian greywackes of Lusatia-chemistry and first interpretation. Zentralbl Geol Paläont Teil 1, Allgemeine, angewandte, regionale und historische Geologie 7/8:837–846" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e577">1992</a>) are mainly based on observations from the field and petrographic considerations. The previous model assumes a rather weak, anchimetamorphic Cadomian overprinting of the investigated units. The early Cambrian intrusions (ca. 540 Ma; Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e580">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e583">1994</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e586">2000</a>; Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e589">2007</a>; Gehmlich <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Gehmlich M (2003) Die Cadomiden und Varisziden des Saxothuringischen Terranes-Geochronologie magmatischer Ereignisse. Freiberger Forschungsh C 500:1–129" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e592">2003</a>; Tichomirowa <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Tichomirowa M (2003) Die Gneise des Erzgebirges—hochmetamorphe Äquivalente von neoproterozoisch-frühpaläozoischen Grauwacken und Granitoiden der Cadomiden. Freiberger Forschungsh C 495:1–222" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR141" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e596">2003</a>) are considered to have caused the local contact metamorphic overprint, which is described as very extensive. There are no specific, data-supported models of the further developmental history, especially of the Lausitz region, from the end of the Cadomian orogeny to the Variscan orogeny. In the further course, it is only confirmed that the geological units investigated in this study were also located in marginal areas during the Variscan orogeny and were hardly influenced by the metamorphic processes at this time (Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e599">2007</a>). Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) of Th–U–Pb of monazites and K–Ar fine-fraction analyses now provide specific information on the age of metamorphic overprinting for the first time and provide insights into the post-Neoproterozoic thermal history of the studied units. Additionally, the analysis of microstructures in quartz and feldspar, the development of phase diagrams and the determination of illite crystallinity help to better characterise the very low-grade metamorphic overprinting.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec2">The “greywacke problem”</h3><p>The term greywacke was established in the Harz Mountains (Germany) in the middle of the 18th century (Murawski et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1972" title="Murawski H, Meyer W, Meyer W (1972) Geologisches Wörterbuch, 12th edn. Ferdinand Enke, Stuttgart" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR95" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e609">1972</a>). Ilsemann (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1785" title="Ilsemann JG (1785) Untersuchung der grauen Wacke von der Grube Dorothea zu Clausthal. Chemische Annalen für die Freunde der Naturlehre, Arzneygelahrtheit, Haushaltungskunst und Manufacturen, Helmstädt, pp 431–433" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e612">1785</a>) described greyish wacke (in the original German text called “grauen Wacke”) from the famous Dorothea mine east of the formerly free mining town Clausthal (today Clausthal-Zellerfeld). The original term “Grauewacke” was introduced by the miners of the region for the psammitic, dark-coloured, hard and very matrix-rich rocks of the local Kulm facies (Lower Carboniferous, Mississippian age) (Lasius <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1789" title="Lasius GSO (1789) Beobachtungen über das Harzgebirge, nebst einer petrographischen Charte und einem Profilrisse, als ein Beytrag zur mineralogischen Naturkunde. Helwingsche Hofbuchhandlung, Hannover" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e615">1789</a>). The miners already noticed the characteristic feature of extremely massive and monotonous greywacke sequences, which often make further lithostratigraphic subdivisions difficult. A broad grain size spectrum with very poorly rounded components and great variability in the number and type of detrital components is also described as characteristic. The usually dark grey colour of the rock is caused by the high clay content of the matrix.</p><p>Although the rock designation greywacke is a common term that is also firmly rooted in the literature, the underlying problems quickly become apparent. Folk (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1968" title="Folk RL (1968) Petrology of sedimentary rocks. Hemphill Publishing, Austin" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e621">1968</a>) already criticised the rock designation for describing nothing more than “a very hard, ugly, dirty, dark rock that you can't tell much about in the field”. Primarily, “greywacke” is therefore a field description assigned to a matrix-rich, strongly cemented, dark sedimentary rock without having carried out further detailed investigations. The classification was created at a time when thin section analyses were not yet carried out and was therefore based solely on the textural and structural properties recognisable in the hand specimen (Lasius <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1789" title="Lasius GSO (1789) Beobachtungen über das Harzgebirge, nebst einer petrographischen Charte und einem Profilrisse, als ein Beytrag zur mineralogischen Naturkunde. Helwingsche Hofbuchhandlung, Hannover" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e624">1789</a>) and is therefore not precisely defined petrographically. However, as the name has evolved historically for many localities, the confusion concerning the definition becomes even greater when these now become part of modern petrographic analyses. In this context, Huckenholz (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1963" title="Huckenholz HG (1963) Mineral composition and texture in graywackes from the Harz Mountains (Germany) and in arkoses from the Auvergne (France). J Sediment Res 33:914–918. 
 https://doi.org/10.1306/74D70F74-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e627">1963</a>), for example, compared greywacke from the Harz Mountains with arkoses from the Auvergne (France) and observed that the textural maturity of this “type greywacke” overlapped considerably with that of arkoses. Furthermore, many earlier classification approaches focussed on genesis (depositional setting and type of deposition) rather than sedimentary petrographic properties (Boswell <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1960" title="Boswell PGH (1960) The term graywacke. J Sedim Res 30:154–157. 
 https://doi.org/10.1306/74D709ED-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e630">1960</a>). However, diagnostic features including a deposition in a deep marine setting from turbiditic flows or associations with mudstone layers can also occur in other types of sandstone (Cummins <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1962" title="Cummins WA (1962) The greywacke problem. Geol J 3:51–72. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3350030105
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e633">1962</a>). An additional complicating factor is that, according to Pettijohn et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1972" title="Pettijohn FJ, Potter PE, Siever R (1972) Sand and sandstone. Springer, New York" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e637">1972</a>), the group of wacke does not have an average, characteristic composition, but covers a very wide range due to its high variability, especially in the record of lithoclasts.</p><p>With the progress of available analytical methods, the matrix content of a sedimentary rock gained importance as a classification criterion in the 20th century. Fischer (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1933" title="Fischer G (1933) Die Petrographie der Grauwacken. Jahrb Königl Preuss Geol Landesanst 54:320–343" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e643">1933</a>), Gilbert in Williams et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1954" title="Williams H, Turner F, Gilbert CM (1954) Petrology. Freeman, San Francisco" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR153" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e646">1954</a>), Dott (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1964" title="Dott RL Jr (1964) Wacke, graywacke, matrix—What approach to immature sandstone classification? J Sediment Res 34:625–632. 
 https://doi.org/10.1306/74D71109-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e649">1964</a>), and Pettijohn et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1972" title="Pettijohn FJ, Potter PE, Siever R (1972) Sand and sandstone. Springer, New York" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e652">1972</a>) proposed the term wacke as a suitable substitute for the case where the matrix fraction (particles < 30 μm) of a clastic sedimentary rock is comparatively higher than usual. According to Pettijohn (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1954" title="Pettijohn FJ (1954) Classification of sandstones. J Geol Soc 62:360–365" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR105" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e655">1954</a>), a matrix content of at least 15% (and up to 75%) can be considered to be a wacke. However, nowadays it is precisely this high matrix content that causes the greatest problems in the classification of greywacke (Cox and Lowe <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Cox R, Lowe DR (1996) Quantification of the effects of secondary matrix on the analysis of sandstone composition, and a petrographic-chemical technique for retrieving original framework grain modes of altered sandstones. J Sediment Res 66:548–558. 
 https://doi.org/10.1306/D42683A1-2B26-11D7-8648000102C1865D
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e659">1996</a>). The first problem is the quantification of the matrix proportion. Even under the microscope, it is difficult to distinguish between clayey and recrystallised matrix or the grain boundaries of the partially interlocked detrital components.</p><p>The evaluation of the preferentially altered lithic fragments is also subjective, as the formation of pseudo-matrix can falsely increase the primary content. This in turn leads to the second problem, the question of the origin of the matrix: Is it primary (detrital incorporated) or secondary (formed by diagenesis processes)? This question is part of recurring debates (e.g., Irving and Van Hise <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1892" title="Irving RS, Van Hise CR (1892) The Penokee Iron-bearing Series of Northern Wisconsin and Michigan. U.S. Geol Survey Monogr 19:1–534" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e665">1892</a>; Woodland <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1938" title="Woodland AW (1938) Petrological studies in the Harlech Grit series of Merionethshire. II: the petrography and petrology of some of the grits. Geol Mag 75:440–454" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR154" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e668">1938</a>; Kuenen and Migliorini <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1950" title="Kuenen PH, Migliorini CI (1950) Turbidity currents as a cause of graded bedding. J Geol Soc 58:91–127" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e671">1950</a>; Emery <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1964" title="Emery KO (1964) Turbidites-Precambrian to present. In: Yoshida K (ed) Studies on oceanography—a collection of papers dedicated to koji Hidaka. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp 486–495" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e674">1964</a>; Hussain et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Hussain A, Morris EA, Al-Ramadan K, Shannon PM, Haughton PD (2022) Hybrid event beds (HEBs) and the ‘greywacke problem’ revisited. Earth-Sci Rev 237:104297. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104297
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e677">2022</a>). The most recent work by Hussain et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Hussain A, Morris EA, Al-Ramadan K, Shannon PM, Haughton PD (2022) Hybrid event beds (HEBs) and the ‘greywacke problem’ revisited. Earth-Sci Rev 237:104297. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104297
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e681">2022</a>) tends to favour a primary matrix origin, in which the clay particles are already present in the sediment body at the time of deposition. This assumption may also be accurate for relatively young greywackes, but in the case of old greywackes, such as the Neoproterozoic greywackes of Saxo-Thuringia presented in this study, it can be assumed that a significant proportion of the matrix is of secondary origin. Precisely because the greywackes are described as a very immature sediment at the time of deposition (e.g., Potter and Glass <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1958" title="Potter PE, Glass HD (1958) Petrology and sedimentation of the Pennsylvanian sediments in southern Illinois: a vertical profile. Illinois State Geol Surv Rep Invest 204:1–60" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR111" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e684">1958</a>; Cummins <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1962" title="Cummins WA (1962) The greywacke problem. Geol J 3:51–72. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3350030105
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e687">1962</a>) and the numerous unstable components such as feldspar and lithic fragments were preferentially decomposed. When considering the matrix content, the factor of time should always be taken into account. Primary information will be lost over millions of years.</p><p>The matrix content is largely controlled by the duration and intensity of diagenesis. It is therefore not really expedient to differentiate between the matrix content and the clasts present in greywacke and to derive statements about the provenance, the depositional area and the tectonic setting from those. This point is neglected by the established classification diagrams (e.g., Dott <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1964" title="Dott RL Jr (1964) Wacke, graywacke, matrix—What approach to immature sandstone classification? J Sediment Res 34:625–632. 
 https://doi.org/10.1306/74D71109-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e694">1964</a>; Pettijohn et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1972" title="Pettijohn FJ, Potter PE, Siever R (1972) Sand and sandstone. Springer, New York" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e697">1972</a>; Dickinson <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1970" title="Dickinson WR (1970) Interpreting detrital modes of greywacke and Arkose. J Sedim Res 40:695–707. 
 https://doi.org/10.1306/74D72018-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e700">1970</a>; Dickinson and Suczek <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1979" title="Dickinson WR, Suczek CA (1979) Plate tectonics and sandstone compositions. AAPG Bull 63:2164–2182" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e703">1979</a>; Dickinson and Valloni <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1980" title="Dickinson WR, Valloni R (1980) Plate settings and provenance of sands in modern ocean basins. Geology 8:82–86. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1980)8%3c82:PSAPOS%3e2.0.CO;2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e706">1980</a>), making their application for greywackes not meaningful. Of course, the detrital fractions and the primary matrix fraction also depend to a certain extent on the source area. For instance, some of the old greywackes could originally have been deposited as litharenites, or they originally contained a large amount of volcanic material. Lithic clasts and feldspars may then preferentially become decomposed in the course of burial and be transformed into clay minerals (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig1">1</a>). Already in studies at the beginning of the 20th century, controversy arose among geologists (e.g., Walther <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1921" title="Walther K (1921) Zur Definition der Begriffe Grauwacke, Arkose, Ton und Tonschiefer. Geol Rundsch 11:355–356" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR149" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e713">1921</a>) about the lack of an exact petrographic definition of greywacke. It is therefore questionable to what extent a petrographic definition of greywacke is suitable and whether new methods of classification should perhaps be developed.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="699"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>Sketches illustrating the genesis of the secondary matrix component. Over time and with continued sediment input from the source area, old deposits are increasingly buried and undergo diagenesis processes. Unstable components (feldspars and lithics) are preferentially decomposed and convert into clay (matrix)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec3">Regional geology and previous studies</h3><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec4">Formation of the Neoproterozoic greywacke units of Saxo-Thuringia</h4><p>The area under investigation in this study belongs to the tectonostratigraphic unit of Saxo-Thuringia (Saxothuringian Zone according to Kossmat <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1927" title="Kossmat F (1927) Gliederung des varistischen Gebirgsbaues. Abh d Sächs Geol Landesamts 1:1–39" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e745">1927</a>; see Meinhold <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Meinhold G (2017) Franz Kossmat—Subdivision of the Variscan Mountains—a translation of the German text with supplementary notes. Hist Geo Space Sci 8:29–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.5194/hgss-8-29-2017
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR91" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e748">2017</a> for the English translation). Saxo-Thuringia as an independent structural complex of the Central European Variscides is composed of a Cadomian basement and a Palaeozoic overstep sequence (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e751">2000</a>; Linnemann and Romer <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Linnemann U, Romer RL (2002) The Cadomian Orogeny in Saxo-Thuringia, Germany: geochemical and Nd–Sr–Pb isotopic characterisation of marginal basins with constraints to geotectonic setting and provenance. Tectonophysics 352:33–64. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00188-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e754">2002</a>). All rocks that were formed during the influence of the Cadomian orogeny are summarised under the Cadomian basement. The Cadomian units of Saxo-Thuringia are separated by the Cadomian unconformity from the widespread sedimentary deposits of the Lower Ordovician and the locally preserved deposits of the Lower Cambrian (Linnemann and Buschmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995a" title="Linnemann U, Buschmann B (1995a) Die cadomische Diskordanz im Saxothuringikum (oberkambrisch-tremadocische overlap-Sequenzen). Z Geol Wiss 23:729–750" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e757">1995a</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995b" title="Linnemann U, Buschmann B (1995b) Der Nachweis der cadomischen Diskordanz in einer Tiefbohrung bei Gera und deren Bedeutung für das proterozoisch-paläozoische Standardprofil im Schwarzburger Antiklinorium. Geowiss Mitt Thüringen 3:1–11" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e761">1995b</a>; Buschmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Buschmann B (1995) Geotectonic facies analyses of the Rothstein Formation (Neoproterozoic, Saxothuringian Zone, east Germany). Dissertation, TU Bergakademie Freiberg" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e764">1995</a>). Saxo-Thuringia is further subdivided into various structural units, such as the Elbe Zone, Schwarzburg Anticline, Lausitz Block, North Saxon Anticline or Torgau-Doberlug Syncline. Their associated sedimentary units consist of relicts of several basin fragments (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e767">2000</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e770">2007</a>). The multifaceted evolutionary history of Saxo-Thuringia commenced in the Late Neoproterozoic as a component of the northern Gondwana continental margin with the development of the Cadomian basement. The area was located on the periphery of the West African Craton, which at this time was part of the large Gondwana continent (e.g., Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e773">2000</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Linnemann U, McNaughton NJ, Romer RL, Gehmlich M, Drost K, Tonk C (2004) West African provenance for Saxo-Thuringia (Bohemian Massif): Did Armorica ever leave pre-Pangean Gondwana? U/Pb-SHRIMP zircon evidence and the Nd-isotopic record. Int J Earth Sci 93:683–705. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-004-0413-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e776">2004</a>; Tichomirowa et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Tichomirowa M, Berger HJ, Koch EA, Belyatski BV, Götze J, Kempe U, Schaltegger U (2001) Zircon ages of high-grade gneisses in the Eastern Erzgebirge (Central European Variscides)—constraints on origin of the rocks and Precambrian to Ordovician magmatic events in the Variscan foldbelt. Lithos 56:303–332. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-4937(00)00066-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR142" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e780">2001</a>; Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig2">2</a>).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Fig. 2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig2_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig2_HTML.png" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy" width="685" height="367"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p>Palaeogeographic situation of Peri-Gondwana in the Late Neoproterozoic. IB = Iberia, AM = Armorican Massif, SXT = Saxo-Thuringia, TB = Teplá-Barrandian. Map compiled following Nance and Murphy (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Nance RD, Murphy JB (1994) Contrasting basement isotopic signatures and the palinspastic restoration of peripheral orogens: Example from the Neoproterozoic Avalonian-Cadomian belt. Geology 22:617–620" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR97" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e796">1994</a>) and Linnemann et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Linnemann U, McNaughton NJ, Romer RL, Gehmlich M, Drost K, Tonk C (2004) West African provenance for Saxo-Thuringia (Bohemian Massif): Did Armorica ever leave pre-Pangean Gondwana? U/Pb-SHRIMP zircon evidence and the Nd-isotopic record. Int J Earth Sci 93:683–705. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-004-0413-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e799">2004</a>). The position of the Cenerian subduction zone almost perpendicular to the front of the Cadomian subduction processes is adopted from Finger and Riegler (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Finger F, Riegler G (2023) The role of the proto-Alpine Cenerian Orogen in the Avalonian-Cadomian belt. Aust J Earth Sci 116:109–115. 
 https://doi.org/10.17738/ajes.2023.0005
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e802">2023</a>)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>To the north of the West African Craton, a magmatic arc with a passive continental margin developed in front of the West African Craton between 650 and 600 Ma ago, which initially caused a thinning of the crust and thus enabled the formation of a backarc basin (Murphy and Nance <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Murphy JB, Nance RD (1991) Supercontinent model for the contrasting character of Late Proterozoic orogenic belts. Geology 19:469–472" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR96" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e816">1991</a>; Buschmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Buschmann B (1995) Geotectonic facies analyses of the Rothstein Formation (Neoproterozoic, Saxothuringian Zone, east Germany). Dissertation, TU Bergakademie Freiberg" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e819">1995</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e822">2000</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Linnemann U, McNaughton NJ, Romer RL, Gehmlich M, Drost K, Tonk C (2004) West African provenance for Saxo-Thuringia (Bohemian Massif): Did Armorica ever leave pre-Pangean Gondwana? U/Pb-SHRIMP zircon evidence and the Nd-isotopic record. Int J Earth Sci 93:683–705. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-004-0413-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e825">2004</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e828">2007</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Linnemann U, Pereira F, Jeffries TE, Drost K, Gerdes A (2008) The Cadomian Orogeny and the opening of the Rheic Ocean: the diacrony of geotectonic processes constrained by LA–ICP–MS U–Pb zircon dating (Ossa-Morena and Saxo-Thuringian Zones, Iberian and Bohemian Massifs). Tectonophysics 461:21–43. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2008.05.002
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e832">2008</a>; Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig3">3</a>a). In this basin, the Cadomian basement, consisting of magmatic intrusions and mainly sedimentary deposits of turbiditic greywackes, quartzites and hydrothermally derived siliceous rocks (cherts), was built up from ca. 570 Ma (e.g., Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Linnemann U (1991) Glazioeustatisch kontrollierte Sedimentationsprozesse im Oberen Proterozoikum der Elbezone (Weesensteiner Gruppe/Sachsen). Zentralbl Geol Paläont Teil 1. Allgemeine, Angewandte, Regionale und Historische Geologie 12:2907–2934" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e838">1991</a>; Bankwitz and Bankwitz <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Bankwitz P, Bankwitz E (1995) Proterozoikum/Schwarzburger Antiklinorium. In: Seidel G (ed) Geologie von Thüringen. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, pp 46–77" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e841">1995</a>; Buschmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Buschmann B (1995) Geotectonic facies analyses of the Rothstein Formation (Neoproterozoic, Saxothuringian Zone, east Germany). Dissertation, TU Bergakademie Freiberg" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e844">1995</a>; Buschmann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Buschmann B, Linnemann U, Schneider J, Süss T (1995) Die cadomische Entwicklung im Untergrund der Torgau-Doberluger Synklinale. Z Geol Wiss 23:729–749" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e847">1995</a>; Linnemann and Buschmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995b" title="Linnemann U, Buschmann B (1995b) Der Nachweis der cadomischen Diskordanz in einer Tiefbohrung bei Gera und deren Bedeutung für das proterozoisch-paläozoische Standardprofil im Schwarzburger Antiklinorium. Geowiss Mitt Thüringen 3:1–11" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e851">1995b</a>). The West African Craton served primarily as a sediment supply area (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Linnemann U, McNaughton NJ, Romer RL, Gehmlich M, Drost K, Tonk C (2004) West African provenance for Saxo-Thuringia (Bohemian Massif): Did Armorica ever leave pre-Pangean Gondwana? U/Pb-SHRIMP zircon evidence and the Nd-isotopic record. Int J Earth Sci 93:683–705. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-004-0413-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e854">2004</a>). According to Linnemann et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e857">2007</a>), Saxo-Thuringia can be structured into an external and an internal domain, which are geologically separated by the Blumenau Shear Zone and differ in their development of the Cadomian basement. The most striking distinguishing feature is the almost complete absence of ca. 540 Ma old magmatic intrusions in the external domain. The external domain comprises the volcano-sedimentary deposits of the Rothstein Formation (Torgau-Doberlug Syncline) and the Altenfeld Formation (NW part of the Schwarzburg Anticline; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e860">2007</a>). Characteristics of the external units are distally deposited turbidite flows of greywacke and mudstone beds, which were accumulated by the erosion debris of the magmatic arc (Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e863">1994</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e866">2000</a>; Linnemann and Romer <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Linnemann U, Romer RL (2002) The Cadomian Orogeny in Saxo-Thuringia, Germany: geochemical and Nd–Sr–Pb isotopic characterisation of marginal basins with constraints to geotectonic setting and provenance. Tectonophysics 352:33–64. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00188-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e870">2002</a>; Kemnitz <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Kemnitz H (2007) The Lausitz graywackes, Saxo-Thuringia, Germany—Witness to the Cadomian orogeny. In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The Evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:97–141. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.2423(04)
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e873">2007</a>). The massive chert layers formed by processes associated with seafloor spreading and hydrothermal activity in the centre of the basin (Buschmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Buschmann B (1995) Geotectonic facies analyses of the Rothstein Formation (Neoproterozoic, Saxothuringian Zone, east Germany). Dissertation, TU Bergakademie Freiberg" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e876">1995</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e879">2000</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e882">2007</a>) suggest that these sediments were deposited on the strongly thinned crust of the backarc basin. The Weesenstein Group of the Elbe Zone and the Clanzschwitz Group in its north-western extension (North Saxon Anticline) are assigned to the internal domain, as both units were intruded by Early Cambrian granitoids (ca. 538 Ma; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e885">2000</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e889">2018</a>; Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e892">2007</a>; Gehmlich <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Gehmlich M (2003) Die Cadomiden und Varisziden des Saxothuringischen Terranes-Geochronologie magmatischer Ereignisse. Freiberger Forschungsh C 500:1–129" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e895">2003</a>; Tichomirowa <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Tichomirowa M (2003) Die Gneise des Erzgebirges—hochmetamorphe Äquivalente von neoproterozoisch-frühpaläozoischen Grauwacken und Granitoiden der Cadomiden. Freiberger Forschungsh C 495:1–222" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR141" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e898">2003</a>). The Weesenstein Group was intruded by the Dohna Granodiorite (538 ± 2 Ma; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e901">2018</a>) and the Clanzschwitz Group by the Laas Granodiorite (537 ± 5 Ma; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e904">2018</a>). The increased maturity of the deposits and the high proportion of quartzitic pebbles in particular suggest deposition in a shallow marine environment at the passive margin of the backarc basin (Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Linnemann U (1991) Glazioeustatisch kontrollierte Sedimentationsprozesse im Oberen Proterozoikum der Elbezone (Weesensteiner Gruppe/Sachsen). Zentralbl Geol Paläont Teil 1. Allgemeine, Angewandte, Regionale und Historische Geologie 12:2907–2934" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e908">1991</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e911">2007</a>). Supplemented by the occurrence of glaciomarine-deposited sediments, Linnemann (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Linnemann U (1995) The Neoproterozoic terranes of Saxony (Germany). Precambrian Res 73:235–250. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(94)00080-B
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e914">1995</a>) and Linnemann et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e917">2018</a>) assume that this was originally a coherent pre-Variscan unit that was first dissected by the tectonic activity of the Elbe Zone between 335 and 327 Ma (Hofmann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Hofmann M, Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Ullrich B, Schauer M (2009) Timing of dextral strike-slip processes and basement exhumation in the Elbe Zone (Saxo-Thuringian Zone): the final pulse of the Variscan Orogeny in the Bohemian Massif constrained by LA–SF–ICP–MS U–Pb zircon data. In: Murphy JB, Keppie JD, Hynes AJ (eds) Ancient orogens and modern analogues. J Geol Soc 327:197–214. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP327.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e920">2009</a>). As a result of these movements, further parts of the formerly coherent unit along the Elbe Zone were intercalated (e.g., the lithostratigraphically poorly defined Rödern Group).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Fig. 3"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig3_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig3_HTML.png" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy" width="685" height="898"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>Basin constellation in the late Neoproterozoic to early Cambrian at the northern margin of Gondwana. Model of the Cadomian backarc basin ca. 590–550 Ma ago (<b>a</b>) and of the Cadomian retroarc basin ca. 545–540 Ma ago (<b>b</b>). Modified after Linnemann et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e939">2007</a>)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>In the period between 555 and 540 Ma, the collision of the magmatic arc with the West African Craton ultimately led to the closure of the backarc basin (Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e953">2007</a>). In the course of these convergence processes, a retroarc basin was formed, which is assigned to the internal domain due to the early Cambrian intrusions present there (e.g., the 539 ± 6 Ma old Lausitz Granitoid Complex; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e956">2000</a>; Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e959">2007</a>; Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig3">3</a>b). The eroded and reworked sediments of the backarc basin of the slightly older external domain were redeposited in this basin (Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e965">2007</a>). These include the thick and very monotonous proximal to distal greywacke deposits of the Lausitz Group (Lausitz Block), the Leipzig Group (North Saxon Anticline) and the Frohnberg Formation (SE part of the Schwarzburg Anticline), which represent a coherent unit. The rather limited investigations of the greywacke deposits in the area of eastern Thuringia (e.g., Meinhold <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Meinhold G (2004) Stratigraphie und Geochemie der Grauwacken und Schiefer vom Eleonorental bei Bad Köstritz und der Bohrung Eisenberg 1/65 (Thüringisches Schiefergebirge). Geowiss Mitt Thüringen 11:71–81" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e969">2004</a>), which does not belong to the Katzhütte Group of the Schwarzburg Anticline, indicate that the Neoproterozoic deposits can be traced further west of the Leipzig Group. The ongoing subduction processes of the oceanic crust under the continental crust led to the formation of the Cadomian Orogen and a new tectonic constellation, from an active continental margin to the development of a transform margin (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e972">2007</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Linnemann U, Pereira F, Jeffries TE, Drost K, Gerdes A (2008) The Cadomian Orogeny and the opening of the Rheic Ocean: the diacrony of geotectonic processes constrained by LA–ICP–MS U–Pb zircon dating (Ossa-Morena and Saxo-Thuringian Zones, Iberian and Bohemian Massifs). Tectonophysics 461:21–43. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2008.05.002
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e975">2008</a>). Linnemann et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e978">2007</a>) consider the subduction of a mid-ocean ridge and the break-off of the subducting oceanic plate to be responsible for a short-term intense heat flow. The resulting widespread plutonism around 540 Ma finally proved the end of Neoproterozoic sedimentation in the early Cambrian (Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e981">2007</a>) and led to a widespread, in places intense contact metamorphism or even anatexis of the sedimentary rocks (e.g., Nasdala and Ullrich <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1988" title="Nasdala L, Ullrich B (1988) Kontaktmetamorphe Veränderungen in der Nordsächsischen Grauwacke und damit verbundenen Mineralneubildungen. Veröffentlichungen Des Museums der Westlausitz (Kamenz) 15:3–14" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e984">1988</a>; Kemnitz <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Kemnitz H (2007) The Lausitz graywackes, Saxo-Thuringia, Germany—Witness to the Cadomian orogeny. In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The Evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:97–141. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.2423(04)
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e988">2007</a>; Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e991">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e994">1994</a>; Kemnitz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1992" title="Kemnitz H, Naumann R, Gottesmann B (1992) Detrital micas from Upper Brioverian greywackes of Lusatia-chemistry and first interpretation. Zentralbl Geol Paläont Teil 1, Allgemeine, angewandte, regionale und historische Geologie 7/8:837–846" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e997">1992</a>). However, the regional metamorphic influence of the Cadomian convergence processes on these rather marginally positioned sedimentary units is very limited; anchimetamorphic conditions are not exceeded (Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1000">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1003">1994</a>; Kemnitz <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Kemnitz H (2007) The Lausitz graywackes, Saxo-Thuringia, Germany—Witness to the Cadomian orogeny. In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The Evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:97–141. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.2423(04)
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1007">2007</a>). The stretching of the Cadomian crust caused by the transform margin subsequently led to the onset of rift movements (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1010">2007</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Linnemann U, Pereira F, Jeffries TE, Drost K, Gerdes A (2008) The Cadomian Orogeny and the opening of the Rheic Ocean: the diacrony of geotectonic processes constrained by LA–ICP–MS U–Pb zircon dating (Ossa-Morena and Saxo-Thuringian Zones, Iberian and Bohemian Massifs). Tectonophysics 461:21–43. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2008.05.002
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1013">2008</a>). The absence of Upper Cambrian sediments in Saxo-Thuringia is associated with the thinning of the lower crust and the related uplift of the Cadomian crust (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1016">2007</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Linnemann U, Pereira F, Jeffries TE, Drost K, Gerdes A (2008) The Cadomian Orogeny and the opening of the Rheic Ocean: the diacrony of geotectonic processes constrained by LA–ICP–MS U–Pb zircon dating (Ossa-Morena and Saxo-Thuringian Zones, Iberian and Bohemian Massifs). Tectonophysics 461:21–43. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2008.05.002
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1019">2008</a>). The resulting weathering layer formed on the Cadomian basement in the late Cambrian was reworked in the course of the Ordovician transgression and re-sedimented as high-mature sands (nowadays sandstones and quartzites) during the Tremadocian (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1022">2000</a>). In the Ordovician, triggered by the rift movements, the Rheic Ocean was opened. Sedimentation in the Silurian and Devonian mostly took place in the area of the central shelf. In the Late Devonian, strong intraplate volcanism with the effusion of submarine pillow lavas (diabase) occurred as the Rheic Ocean began to close (Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Linnemann U (2003) Sedimentation und geotektonischer Rahmen der Beckenentwicklung im Saxothuringikum (Neoproterozoikum-Unterkarbon). In: Linnemann U (ed) Das Saxothuringikum: Staatliche Naturhistorische Sammlungen, Dresden, pp 71–110" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1026">2003</a>). Ultimately, the Neoproterozoic to Lower Cambrian units of Saxo-Thuringia studied here were subject to only relatively weak metamorphic overprinting due to their marginal position during the complex processes of the Variscan orogeny (e.g., Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1029">2007</a>).</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec5">Characteristic features of the studied sedimentary rocks</h4><p>The earliest documented investigations dealing with the distinct Neoproterozoic greywacke units of Saxo-Thuringia are the mappings carried out under the direction of Hermann Credner between 1872 and 1907 for the compilation of a geological map of the former Kingdom of Saxony („geologische Specialkarte des Königreichs Sachsens“, see also Credner <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1885" title="Credner H (1885) Die geologische Landesuntersuchung des Königreiches Sachsen. Giesecke & Devrient, Leipzig" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1040">1885</a>). Even if some age data are outdated due to the limited methods for age dating available at the time, the macroscopic field observations and petrographic characterisation of the outcropping rocks were carried out comprehensively and in great detail. With the development and improvement of modern analytical methods, such as (isotope-)geochemistry, U/Pb zircon dating or mineral chemical analyses, it has been possible to obtain profound knowledge about the origin, genesis and composition of these sedimentary rocks (e.g., Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1043">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1046">1994</a>; Lorenz <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Lorenz W (1996) Lithologie und Petrochemie proterozoischer und palaeozoischer Psammite und Pelite der Lausitz. Z Geol Wiss 24:483–504" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1049">1996</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1052">2000</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Linnemann U, McNaughton NJ, Romer RL, Gehmlich M, Drost K, Tonk C (2004) West African provenance for Saxo-Thuringia (Bohemian Massif): Did Armorica ever leave pre-Pangean Gondwana? U/Pb-SHRIMP zircon evidence and the Nd-isotopic record. Int J Earth Sci 93:683–705. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-004-0413-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1056">2004</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1059">2007</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Linnemann U, Pereira F, Jeffries TE, Drost K, Gerdes A (2008) The Cadomian Orogeny and the opening of the Rheic Ocean: the diacrony of geotectonic processes constrained by LA–ICP–MS U–Pb zircon dating (Ossa-Morena and Saxo-Thuringian Zones, Iberian and Bohemian Massifs). Tectonophysics 461:21–43. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1062">2008</a>).</p><p>The greywacke of the Lausitz Group was examined in particular detail from various points of view, as it is well and widely exposed on the surface and is also considered to be very useful as a building material. The Lausitz greywackes, together with mudstones, comprise the main part of the sedimentary units of the Cadomian basement of the Lausitz Block (Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1068">1991</a>). These alternating psammitic and pelitic sedimentary sequences are 2–3 km thick and were deposited rhythmically from turbidite flows following the Bouma scheme (Schwab <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1962" title="Schwab G (1962) Klufttektonische Untersuchungen der Nordlausitzer Grauwackenformation unter Berücksichtigung der Gesteinsklüftung des Lausitzer Zweiglimmergranits. Abh Dtsch Akad Wiss Kl Chem Geol Biol 2:1–80" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1071">1962</a>; Schöbel <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1985" title="Schöbel H (1985) Schichtflächenmarken und synsedimentäre Deformationsgefüge in der rhiphäischen Grauwacke der Kamenzer Serie. Veröffentlichungen Des Museums der Westlausitz (Kamenz) 9:13–41" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR123" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1074">1985</a>; Kemnitz <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H (1994) Provenance and plate tectonic interpretation of Upper Brioverian turbidites in Southeast Germany (Lusatian Group). In: Fiala J, Vejnar Z (eds) Geodynamik des europäischen Variszikums; Probleme der lithofaziellen, strukturellen und metamorphen Entwicklung der Kristallineinheiten. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, pp 803–814" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1077">1994</a>; Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1080">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1084">1994</a>; Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1087">2007</a>). Although fragmentary, decreasing grain sizes and bank thicknesses can be observed in the terrain towards the top. Very occasionally, calc-silicate intercalations (lenses) can be found, which probably originate from the weathering products of basic tuffs or extrusive rocks (Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1090">1991</a>). As the greywacke sequences of the Lausitz Group are largely undisturbed and lack conspicuous conglomeratic horizons, their sedimentation can be located towards a medial position on the shelf (Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1093">1991</a>). The limited occurrence of sedimentary structures such as ripple marks or flute casts are also evidence of a predominantly low-energy depositional regime. Kemnitz and Budzinski (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1096">1991</a>) conclude from the poor structural and compositional maturity that the transport distance was rather short and that the weathering period was either very limited or that the physical weathering was short and extremely intensive. According to the authors, in addition to the detrital composition (metamorphic lithics and feldspar grains), the geochemistry also indicates a dissected arc provenance. Due to the homogeneity in the spatial composition, e.g., of the heavy minerals or detrital mica (Kemnitz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1992" title="Kemnitz H, Naumann R, Gottesmann B (1992) Detrital micas from Upper Brioverian greywackes of Lusatia-chemistry and first interpretation. Zentralbl Geol Paläont Teil 1, Allgemeine, angewandte, regionale und historische Geologie 7/8:837–846" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1099">1992</a>), and the uniform age of the greywacke, it can be assumed that the Lausitz Group was formed by a very uniform source area.</p><p>The otherwise homogeneous Lausitz greywacke exhibits intercalations of fine to medium gravel conglomeratic layers or lenses with a maximum thickness of 10 cm (Tietz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Tietz O, Büchner J, Ulrich J (2006) Geologie: Die Geröllgrauwacke der Kunnersdorfer Senke. In: Tietz O (ed) Neues aus der Natur der Oberlausitz für 2005. Ber Naturforsch Ges Oberlausitz, Görlitz, pp 169–170" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR144" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1105">2006</a>) only in very isolated, often no longer exposed and inaccessible areas (e.g., temporary road outcrop on the B 115 near Kunnersdorf; sample 06/04/10–04 in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig4">4</a>). Pebble greywacke beds of 1 m thickness were also exposed temporarily. The main components are cherts, quartzite and, to a limited extent, granite, gneiss and schist (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Tab1">1</a>; Tietz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Tietz O, Büchner J, Ulrich J (2006) Geologie: Die Geröllgrauwacke der Kunnersdorfer Senke. In: Tietz O (ed) Neues aus der Natur der Oberlausitz für 2005. Ber Naturforsch Ges Oberlausitz, Görlitz, pp 169–170" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR144" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1114">2006</a>). Claystone pebbles up to 10 cm in size can also be included (Tietz and Ulrich <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Tietz O, Ulrich J (2007) Geologie: Der temporäre Straßenaufschluss an der Kunnersdorfer Senke. In: Tietz O, Dunger W (eds) Neues aus der Natur der Oberlausitz für 2006. Ber Naturforsch Ges Oberlausitz, Görlitz, pp 199–200" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR143" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1117">2007</a>). The origin of these rather isolated horizons in the Lausitz greywacke is still unclear. Under discussion is the model of deposition from a submarine mudflow along an active continental slope or from dropstones from an Eocambrian glaciation phase (Tietz and Ulrich <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Tietz O, Ulrich J (2007) Geologie: Der temporäre Straßenaufschluss an der Kunnersdorfer Senke. In: Tietz O, Dunger W (eds) Neues aus der Natur der Oberlausitz für 2006. Ber Naturforsch Ges Oberlausitz, Görlitz, pp 199–200" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR143" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1121">2007</a>).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4" data-title="Fig. 4"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 4</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/4" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig4_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig4" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig4_HTML.png" alt="figure 4" loading="lazy" width="685" height="399"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-4-desc"><p>Map illustrating the sampling points from outcrops and drilling of the analysed units of Saxo-Thuringia</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/4" data-track-dest="link:Figure4 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 4" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 Average relative abundance of the different pebble types of the Neoproterozoic greywacke of Saxo-Thuringia</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The Lausitz greywackes are petrographically classified as lithic greywackes with a lithoclast content of 7–15% according to Füchtbauer (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1988" title="Füchtbauer H (1988) Sedimente und sedimentgesteine. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1693">1988</a>). Kemnitz and Budzinski (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1696">1994</a>) defined the composition of the lithoclasts (here with a total of 10–22%) more precisely and determined a dominance of fragments of magmatic rocks (80–85%). Volcanites with 7–12%, cherts with 3–10%, 0.5–4% sedimentary rocks (mainly quartzites, but also greywackes, mudstones) and 0.5–5% metamorphic rocks are also involved. The unstable components (∑ 25–30%) are usually dominated by plagioclase over orthoclase. This observation correlates well with the even more frequent occurrence of plagioclase in samples with a high proportion of volcanic rock fragments. The heavy minerals described include zircon, apatite, rutile, tourmaline and also ilmenite, pyrite, haematite and magnetite. The previously common lithostratigraphic subdivision of the Lausitz greywacke unit into an early Cadomian folded Kamenz series and a late Cadomian folded Görlitz series (e.g., Ebert <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1943" title="Ebert H (1943) Das granitische Grundgebirge der östlichen Lausitz. Hirzel Verlag, Leipzig" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1699">1943</a>; Pietzsch <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1962" title="Pietzsch K (1962) Geologie von Sachsen. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR109" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1702">1962</a>; Hirschmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1966" title="Hirschmann G (1966) Assyntische und variszische Baueinheiten im Grundgebirge der Oberlausitz (unter spezieller Berücksichtigung der Geologie des östlichen Görlitzer Schiefergebirges). Freiberger Forschungsh C 212:1–146" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1705">1966</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1970" title="Hirschmann G (1970) Zur Tektonik und Metamorphose der Lausitzer Grauwackeneinheit und ihrer geotektonischen Stellung. Ber Deutsch Gesell Geol Wiss Reihe A Geol Paläont 15:369–378" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1709">1970</a>; Frischbutter <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1979" title="Frischbutter A (1979) Zur Geochemie der präkambrischen Gesteine der Elbezone unter besonderer Berücksichtigung etwa gleichalter Gesteinskomplexe ihres Rahmens. Akademie der Wissenschaften DDR, Potsdam" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1712">1979</a>; Brause et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1981" title="Brause H, Schubert G, Hortenbach R (1981) Beitrag zur präkambrischen und zur pleistozänen Tektonik im Gebiet von Kamenz. Veröffentlichungen Des Museums der Westlausitz (Kamenz) 5:9–27" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1715">1981</a>) was rejected by Kemnitz and Budzinski (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1718">1991</a>) and the term “Lausitz Group” was established. The already macroscopically very monotonous greywackes of the Lausitz Group have no distinctive key horizons and exhibit no significant differences in metamorphic overprinting or the composition of the lithoclast content and geochemistry (Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1721">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1724">1994</a>).</p><p>In the course of the collision phase of the Cadomian orogeny, the Lausitz greywackes on the active continental margin north of the West African Craton underwent locally varying degrees of metamorphism, but always at low-grade (anchimetamorphic) conditions (Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1731">1991</a>; Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig5">5</a>). The open N-vergent folds first documented by Schwab (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1962" title="Schwab G (1962) Klufttektonische Untersuchungen der Nordlausitzer Grauwackenformation unter Berücksichtigung der Gesteinsklüftung des Lausitzer Zweiglimmergranits. Abh Dtsch Akad Wiss Kl Chem Geol Biol 2:1–80" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1737">1962</a>) are widespread in the medium- to coarse-grained greywacke sequences. According to Kemnitz and Budzinski (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1740">1994</a>), the Early Cambrian intrusions are considered to be responsible for the contact metamorphic overprinting of the Saxo-Thuringian greywackes, which is described as widespread in parts. Both authors recognise the following zones with varying degrees of overprinting that extend from Görlitz in the East along the Intra-Lusatian Fault to Kamenz and further to the West Lusatian Fault (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig5">5</a>):</p><ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <p>Zone (0) no contact metamorphic overprinting visible (before the appearance of chlorite);</p> </li> <li> <p>Zone (1) incipient biotite blastesis, visible only under the microscope;</p> </li> <li> <p>Zone (2) incipient recrystallisation of the matrix and cryptocrystalline quartz in cherts; biotite aggregates up to 1 mm in size appear in pelitic material; incipient growth of biotites (50 µm) in psammitic greywacke;</p> </li> <li> <p>Zone (3) Biotite-hornfels facies; nodules and patches (> 1 µm) of biotite; recrystallisation reduces the amount of feldspars and lithics; incipient cordierite blastesis in metapelites; incipient subgrain formation on quartz in psammitic greywacke;</p> </li> <li> <p>Zone (4) Cordiertite-hornfels facies; possible occurrence of sillimanite and andalusite; visible grain coarsening; quartz (feldspar) remains as lithoclasts.</p> </li> </ul><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-5" data-title="Fig. 5"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig5" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 5</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/5" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig5_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig5" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig5_HTML.png" alt="figure 5" loading="lazy" width="685" height="460"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-5-desc"><p>Geological map of the Lausitz Group in Saxo-Thuringia. Zonation of contact metamorphism (0–4) of the Lausitz Group. (0–1) no contact metamorphism to incipient biotite blastesis, (2) incipient recrystallisation of the matrix, biotite aggregates up to 1 mm, (3) Biotite-hornfels facies; nodules and patches (> 1 µm) of biotite, cordierite blastesis in metapelites, (4) Cordiertite-hornfels facies; possible occurrence of sillimanite and andalusite. RB = Radeberg, KM = Kamenz, GR = Görlitz, ZG = Zgorzelec. Modified after Kemnitz and Budzinski (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1789">1994</a>)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/5" data-track-dest="link:Figure5 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 5" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Lorenz (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Lorenz W (1996) Lithologie und Petrochemie proterozoischer und palaeozoischer Psammite und Pelite der Lausitz. Z Geol Wiss 24:483–504" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1803">1996</a>) established by K–Ar dating of the newly grown mica in the Lausitz greywackes that the thermal influence of the Early Cambrian intrusions cannot be held responsible for the new mineral growth dated there between 391 and 463 Ma for numerous locations. Both greywacke hornfels close to the intrusive contact (e.g., Vogelsberg, Kamenz, Saxony) and greywacke pelites distal from the contact were dated. Nevertheless, the Cadomian-related processes subsequently prevailed as the reason for the overprinting of the Lausitz region.</p><p>The investigations of the adjoining greywacke of the North Saxon Anticline are not as comprehensive due to the poor outcrop situation. In addition to boreholes, there are isolated outcrops in the Leipzig area that are assigned to the Leipzig Group. The unit is regarded as a continuation of the Lausitz greywackes due to the similarity of petrographic features (heavy mineral assemblage, detrital composition) and the commonly subgreenschist facies overprint, and was described in detail by Sehm (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1976" title="Sehm K (1976) Lithologisch-petrofazielle und metallogenetische Untersuchung der Grauwacken-Pelit-Folge des Nordsächsischen Antiklinoriums. Freiberger Forschungsh C 311:8–135" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR130" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1809">1976</a>). Although the lithoclast content ranges from 5 to 25%, the greywackes are classified as feldspar (arkosic) greywackes by Sehm (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1976" title="Sehm K (1976) Lithologisch-petrofazielle und metallogenetische Untersuchung der Grauwacken-Pelit-Folge des Nordsächsischen Antiklinoriums. Freiberger Forschungsh C 311:8–135" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR130" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1812">1976</a>). Despite their usually very bad state of preservation, magmatites, especially volcanic rocks, are also the dominant lithoclasts here (ca. 40%), followed by subordinate metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks. However, Sehm (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1976" title="Sehm K (1976) Lithologisch-petrofazielle und metallogenetische Untersuchung der Grauwacken-Pelit-Folge des Nordsächsischen Antiklinoriums. Freiberger Forschungsh C 311:8–135" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR130" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1815">1976</a>) also describes conglomerate layers up to 80 cm in thickness from the Leipzig Group in the Schildau 2/66 drillcore. There, the conglomerates comprise clasts of slightly ellipsoidal sedimentary rocks and magmatites but do not show any strong metamorphic overprint. In their composition, the pebbles are well comparable with the conglomerates of the Clanzschwitz Group described below. Furthermore, greywacke outcrops and boreholes located in the eastern Thuringian Basin are considered by Meinhold (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Meinhold G (2004) Stratigraphie und Geochemie der Grauwacken und Schiefer vom Eleonorental bei Bad Köstritz und der Bohrung Eisenberg 1/65 (Thüringisches Schiefergebirge). Geowiss Mitt Thüringen 11:71–81" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1818">2004</a>) to be facies equivalents of the Leipzig Group and the Frohnberg Formation (cropping out in the southern part of the Schwarzburg Anticline) due to geochemical and petrographic correlations.</p><p>The adjacent units of the Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups in the area affected by the Elbe Zone experienced a similar development to the Neoproterozoic greywackes of the Lausitz and Leipzig groups. However, during the Cadomian orogeny, both units underwent a slightly higher-grade (upper) greenschist-facies metamorphism (Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Linnemann U (1995) The Neoproterozoic terranes of Saxony (Germany). Precambrian Res 73:235–250. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(94)00080-B
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1824">1995</a>). The approximately 850 m thick Clanzschwitz Group is only exposed very locally, strikes WSW–ENE, and comprises three members (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1827">2018</a>). Member 1 is characterised by contact metamorphic andalusite growths in the quartz schists and mudstones caused by the Laas granodiorite. Member 2 is exposed at the Großer Steinberg (N' Clanzschwitz, Saxony) and is composed of quartz schists and quartzites. The Clanzschwitz conglomerates occur in the greywackes of member 3, but can only be found as loose bedrock. A detailed characterisation of these pebbles can be found in Schmidt (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1960" title="Schmidt K (1960) Die Geröllführung algonkisch-kambrischer Grauwacken des Westlausitzer Zuges. Freiberger Forschungsh C 91:1–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1830">1960</a>). Either sedimentary rocks or magmatites constitute the main part, metamorphic rocks are almost completely absent (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Tab1">1</a>). Interestingly, well-bounded greywacke fragments are also described themselves in the greywacke matrix. In this horizons portion of pebbles can account for up to 67% in total.</p><p>The ca. 2500 m thick Weesenstein Group comprises mainly quartz-rich metagreywackes but also consists of metamorphically overprinted mudstones, phyllites, quartz schists and quartzites (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1839">2018</a>). The unit is divided into two parts: the older Seidewitz Formation (ca. 1500 m) in the SW and the younger Müglitz Formation (ca. 1000 m) in the NE. The more mature Seidewitz Formation, consisting mainly of quartzites, quartz schists and quartz wacke, can thus be correlated well with the older members (1 and 2) of the Clanzschwitz Group (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1842">2018</a>). The Purpurberg quartzite member (with a maximum depositional age of ca. 562 Ma, Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1845">2018</a>) with its equivalents also belongs to the Neoproterozoic Seidewitz Formation and was interpreted as a shallow-marine fan delta deposit (Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Linnemann U (1995) The Neoproterozoic terranes of Saxony (Germany). Precambrian Res 73:235–250. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(94)00080-B
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1848">1995</a>). The mature shelf-related deposits of the Seidewitz Formation indicate a gradual transition to the immature greywackes, mudstones and quartz wackes of the younger Müglitz Formation (e.g., Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1851">2018</a>). Schmidt (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1960" title="Schmidt K (1960) Die Geröllführung algonkisch-kambrischer Grauwacken des Westlausitzer Zuges. Freiberger Forschungsh C 91:1–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1855">1960</a>) reports isolated pebbles for the Weesenstein Group, which occur isolated in the greywacke, but do not form layers. The occurrence is restricted to the Müglitz Formation and can be related to member 3 of the Clanzschwitz Group (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1858">2018</a>). Basically, the pebbles are well rounded, mostly flattened and in some cases even spherical. The pebbles were elongated post-sedimentary by tectonics and rotated parallel to the schistosity (Schmidt <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1960" title="Schmidt K (1960) Die Geröllführung algonkisch-kambrischer Grauwacken des Westlausitzer Zuges. Freiberger Forschungsh C 91:1–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1861">1960</a>). According to Beck (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1892" title="Beck R (1892) Erläuterungen zur geologischen Karte Sachsen: im Maßstab 1:25000. Blatt 83 Pirna, 1st edn. Engelmann, Leipzig" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1864">1892</a>), the composition of isolated pebbles consists mainly of quartzites, medium-coarse-grained granitoids and, to a minor extent, quartz porphyries (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Tab1">1</a>). Schmidt (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1960" title="Schmidt K (1960) Die Geröllführung algonkisch-kambrischer Grauwacken des Westlausitzer Zuges. Freiberger Forschungsh C 91:1–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1870">1960</a>) analysed a greywacke conglomerate very untypical of the Weesenstein greywacke unit, which became exposed by a blast at Fuchshübel (ca. 800 m north of Weesenstein, Saxony). This conglomerate has the same macroscopic appearance and composition as the conglomerates of the Clanzschwitz Group. Linnemann et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1874">2018</a>) interpret the pebble-bearing greywackes of both units as diamictites, which are thought to have been deposited around 565 Ma ago in the course of the Weesenstein–Orellana glaciation.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Methods"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec6-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec6">Methods</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec6-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec7">Petrographic investigations</h3><p>For the petrographic investigation of the Neoproterozoic greywacke units, a total of 106 samples were taken from the distinct sedimentary units throughout Saxo-Thuringia (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig4">4</a>; Online Resource 1). The samples mainly originate from natural outcrops and abandoned greywacke quarries, but also from drill cores and temporary outcrops. Some mudstones, quartzites, cherts and magmatites associated with greywacke deposits were also sampled. The Carboniferous greywacke section of borehole B155/72 (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig4">4</a>) in the Görlitzer Schiefergebirge was also included as a reference. A total of 92 polished thin sections were prepared in the laboratories of the Institute of Geology (TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Germany) for microscopic investigations. Additional thin sections of locations no longer exposed today were kindly provided by the Saxon State Office for Environment, Agriculture and Geology (Freiberg, Germany) and the Geology/Palaeontology Section of the Senckenberg Museum of Natural History Görlitz (Germany). Furthermore, polished rock slabs were also produced for some of the samples to document sedimentary structures. The characterisation of the modal composition using the polarisation microscope was supplemented by SEM Automated Mineralogy analyses (SEM-AM) on 63 polished, carbon-coated thin sections. The SEM-AM was carried out at a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with detectors for energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) at the Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology (HIF, Germany) and the Institute of Mineralogy (TU Bergakademie Freiberg). The mineral-specific energy-dispersive (EDS) spectra and the backscattered electron (BSE) images of the sections were analysed. The recorded EDS spectra from samples (at 15 kV) are classified by reference spectra and assigned to the corresponding mineral phases (see Schulz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Schulz B, Sandmann D, Gilbrcht S (2020) SEM-based automated mineralogy and its application in geo-and material sciences. Minerals 10:1004. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/min10111004
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR126" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1897">2020</a> for details about the SEM-AM methodology). The modal composition of each sample was quantified from the resulting grain-based EDS spectral mapping (GXMAP) (Online Resource 3). Furthermore, point counting analyses (1500–2000 points per thin section) were carried out using the software JMicroVision to quantify the lithoclast and pebble assemblage of the greywacke.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec8">Identifying metamorphic conditions</h3><p>In addition to investigating the petrographic composition of the rock specimens, the aim was also to describe the microtextures in quartz and feldspars of suitable samples to outline the metamorphic conditions. Further analyses relate to the determination of the age of the metamorphic overprint in the study area.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec9">EPMA Th–U–Pb monazite dating</h3><p>Due to their occurrence as accessory minerals in various crustal rocks, monazite provides an important key for geochronological investigations (Parrish <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Parrish RR (1990) U–Pb dating of monazite and its application to geological problems. Can J Earth Sci 27:1431–1450. 
 https://doi.org/10.1139/e90-152
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1916">1990</a>). Thus, the dating of monazites not only reveals information about the crystallisation age of magmatic rocks, but monazites are also well suited for determining the degree of metamorphic overprinting of rocks—including metasediments (e.g., Parrish <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Parrish RR (1990) U–Pb dating of monazite and its application to geological problems. Can J Earth Sci 27:1431–1450. 
 https://doi.org/10.1139/e90-152
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1919">1990</a>; Stern and Bergmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Stern RA, Bergman RG (2001) Monazite U–Pb and Th–Pb geochronology by ion microprobe, with an application to in situ dating of an Archean metasedimentary rock. Chem Geol 172:113–130. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(00)00239-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR138" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1922">2001</a>; Foster et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Foster G, Gibson HD, Parrish RR, Horstwood M, Fraser J, Tindle A (2002) Textural, chemical and isotopic insights into the nature and behaviour of metamorphic monazite. Chem Geol 191:183–207. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(02)00156-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1925">2002</a>). The age dating of monazites is based on the decay of Th and U incorporated within the crystal lattice (Overstreet <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1967" title="Overstreet WC (1967) The geological occurrence of monazite. U.S. Geol Survey Prof Paper 530:1–327. 
 https://doi.org/10.3133/pp530
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1928">1967</a>). Radiogenic Pb (especially <sup>208</sup>Pb due to the dominance of Th in monazite) accumulates relatively quickly and can therefore be measured using an electron probe microanalyser (EPMA) (Montel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Montel JM, Foret S, Veschambre M, Nicollet C, Provost A (1996) Electron microprobe dating of monazite. Chem Geol 131:37–53. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(96)00024-1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1934">1996</a>). However, this requires the basic assumptions that the radiogenic Pb is hardly affected by diffusion losses (Spear and Parrish <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Spear FS, Parrish RR (1996) Petrology and cooling rates of the Valhalla complex, British Columbia, Canada. J Petrol 37:733–765. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/37.4.733
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1937">1996</a>; Cherniak et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Cherniak D, Watson EB, Grove M, Harrison TM (2004) Pb diffusion in monazite: a combined RBS/SIMSmstudy. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 68:829–840. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2003.07.012
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1940">2004</a>) and that the amount of common Pb, initially incorporated when monazite crystallises, is negligible (< 1 ppm, Parrish <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Parrish RR (1990) U–Pb dating of monazite and its application to geological problems. Can J Earth Sci 27:1431–1450. 
 https://doi.org/10.1139/e90-152
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1943">1990</a>; Cocherie et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Cocherie A, Legendre O, Peucat JJ, Kouamelan AN (1998) Geochronology of polygenetic monazites constrained by in situ electron microprobe Th–U–total lead determination: implications for lead behaviour in monazite. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 62:2475–2497. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(98)00171-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1946">1998</a>).</p><p>The SPL (Sparse Phase Liberation) measurement mode of the SEM-AM MLA software platform by FEI Company was selected to locate the only a few µm sized monazites in polished thin sections. To be able to set suitable measurement spots for EPMA Th–U–Pb age dating, inter alia, photo documentation (Backscattered Electron (BSE) and Secondary Electron imaging (SEI) of the monazites was carried out in advance at the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) of the Institute of Geology (TU Bergakademie Freiberg). The mineral chemistry and age of formation of the monazites from a total of seven appropriated samples were then determined non-destructively using a JEOL JXA-8230 electron probe microanalyser at the Institute of Materials Science (TU Bergakademie Freiberg) (Online Resource 4). The analyses were carried out in situ on polished and carbon coated thin sections following the customised protocol of Schulz et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2024" title="Schulz B, Krause J, Dörr WA (2024) A protocol for electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) of monazite for chemical Th–U–Pb age dating. Minerals 14:817. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/min14080817
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR127" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1952">2024</a>). Measurements were performed with an accelerating voltage of 20 kV, a beam current of 100 nA, a beam diameter of 3–5 µm and a counting time per spot of 11 min (for Pb excitation). Due to the small size of the monazites, it was mostly not possible to place more than one analysis spot per grain. To ensure the consistency of the data and to obtain reliable measurement results, the reference monazite “Madmon” with known ThO<sub>2</sub>*-PbO properties (Schulz and Schüssler <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Schulz B, Schüssler U (2013) Electron-microprobe Th–U–Pb monazite dating in Early-Palaeozoic high-grade gneisses as a completion of U-Pb isotopic ages (Wilson Terrane, Antarctica). Lithos 175:178–192. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2013.05.008
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR125" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1957">2013</a>) was repeatedly co-measured during the analyses. The ThO<sub>2</sub>*-PbO isochrone method (CHIME) according to Suzuki et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Suzuki K, Adachi M, Kajizuka I (1994) Electron microprobe observations of Pb diffusion in metamorphosed detrital monazites. Earth Planet Sci Lett 128:391–405. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(94)90158-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR139" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1962">1994</a>) and Montel et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Montel JM, Foret S, Veschambre M, Nicollet C, Provost A (1996) Electron microprobe dating of monazite. Chem Geol 131:37–53. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(96)00024-1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1966">1996</a>) was used to determine the age of monazite formation. ThO<sub>2</sub>* represents the sum of the measured ThO<sub>2</sub> and ThO<sub>2</sub> equivalents to the measured UO<sub>2</sub> content. The isochrone age and the error can be derived from the slope of the regression line of ThO<sub>2</sub>* and PbO, which runs through the coordinate origin. Microstructures and embedding of the monazite grains in the matrix signals their crystallisation in situ and not the presence of detrital grains. The age data resulting from the measurements represents the closing time of the Th–U–Pb system of the monazites and are thus interpreted as the age of formation during low-grade metamorphism in the investigated rock samples. This is supported by the fact that the ThO<sub>2</sub>*-PbO data from several monazite grains define single isochrones.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec10">Fine-fraction K–Ar dating and illite crystallinity</h3><p>To obtain information on the age and the presumably low degree of metamorphic overprinting of selected samples, K–Ar fine-fraction ages and illite crystallinities (methods already successfully carried out by e.g., Koehl et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Koehl J-BP, Bergh SG, Wemmer K (2018) Neoproterozoic and post-Caledonian exhumation and shallow faulting in NW Finnmark from K-Ar dating and p/T analysis of fault rocks. Solid Earth 9:923–951. 
 https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-923-2018
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1990">2018</a>; Meinhold et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Meinhold G, Wemmer K, Högström AE, Ebbestad JOR, Jensen S, Palacios T, Høyberget M, Agić H, Taylor WL (2019) A late Caledonian tectono-thermal event in the Gaissa Nappe Complex, Arctic Norway: evidence from fine-fraction K-Ar dating and illite crystallinity from the Digermulen Peninsula. GFF 141:289–294. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/11035897.2019.1583685
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1993">2019</a>) were determined at the Geoscience Center of the University of Göttingen (Germany). Principles of data interpretation are summerised in Hueck et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Hueck M, Wemmer K, Ksienzyk AK, Kuehn R, Vogel N (2022) Potential, premises, and pitfalls of interpreting illite argon dates—a case study from the German Variscides. Earth-Sci Rev 232:104133. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104133
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1996">2022</a>). Both analyses were carried out on the fractions 2–6 µm and < 2 µm of the three most white mica-rich greywacke samples (LG21-14, LG21-17B and LG21-19B). To separate these finest fractions, the Atterberg method (different settling velocities of particles of different sizes) and ultracentrifugation (Wemmer <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Wemmer K (1991) K/Ar-Altersdatierungsmöglichkeiten für retrograde Deformationsprozesse im spröden und duktilen Bereich—Beispiele aus der KTB-Vorbohrung (Oberpfalz) und dem Bereich der Insubrischen Linie (N-Italien). Göttinger Arb Geol Paläont 51:1–61" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR150" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e1999">1991</a>) were used. The commonly applied Kübler index (KI, Δ°2Θ) was used to describe the illite crystallinity. According to Kübler (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1967" title="Kübler B (1967) La cristallinité de l’illite et les zones tout à fait supérieures du métamorphisme. In: Schaer J-P (ed) Etages tectoniques: colloque de Neuchâtel, 18–21 avril 1966. La Baconnière, Neuchâtel, pp 105–121" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2002">1967</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1968" title="Kübler B (1968) Evaluation quantitative du métamorphisme par la cristallinité de l’illite. Bull Cent Rech Pau 2:385–397" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2006">1968</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1984" title="Kübler B (1984) Les indicateurs des transformations physiques et chimiques dans la diagenèse, température et calorimétrie. In: Lagache M (ed) Thermobarométrie et Barométrie Géologiques. Societe de Francais Minéalogie et Cristallographie, Paris, pp 489–596" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2009">1984</a>), the boundary between diagenesis and anchizone is at about 200 °C and a KI of 0.420 Δ°2Θ. The transition between anchizone and epizone is defined at around 300 °C and a KI of 0.250 Δ°2Θ. The samples were prepared and measured following the method of Koehl et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Koehl J-BP, Bergh SG, Wemmer K (2018) Neoproterozoic and post-Caledonian exhumation and shallow faulting in NW Finnmark from K-Ar dating and p/T analysis of fault rocks. Solid Earth 9:923–951. 
 https://doi.org/10.5194/se-9-923-2018
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2012">2018</a>). The K–Ar ages were determined using the method described by Wemmer et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Wemmer K, Steenken A, Müller S, de Luchi MGL, Siegesmund S (2011) The tectonic significance of K/Ar illite fine-fraction ages from the San Luis Formation (Eastern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina). Int J Earth Sci 100:659–669. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-010-0629-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR151" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2015">2011</a>) on a stainless steel extraction and purification line in combination with a Thermo Scientific™ ARGUS VI™ noble gas mass spectrometer operating in static mode. The samples were dissolved in a HF–HNO<sub>3</sub> mixture and CsCl and LiCl were added as internal standard and ionisation buffer. The K<sub>2</sub>O concentration of the samples was quantified by flame photometry in two replicates using a BWB-XP. The radiogenic <sup>40</sup>Ar content was measured using the isotope dilution method with a highly enriched <sup>38</sup>Ar spike from Schumacher (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1975" title="Schumacher E (1975) Herstellung von > 99, 9997% 38Ar für die 40K–40Ar-Geochronologie. Chimica 29:441–442" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR128" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2027">1975</a>). The spike was calibrated against the biotite standard HD-B1 (Fuhrmann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1987" title="Fuhrmann U, Lippolt HJ, Hess JC (1987) Examination of some proposed K-Ar standards: 40Ar39Ar analyses and conventional K-Ar data. Chem Geol 66:41–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-9622(87)90027-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2030">1987</a>). The constants recommended by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) for age calculation were used according to Steiger and Jäger (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1977" title="Steiger RH, Jäger E (1977) Subcommission on geochronology: convention on the use of decay constants in geo- and cosmochronology. Earth Planet Sci Lett 36:359–362. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(77)90060-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR135" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2033">1977</a>). Analytical error of the K–Ar age calculations is given at the 95% confidence level (2σ). The results are preserved in Online Resource 5.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec11"> <sup>39</sup>Ar–<sup>40</sup>Ar dating</h3><p>To identify the time of intrusion of mafic dykes as a potential trigger for restricted local contact metamorphism, the age of a lamprophyre (sample B2494/86-P4) within the greywackes of the Weesenstein Group was determined using the <sup>39</sup>Ar–<sup>40</sup>Ar dating method at the Argon Laboratory Freiberg (ALF; TU Bergakademie Freiberg). Biotites were first separated from the light mineral fraction and washed several times with deionised water in an ultrasonic bath. After neutron irradiation of the biotite fraction, along with an in-house neutron fluence monitor (Drachenfels sanidine DRF1 with an age of 25.682 ± 0.030 Ma relative to a Fish Canyon tuff sanidine age of 28.305 ± 0.036 Ma; Renne et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Renne PR, Mundil R, Balco G, Min K, Ludwig KR (2010) Joint determination of 40K decay constants and 40Ar∗/40K for the Fish Canyon sanidine standard, and improved accuracy for 40Ar/39Ar geochronology. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 74:5349–5367. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2010.06.017
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR112" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2054">2010</a>), step wise heating of ~ 2.5 mg biotite was performed using a 30 W New Wave CO<sub>2</sub> thermal laser system with a defocused beam with a diameter of 3 mm. Gas cleaning was done using two SAES GP50 getter pumps, one at room temperature, one at ~ 400 °C. The abundance of the Ar isotopes was measured in static mode on a GV Instruments ARGUS noble gas spectrometer. The spectrometer is equipped with five fixed-position Faraday cups for the simultaneous measurement of all five Ar isotopes. Cleaning and measurement times were 5 and 7 min, respectively, per temperature step. Assuming a linear mass-dependent fractionation, the mass bias was corrected by using an atmospheric <sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>36</sup>Ar ratio of 298.6 ± 0.3 (Lee et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Lee JY, Marti K, Severinghaus JP, Kawamura K, Yoo HS, Lee JB, Kim JS (2006) A redetermination of the isotopic abundances of atmospheric Ar. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 70:4507–4512. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.06.1563
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2064">2006</a>). Raw data reduction and data processing are carried out using an in-house developed Matlab software package in combination with Isoplot 3.7 (Ludwig <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Ludwig KR (2008) Isoplot/Ex Version 3.70: a Geochronological Toolkit for Microsoft Excel. Berkeley Geochronol Center Spec Publ 4:1–73" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2067">2008</a>). For further device and analysis details, see Pfänder et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Pfänder JA, Sperner B, Ratschbacher L, Fischer A, Meyer M, Leistner M, Schaeben H (2014) High-resolution 40Ar/39Ar dating using a mechanical sample transfer system combined with a high-temperature cell for step heating experiments and a multicollector ARGUS noble gas mass spectrometer. Geochem Geophys Geoysystems 15:2713–2726. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GC005289
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR107" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2070">2014</a>). Data can be accessed in the Online Resource 6.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec12">Constraining the <i>P–T</i> evolution</h3><p>To constrain the maximum metamorphic conditions, pseudosection modelling was applied to better characterize the <i>P–T</i> evolution of the most intensely overprinted sample LG21-17B (Großer Steinberg, Clanzschwitz Group; Online Resource 9). The geochemical data used were acquired in the course of the investigations on the Neoproterozoic greywackes, but have not yet been published. The presented pseudosections were employed using the Theriak/Domino software (de Capitani and Petrakakis <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="de Capitani C, Petrakakis K (2010) The computation of equilibrium assemblage diagrams with Theriak/Domino software. Am Mineral 95:1006–1016. 
 https://doi.org/10.2138/am.2010.3354
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2088">2010</a>) for the model system Na<sub>2</sub>O–K<sub>2</sub>O–FeO–MgO–Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>–SiO<sub>2</sub>–TiO<sub>2</sub> (NKFMASTH). Indicated by the high modal abundance of biotite and newly grown white mica, all calculations were done with H<sub>2</sub>O in excess. The Theriak-Domino database tcds55_p07 (downloaded from dtinklham.net/peq.html) was utilized for all pseudosection calculations. The following models for solid solutions have been used: Biotite and ilmenite (White et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="White RW, Powell R, Holland TJB (2007) Progress relating to calculation of partial melting equilibria for metapelites. J Metamorph Geol 25:511–527. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1314.2007.00711.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR152" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2106">2007</a>), muscovite (Coggon and Holland <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Coggon R, Holland TJB (2002) Mixing properties of phengitic micas and revised garnet-phengite thermobarometers. J Metamorph Geol 20:683–696. 
 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1314.2002.00395.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2109">2002</a>), feldspar (Holland and Powell <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Holland TJB, Powell R (2003) Activity–composition relations for phases in petrological calculations: an asymmetric multicomponent formulation. Contrib Mineral Petrol 145:492–501. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-003-0464-z
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2113">2003</a>), chlorite (Mahar et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1997" title="Mahar EM, Baker JM, Powell R, Holland TJB, Howell N (1997) The effect of Mn on mineral stability in metapelites. J Metamorph Geol 15:223–238. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1314.1997.00011.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2116">1997</a>; Tinkham et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Tinkham DK, Zuluaga CA, Stowell HH (2001) Metapelite phase equilibria modeling in MnNCKFMASH: the effect of variable Al2O3 and MgO/(MgO + FeO) on mineral stability. Geol Mater Res 3:1–42" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR146" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2119">2001</a>), and andalusite (Holland and Powell <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Holland TJB, Powell R (1998) An internally consistent thermodynamic data set for phases of petrological interest. J Metamorph Geol 16:309–344. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1314.1998.00140.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2122">1998</a>). The bulk MnO is generally very low in sample LG21-17B, and therefore has been ignored in all calculations. CaO correction has been conducted, because P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> is only present in accessory apatite. Since CaO and P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> concentrations are similar, CaO has not been included in the input composition. Biotite is likely the dominant Ti-bearing phase and therefore TiO<sub>2</sub> has been considered as input component. To address how the Fe<sup>3+</sup>/Fe<sup>tot</sup> ratio in the bulk-rock composition affects the <i>P–T</i> estimations in this study, several <i>P–T</i> pseudosections were calculated for sample LG21-17B using various X<sub>Fe</sub><sup>3+</sup> contents ranging from 0 to 10%. The choice of the ferric iron content appears somewhat arbitrary, however, the oxidation state is virtually unknown and can only be roughly estimated. By comparison, the topology of the resulting pseudosections for 10% ferric iron content does not differ significantly from the ferric iron free bulk rock composition (Online Resource 9). Higher ferric iron contents lead to the stabilization of magnetite being present everywhere in the pseudosections for the considered <i>P–T</i> window. Since microscopic observations and SEM-AM investigations indicate the absence of magnetite in sample LG21-17B, we conclude that a pure ferrous iron bulk composition is most adequate for predicting metamorphic conditions. Therefore, trivalent iron has been omitted as input component. Similar, relatively low X<sub>Fe</sub><sup>3+</sup> values have been reported for other metamorphic rocks from Saxo-Thuringia (Jouvent et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Jouvent M, Lexa O, Peřestý V, Jeřábek P (2021) New constraints on the tectonometamorphic evolution of the Erzgebirge orogenic wedge (Saxothuringian Domain, Bohemian Massif). J Metamorph Geol 40:687–715. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/jmg.12643
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2156">2021</a>).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Results"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec13-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec13">Results</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec13-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec14">Petrographic features of the studied sedimentary rocks</h3><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec15">Field relations</h4><p>The greywacke outcrops investigated in the field are usually extremely monotonous in their appearance and composition. The outcrops often contain dm-thick, sometimes also graded greywacke beds in alternating layers with significantly thinner pelitic layers of dark claystone or siltstone. Massive greywacke units without recognisable stratification or sedimentary structures are also frequently encountered. If bedding is recognisable, it is usually steeply inclined (Ø 70°) and rarely oriented subhorizontally. Locally, the greywacke bodies can also be tectonically dissected, sheared or fractured to varying degrees due to their brittleness, whereby the massive greywacke units are often extensively fractured. The outcrop situation is very complex in many cases and there is no general trend for a uniformly orientated dip of the main foliation. In addition to the widespread mostly North-vergent folding caused by the Cadomian orogeny (Schwab <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1962" title="Schwab G (1962) Klufttektonische Untersuchungen der Nordlausitzer Grauwackenformation unter Berücksichtigung der Gesteinsklüftung des Lausitzer Zweiglimmergranits. Abh Dtsch Akad Wiss Kl Chem Geol Biol 2:1–80" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2176">1962</a>), small-scale folds of decimetres to a few metres in size can also be observed locally in the field. Sedimentary marks may still be preserved in less tectonically and metamorphically overprinted outcrops (e.g., Bernbruch near Kamenz). Even macroscopically, some differences are evident in the various localities studied. The greywacke ranges in colour from the usual grey-black to greenish or reddish shades. The grain size also covers a broad spectrum. One group—the typical greywacke—consists of relatively coarse-grained components in which individual grains such as quartz or feldspar can already be distinguished from each other macroscopically (Online Resource 7). In the very fine-grained, dense greywacke, individual minerals can no longer be identified even under a magnifying glass. There are also varieties of more quartzitic and internal tectonically deformed samples. Greywacke units that have been subjected to more intensive tectonic or metamorphic overprint show new mineral formations in their finer-grained parts in the shape and size of differently formed patches or nodules. These generally consist of white mica, and to a subordinate extent also of biotite or chlorite. In coarser greywacke no such nodules are found. The intermediate clayey-silty layers can already have a phyllitic appearance. For example, the metasediments of the Clanzschwitz Group at the Großer Steinberg (NNE’ Clanzschwitz) show clear s-foliation, sheared quartz veins and a metamorphic layer structure in which both biotite and muscovite are (sub)parallel to the main foliation. The main foliation strikes 332° and dips vertically (90°). Furthermore, andalusite with grain sizes up to 1.7 cm was also detected, mainly located within the foliation (LG21-17B in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig4">4</a>). In principle, it is not always possible to conclude that the new mineral formations were triggered by a neighbouring intrusion.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec16">Characterisation of the lithoclast and pebble content</h4><p>According to Füchtbauer (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1988" title="Füchtbauer H (1988) Sedimente und sedimentgesteine. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2190">1988</a>) and Kemnitz and Budzinski (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2193">1994</a>), the greywackes of the Lausitz Block, in particular, are described as being very rich in lithoclasts. However, the evaluation of the actual lithoclast content only allows a rough quantitative estimate and limited statements about the source area due to the partially strong alteration of these and the further issues already mentioned in the “<a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Sec1">Introduction</a>” section. Apart from the weathering-resistant lithoclasts that consist of polycrystalline quartz or are very rich in quartz (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig6">6</a>c), the other rock fragments of magmatic or sedimentary origin are often very difficult to distinguish from the matrix due to the high degree of alteration. This harbours the risk of overestimating this type of lithoclasts. Decomposition of the fragments is usually far advanced so that the original mineralogical composition and the outer boundaries can often only be surmised (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig6">6</a>d). Here again, the question arises as to what extent these parts are still classified as lithoclasts or already as part of the matrix. In principle, it can therefore be assumed that the greywackes were probably initially richer in rock fragments when they were deposited. The intact lithoclasts range in grain size between fine and medium sand (63–630 µm), although coarse-grained areas (0.63–2 mm) and occasional pebbly lithoclasts (> 2 mm) can also be observed. The majority of the lithoclasts are therefore commonly in a similar grain size range to the regular mineral clasts. In contrast to the mineral components, the lithic fragments are more rounded. In particular, the greywackes of the Lausitz area usually appear very compact and homogeneous macroscopically due to the small size of the lithoclasts (commonly ≤ 250 μm; e.g., Oßling quarry, Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig6">6</a>b). The individual fragments only become visible under the microscope. Following the widely accepted petrographic definition of greywacke according to Pettijohn (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1954" title="Pettijohn FJ (1954) Classification of sandstones. J Geol Soc 62:360–365" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR105" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2209">1954</a>), technically the examined rocks cannot be described as greywacke because of their primary matrix content below 15%. Rarely does the proportion of homogeneous clayey matrix reach 8% and here too it is not possible to resolve how large the proportion of secondary matrix formed by alteration is. The dominance of individual lithoclasts suggests that the analysed rocks should rather be described as litharenites. Depending on the feldspar content, some samples can also be characterised as subarkoses.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-6" data-title="Fig. 6"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig6" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 6</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/6" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig6_HTML.jpg?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig6" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig6_HTML.jpg" alt="figure 6" loading="lazy" width="685" height="1091"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-6-desc"><p>Microscopic features of Lausitz greywacke. <b>a</b> Micro-conglomerate-bearing greywacke (sample 06/04/10–04, temporary road outcrop B 115, Kunnersdorf). <b>b</b> “typical” greywacke without coarser lithoclasts (sample LG21-06, Oßlingen quarry). <b>c</b> Lithoclast consisting of polycrystalline quartz (sample 36.431, temporary outcrop Leipsberg (N' Burkau). <b>d</b> Strongly altered lithoclasts, some highlighted with yellow striped lines (sample 06/04/10-04, temporary road outcrop B 115, Kunnersdorf). <b>e</b> Volcanic and sedimentary lithoclast (sample 4755.349, temporary road outcrop B 115, Kunnersdorf). <b>f</b> Heterogeneous lithoclast assemblage comprising different origins (sample SS4423, temporary outcrop quarry Wetterberg)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/6" data-track-dest="link:Figure6 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 6" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Since “pebble” is rather vague in the literature published until now, only greywackes whose lithoclasts are coarser than the sand fraction (> 2 mm) are addressed as pebble-bearing in this study. The rocks described in the literature as pebble-bearing greywackes (e.g., Tietz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Tietz O, Büchner J, Ulrich J (2006) Geologie: Die Geröllgrauwacke der Kunnersdorfer Senke. In: Tietz O (ed) Neues aus der Natur der Oberlausitz für 2005. Ber Naturforsch Ges Oberlausitz, Görlitz, pp 169–170" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR144" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2252">2006</a>; Tietz and Ulrich <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Tietz O, Ulrich J (2007) Geologie: Der temporäre Straßenaufschluss an der Kunnersdorfer Senke. In: Tietz O, Dunger W (eds) Neues aus der Natur der Oberlausitz für 2006. Ber Naturforsch Ges Oberlausitz, Görlitz, pp 199–200" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR143" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2255">2007</a>) are rather the exception and are limited to a few locations: Petershain, at Leipsberg (Burkau), along the main road B 115 in Kunnersdorf and at Wetterberg quarry (Bieberach). The locations represent temporary outcrops and are no longer accessible today. These coarser horizons and layers only occur very locally. For example, a small area of pebble-bearing greywacke was only exposed at the former entrance to the Wetterberg open-cast mine, whereas in the rest of the quarry, the greywacke shows its usual homogeneous appearance (Frischbutter <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1976" title="Frischbutter A (1976) Zur Geologie des Präkambriums der Elbezone. Dissertation, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2258">1976</a>). The so-called micro-conglomerates from Kunnersdorf are comparatively well preserved. Representative of the small group of conglomerate-bearing Lausitz greywackes, the deposit will be characterised in the following. These greywackes stand out by their very heterogenous composition (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig6">6</a>) and the highest of all observed pebble contents of up to 54%, which accumulate in sharply defined layers or lenses (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig6">6</a>a). With a maximum observed size of 9 mm, they are the largest pebbles found in Lausitz greywacke. Furthermore, elongated mud pebbles of up to 8 cm in size can also occur in the greywacke matrix. When examining the pebble assemblage, the components were categorised according to their probable origin. Sedimentary and magmatic pebbles are often already heavily decomposed, so that some of the pebbles could no longer be identified beyond doubt (Ø 9.8%). In addition, it is often the finer-grained sedimentary pebbles that appear to have undergone a certain degree of metamorphic stress due to the (incipient) recrystallisation of the matrix. Due to the small grain size, it is difficult to draw a clearly defined boundary between sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It should therefore be assumed that some of the pebbles with sedimentary origin may well have already undergone metamorphic overprinting. However, the identifiable quartzites, gneisses and completely recrystallised sedimentary rocks (metasediments) were counted as pebbles of metamorphic origin. Nevertheless, the conglomerates are dominated by an average of 60.6% pebbles of sedimentary origin. These primarily include fine-medium-grained and coarse-grained sandstone-like pebbles with an average of 29.8% and 22.5% respectively. Mudstones and siltstones also occur regularly (Ø 8.4%). Metamorphic rocks make up an average of 12.8% of the conglomerate inventory, with quartzite (Ø 6.6%) occurring more frequently than identified metasediments (Ø 4.6%) and gneiss (Ø 1.7%). Plutonic (Ø 7.5%) and volcanic rocks (Ø 7.6%) also occur to a lesser extent. Occasionally, cherts are also found intercalated in the conglomeratic layers (Ø 1.7%). Overall, the micro-conglomerates of the Lausitz Group are quite heterogeneous in composition. However, after new petrographic investigation of the greywackes previously described as conglomeratic, it became apparent that although there are locally coarser intercalations, the fragments are not to be described as pebbles due to their insufficient grain size by definition (< 2 μm), but rather as coarse lithoclasts. The composition of the micro-conglomerates and coarse lithoclasts from the other locations mentioned above can be accessed in the Online Resource 2.</p><p>Compared to the Lausitz Group, the lithoclast content and composition of the greywackes from the Leipzig Group and the selected Thuringian samples are quite similar. Here, as well, the greywackes appear very compact overall and lithoclasts are difficult to discern even under the microscope. However, the smaller number of analysed locations must be taken into account, which may have caused the very local lithoclast-rich horizons to be disregarded. Borehole 1/63 near Gumperda (Thuringia), for example, is such an exception. Only the upper of the two sampled drill core sections (sample GUM 12 from ca. 1096 m depth) contains lithoclasts, in particular mud and siltstone and altered carbonate clasts. Occasionally clay lenses are also found intercalated (e.g., sample ELEO-V, Eleonorental near Bad Köstritz; see Meinhold <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Meinhold G (2004) Stratigraphie und Geochemie der Grauwacken und Schiefer vom Eleonorental bei Bad Köstritz und der Bohrung Eisenberg 1/65 (Thüringisches Schiefergebirge). Geowiss Mitt Thüringen 11:71–81" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2270">2004</a> for details about the regional geology).</p><p>The Neoproterozoic greywacke units of the Clanzschwitz and Weesenstein groups occupy a special position due to their glaciomarine-deposited pebbles (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2276">2018</a>). Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Tab1">1</a> summarises the compositions of the pebbles described so far. Unfortunately, the pebble-bearing greywackes of the Clanzschwitz Group only occur very locally near Wellerswalde (Online Resource 8; see LG21-47 in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig4">4</a>) as loose field stones. The stratigraphic position is therefore uncertain. The pebbles of the Weesenstein Group, however, are located directly in the Neoproterozoic greywackes and are restricted to this more immature lithology. Their appearance in the field, however, is much less striking. Unlike in the Clanzschwitz Group, the occurrence of pebbles is significantly lower (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Tab1">1</a>), and they tend to be isolated in the matrix and do not occur anywhere as proper layers. In addition, the composition of the two units differs considerably (see Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Tab1">1</a>). The Clanzschwitz Group generally exhibits larger grain sizes and is significantly more heterogeneous in composition than the greywacke of the Weesenstein Group. Quartzites, other metasediments and greywacke-like rocks seem to constitute the majority. However, plutonites, acidic (to intermediate) volcanites and metamorphic rocks are also regularly present in varying proportions. The pebbles are generally well rounded and often elongated. The pebbles observed in the Weesenstein Group are limited to mainly quartzite, plutonites and isolated metasediments in the outcrops investigated. Schmidt (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1960" title="Schmidt K (1960) Die Geröllführung algonkisch-kambrischer Grauwacken des Westlausitzer Zuges. Freiberger Forschungsh C 91:1–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2292">1960</a>) described a single sample from the Weesenstein Group, which was obtained from a blast south of the Fuchshübel near Weesenstein, as having an equally heterogeneous pebble assemblage as that observed in the Clanzschwitz Group. The absence of chert fragments, however, is a characteristic feature of both units.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec17">Microscopic observations</h4><p>The microscopic examinations confirmed once again the challenges of systematic analyses, which the poorly defined and historically evolved rock designation greywacke entails. Matrix, recrystallised matrix, altered lithics or fragments of metasediments could not always be identified as such so there is always a certain degree of personal interpretation in the data that cannot be completely avoided. For most samples previously described in the literature as greywacke, the description should therefore be used with caution. Nevertheless, some general trends in the composition of the analysed sedimentary units can be derived. The macroscopically visible differences between the distinct greywacke units are also reflected in the modal composition (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig7">7</a>). The full set of SEM-AM data is provided in the Online Resource 3. In principle, however, the greywackes within a unit are fairly homogeneous in their composition, although there may well be differences in the amount and composition of the secondary minerals within a group, depending on the degree of local alteration as well as tectonic or metamorphic overprinting of the outcrop.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-7" data-title="Fig. 7"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig7" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 7</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/7" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig7_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig7" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig7_HTML.png" alt="figure 7" loading="lazy" width="685" height="474"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-7-desc"><p>Representatives for the characteristic modal composition of Neoproterozoic sedimentary units and Carboniferous greywacke of Saxo-Thuringia</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/7" data-track-dest="link:Figure7 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 7" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h5 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec18">Typical greywackes from the Lausitz, Leipzig and Weesenstein groups and the Thuringian region</h5><p>The greywackes of the Lausitz Group, the Leipzig Group and the Thuringian region are distinctly immature, with a typically low degree of sorting whereby the different grain sizes are not uniformly distributed. Independent of the mineral type, the individual grains commonly possess an angular to subangular grain shape, although some components are occasionally rounded. Quartz grains are predominantly monocrystalline and do not show any undulose extinction. The majority of feldspars display signs of alteration, complicating the identification of simple and polysynthetic twinning. Regarding their modal composition, the units mentioned exhibit a comparable average modal composition (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig7">7</a>). Only in the Lausitz Group do feldspars represent the dominant mineral phase with Ø 41.7% over quartz (Ø 33.5%, Online Resource 3). In the Leipzig Group and the samples from the Thuringian region, on the other hand, quartz dominates with contents averaging 40.1% and 44.3% compared to feldspars averaging 32.7% and 36.3%. The albite content in the Lausitz Group, the Leipzig Group and the Thuringian samples with an average of 31.4%, 19.7% and 23.5% is usually significantly higher than the orthoclase content of 9.5%, 12.5% and 12.6% respectively. The secondary minerals occur in highly variable proportions, with muscovite, followed by chlorite and biotite generally being the most important representatives. A favoured orientation of these minerals, which would indicate a certain metamorphic influence, could not be detected in these samples. The stronger tectonic and metamorphic impact on the samples of the Weesenstein Group impedes comparison. Their appearance is significantly more heterogeneous than in the units described above. In addition to quartz-rich and feldspar-poor samples, which do not qualify as greywacke due to their petrographic features, there are also slightly overprinted typical greywackes containing isolated pebbles in places (corresponds to Müglitz Formation after Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2333">2018</a>). Because of their high feldspar content of up to 42%, dominated by albite (up to 35.4%), these rocks are well comparable with the Lausitz Group (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig7">7</a>). Comparable are also the variable contents of secondary minerals, with muscovite again significantly exceeding biotite in terms of proportion. The high feldspar content of all described units indicates that the sediment possessed a low maturity during deposition. Caution is required when analysing the biotite and chlorite content, as it was found that the two mineral phases were not always clearly distinguished from each other by the MLA software, particularly in the case of intergrowths. Quantifying the modal composition of the Carboniferous greywacke from the Görlitzer Schiefergebirge that was included as a reference is more difficult due to the high lithoclast content. Nevertheless, the trends also described for the Lausitz Group are generally recognisable (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig7">7</a>).</p><h5 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec19">Mature and tectonically influenced sedimentary rocks of the Clanzschwitz and Weesenstein groups</h5><p>Certain similarities in composition also exist between the analysed, more mature and often more deformed and metamorphic influenced samples of the Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups. However, several sample locations of the two groups are not typical greywackes at all. Rather, these rocks, for example at Großer Steinberg (LG21-17, Clanzschwitz Group), are described as quartz schist. In these quartzitic samples of the Clanzschwitz Group, quartz represents the dominant mineral phase with up to 70.8%, ahead of feldspar with Ø 0.68% (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig7">7</a>). The modal composition of the conglomeratic greywackes, on the other hand, is more similar to that of the typical greywackes. Although the quartz content is higher at an average of 53.6%, the observed feldspar content is similar at up to 30.2%. Concerning albite, the orthoclase content in these samples is more significant. The strong tectonic and metamorphic overprint of the Clanzschwitz Group, located in the NW extension of the Elbe Zone, is expressed in the overall significantly increased secondary mineral content. Here, as well, muscovite with an average of 22.0% occurs more frequently than biotite (Ø 3.8%) in the entire Clanzschwitz Group and even reaches 40.6% in sample LG21-17B (Großer Steinberg, Clanzschwitz Group, Online Resource 3). The unique feature of the unit is the new mineral growth of andalusite with up to 6.8%, which, according to Linnemann et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2353">2018</a>), was caused by contact metamorphism of the intruded Laas granodiorite. Locally, andalusite is already pseudomorphically replaced by white mica. In the Weesenstein Group, zones with an elevated quartz content (Ø 66.4%) and phyllitic appearance (e.g., LG21-12, Weesenstein station), which can be assigned to the Seidewitz Formation described by Linnemann et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2356">2018</a>), are also frequently observed in association with the massive greywacke sequences. In these samples, the average quartz content amounts to 66.4% and that of feldspar to 1.8% (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig7">7</a>). Muscovite again represents the dominant secondary mineral with Ø 20.6% compared to biotite with Ø 0.84%.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec20">Heavy mineral composition</h4><p>The composition of the heavy minerals in the analysed units is quite similar, whereby the enrichment is generally lowest in the samples of the Lausitz and Leipzig groups (Online Resource 3). Zircon also occurs slightly less frequently in the Lausitz Group, the Leipzig Group and the Thuringian samples with an average of 0.022% than in the more mature Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups with an average of 0.033% and 0.039% respectively. The samples from Thuringia exhibit the highest enrichment of apatite (Ø 0.233%) and rutile (Ø 0.129%). Ilmenite is similarly strongly enriched in all samples with an average of 0.211%, whereas the Carboniferous samples stand out with 0.250%. Monazite is most abundant in the more strongly metamorphically overprinted samples of the Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups (Ø 0.0113%) and occurs least frequently in the Carboniferous greywackes (Ø 0.0008%).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec21">Conditions during the metamorphic events</h3><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec22">Anchimetamorphic conditions</h4><p>Except for the Clanzschwitz Group and parts of the Weesenstein Group, the Neoproterozoic greywackes of Saxony investigated in this study retain their original sedimentary texture. However, due to the partially very intensive decomposition of unstable components such as feldspar or lithoclasts, it appears that in most cases only intensive diagenetic modification has taken place. Macroscopically, sedimentary structures such as bedding, grain refinement sequences or even erosion marks can still be recognised in places (e.g., Bernbruch near Kamenz). Moreover, quartz and feldspar are only present as individual minerals in the fine-grained matrix. Far from to the granitoid intrusions, these components occur unchanged as isolated angular, sub-rounded and rounded grains. In the case of quartz grains and aggregates, undulose extinction may well occur in isolated cases, although it is not always possible to determine with certainty whether these traces of deformation were already present as artefacts in the material deposited. Feldspars, on the other hand, are often altered or decomposed. However, fresh grains show no brittle fractures or ductile formation. Consequently, the majority of the greywackes have only been exposed to metamorphic conditions in the sub-greenschist range, with temperatures below 300 °C. Only locally a few areas with recrystallised matrix (e.g., surrounding Pulsnitz–Burkau, Lausitz Group) or minor new mineral growth of biotite or white mica can be found. Sample LG21-22 (Gröditzer Skala, Saxony) is representative of these greywackes. Here the biotite grains seem to indicate a preferred orientation. Quartz is often present as individual grains with irregular grain boundaries and may already exhibit undulose extinction and occasional sub-grain formation. The grain sizes are variably distributed and processes of pressure dissolution can be observed in some areas. In quartz aggregates, the grain boundaries are interlobate. The characteristics listed above again tend to favour a low strain rate and relatively low temperatures of around 300 °C. This complicates the task of characterising the regionally very slight metamorphic overprint of the greywackes exposed between Görlitz and eastern Thuringia more precisely, as there is a lack of index minerals that could provide information on temperature and pressure. Already in earlier studies of the Lausitz greywacke (e.g., Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2384">1991</a>), the occurrence of biotite as a secondary mineral was used as an indication of metamorphic overprint. However, here too, growth is by no means observed across the entire area. Cordierite was identified in earlier studies (e.g., Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2387">1991</a>; Kemnitz <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Kemnitz H (2007) The Lausitz graywackes, Saxo-Thuringia, Germany—Witness to the Cadomian orogeny. In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The Evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:97–141. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.2423(04)
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2390">2007</a>) as a characteristic newly formed mineral in areas close to early Cambrian intrusions and as an indication of strong metamorphism caused by increased temperatures. In the study area, the frequently occurring nodules in the greywacke were often interpreted by previous researchers as newly grown cordierite due to contact metamorphism. However, it became apparent during this study that these nodules mostly consist of muscovite aggregates and less frequently of biotite. It cannot be ruled out that some muscovite aggregates are transformed cordierite. Fresh cordierite, instead, could only be observed extremely rarely. In addition, the nodules in a greywacke sequence often only occur in very narrowly defined areas, sometimes only a few centimetres in size. Only in a few cases is a potential heat source known from the vicinity. How the rock reacts to heat therefore appears to be strongly dependent on material and grain size. Reactions in the form of nodule formation can only be detected in the fine-grained, clayey parts of the sedimentary rocks. In the Schwarzkollm quarry (Saxony), for example, there is an outcrop of a sharply formed contact between the granodiorite and Lausitz greywacke (sample LG21-29). In thin sections covering the contact, it can be ascertained that cordierite formation does not appear to have been a significant phenomenon. The matrix of the greywacke has recrystallised due to the thermal influence and abundant biotite (< 50 µm) grew in the matrix, but the large biotite aggregates (up to 800 µm in size observed here) described in the literature could only be detected in very isolated cases. The monazite content is also rather average at 0.0045% and the grains are too small, as in the other parts of the Lausitz Block, to determine a reliable age of formation using the EPMA Th–U–Pb method.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec23">Epizonal conditions</h4><p>For a few selected samples that are more metamorphosed, LG21-14 (Weesenstein Group), LG21-17B (Clanzschwitz Group) and LG21-19B (Lausitz Group), it is possible to determine the degree of local metamorphic overprinting. Due to the increased proportion of newly grown mica, measurements of the illite crystallinity (Online Resource 5) can be carried out. The 2–6 µm and < 2 µm fractions of the Weesenstein sample LG21-14 have an illite crystallinity of 0.175 Δ°2Θ, respectively 0.220 Δ°2Θ (under air dry conditions) according to the Kübler Index. The illite crystallinities of sample LG21-19B are in a similar range at 0.173 Δ°2Θ (2–6 µm) and 0.205 Δ°2Θ (< 2 µm). For LG21-17B, the measured values are 0.202 Δ°2Θ (2–6 µm) and 0.267 Δ°2Θ (< 2 µm). All three samples were thus overprinted under epizonal conditions (> 300 °C) of the lower greenschist facies.</p><p>The Clanzschwitz Group is of particular interest due to the highest observed degree of metamorphic overprint of all the sedimentary rocks studied, as well as the fundamentally different modal composition compared to the other greywackes, and is described in more detail in the following. The pronounced metamorphic overprint is evident not only in the monazites, which are the most common here with an average of 0.0165% but also in the (micro)textures analysed. Sample LG21-17B exhibits a metamorphic layered structure due to plastic deformation, which can also be recognised in the thin section based on two texturally different domains (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig8">8</a>a). It is mainly characterised by two different generations of quartz. The first generation constitutes the coarse-grained layer. Here the quartz is approximately 0.5–1 mm in size and typically appears as more elongated crystals, parallel to the foliation. In addition, large quartz grains exhibit deformation textures, frequently displayed by subgrains and in many cases well-developed undulose extinction (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig8">8</a>b). The quartz of the second generation in the fine-grained layer, on the other hand, varies from < 0.1 to 0.5 mm in diameter and commonly shows strain-free crystals. The contacts between these quartz grains display 120° triple point geometries between rather straight grain boundaries (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig8">8</a>c). The index mineral andalusite occurs within the layered structure. Again, there are two different types distinguished here, whereby the first appears to be poikiloblastic in the finer-grained domain. A second type of andalusite occurs as elongated, flattened grains in foliation concordant muscovite-biotite rich layers of the coarser-grained domain (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig8">8</a>d). Based on the identified micro-textures, a co-genetic respectively syn-deformational formation of the two layers including the andalusite minerals can be assumed. The organization of the andalusite, especially in the coarser domain, is proof that the andalusite was formed during regional metamorphism and not contact metamorphism.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-8" data-title="Fig. 8"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig8" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 8</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/8" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig8_HTML.jpg?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig8" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig8_HTML.jpg" alt="figure 8" loading="lazy" width="685" height="622"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-8-desc"><p>Microtextures of quartz schist LG21-17B (Großer Steinberg, Clanzschwitz Group). <b>a</b> Metamorphic layered structure of a coarse- and a fine-grained domain. <b>b</b> Deformation textures (e.g., undulose extinction) in quartz of the coarse-grained domain. <b>c</b> Recovery processes in the fine-grained domain indicated by grain size reduction and triple junction grain boundary contacts. <b>d</b> Growth of the foliation-concordant and elongated andalusite (And) took place during a regional metamorphic overprint</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/8" data-track-dest="link:Figure8 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 8" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>As described in the “<a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Sec6">Methods</a>” section, sample LG21-17B was chosen to determine the maximum metamorphic conditions of the study area. The general features of the modelled pseudosections for various ferric iron contents are very comparable and consistent with the observed mineral phases in thin section (Online Resource 9). The computed phase diagram suggests that the mineral assemblage biotite + white mica + andalusite + ilmenite + quartz is stable in a well-defined pressure–temperature (<i>P–T</i>) window of 460–600 °C and < 4 kbar. The virtual absence of chlorite in the studied sample indicates minimum temperatures of 450 °C, while temperatures significantly exceeding 600 °C would have led to the formation of rutile and/or feldspar, which is in contrast to microscopic observations. An upper pressure limit of 4 kbar is given by the stability of andalusite. Higher pressures would result in the formation of staurolite or sillimanite, which in turn is not confirmed by petrographic observations. The interpretation that andalusite represents an equilibrium assemblage with biotite, muscovite and quartz, corresponding to the metamorphic peak conditions, is supported by textural evidence, where andalusite combined with foliation-parallel muscovite and biotite forms direct surface contacts within individual layers. Here andalusite together with surrounding quartz mostly reveals a flattened, elongated grain habitus parallel to the orientation of the main foliation.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec24">Age constraints of metamorphic overprints</h3><p>K–Ar fine-fraction analyses were carried out to derive information about the timing and the trigger of the metamorphic overprint of the Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks of Saxo-Thuringia. For this purpose, the three white mica-rich samples LG21-14, LG21-17 and LG21-19B from the illite crystallinity study were examined again. As the K–Ar dating is to a certain extent also dependent on the analysed grain size, the presentation of the age data focuses on the finest fraction (< 2 µm), as it preserves the most recent metamorphic event (full set of data is provided in the Online Resource 5). This results in a Pennsylvanian (Late Carboniferous) age of 314 ± 7 Ma for the timing of metamorphism in the sample from the Clanzschwitz Group (LG21-17B). The sample from the Weesenstein Group (LG21-14) with 293 ± 5 Ma (< 2 µm) shows a slightly younger, early Permian age. Interestingly, the 2–6 µm fractions of both samples gave a similar age of 354 ± 7 Ma for LG21-17B and 349 ± 5 Ma for LG21-14, pointing toward a Carboniferous thermal event. The metamorphism that influenced sample LG21-19B from the Lausitz Group is significantly older and is dated to 445 ± 6 Ma (Late Ordovician) using the < 2 µm fraction.</p><p>Further indirect evidence for the timing of thermal overprinting can be provided by dating the numerous lamprophyre dykes occurring in the Elbe Zone (von Seckendorff et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Von Seckendorff V, Timmerman MJ, Kramer W, Wrobel P (2004) New 40Ar/39Ar ages and geochemistry of late Carboniferous-early Permian lamprophyres and related volcanic rocks in the Saxothuringian Zone of the Variscan Orogen (Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 223:335–359. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2004.223.01.15
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR148" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2467">2004</a>). Exemplary biotites of a lamprophyre dyke from a drilling NW of Oberseidewitz in the Weesenstein Group (sample B2494/86-P4) were dated by the <sup>39</sup>Ar–<sup>40</sup>Ar method for the current study. Due to the chloritisation of the biotites no perfect plateau age has been obtained. Nevertheless, the intrusion age of the lamprophyre, and thus potentially the time of thermal overprinting of neighbouring lithologies, can be confined to the Carboniferous, likely between 337 and 332 Ma (Online Resource 6).</p><p>Since monazites can also grow authigenic in low-grade overprinted rocks, further metamorphic ages were determined via the formation ages of the monazites determined by EPMA Th–U–Pb measurements (Online Resource 4). Monazites occur in many samples as an accessory phase, whereby the frequency increases from the still very sedimentary to the more intensely overprinted locations. The investigated monazites can occur isolated and loose in the matrix or appear to grow on other minerals (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig9">9</a>a). The occurrence of monazites is not explicitly linked to layer boundaries, foliation or cracks, but they have also been observed in muscovite layers. Also typical are fine-grained monazite aggregates with a total size of up to 50 µm, whereby the individual crystals are usually significantly smaller than 10 µm. Areas with clusters of fine-grained monazites indicate authigenic growth. Some of them are strung together like chains, whereby the straight growth lines between the individual crystals are often clearly visible (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig9">9</a>b). A large proportion of the monazites are heavily attacked, with frayed edges and perforations or irregularities even in the central area, which may indicate the onset of dissolution processes (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig9">9</a>c). The very small size of the majority of monazites (< 10 µm) was often a further limiting factor for successful age dating using EPMA. In some cases, such as sample NSL24/63 from the Lausitz Group, it only became apparent during the measurement that the supposed monazites had far too low ThO<sub>2</sub> and in some cases high SiO<sub>2</sub> and Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> contents. These minerals might be rhabdophane ((Ce, La, Nd)[PO<sub>4</sub>] · H<sub>2</sub>O) or other rare earth element (REE) minerals. Furthermore, no zoning was detected in most of the BSE images from the preliminary analyses, meaning that core-rim relationships could not be determined. Nevertheless, monazite formation ages could be obtained for some suitable, more strongly overprinted locations (Online Resource 4). Sample LG21-23 from the Hüttertal near Radeberg (Lausitz Group) must have undergone very strong thermal overprinting, as it appears to be completely recrystallised. The isochrone defines a monazite formation age in the early Cambrian at 521 ± 16 Ma (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig10">10</a>a). Samples LG21-40 (Galgenberg NW Burkau) and LG21-42 (Schwedenstein, NE Pulsnitz) are also strongly recrystallised metagreywackes from the Lausitz Group. Both monazite ages indicate a metamorphic overprint during the Early Ordovician at 470 ± 12 Ma and 481 ± 15 Ma, respectively (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig10">10</a>c, d). A Middle Ordovician age of 461 ± 15 Ma in the Lausitz Group was determined from the metagreywacke of the summit area of the Wüsteberg hill (SW Kamenz, LG21-28; Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig10">10</a>b). Two quartzitic samples from the generally strongly metamorphosed Clanzschwitz Group and the associated Palaeozoic units were also successfully dated (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig10">10</a>e, f). Sample LG21-16A derives from a quartzite of the Lower Ordovician Collmberg Formation and contains two generations of monazite. The early Cambrian monazites formed around 524 ± 17 Ma must be interpreted as detrital input. The errorchron age of 458 ± 6 Ma, on the other hand, indicates a metamorphic event at the boundary between the Middle and Late Ordovician. Some of the monazites show an oscillating zoning, as is also known from crystals from granitoid rocks. However, the rather low ThO<sub>2</sub> content of 2.3–6.5% (Ø 4.6%) and the mostly idiomorphic growth structures suggest that these are authigenic or more likely metamorphic monazites. The most strongly metamorphosed sample from Großer Steinberg (LG21-17B) shows three different age spectra. Here, too, the oldest monazite generation of 503 ± 19 Ma (middle Cambrium) is very probably of detrital origin. This is indicated in particular by the strong rounding of the monazite crystals. The quartz schist also yielded an Early Permian monazite errorchron age of 286 ± 15 Ma and a less well-defined Middle Jurassic errorchron age of 162 ± 23 Ma. The distinct monazite generations are randomly distributed in the thin section and the occurrence of certain ages is not restricted to a particular domain of the layered rock. The deformation of the Laas granodiorite from the Clanzschwitz area (LG21-48; Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig10">10</a>g) was also dated for the first time to the Cambrian–Ordovician transition at 484 ± 12 Ma based on monazite formation ages. Overall, the commonly assumed thermal event at around 540 Ma which caused a widespread, in places intense contact metamorphism or even anatexis of the sedimentary rocks (e.g., Nasdala and Ullrich <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1988" title="Nasdala L, Ullrich B (1988) Kontaktmetamorphe Veränderungen in der Nordsächsischen Grauwacke und damit verbundenen Mineralneubildungen. Veröffentlichungen Des Museums der Westlausitz (Kamenz) 15:3–14" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2517">1988</a>; Kemnitz <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Kemnitz H (2007) The Lausitz graywackes, Saxo-Thuringia, Germany—Witness to the Cadomian orogeny. In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The Evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:97–141. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.2423(04)
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2520">2007</a>; Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2524">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2527">1994</a>; Kemnitz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1992" title="Kemnitz H, Naumann R, Gottesmann B (1992) Detrital micas from Upper Brioverian greywackes of Lusatia-chemistry and first interpretation. Zentralbl Geol Paläont Teil 1, Allgemeine, angewandte, regionale und historische Geologie 7/8:837–846" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2530">1992</a>) could not be identified in this study.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-9" data-title="Fig. 9"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig9" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 9</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/9" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig9_HTML.jpg?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig9" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig9_HTML.jpg" alt="figure 9" loading="lazy" width="685" height="787"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-9-desc"><p>Different types of metamorphic monazites in backscattered electron (BSE, left) and secondary electron images (SEI, right). <b>a</b> Small authigenic monazite cluster (LG21-28 at Wüsteberg, Lausitz Group). <b>b</b> Single monazites grown together in a chain with a straight growth suture (LG21-40 at Galgenberg, Lausitz Group). <b>c</b> Monazites affected by dissolution processes (LG21-20A, former quarry Zgorzelec (Poland), Lausitz Group)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/9" data-track-dest="link:Figure9 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 9" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-10" data-title="Fig. 10"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig10" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 10</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/10" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig10_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig10" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_Fig10_HTML.png" alt="figure 10" loading="lazy" width="685" height="511"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-10-desc"><p>Th–U–Pb model ages of authigenic monazites from the investigated Neoproterozoic to Lower Ordovician units of Saxo-Thuringia. Isochron diagrams; PbO against ThO<sub>2</sub>* (ThO<sub>2</sub>* = ThO<sub>2</sub> + UO<sub>2</sub>, after Suzuki et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Suzuki K, Adachi M, Kajizuka I (1994) Electron microprobe observations of Pb diffusion in metamorphosed detrital monazites. Earth Planet Sci Lett 128:391–405. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(94)90158-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR139" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2578">1994</a>) given in wt%. For the position of sample locations, see Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig4">4</a> and the Online Resource 1. Monazites of an age population are equally coloured and give a regression line through the origin of the coordinates, yielding the coefficient of determination R<sup>2</sup> (Suzuki et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Suzuki K, Adachi M, Kajizuka I (1994) Electron microprobe observations of Pb diffusion in metamorphosed detrital monazites. Earth Planet Sci Lett 128:391–405. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(94)90158-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR139" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2587">1994</a>; Montel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Montel JM, Foret S, Veschambre M, Nicollet C, Provost A (1996) Electron microprobe dating of monazite. Chem Geol 131:37–53. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(96)00024-1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2590">1996</a>). EPMA data is accessible in the Online Resource 4</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x/figures/10" data-track-dest="link:Figure10 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 10" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Discussion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec25-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec25">Discussion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec25-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec26">Reassessment of the petrographic features of the Saxo-Thuringian greywackes</h3><p>In the course of the recent investigations carried out on the Neoproterozoic sedimentary units of Saxo-Thuringia, the problems in terms of the petrographic description and classification of greywacke, which had already been discussed in detail for decades, became obvious once again. Even before the Saxony-wide mapping carried out under the direction of Hermann Credner at the end of the nineteenth century, the term greywacke had already been established for the immature and dark-coloured sedimentary units of the region. Originally introduced as a pure field designation, modern microscopic investigations have now revealed contradictions to the petrographic definition of greywacke. Since it is impossible to determine with certainty which parts of the matrix portion are primary or secondary, and the total content of matrix in the investigated Neoproterozoic sedimentary units generally only amounts to a maximum of 8%, the rock cannot be described as greywacke purely according to the classification of Pettijohn (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1954" title="Pettijohn FJ (1954) Classification of sandstones. J Geol Soc 62:360–365" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR105" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2614">1954</a>). From a petrographic point of view, the ‘typical greywackes’ of the Lausitz, Leipzig and Weesenstein groups, as well as in the area of eastern Thuringia, are more likely to be classified as lithic sandstones or subarkoses, depending on their actual composition. However, this definition is irrelevant to the practical significance of, for example, Lausitz greywacke as an important construction constituent and should only be mentioned again for accuracy. It should also be noted that caution shall always be applied when using MLA software and that comparison by microscopic examination is essential, especially for fine-grained sedimentary rocks. Mineral associations often cannot be identified and differentiated as such by the software and even when differentiating between very fine-grained and intergrown sections, such as the matrix, individual mineral phases cannot be explicitly distinguished from one another. Nevertheless, the MLA analysis considerably simplifies the quantitative estimation of the main components such as quartz, feldspars and mica and is a great support in the identification and localisation of the accessory phases often required for further analyses, such as zircon or monazite. The combined microscopic and MLA analyses revealed certain unifying characteristics in some sample groups, while other locations showed a significantly different modal composition.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec27">Typical greywackes from the Lausitz, Leipzig and Weesenstein groups and the Thuringian region</h3><p>Primarily, earlier studies could be confirmed (e.g., Sehm <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1976" title="Sehm K (1976) Lithologisch-petrofazielle und metallogenetische Untersuchung der Grauwacken-Pelit-Folge des Nordsächsischen Antiklinoriums. Freiberger Forschungsh C 311:8–135" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR130" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2625">1976</a>; Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2628">2007</a>), which recognised a coherent petrographic sedimentary unit in the greywacke outcrops extending from Görlitz in the east, via Kamenz (Lusatian Block) to the Leipzig area (North Saxon Anticline) in the west. The facies equivalence of the eastern Thuringian greywackes (e.g., Eleonorental) to the greywackes of the Leipzig Group, which was already assumed by Meinhold (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Meinhold G (2004) Stratigraphie und Geochemie der Grauwacken und Schiefer vom Eleonorental bei Bad Köstritz und der Bohrung Eisenberg 1/65 (Thüringisches Schiefergebirge). Geowiss Mitt Thüringen 11:71–81" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2631">2004</a>), and to the greywackes of the Lausitz Group is supported by the current investigations. Other greywacke outcrops, which correspond in their modal composition to those of the Lausitz Group, are occurring at isolated localities of the Weesenstein Group in the Elbe Zone (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig7">7</a>). However, due to the great heterogeneity in the lithologies associated with the Weesenstein Group apart from the greywackes, it is unlikely that the unit as a collective whole represents an equivalent of the typical monotonous greywacke deposits from the area between Görlitz and Jena in eastern Thuringia (cf. Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Linnemann U (1991) Glazioeustatisch kontrollierte Sedimentationsprozesse im Oberen Proterozoikum der Elbezone (Weesensteiner Gruppe/Sachsen). Zentralbl Geol Paläont Teil 1. Allgemeine, Angewandte, Regionale und Historische Geologie 12:2907–2934" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2637">1991</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2641">2007</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2644">2018</a>). Only for the more immature pebble-bearing greywacke sequence of the Müglitz Formation (e.g., sample LG21-15) a correlation regarding common source area, sedimentation processes and the depositional area seems appropriate. In any case, the greywackes from the Carboniferous of the Görlitzer Schiefergebirge are not genetically related to the Neoproterozoic sedimentation in Saxo-Thuringia. However, they exhibit a very similar composition to the greywackes of the Lausitz Group. No conclusive petrographic differentiation criteria can be determined solely based on the sample description in the field and with the aid of microscopic examinations.</p><p>Due to their low maturity and poor sorting, the genetically coherent Neoproterozoic units can be regarded as representatives of typical greywackes. They are highly homogeneous in their composition and the alteration effects on the unstable components make it even more difficult to distinguish any local variations in the modal composition. Local deviations in the modal composition, which are characterised by varying contents of newly grown white mica and biotite, are caused solely by the different tectonic and metamorphic overprint of the rocks. The sedimentation of these strata must have proceeded over long periods in a fairly stable marine basin system due to the great thicknesses and the pronounced monotony in the sequences. In particular, the small variance in the heavy mineral composition within these greywacke units suggests that there were no changes in the source area, its composition or the transport path of the eroded material over the entire sedimentation period nor during the deposition of the units under discussion. The characteristic presence of ash layers described by Linnemann et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2650">2000</a>) and Kemnitz (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Kemnitz H (2007) The Lausitz graywackes, Saxo-Thuringia, Germany—Witness to the Cadomian orogeny. In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The Evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:97–141. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.2423(04)
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2653">2007</a>) for the Lausitz Group, which among other indications serves as evidence for sedimentation along an active continental margin of Northern Gondwana, could not be confirmed during the recent investigations in the field. The assessment based on Kemnitz and Budzinski (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2656">1991</a>) of rapid, physical weathering processes in the proximal source area and short transport distances, on the other hand, can certainly be shared due to the primarily high proportion of stable and unstable lithoclasts and the poor to moderate grain rounding of mineral clasts. The relatively high proportion of feldspar suggests that the studied greywackes are first-cycle sediments. The wide range of metamorphic, (meta-)sedimentary, plutonic and volcanic lithoclasts indicates a heterogeneously composed source area. In addition to polycrystalline quartz and quartz with undulose extinction, the predominantly monocrystalline grains point toward an igneous source. However, it does not seem very promising to derive further conclusive statements on distinct tectonic settings or deposition conditions from the quantitative and qualitative features of the lithoclasts. Alteration and in some cases complete decomposition combined with secondary matrix formation do not allow any reliable statements to be made, as the original clast composition cannot be evaluated and the proportion of components that are still stable today would be overestimated (cf. “<a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Sec1">Introduction</a>” section).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec28">Mature and tectonically influenced sedimentary rocks of the Clanzschwitz and Weesenstein groups</h3><p>Untypical for Neoproterozoic sedimentary units in Saxo-Thuringia, the Clanzschwitz Group and parts of the Weesenstein Group are characterised by their high maturity (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig7">7</a>). It should also be noted that the lithological structure of both groups is considerably more complex due to the stronger tectonics within the Elbe Zone and its NW extension. A further problem is that lithologies that are significantly richer in quartz and characterised by phyllitic appearance (e.g. LG21-12, Weesenstein railway station), which are not to be defined as greywackes, are currently still commonly and incorrectly classified as such, particularly in drill core documentation and geological maps. It has been found that this distinction is not consistently made, particularly in the Weesenstein Group. This raises the question of the reasons for the coexistence of the different mature and immature lithologies within the former Neoproterozoic marine depositional area. At the time of sedimentation, the basin could possibly have been subdivided and areas partially separated from each other, with locally very different influences from different source areas. The previous model according to Linnemann et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2673">2007</a>), however, proposes a two-stage basin model. The immature greywackes of the Lausitz and Leipzig groups (according to the current study also of the Thuringian area) are supposed to have been deposited mainly from recycled material of the older backarc basin within the short-lived retroarc basin (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig3">3</a>b). The Clanzschwitz and Weesenstein groups, on the other hand, belong to the oldest sedimentary units that were deposited within the backarc basin on the passive continental margin (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig3">3</a>a) in a shallow marine environment. Such local highly-mature deposits as represented by the Purpurberg quartzite member of the Weesenstein Group, or by the quartz schists and quartzitic wackes in both the Weesenstein and the Clanzschwitz groups, are unusual for Neoproterozoic sedimentary units of the peri-Gondwanan realm and do not match the characteristic greywacke–mudstone sequences. More quartzitic lithologies, deposited as shallow shelf sediments, are only known from the Cambrian (e.g., Torgau-Doberlug Syncline; Brause 1969, 1970). Rather, such high maturity is spatially widespread in the deposits from the Lower Ordovician of Saxo-Thuringia. Examples from Saxo-Thuringia are the quartzites from Collmberg Formation, Hainichen-Otterwisch Formation (both from the North Saxon Anticline), quartzites from the Hohe Dubrau Formation (Lausitz Group) and also the quartzites from the Frauenbach Group (Schwarzburg Anticline) (e.g., Deutsche Stratigraphische Kommission <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1997" title="Deutsche Stratigraphische Kommission (Eds: Hoth K, Berger H-J, Mund G) (1997) Stratigraphie von Deutschland II—Ordovizium, Kambrium, Vendium, Riphäikum—Teil I—Thüringen, Sachsen, Ostbayern. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 200:1–437" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2682">1997</a>). In contrast to the immature greywacke units, the absence of feldspar in these Lower Ordovician units indicates multi-stage sedimentary recycling and can be attributed to the reworking and resedimentation of the Upper Cambrian weathered crust (Linnemann and Buschmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995a" title="Linnemann U, Buschmann B (1995a) Die cadomische Diskordanz im Saxothuringikum (oberkambrisch-tremadocische overlap-Sequenzen). Z Geol Wiss 23:729–750" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2686">1995a</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2689">2000</a>; Linnemann and Romer <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Linnemann U, Romer RL (2002) The Cadomian Orogeny in Saxo-Thuringia, Germany: geochemical and Nd–Sr–Pb isotopic characterisation of marginal basins with constraints to geotectonic setting and provenance. Tectonophysics 352:33–64. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00188-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2692">2002</a>). For the Purpurberg quartzite member and a few other quartzitic units of the Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups, the youngest detrital zircons gave ages around 565–538 Ma (Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2695">2000</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2698">2018</a>). However, for depositional environments along passive margins, such as those assumed for the tectonic setting of Saxo-Thuringia at the beginning of the Early Ordovician (Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Linnemann U (1995) The Neoproterozoic terranes of Saxony (Germany). Precambrian Res 73:235–250. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(94)00080-B
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2701">1995</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2705">2000</a>), the consensus is that input from syndepositional magmatic activity (e.g., from a magmatic arc) is generally absent. Instead, the deposited material is dominated by older crustal sources from a hinterland with a potentially broad age spectrum (Cawood et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Cawood PA, Hawkesworth CJ, Dhuime B (2012) Detrital zircon record and tectonic setting. Geology 40:875–878. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/G32945.1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2708">2012</a>). The temporal offset between crystallisation of zircons and the entry as detrital minerals into the deposited sediment depends on the duration of exposure, erosion and transport of the material up to the final deposition. One alternative model proposed in the present study suggests that the quartzitic lithologies of the Weesenstein Group do not have a Neoproterozoic but rather latest Cambrian or Early Ordovician age. The mature Clanzschwitz Group is also unlikely to have a late Neoproterozoic but rather a younger age of deposition. The conglomeratic greywackes described from the Clanzschwitz Group are only to be found as loose blocks in the field and do therefore not provide any reliable indications of stratigraphic positioning. Pietzsch (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1956" title="Pietzsch K (1956) Die Elbtalzone. Ber Geol Ges DDR 1:117–135" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR108" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2711">1956</a>) already suggested that these greywackes could have been formed in the late Cambrian to Ordovician times. The current petrographic studies also favour a stratigraphic age younger than Neoproterozoic, presumably Cambrian, due to the higher quartz content (Ø 53.6%) compared to Neoproterozoic deposits with a simultaneously still significant presence of feldspar (Ø 30.2%). However, the issue of the accurate stratigraphic positions of the two units belonging to the Elbe Zone cannot be satisfactorily resolved within the scope of this study.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec29">Interpreting the pebble assemblage regarding the stratigraphic position of the Saxo-Thringian greywacke units</h3><p>The attribution of the Lausitz greywacke as being pebble-bearing or even conglomeratic cannot be substantiated by this study. The field and petrographic investigations of further greywacke units of the Leipzig Group and the eastern Thuringian area also revealed that these coarser-grained, heterogeneously composed lithoclasts or pebbles (Online Resource 2) only occur in very subordinate and very limited quantities. Apart from the location of the temporary road outcrop near Kunnersdorf (Lausitz Group), there are no other domains that can be described as micro-conglomeratic. These limited coarse areas are known from positions more distal from the continental slope. They can be reconciled with the sedimentation of the otherwise monotonous greywacke–mudstone interbedding of turbidite flows on the continental slope. It is conceivable that the main transport of these generally finer-grained units could have occurred along the main axis of a turbidite flow that was parallel to the orogen in the hinterland. Perpendicular to this, the coarser parts could then have been poured locally in the form of debris flows. Such processes are also reported from the Lower Carboniferous Moravian–Silesian Culm Basin of the Czech Republic (e.g., Bábek et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Bábek O, Mikuláš R, Zapletal J, Lehotský T (2004) Combined tectonic-sediment supply-driven cycles in a Lower Carboniferous deep-marine foreland basin, Moravice Formation, Czech Republic. Int J Earth Sci 93:241–261. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-004-0388-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2722">2004</a>) and the Alpine Molasse Basin (e.g., Schlunegger and Kissling <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Schlunegger F, Kissling E (2022) Slab load controls beneath the Alps on the source-to-sink sedimentary pathways in the Molasse basin. Geosciences 12:226. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12060226
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR121" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2725">2022</a>) just to name two examples. The input of coarse material cannot be equated with the Clanzschwitz and Weesenstein groups pebbles in terms of quantity and composition. Although the Müglitz Formation pebbles differ significantly from those of the other typical Neoproterozoic greywackes in terms of grain size and compositional variability, the localised occurrence is also a unifying element here. The petrography discussed in the previous section in itself, but also the composition of the pebbles, suggests that contrary to previous assumptions, the two pebble-bearing units of the Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups do not represent a coherent pre-Variscan unit. However, for the two pebble-free and quartzitic domains of the Weesenstein (Seidewitz Formation) and Clanzschwitz Group (members 1 and 2), a common genetic origin during the Early Ordovician could be assumed. However, the subordinate presence and the more homogeneous, more mature character of the pebbles isolated in the greywacke of the Müglitz Formation in particular suggest that they must originate from a different source area than the pebbles of the Clanzschwitz Group. The conglomeratic greywacke described by Schmidt (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1960" title="Schmidt K (1960) Die Geröllführung algonkisch-kambrischer Grauwacken des Westlausitzer Zuges. Freiberger Forschungsh C 91:1–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2728">1960</a>, p. 14 and image Appendix Fig. 38), exposed by a blast at Fuchshübel to the north of Weesenstein, must correspond to the conglomeratic greywacke described from the Clanzschwitz Group due to its identical appearance (Schmidt <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1960" title="Schmidt K (1960) Die Geröllführung algonkisch-kambrischer Grauwacken des Westlausitzer Zuges. Freiberger Forschungsh C 91:1–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2731">1960</a>, p. 46 and image Appendix Figs. 10–12). The occurrence of fragments of this lithological unit in both groups can certainly be explained by the tectonic activity of the Elbe Zone, where allochthonous areas can be sheared in. The mostly well-rounded greywacke fragments represented in the Clanzschwitz Group pebble assemblage are a further indication of a younger Cambrian to Early Ordovician age, as already discussed by Pietzsch (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1956" title="Pietzsch K (1956) Die Elbtalzone. Ber Geol Ges DDR 1:117–135" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR108" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2734">1956</a>). In this context, the age discrepancies between the pebble-bearing lithologies of the Clanzschwitz and Weesenstein groups derived from the alternative model proposed here cast doubt on synchronous deposition in the course of the Ediacaran Weesenstein–Orellana glaciation (cf. Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2738">2018</a>). In addition, the spatially restricted occurrence of pebbles in the Weesenstein Group, which is unusual for glaciomarine sedimentation, is limited to outcrops in the Müglitz valley and locally also in the Lockwitz valley (Schmidt <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1960" title="Schmidt K (1960) Die Geröllführung algonkisch-kambrischer Grauwacken des Westlausitzer Zuges. Freiberger Forschungsh C 91:1–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2741">1960</a>). Further analyses will be required in the future to carefully evaluate the models.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec30">Metamorphic overprint of the Neoproterozoic greywackes of Saxo-Thuringia</h3><p>To better understand the overall evolution of the Neoproterozoic sedimentary units of Saxo-Thuringia, the post-sedimentary events were here investigated in addition to the depositional conditions. Numerous studies on the depositional setting, provenance, and timing of deposition (e.g., Buschmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Buschmann B (1995) Geotectonic facies analyses of the Rothstein Formation (Neoproterozoic, Saxothuringian Zone, east Germany). Dissertation, TU Bergakademie Freiberg" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2753">1995</a>; Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2756">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2759">1994</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2762">2000</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Linnemann U, McNaughton NJ, Romer RL, Gehmlich M, Drost K, Tonk C (2004) West African provenance for Saxo-Thuringia (Bohemian Massif): Did Armorica ever leave pre-Pangean Gondwana? U/Pb-SHRIMP zircon evidence and the Nd-isotopic record. Int J Earth Sci 93:683–705. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-004-0413-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2765">2004</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Drost K, Buschmann B (2007) The continuum between Cadomian orogenesis and opening of the Rheic Ocean: Constraints from LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating and analysis of plate-tectonic setting (Saxo-Thuringian zone, northeastern Bohemian Massif, Germany). In: Linnemann U, Nance RD, Kraft P, Zulauf G (eds) The evolution of the Rheic Ocean: from Avalonian–Cadomian Active Margin to Allghenian–Variscan Collision. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:61–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE423
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2769">2007</a>) have already successfully reconstructed the sedimentation conditions of these Neoproterozoic units. Previous studies so far only provide assumptions regarding the geological processes that the units subsequently experienced. The previous models on the metamorphic conditions in the investigated units assume extensive contact thermal metamorphic Cadomian overprint, which is presumed to have been triggered by the Early Cambrian intrusions (e.g., Kemnitz and Budzinski <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2772">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2775">1994</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2778">2000</a>; Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2781">2007</a>). No data-based models are available for the period up to the Variscan orogeny, which is associated with the incorporation of the Saxo-Thuringian part of peri-Gondwana into the newly formed Variscan mountain range, particularly for the Lausitz region and eastern Thuringia. The K–Ar fine-fraction and monazite Th–U–Pb dating presented in this study, as well as the determination of illite crystallinities, allow for the first time an insight into the post-sedimentary processes that the Neoproterozoic units of Saxo-Thuringia have experienced.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec31">Identification of metamorphic conditions</h4><p>Except for the Clanzschwitz and Weesenstein groups, the vast majority of the Neoproterozoic greywacke outcrops investigated are still characterised by pronounced sedimentary features. Low-grade phenomena such as intragranular pressure dissolution on some minerals like quartz and the absence of indications of higher-grade overprinting (e.g., recrystallisation processes, feldspar tapering), occur only sporadically in the Lausitz, Leipzig and Thuringia areas and confirm the observations of Kemnitz and Budzinski (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1991) Beitrag zur Lithostratigraphie und Genese der Lausitzer Grauwacken. Z Geol Wiss 19:433–441" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2791">1991</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2794">1994</a>) that anchimetamorphic conditions were usually not exceeded. Apart from the Cadomian fold structure, a regional metamorphic overprint of the Neoproterozoic greywackes seems to have only marginally influenced the studied units during the Cadomian orogeny. Muscovite dominates the secondary mineral content and biotite, which is regarded as a typical index mineral for the onset of epizonal overprinting, occurs only very locally in the few more tectonically or contact metamorphically influenced sample locations, contrary to previous descriptions in the literature. In contrast, the contact metamorphic zones widely observed by Kemnitz and Budzinski (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Kemnitz H, Budzinski G (1994) Die Grauwacken der Lausitz und ihre cadomische Prägung. Abh Staatl Mus Miner Geol Dresden 40:37–98" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2797">1994</a>) involving the development of metamorphic mineral blasts around the Early Cambrian intrusions (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig5">5</a>) could not be confirmed. The current investigations therefore suggest a rejection of the idea that in nature there must always be large-scale, proximal to distal and well-traceable contact aureoles around intrusions. Instead, characteristic of the study area are metamorphic mineral blasts (nodules or patches) confined to microdomains where former sedimentary bedding indicates a pelitic composition of the greywacke sequence. Much less thermal energy is required to cause a reaction in the more pelitic fractions and, as in the case of the Oßling quarry (Lausitz Group), not necessarily a neighbouring intrusion acted as a trigger. The psammitic greywacke in the Schwarzkollm quarry (LG21-29, Lausitz Group), for example, does not provide any evidence for metamorphic recrystallisation, even in contact with a granodiorite, apart from fine-grained biotite growths. These observations may indicate that the metamorphic temperature gradient between the granodiorite and the surrounding greywacke host was low.</p><p>Metamorphism under epizonal conditions within the greenschist facies could only be detected locally and almost exclusively in the Weesenstein Group of the former tectonically active Elbe Zone and its north-western extension, the Clanzschwitz Group. Also, concerning tectonic development, it is becoming increasingly clear that the Clanzschwitz Group cannot be equated with the other Neoproterozoic units. Contrary to previous assumptions (Grahmann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1927" title="Grahmann R (1927) Erläuterungen zur geologischen Karte Sachsen: im Maßstab 1:25000. Blatt 15 Oschatz-Wellerswalde, 2nd edn. Engelmann, Leipzig" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2806">1927</a>; Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Linnemann U, Pidal AP, Hofmann M, Drost K, Quesada C, Gerdes A, Marko L, Gärtner A, Zieger J, Ulrich J, Krause R, Vickers-Rich P, Horak J (2018) A ~ 565 Ma old glaciation in the Ediacaran of peri-Gondwanan West Africa. Int J Earth Sci 107:885–911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1520-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2809">2018</a>), andalusite aligned along the foliation at Großer Steinberg does not indicate a contact metamorphic origin, but rather a metamorphic layering caused by regional metamorphism. The calculated phase equilibrium of the determined mineral assemblage of biotite + white mica + andalusite + ilmenite + quartz, with simultaneously negligible occurrences of chlorite, feldspar and rutile, indicates a definite temperature range between 460 and 600 °C (Online Resource 9). The pressure range was restricted between 2 and 4 kbar, whereby the overprint can be associated with a high-temperature, low-pressure metamorphism. At a later time, however, the area must have been reheated by a further thermal event. Microtextures in the quartz crystals, however, suggest that the second thermal event could not have produced the same intense thermal effect.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec32">Timing and potential triggers of metamorphic overprint</h4><p>The previously assumed large-scale Cadomian contact metamorphic overprint, which is supposed to have been triggered by the Early Cambrian intrusions around 540 Ma in the course of the arc-continent collision, could not be proven according to the K–Ar mica, Ar–Ar mica and Th–U–Pb monazite metamorphic ages of the analysed samples (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig10">10</a>). Even if there is no immediate evidence of contact metamorphic Cadomian overprinting in this study, it may of course still have occurred locally near the intruded Early Cambrian plutonites. Rather, it was shown that only very isolated, locally effective and discrete thermal events are responsible for the overprinting. In addition, the obtained ages could not uncover a widespread regional metamorphic influence on the sedimentary units that could be related to the Cadomian or the Variscan orogeny.</p><h5 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec33">Weesenstein Group</h5><p>The K–Ar age of 295 ± 5 Ma for sample LG21-14 (Seidewitztal) is most likely attributable to thermal events in the course of the post-Variscan extensional phase. A connection with the strike-slip movements of the Elbe Zone seems rather unlikely, as tectonic activity already terminated around 329 Ma (Hofmann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Hofmann M, Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Ullrich B, Schauer M (2009) Timing of dextral strike-slip processes and basement exhumation in the Elbe Zone (Saxo-Thuringian Zone): the final pulse of the Variscan Orogeny in the Bohemian Massif constrained by LA–SF–ICP–MS U–Pb zircon data. In: Murphy JB, Keppie JD, Hynes AJ (eds) Ancient orogens and modern analogues. J Geol Soc 327:197–214. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP327.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2830">2009</a>). The convergence regime of the Variscan orogeny was replaced by the reactivation of old fault zones in the Late Palaeozoic of Central Europe due to changes in the stress fields (e.g., Hofmann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Hofmann M, Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Ullrich B, Schauer M (2009) Timing of dextral strike-slip processes and basement exhumation in the Elbe Zone (Saxo-Thuringian Zone): the final pulse of the Variscan Orogeny in the Bohemian Massif constrained by LA–SF–ICP–MS U–Pb zircon data. In: Murphy JB, Keppie JD, Hynes AJ (eds) Ancient orogens and modern analogues. J Geol Soc 327:197–214. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP327.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2833">2009</a>; Förster and Romer <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Förster HJ, Romer RL (2010) Carboniferous magmatism. In: Linnemann U, Romer RL (eds) Pre-Mesozoic geology of Saxo-Thuringia: from the Cadomian active margin to the Variscan orogen. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, pp 287–308" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2836">2010</a>). Extensional movements associated with extensive volcanism are known in particular for the transition between the Carboniferous and Permian (e.g., Lorenz and Nicholls <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1984" title="Lorenz V, Nicholls IA (1984) Plate and intraplate processes of Hercynian Europe during the late Paleozoic. Tectonophysics 107:25–56. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(84)90027-1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2839">1984</a>; Benek et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Benek R, Kramer W, McCann T, Scheck M, Negendank JFW, Korich D, Huebscher HD, Bayer U (1996) Permo-Carboniferous magmatism of the Northeast German Basin. Tectonophysics 266:379–404. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(96)00199-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2842">1996</a>; Geißler et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Geißler M, Breitkreuz C, Kiersnowski H (2008) Late Paleozoic volcanism in the central part of the Southern Permian Basin (NE Germany, W Poland): facies distribution and volcano-topographic hiati. Int J Earth Sci 97:973–989. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-007-0288-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2846">2008</a>; Mattern <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Mattern F (2001) Permo-Silesian movements between Baltica and Western Europe: tectonics and “basin families.” Terra Nova 13:368–375. 
 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3121.2001.00368.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2849">2001</a>; Repstock et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Repstock A, Breitkreuz C, Lapp M, Schulz B (2018) Voluminous and crystal-rich igneous rocks of the Permian Wurzen volcanic system, northern Saxony, Germany: physical volcanology and geochemical characterization. Int J Earth Sci 107:1485–1513. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1554-x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR113" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2852">2018</a>). Volcanism is also explicitly documented for the Elbe Zone and is associated with the formation of the Döhlen Basin at the beginning of the Permian (Hofmann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Hofmann M, Linnemann U, Gerdes A, Ullrich B, Schauer M (2009) Timing of dextral strike-slip processes and basement exhumation in the Elbe Zone (Saxo-Thuringian Zone): the final pulse of the Variscan Orogeny in the Bohemian Massif constrained by LA–SF–ICP–MS U–Pb zircon data. In: Murphy JB, Keppie JD, Hynes AJ (eds) Ancient orogens and modern analogues. J Geol Soc 327:197–214. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP327.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2855">2009</a>; Zieger et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Zieger J, Bittner L, Gärtner A, Hofmann M, Gerdes A, Marko L, Linnemann U (2019) U–Pb ages of magmatic and detrital zircon of the Döhlen Basin: geological history of a Permian strike-slip basin in the Elbe Zone (Germany). Int J Earth Sci 108:887–910. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-019-01683-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR157" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2858">2019</a>). Accordingly, the described thermal event recorded by a K–Ar fine-fraction age of 295 ± 5 Ma could well have been the trigger for the low-grade metamorphic event within the Weesenstein Group, which is situated adjacent to the southeast of the Döhlen Basin. Further thermal events triggered by the intrusion of a series of lamprophyres are recognised from the Carboniferous of the Elbe Zone at the Viséan–Namurian transition (von Seckendorff et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Von Seckendorff V, Timmerman MJ, Kramer W, Wrobel P (2004) New 40Ar/39Ar ages and geochemistry of late Carboniferous-early Permian lamprophyres and related volcanic rocks in the Saxothuringian Zone of the Variscan Orogen (Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 223:335–359. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2004.223.01.15
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR148" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2861">2004</a>). For the selected greywacke samples analysed in this study, this thermal event could not be directly detected. However, the <sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar plateau age of around 337–332 Ma from a lamprophyre (sample B2494/86-P4) in the outcropping area of the Weesenstein Group proves the possibility of local metamorphic overprinting during the Carboniferous in the vicinity of mafic or ultramafic dykes.</p><h5 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec34">Clanzschwitz Group</h5><p>The complex Clanzschwitz Group is particularly challenging, as multi-stage overprinting could be identified at one single location. It should be noted that the errorchron age of 503 ± 19 Ma of the dated monazites of sample LG21-17B from Großer Steinberg originates from detrital incorporated monazites and thus does not represent evidence for Cambrian overprinting of the rock. However, the age fits very well with the isolated granitoid complexes that intruded into the crust of Saxo-Thuringia during Late Cambrian times (e.g., Rumburk granite with 496 ± 2 Ma, Vogt et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Vogt M, Schwarz WH, Schmitt AK, Schmitt J, Trieloff M, Harrison TM, Bell EA (2023) Graphitic inclusions in zircon from early Phanerozoic S-type granite: Implications for the preservation of Hadean biosignatures. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 349:23–40. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2023.03.022
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR147" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2877">2023</a>). This second period of Late Cambrian (to Early Ordovician) intrusions post-dates the subduction-related Early Cambrian intrusions and is attributed to the tectonic change from the Cadomian convergence regime to the opening of the Rheic Ocean in the course of incipient rifting processes that took place at this time (Pin and Marini <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1993" title="Pin C, Marini F (1993) Early Ordovician continental break up in Variscan Europe: Nd–Sr isotope and trace element evidence from bimodal igneous associations of the southern Massif Central, France. Lithos 29:177–196. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-4937(93)90016-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR110" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2880">1993</a>; Nance and Murphy <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Nance RD, Murphy JB (1996) Basement isotopic signatures and Neoproterozoic paleogeography of Avalonian-Cadomian and related terranes in the circum-North Atlantic. In: Nance RD, Thompson MD (eds) Avalonian and related peri-Gondwanan terranes of the circum-North Atlantic. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 304:333–346" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR98" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2883">1996</a>; Nance et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Nance RD, Murphy JB, Keppie JD (2002) A Cordilleran model for the evolution of Avalonia. Tectonophysics 352:1–21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00187-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR99" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2886">2002</a>; Oriolo et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Oriolo S, Schulz B, Geuna S, González PD, Otamendi JE, Sláma J, Druguet E, Siegesmund S (2021) Early Paleozoic accretionary orogens along the Western Gondwana margin. Geosci Front 12:109–130. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2020.07.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2889">2021</a>). Similar to the Weesenstein Group, sample LG21-17B with its K–Ar fine-fraction age of 314 ± 7 Ma also suggests a connection with the post-Variscan extensional regime in any case. The slightly younger Early Permian monazite formation age of 286 ± 15 Ma in the sample also correlates with the post-Variscan thermal events known from this time, which were caused by large-scale extension-related magmatic events in Central Europe (e.g., Gerstenberger et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1982" title="Gerstenberger H, Kaemmel T, Haase G, Geisler M (1982) Zur Charakterisierung der Granite im Westerzgebirge: Rb/Sr-radiogeochronologische Untersuchungen und Spurenelementkonzentrationen. Freiberger Forschungsh C 389:220–246" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2893">1982</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1983" title="Gerstenberger H, Haase G, Habedank M (1983) Rb/Sr-Datierungen der jüngeren Granite in Ehrenfriedersdorf. ZFI-Mitt 76:125–133" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2896">1983</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Gerstenberger H, Haase G, Wemmer K (1995) Isotope systematics of the Variscan postkinematic granites in the Erzgebirge (Germany). Terra Nostra 95:36–41" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2899">1995</a>; Timmerman <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Timmerman MJ (2004) Timing, geodynamic setting and character of Permo-Carboniferous magmatism in the foreland of the Variscan Orogen, NW Europe. In: Wilson M, Neumann E-R, Davies GR, Timmerman MJ, Heeremans M, Larsen BT (eds) Permo-Carboniferous Magmatism and Rifting in Europe. Geol Soc Spec Publ 223:41–74. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2004.223.01.03
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR145" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2902">2004</a>) and are considered to be independent to the Variscan orogeny (Kroner and Romer <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Kroner U, Romer RL (2013) Two plates—many subduction zones: the Variscan orogeny reconsidered. Gondwana Res 24:298–329. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.03.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2905">2013</a>). The resulting Permo-Carboniferous continental rift system of Central Europe (e.g., Repstock et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Repstock A, Heuer F, Im J, Hübner M, Schulz B, Breitkreuz C, Gilbricht S, Fischer F, Lapp M (2019) A Late Paleozoic Snake River-type ignimbrite (Planitz vitrophyre) in the Chemnitz Basin, Germany: Textural and compositional evidence for complex magma evolution in an intraplate setting. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 369:35–49. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2018.11.010
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR114" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2908">2019</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Repstock A, Casas-García R, Zeug M, Breitkreuz C, Schulz B, Gevorgyan H, Heuer F, Gilbricht S, Lapp M (2022) The monotonous intermediate magma system of the Permian Wurzen caldera, Germany: Magma dynamics and petrogenetic constraints for a supereruption. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 429:107596. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107596
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR115" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2912">2022</a>; Słodczyk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2024" title="Słodczyk E, Pietranik A, Repstock A, Lukás R, Przybyło A, Gynn S (2024) Zircon trace element fingerprint of changing tectonic regimes in Permian rhyolites from the Central European Lowlands. Int J Earth Sci 113:779–795. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-024-02419-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR132" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2915">2024</a>), inter alia, was also responsible for the development of the neighbouring North Saxon Volcanic Complex (NSVC, ca. 295–289 Ma, Repstock et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Repstock A, Breitkreuz C, Lapp M, Schulz B (2018) Voluminous and crystal-rich igneous rocks of the Permian Wurzen volcanic system, northern Saxony, Germany: physical volcanology and geochemical characterization. Int J Earth Sci 107:1485–1513. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1554-x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR113" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2918">2018</a> and references therein), a highly volcanically active area at the time. It is therefore not unreasonable to assume that the metamorphic layer structure observed at Großer Steinberg is due to tectonics in the course of the post-Variscan extensional movements and magmatism during the early Permian. Since a magma supply from the Earth's mantle is described for the NSVC, caused by mantle upwelling (Repstock et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Repstock A, Breitkreuz C, Lapp M, Schulz B (2018) Voluminous and crystal-rich igneous rocks of the Permian Wurzen volcanic system, northern Saxony, Germany: physical volcanology and geochemical characterization. Int J Earth Sci 107:1485–1513. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1554-x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR113" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2921">2018</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Repstock A, Casas-García R, Zeug M, Breitkreuz C, Schulz B, Gevorgyan H, Heuer F, Gilbricht S, Lapp M (2022) The monotonous intermediate magma system of the Permian Wurzen caldera, Germany: Magma dynamics and petrogenetic constraints for a supereruption. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 429:107596. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107596
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR115" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2924">2022</a>), it is quite conceivable that proximal tectonically predestined areas of the Earth's crust could also be ductile deformed in this tectonic setting. Further monazite dating revealed a mean Jurassic age of 162 ± 23 Ma, previously unknown for Saxo-Thuringia. Distributed in Central Europe (e.g., French Massif Central; Bellon et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1974" title="Bellon H, Ellenberger F, Maury R (1974) Sur le rajeunissement de l’illite des pélites saxoniennes du bassin de Lodève. CR Acad Sci Paris 278:413–415" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2927">1974</a>; Bonhomme et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1980" title="Bonhomme MG, Yerle JJ, Thiry M (1980) Datation K-Ar de fractions fines associées aux minéralisations. Le cas du basin uranifère permo-houiller de Brousse-Broquiès (Aveyron). CR Acad Sci Paris 291:121–124" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2931">1980</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1983" title="Bonhomme MG, Bühmann D, Besnus Y (1983) Reliability of K/Ar-dating of clays and silifications associated with vein mineralizations in western Europe. Geol Rundsch 72:105–117. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01765902
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2934">1983</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1987" title="Bonhomme M, Baubron JC, Jébrak M (1987) Minéralogie, géochimie, terres rares et âge K-Ar des argiles associées aux minéralisations filoniennes. Chem Geol 65:321–339. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-9622(87)90012-1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2937">1987</a>), however, hydrothermal activities and mineralisation are known at this time, which are interpreted as a remote effect of the opening of the Atlantic and the associated reactivation of old fault zones (e.g., Ziegler <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1982" title="Ziegler PA (1982) Faulting and graben formation in western and central Europe. Phil Trans Royal Soc Lond Ser A Math Phys Sci 305:113–143. 
 https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.1982.0029
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR158" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2940">1982</a>). Minor extensional movements around 180 Ma before present are also known from the Elbe Zone to the southeast (Romer et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Romer RL, Schneider J, Linnemann U (2010) Post-variscan deformation and hydrothermal mineralization in Saxo-Thuringia and beyond: a geochronological review. In: Linnemann U, Romer RL (eds) Pre-mesozoic geology of Saxo-Thuringia: from the Cadomian active margin to the Variscan Orogen. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, pp 347–360" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR117" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2943">2010</a>). The Jurassic thermal event is probably responsible for the observed recovery structures of the finer-grained domain of sample LG21-17B. Interestingly, the Early Permian and Middle Jurassic monazite ages postdate the Late Carboniferous metamorphic age obtained from K–Ar fine-fraction dating. When comparing the two methods, the different closing temperatures, which are at higher temperatures in monazite, must generally be taken into account. K–Ar dating therefore indicates comparatively younger ages. However, the high discrepancy to the Jurassic monazite age is probably best explained by the very localised occurrence of the monazite, so the Jurassic thermal event is lost in the fine-fraction rock analysis. The K–Ar fine-fraction dating thus does not always seem to necessarily record the most recent metamorphic event.</p><p>An additional sample location for which metamorphic ages were dated for the first time in this study originates from the Lower Ordovician Collmberg Quartzite (LG21-16A). The Cambrian monazites dated to ca. 524 ± 17 Ma must therefore have been detritally emplaced. The monazites are magmatic and their origin probably lies in the Early Cambrian intrusions of Saxo-Thuringia. A second group of monazites gave metamorphic ages of 458 ± 6 Ma. Similar late Middle to early Late Ordovician metamorphic ages were discovered by Schulz and Krause (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2024" title="Schulz B, Krause J (2024) Electron probe petrochronology of monazite-and garnet-bearing metamorphic rocks in the Saxothuringian allochthonous domains (Erzgebirge, Granulite and Münchberg massifs). Geol Soc Spec Publ 537:249–284. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP537-2022-195
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR124" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2949">2024</a>) through monazite dating from other areas of the Saxo-Thuringian metamorphic basement. In their study, for example, some early Late Ordovician to Silurian ages (456 ± 25 Ma to 422 ± 39 Ma) were obtained from the neighbouring units of the Frankenberg Massif, the Saxon Granulite Massif and other Erzgebirge units. The geological meaning of these rather sporadic monazite formation ages has not yet been conclusively clarified. After the opening of the Rheic Ocean, tectonic and magmatic activity, at least, ended in the area of Saxo-Thuringia as early as ca. 470 Ma. At this time, the area was situated at the passive margin of the northern peri-Gondwana shelf (Kroner et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Kroner U, Hahn T, Romer RL, Linnemann U (2007) The Variscan orogeny in the Saxo-Thuringian Zone—heterogenous overprint of Cadomian/Palaeozoic peri-Gondwana crust. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 423:153–172. 
 https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.2423(06)
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2952">2007</a>; Stephan et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019a" title="Stephan T, Kroner U, Romer RL (2019a) The pre-orogenic detrital zircon record of the Peri-Gondwanan crust. Geol Mag 156:281–307. 
 https://doi.org/10.1017/s0016756818000031
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR136" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2955">2019a</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019b" title="Stephan T, Kroner U, Romer RL, Rösel D (2019b) From a bipartite Gondwanan shelf to an arcuate Variscan belt: the early Paleozoic evolution of northern Peri-Gondwana. Earth-Sci Rev 192:491–512. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.03.012
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2958">2019b</a>). As a possibility, Schulz and Krause (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2024" title="Schulz B, Krause J (2024) Electron probe petrochronology of monazite-and garnet-bearing metamorphic rocks in the Saxothuringian allochthonous domains (Erzgebirge, Granulite and Münchberg massifs). Geol Soc Spec Publ 537:249–284. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP537-2022-195
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR124" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2961">2024</a>) add that these Late Ordovician to Silurian monazite ages could be widely traceable but locally quite limited and low-pressure diffuse thermal events caused by the weakening influence of an extinct magmatic arc. Late Neoproterozoic to Early Palaeozoic geological processes have not yet been identified for the entirety of the Cadomian European basement units. Žák et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Žák J, Sláma J, Syahputra R, Nance RD (2023) Dynamics of Cambro-Ordovician rifting of the northern margin of Gondwana as revealed by the timing of subsidence and magmatism in rift-related basins. Int Geol Rev 65:3004–30027. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2023.2172619
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR155" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2965">2023</a>) propose a hyper-extended passive margin for the tectonic development of the "Cadomian-type terranes" associated with the Saxo-Thuringian or the Teplá-Barrandian units during the Ordovician. It is therefore conceivable that the heat trigger required for metamorphic overprinting in form of local intrusions is due to the increased tectonically induced geothermal gradient. More recently, evidence for further major metamorphic events has accumulated for the crustal blocks of the Avalonian–Cadomian belt in the period between the Cadomian and Variscan orogenies (Finger and Riegler <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Finger F, Riegler G (2023) The role of the proto-Alpine Cenerian Orogen in the Avalonian-Cadomian belt. Aust J Earth Sci 116:109–115. 
 https://doi.org/10.17738/ajes.2023.0005
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2968">2023</a>; Siegesmund et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Siegesmund S, Oriolo S, Broge A, Hueck M, Lammerer B, Basei MA, Schulz B (2023) Cadomian to Cenerian accretionary orogenic processes in the Alpine basement: the detrital zircon archive. Int J Earth Sci 112:1157–1174. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-023-02305-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR131" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2971">2023</a>). For example, further Late Ordovician to Early Silurian metamorphic ages (ca. 441–457 Ma; Schaltegger <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1993" title="Schaltegger U (1993) The evolution of the polymetamorphic basement in the Central Alps unravelled by precise U−Pb zircon dating. Contrib Mineral Petrol 113:466–478. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00698316
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR119" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2974">1993</a>; Schaltegger et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Schaltegger U, Abrecht J, Corfu F (2003) The Ordovician orogeny in the Alpine basement: constraints from geochronology and geochemistry in the Aar Massif (Central Alps). Swiss Bull Mineral Petrol 83:183–195" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR120" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2977">2003</a>; Thöny et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Thöny WF, Tropper P, Schennach F, Krenn E, Finger F, Kaindl R, Bernhard F, Hoinkes G (2008) The metamorphic evolution of migmatites from the Ötztal Complex (Tyrol, Austria) and constraints on the timing of the pre-Variscan high-T event in the Eastern Alps. Swiss J Geosci 101:111–126. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00015-008-1290-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR140" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2980">2008</a>; Rode et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Rode S, Rösel D, Schulz B (2012) Constraints on the Variscan PT evolution by EMP Th–U–Pb monazite dating in the polymetamorphic Austroalpine Oetztal-Stubai basement (Eastern Alps). Z Dtsch Ges Geowiss 163:43–68. 
 https://doi.org/10.1127/1860-1804/2012/0163-0043
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR116" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2984">2012</a>; Siegesmund et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Siegesmund S, Oriolo S, Broge A, Hueck M, Lammerer B, Basei MA, Schulz B (2023) Cadomian to Cenerian accretionary orogenic processes in the Alpine basement: the detrital zircon archive. Int J Earth Sci 112:1157–1174. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-023-02305-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR131" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2987">2023</a>) could also be determined in the basement of the Proto-Alps (see Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig2">2</a>), which can be attributed to the formation of the Cenerian orogen in the Late Neoproterozoic to Ordovician (e.g., Zurbriggen <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Zurbriggen R (2017) The Cenerian orogeny (early Paleozoic) from the perspective of the Alpine region. Int J Earth Sci 106:517–529. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-016-1438-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR159" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2993">2017</a>; Starijaš Mayer et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2023" title="Starijaš Mayer B, Zeh A, Krenn E, Gerdes A, Finger F (2023) Tracing the cryptic Sardic (Ordovician) metamorphism across Alpine Europe: the Krndija region in the Slavonian Mountains, Croatia. Int J Earth Sci 112:829–853. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-022-02282-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR134" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2996">2023</a> and references therein). A further hypothesis suggests therefore a possible influence of the Cenerian orogeny on the investigated areas of Saxo-Thuringia. However, this would require Saxo-Thuringia to have been located further east, more proximal to the subduction zone along the Arabian–Nubian Shield. Azor et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Azor A, Poyatos DM, Accotto C, Simancas F, Lodeiro FG, Talavera C, Evans NJ (2021) Transcurrent displacement of the Cadomian magmatic arc. Precambrian Res 361:106251. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2021.106251
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e2999">2021</a>) and Accotto et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Accotto C, Azor A, Poyatos DM, Pedrera A, Lodeiro FG, Hassan M (2022) Reorganization of northern Peri-Gondwanan terranes at Cambrian-Ordovician times: insights from the detrital zircon record of the Ossa-Morena Zone (SW Iberian Massif). Lithosphere 2022:6187518. 
 https://doi.org/10.2113/2022/6187518
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e3003">2022</a>) discussed the possibility of an along-margin terrane transfer from a Cadomian to a more eastward position near the Saharan Metacraton for the Ossa-Morena Zone from the Iberian Massif. Thus, in the course of the post-Cadomian dextral strike slip movements, an eastward transfer could also be considered for Saxo-Thuringia. Whether the Ordovician metamorphic ages identified in the Cadomian basement of Saxo-Thuringia record a distal influence of the Cenerian orogeny of the peri-Gondwana terranes located more to the east at that time remains unclear. No conclusive model can yet be constructed with the data available to date. However, it is evident that, independently of the early Ordovician rift processes, another, previously unknown, widespread thermal event must have taken place in the period towards the Late Ordovician.</p><p>The time of metamorphic overprinting could also be dated for the Early Cambrian intruded Laas granodiorite (LG21-48). At 482 ± 12 Ma, the metamorphic monazites indicate an Early Ordovician age. A specific trigger for the overprinting of the Laas granodiorite is not obvious. Due to the strong tectonic stress in the area, faults could have created pathways for thermal overprinting, which could also be related to the second Cambro–Ordovician magmatic phase.</p><h5 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec35">Lausitz Group</h5><p>The Late Ordovician K–Ar fine-fraction age (445 ± 16 Ma) of the metamorphic event dated from the Lausitz Group (LG21-19B, Teufelsberg) could also indicate the previously discussed low-grade event during the Middle to Late Ordovician. The heavily overprinted and recrystallised metagreywacke from the Schwedenstein of the Lausitz Group (LG21-42) gave an Early Ordovician age of 481 ± 15 Ma. At the Schwedenstein locality, the thermal influence is likely to have originated from the granitoid body that is exposed in the immediate vicinity but has not yet been dated. However, this intrusion should in all probability have been intruded in the course of the second Cambrian–Ordovician magmatic phase. Both samples from the summit area of the Wüsteberg (near Kamenz, LG21-28) and from the Galgenberg (NW' Burkau, LG21-40) also belong to this time frame with their dated monazite ages of 461 ± 15 Ma and 470 ± Ma, respectively, within the error (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#Fig10">10</a>). The metamorphic age of the highly recrystallised sample LG21-23 from the Hüttertal near Radeberg (521 ± 16 Ma) tends to be slightly older than the known Middle to Late Cambrian intrusions (ca. 497–511 Ma, Zieger et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Zieger J, Linnemann U, Hofmann M, Gärtner A, Marko L, Gerdes A (2018) A new U–Pb LA–ICP–MS age of the Rumburk granite (Lausitz Block, Saxo-Thuringian Zone): constraints for a magmatic event in the Upper Cambrian. Int J Earth Sci 107:933–953. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-017-1511-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR156" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e3020">2018</a>) and younger than the Early Cambrian intrusions (ca. 540 Ma, Linnemann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Linnemann U, Gehmlich M, Tichomirowa M, Buschmann B, Nasdala L, Jonas P, Lützner H, Bombach K (2000) From Cadomian subduction to Early Palaeozoic rifting: the evolution of Saxo-Thuringia at the margin of Gondwana in the light of single zircon geochronology and basin development (Central European Variscides, Germany). Geol Soc Spec Publ 179:131–153. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.179.01.10
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e3023">2000</a>; Linnemann <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Linnemann U (2007) Ediacaran rocks from the Cadomian basement of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone (NE Bohemian Massif, Germany): age constraints, geotectonic setting and basin development. Geol Soc Spec Publ 286:35–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP286.4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e3026">2007</a>; Gehmlich <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Gehmlich M (2003) Die Cadomiden und Varisziden des Saxothuringischen Terranes-Geochronologie magmatischer Ereignisse. Freiberger Forschungsh C 500:1–129" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e3029">2003</a>; Tichomirowa <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Tichomirowa M (2003) Die Gneise des Erzgebirges—hochmetamorphe Äquivalente von neoproterozoisch-frühpaläozoischen Grauwacken und Granitoiden der Cadomiden. Freiberger Forschungsh C 495:1–222" href="/article/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x#ref-CR141" id="ref-link-section-d373678235e3033">2003</a>). Within the analytical error, however, the overprint is in no doubt related to the post-collisional processes reported from the tectonically active area of the northern peri-Gondwana margin at this time.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Conclusion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec36-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec36">Conclusion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec36-content"><p>The comprehensive, uniform and cross-unit petrographic re-investigation of Cadomian greywackes of Saxo-Thuringia of the present study requires some of the previous models about the evolutionary history of the sedimentary units to be questioned.</p><p>Fundamental statements concerning the deposition of the Lausitz and Leipzig groups, as well as the greywackes from the eastern Thuringian region as a coherent Cadomian unit could be confirmed based on the comparable modal composition. Petrographically, however, due to the matrix content of only a maximum of 8%, being too low for greywackes according to the sandstone classification schemes, it is more appropriate to refer to lithic sandstones and, depending on the feldspar content, to (sub-)arkoses. The overall low input of coarse lithoclasts or micro-pebbles into the otherwise highly monotonous units indicates a rather continental margin depositional setting, whereby only local sediment supply from debris flows contributed coarse particles. The coarse material of the Lausitz Block is not genetically associated with the pebbles from the Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups. It turned out to be problematic that so far, no clear distinction has been made in the nomenclature between the immature greywackes and the more quartzitic lithologies of the Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups. Based on petrographic features, only the typical greywackes of the Müglitz Formation (Weesenstein Group) can be compared with the Neoproterozoic–Lower Cambrian units from the areas of Lausitz, Leipzig and eastern Thuringia. However, the mature character of the quartz schists belonging to the Clanzschwitz Group and the quartzitic lithologies of the Seidewitz Formation (Weesenstein Group) rather suggest a younger age of formation, likely Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician, whereby both mature units can be considered as time equivalent successions. Thus, the Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups in their previous definition cannot be considered a coherent pre-Variscan unit. The definition of the Weesenstein Group as a Neoproterozoic sedimentary unit, consisting of the Müglitz and Seidewitz formations, is therefore no longer tenable. As a consequence, the model of a simultaneous glaciomarine deposition of the pebbles observed in the Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups during the end of the Neoproterozoic must also be adapted by further investigations due to the age discrepancy between the two groups and the great heterogeneity in composition and quantity of the pebble content.</p><p>For the first time, the analyses of the age of the metamorphic overprint provided an insight into the post-sedimentary processes of the Upper Neoproterozoic to Lower Ordovician units of Saxo-Thuringia. Over wide expanses, especially in the Lausitz area, the greywackes have largely preserved their primary sedimentary texture despite the Cadomian and Variscan orogenies. The generally held assumption that the visible metamorphic effects of nodule formation in the study area are exclusively due to contact (thermal) metamorphism caused by the Early Cambrian intrusions proved to be unsustainable. Neither chemical Th–U–Pb monazite nor K–Ar fine-fraction dating provided any evidence of Cadomian metamorphic overprinting. The metamorphic temperature gradient between the Early Cambrian intrusions and the surrounding greywacke appears to have been possibly too low for contact metamorphism to be triggered. Furthermore, it became apparent that the contact metamorphic overprint, which has been described as very widespread in the Lausitz region in particular, only occurs on an exceedingly localised scale and that various thermal events are responsible for the overprint. Across units, there is evidence of local overprint by magmatic activity in the course of the tectonic transition from a collisional regime (Cadomian orogeny) to an extensional setting (opening of the Rheic Ocean) in the Late Cambrian to Early–Middle Ordovician. The origin of the Late Ordovician event, previously unknown for the region, remains speculative. Formative for the units of the Elbe Zone (Weesenstein and Clanzschwitz groups) are post-Variscan thermal events associated with the extensive volcanism of the region during the Late Carboniferous to Permian. In its course, a metamorphic layered structure and foliation-conform authigenic andalusite suggest a regional metamorphic overprint under high-temperature conditions. Another thermal event identified at Großer Steinberg (Clanzschwitz Group) can be attributed to the reactivation of old fault zones and the associated hydrothermal activity during the Middle Jurassic.</p></div></div></section> </div> <section data-title="Data availability"><div class="c-article-section" id="data-availability-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="data-availability">Data availability</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="data-availability-content"> <p>All data are available within this article and its supplementary material.</p> </div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ul class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Accotto C, Azor A, Poyatos DM, Pedrera A, Lodeiro FG, Hassan M (2022) Reorganization of northern Peri-Gondwanan terranes at Cambrian-Ordovician times: insights from the detrital zircon record of the Ossa-Morena Zone (SW Iberian Massif). 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Victoria Kühnemann acknowledges a Saxon State Scholarship for the promotion of doctoral students. Special thanks go to Ronny Ziesemann and Linda Moräntz (Freiberg) for the preparation of the thin sections and to Anja Obst (Freiberg) who provided assistence with the SEM and the monazite photographic documentation. We would like to express our gratitude to Manuel Lapp (Freiberg) as well as Olaf Tietz and Jörg Büchner (Görlitz) for providing further samples. Furthermore, we thank Arzu Arslan (Freiberg) for her support and discussion during the field work. The <sup>39</sup>Ar–<sup>40</sup>Ar dating was kindly carried out by Jörg Pfänder (Freiberg). We are also very grateful to José R. Martínez Catalán (Salamanca) and Stephen Collett (Prague) for the constructive and encouraging reviews and the Topic Editor Karel Schulmann (Strasbourg) for manuscript handling.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Funding"><div class="c-article-section" id="Fun-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Fun">Funding</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Fun-content"><p>Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Institut für Geologie, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Bernhard-von-Cotta-Straße 2, 09599, Freiberg, Germany</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Victoria Kühnemann & Guido Meinhold</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Institut für Mineralogie, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Brennhausgasse 4, 09599, Freiberg, Germany</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Bernhard Schulz & Sabine Gilbricht</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Sächsisches Landesamt für Umwelt, Landwirtschaft und Geologie (LfULG), Landesaufnahme und Geophysik, Halsbrücker Straße 31a, 09599, Freiberg, Germany</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Sebastian Weber</p></li><li id="Aff4"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Geowissenschaftliches Zentrum der Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Abteilung Geochemie und Isotopengeologie, Goldschmidtstraße 3, 37077, Göttingen, Germany</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Klaus Wemmer</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Victoria-K_hnemann-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Victoria Kühnemann</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Victoria%20K%C3%BChnemann" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - 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Online Resource 1</b></a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>: Sample list overview (XLSX 18 kb)</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM2"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="supplementary file 2. online resource 2" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_MOESM2_ESM.xlsx" data-supp-info-image=""><b>Supplementary file 2. Online Resource 2</b></a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>: Microconglomerate composition (XLSX 13 kb)</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM3"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="supplementary file 3. online resource 3" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_MOESM3_ESM.docx" data-supp-info-image=""><b>Supplementary file 3. Online Resource 3</b></a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>: SEM Automated Mineralogy data (DOCX 27 kb)</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM4"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="supplementary file 4. online resource 4" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_MOESM4_ESM.xlsx" data-supp-info-image=""><b>Supplementary file 4. Online Resource 4</b></a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>: Monazite EPMA data (XLSX 93 kb).</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM5"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="supplementary file 5. online resource 5" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_MOESM5_ESM.xlsx" data-supp-info-image=""><b>Supplementary file 5. Online Resource 5</b></a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>: Illite crystallinity and K–Ar data (XLSX 15 kb)</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM6"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="supplementary file 6. online resource 6" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_MOESM6_ESM.xlsx" data-supp-info-image=""><b>Supplementary file 6. Online Resource 6</b></a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>: Ar–Ar dating of lamprophyre dyke (XLSX 113 kb)</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM7"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="supplementary file 7. online resource 7" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_MOESM7_ESM.docx" data-supp-info-image=""><b>Supplementary file 7. Online Resource 7</b></a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>: macroscopic features greywacke (DOCX 2083 kb)</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM8"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="supplementary file 8. online resource 8" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_MOESM8_ESM.docx" data-supp-info-image=""><b>Supplementary file 8. Online Resource 8</b></a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>: conglomeratic greywacke Clanzschwitz Group (DOCX 442 kb)</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM9"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="supplementary file 9. online resource 9" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00531-024-02475-x/MediaObjects/531_2024_2475_MOESM9_ESM.docx" data-supp-info-image=""><b>Supplementary file 9. Online Resource 9</b></a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>: P –T diagram sample LG21-17B (Clanzschwitz Group) (DOCX 482 kb)</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="rightslink">Rights and permissions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="rightslink-content"> <p><b>Open Access</b> This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Kühnemann, V., Meinhold, G., Schulz, B. <i>et al.</i> The “greywacke problem” explored in the Neoproterozoic of Saxo-Thuringia: new insights into sediment composition and metamorphic overprint. <i>Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)</i> <b>114</b>, 23–54 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s00531-024-02475-x?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" 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data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Neoproterozoic</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Greywacke&facet-discipline="Earth%20Sciences"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Greywacke</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Metamorphism&facet-discipline="Earth%20Sciences"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Metamorphism</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=K%E2%80%93Ar%20fine-fraction%20dating&facet-discipline="Earth%20Sciences"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">K–Ar fine-fraction dating</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Th%E2%80%93U%E2%80%93Pb%20monazite%20dating&facet-discipline="Earth%20Sciences"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Th–U–Pb monazite dating</a></span></li></ul><div data-component="article-info-list"></div></div></div></div></div></section> </div> </main> <div class="c-article-sidebar u-text-sm u-hide-print l-with-sidebar__sidebar" id="sidebar" data-container-type="reading-companion" data-track-component="reading companion"> <aside> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=531" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" 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