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vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cheras of ancient south India subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cheras_of_ancient_south_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Archaeological_discoveries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_discoveries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Archaeological discoveries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_discoveries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chera_coinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chera_coinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Chera coinage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chera_coinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cheras_from_early_Tamil_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cheras_from_early_Tamil_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Cheras from early Tamil texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cheras_from_early_Tamil_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cheras_in_the_medieval_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cheras_in_the_medieval_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Cheras in the medieval period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cheras_in_the_medieval_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cheras in the medieval period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cheras_in_the_medieval_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pandya_conquests_in_Chera_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pandya_conquests_in_Chera_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Pandya conquests in Chera country </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pandya_conquests_in_Chera_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chola_conquests_of_Chera_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chola_conquests_of_Chera_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Chola conquests of Chera country </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chola_conquests_of_Chera_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chera_Perumals_of_Kerala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chera_Perumals_of_Kerala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Chera Perumals of Kerala </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chera_Perumals_of_Kerala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Economy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spice_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spice_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Spice trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spice_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wootz_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wootz_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Wootz steel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wootz_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Cheras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Cheras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Early Cheras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Cheras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Books cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Encyclopedic_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encyclopedic_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Encyclopedic articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encyclopedic_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journal_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journal_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Journal articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journal_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magazine_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magazine_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Magazine articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magazine_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Newspaper_reports/features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newspaper_reports/features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Newspaper reports/features </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newspaper_reports/features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Chera dynasty</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" > 27 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9" title="سلالة تشيرا الحاكمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلالة تشيرا الحاكمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6" title="চের রাজবংশ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চের রাজবংশ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierniezh_Chera" title="Tierniezh Chera – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tierniezh Chera" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txera" title="Txera – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Txera" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%A9rov%C3%A9" title="Čérové – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čérové" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera" title="Chera – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chera" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Chera" title="Dinastía Chera – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dinastía Chera" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera" title="Chera – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chera" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%B4%EB%9D%BC_%EC%99%95%EC%A1%B0" title="체라 왕조 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="체라 왕조" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="चेर राजवंश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चेर राजवंश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera_(famiglia)" title="Chera (famiglia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Chera (famiglia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="ჩერა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩერა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cera" title="Čera – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Čera" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ചേരസാമ്രാജ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചേരസാമ്രാജ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="चेर साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="चेर साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="चेर वंश – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चेर वंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%81%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E6%9C%9D" title="チェーラ朝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="チェーラ朝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera-dynastiene" title="Chera-dynastiene – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Chera-dynastiene" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%86era" title="Ćera – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ćera" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Chera" title="Dinastia Chera – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dinastia Chera" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Чера (династия) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Чера (династия)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chera dynasty" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="சேரர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சேரர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Держава Чера – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Держава Чера" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%81" title="چیرا شاہی سلسلہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چیرا شاہی سلسلہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera" title="Chera – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chera" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E7%BD%97" title="哲罗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="哲罗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q877155#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_Dynasties&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera Dynasties">Chera Dynasties</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">300s BCE–1100s CE dynasty in ancient South India</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Chera" and "Cheras" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Chera_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Chera (disambiguation)">Chera (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cheras_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Cheras (disambiguation)">Cheras (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Chera dynasty</div><div class="ib-country-names">Cēra vamcam</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300s BCE–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1124 CE</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chera_emblem.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Insignia of Keralaputras"><img alt="Insignia of Keralaputras" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Chera_emblem.jpg/85px-Chera_emblem.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Chera_emblem.jpg/128px-Chera_emblem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Chera_emblem.jpg/170px-Chera_emblem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="364" data-file-height="503" /></a></div> <div>Insignia</div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Chera_country_(early_historic_south_India).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chera_country_%28early_historic_south_India%29.jpg/250px-Chera_country_%28early_historic_south_India%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chera_country_%28early_historic_south_India%29.jpg/375px-Chera_country_%28early_historic_south_India%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chera_country_%28early_historic_south_India%29.jpg/500px-Chera_country_%28early_historic_south_India%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2670" data-file-height="2219" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data">Early Cheras <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vanchi_(early_historic)" title="Vanchi (early historic)">Vanchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li></ul> Kongu Cheras <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karur" title="Karur">Karur</a></li></ul> Chera Perumals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makotai" class="mw-redirect" title="Makotai">Mahodayapuram</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Tamil" title="Old Tamil">Old Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Tamil" title="Middle Tamil">Middle Tamil</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Cheran</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300s BCE</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1124 CE</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Zamorin_of_Calicut" class="mw-redirect" title="Zamorin of Calicut">Zamorin of Calicut</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Travancore" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Travancore">Kingdom of Travancore</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochin" title="Kingdom of Cochin">Kingdom of Cochin</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kattan_dynasty" title="Kattan dynasty">Kattan dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Mannanar_dynasty" title="Mannanar dynasty">Mannanar dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala (India)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilnadu" class="mw-redirect" 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a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background-color: #ffffff;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chera dynasty</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #E7DCC3;"> Early Cheras</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="background: #ffffff;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nedum_Cheralathan" title="Nedum Cheralathan">Nedum Cheral Athan</a></li> <li>Palyani Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan</li> <li>Kalangai Kanni Narmudi Cheral</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senguttuvan" class="mw-redirect" title="Senguttuvan">Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan</a></li> <li>Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan</li> <li>Chelva Kadumko Valia Athan</li> <li>Kanaikkal Irumporai</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perum_Cheral_Irumporai" title="Perum Cheral Irumporai">Perum Cheral Irumporai</a></li> <li>Kudakko Illam Cheral Irumporai</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #E7DCC3;"> -</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="background: #ffffff;"> <ul><li>Kadummipudha Chera</li> <li>Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai</li> <li>Perum Kadungo (Irumporai)</li> <li>Ilam Kadungo (Irumporai)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #E7DCC3;"> -</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="background: #ffffff;"> <ul><li>Mak-kotai</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuttuvan_Kotai" title="Kuttuvan Kotai">Kuttuvan Kotai</a></li> <li>Kollippurai</li> <li>Kol-Irumporai</li> <li>Sa Irumporai</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #E7DCC3;"> <a href="/wiki/Kongu_Chera_dynasty" title="Kongu Chera dynasty">Kongu Chera dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Karur" title="Karur">Karur</a>)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="background: #ffffff;"> <ul><li>Ravi Goda</li> <li>Kanthan Ravi</li> <li>Vira Goda</li> <li>Vira Narayana</li> <li>Vira Chola</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vira_Kerala" title="Vira Kerala">Vira Kerala</a></li> <li>Vira Kerala Amarabhujangadeva</li> <li>Kerala Kesari Adhirajarajadeva</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #E7DCC3;"> <a href="/wiki/Chera/Perumals_of_Makotai" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera/Perumals of Makotai">Chera/Perumals of Makotai</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="background: #ffffff;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sthanu_Ravi_Varma" title="Sthanu Ravi Varma">Sthanu Ravi</a></li> <li>Kulasekhara (<a href="/wiki/Kulasekhara_Alvar" title="Kulasekhara Alvar">Kulasekhara Alvar</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajashekhara_(Chera_king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajashekhara (Chera king)">Rama Rajasekhara</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cheraman_Perumal_Nayanar" title="Cheraman Perumal Nayanar">Cheraman Perumal Nayanar</a>)</li> <li>Vijayaraga</li> <li>Goda Goda</li> <li>Kerala Kesari</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goda_Ravi" title="Goda Ravi">Goda Ravi</a></li> <li>Indu/Indesvaran Goda</li> <li>Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladithya</li> <li>Ravi Goda</li> <li>Rajasimha</li> <li>Raja Raja</li> <li>Ravi Rama</li> <li>Adithyan Goda Ranadithya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Kulasekhara" title="Rama Kulasekhara">Rama Kulasekhara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chera_dynasty" title="Template:Chera dynasty"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chera_dynasty" title="Template talk:Chera dynasty"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chera_dynasty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chera dynasty"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>The Chera dynasty (<a href="/wiki/ISO_15919" title="ISO 15919">or</a> Cēra, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Malayalam" title="Help:IPA/Malayalam">[t͡ʃeːɾɐr]</a>), was a <a href="/wiki/Sangam_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam age">Sangam age</a> <a href="/wiki/Tamils" title="Tamils">Tamil</a> dynasty which unified various regions of the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">western coast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">western ghats</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern India">southern India</a> to form the early Chera empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–145-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53-2">[2]</a> The dynasty, known as one of the <a href="/wiki/Three_Crowned_Kings" title="Three Crowned Kings">Three Crowned Kings</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> alongside the <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a>, has been documented as early as the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Their governance extended over diverse territories until the 12th century CE. The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean networks</a>. Exchange of spices, especially <a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">black pepper</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Graeco-Roman</a> merchants are attested in several sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdward_Balfour1871584-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a> The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third century CE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a>) are known to have had their original centre at <a href="/wiki/Kuttanad" title="Kuttanad">Kuttanad</a> in Kerala, and harbours at <a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muchiri (Muziris)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Thondi (Tyndis)</a> on the Indian Ocean coast (<a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Kongunadu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kongunadu">Kongunadu</a>. They governed the area of <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a> between <a href="/wiki/Alappuzha" title="Alappuzha">Alappuzha</a> in the south to <a href="/wiki/Kasaragod" title="Kasaragod">Kasaragod</a> in the north. The region around <a href="/wiki/Coimbatore" title="Coimbatore">Coimbatore</a> was ruled by the Cheras during the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a> between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the <a href="/wiki/Palakkad_Gap" title="Palakkad Gap">Palakkad Gap</a>, the principal trade route between the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Trade-7">[7]</a> However the southern region of the present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between <a href="/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram" title="Thiruvananthapuram">Thiruvananthapuram</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Alappuzha" title="Alappuzha">Alappuzha</a>) was under <a href="/wiki/Ay_dynasty" title="Ay dynasty">Ay dynasty</a>, who was more related to the <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The early historic pre-Pallava<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal2002138–150-9">[9]</a> polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Old Tamil Brahmi</a> cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of <a href="/wiki/Perumkadungo" class="mw-redirect" title="Perumkadungo">Perum Kadungo</a>, and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher2018-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeluthat201813–31-11">[11]</a> Inscribed portrait coins with <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi</a> legends give a number of Chera names,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016-12">[12]</a> with the Chera symbols of the bow and the arrow depicted in the reverse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016-12">[12]</a> The anthologies of <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">early Sangham texts</a> are a major source of information about the early Cheras.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cenkuttuvan" title="Cenkuttuvan">Cenguttuvan</a>, or the good Chera, is famous for the traditions surrounding <a href="/wiki/Kannagi_(Tamil_mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kannagi (Tamil mythology)">Kannaki</a>, the principal female character of the Sangam epic poem <a href="/wiki/Cilappatikaram" title="Cilappatikaram">Cilappatikaram</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013-13">[13]</a> After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon2007118-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kongu_Chera_dynasty" title="Kongu Chera dynasty">Cheras of the Kongu country</a> are known to have controlled eastern <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> and only a few kilometres of current western <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> in the early medieval period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389–90,_92–93-15">[15]</a> Present-day central Kerala and Kongu Cheras detached around 8th–9th century CE to form the <a href="/wiki/Chera/Perumals_of_Makotai" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera/Perumals of Makotai">Chera Perumal kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kongu_Chera_dynasty" title="Kongu Chera dynasty">Kongu Chera</a> kingdom (c. 9th–12th century CE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93-16">[16]</a> The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers are unclear. After this, the present day parts of Kerala and Kongunadu became autonomous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201380–81-17">[17]</a> Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola - seem to have conquered the Kongu Chera country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century CE. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon2007118-14">[14]</a> The rulers of <a href="/wiki/Venad" class="mw-redirect" title="Venad">Venad</a> (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of <a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Kollam</a> in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon2007118-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2004368-18">[18]</a> Cheranad was also the name of an erstwhile province in the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Zamorin_of_Calicut" class="mw-redirect" title="Zamorin of Calicut">Zamorin of Calicut</a>, which had included parts of present-day <a href="/wiki/Tirurangadi_Taluk_Office" title="Tirurangadi Taluk Office">Tirurangadi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tirur_Taluk" title="Tirur Taluk">Tirur Taluks</a> of <a href="/wiki/Malappuram_district" title="Malappuram district">Malappuram district</a> in it.<a href="#cite_note-Logan-19">[19]</a> Later it became a <a href="/wiki/Tehsil" title="Tehsil">Taluk</a> of <a href="/wiki/Malabar_District" title="Malabar District">Malabar District</a>, when Malabar came under the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Logan-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Innes-20">[20]</a> The headquarters of Cheranad Taluk was the town of <a href="/wiki/Tirurangadi" title="Tirurangadi">Tirurangadi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Logan-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Innes-20">[20]</a> Later the Taluk was merged with <a href="/wiki/Eranad" title="Eranad">Eranad</a> Taluk.<a href="#cite_note-Logan-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Innes-20">[20]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The term Chera — and its variant form "Keralaputas" — stands for the ruling lineage and the country associated with them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeluthat201813–31-11">[11]</a> The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from Cheral, a corruption of Charal meaning "declivity of a mountain" in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200721-21">[21]</a> Another theory argues that the "Cheralam" is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200721-21">[21]</a> Apart from the speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon201115-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200721-21">[21]</a> In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> edicts (3rd century BCE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay2001-23">[23]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Claudius Ptolemy</a> refer to the Cheras as Kaelobotros and Kerobottros respectively, the <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Graeco-Roman">Graeco-Roman</a> trade map <a href="/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" class="mw-redirect" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei">Periplus Maris Erythraei</a> refers to the Cheras as Keprobotras. All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with <a href="/wiki/Northern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern India">northern India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaldwell199892-24">[24]</a> The term Chera, derived from Dravidian words Cheran (meaning island), is a Classical Tamil name of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> that takes root from the term "Chera".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamachandran199134-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cheras_of_ancient_south_India">Cheras of ancient south India</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Cheras of ancient south India">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silk_route.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/300px-Silk_route.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/450px-Silk_route.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/600px-Silk_route.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2868" data-file-height="1866" /></a><figcaption>Ancient <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> map showing the then trade routes. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/300px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/450px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/600px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="903" /></a><figcaption>Names, routes and locations of the <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a> (1st century CE)</figcaption></figure> Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that the three major rulers – the <a href="/wiki/Pandyan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan dynasty">Pandya</a>, the Chera and the <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a> – based originally in <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a> in Tamil Nadu, <a href="/wiki/Vanchi" class="mw-disambig" title="Vanchi">Vanchi</a>, present day <a href="/wiki/Karur" title="Karur">Karur</a>, in Tamilnadu and <a href="/wiki/Uraiyur" title="Uraiyur">Uraiyur</a>(<a href="/wiki/Tiruchirappalli" title="Tiruchirappalli">Tiruchirappalli</a>) in Tamil Nadu, respectively. They had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely <a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a>, Muchiri (Muziris), and <a href="/wiki/Kaveripattinam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaveripattinam">Kaveripattinam</a> respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a> Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal2002138–150-9">[9]</a>) consisted of the present day northern-central Kerala and Kongu region western Tamil Nadu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeluthat201813–31-11">[11]</a> The rest of Kerala was under <a href="/wiki/Ay_dynasty" title="Ay dynasty">Ay dynasty</a> (southern tip of Kerala) and <a href="/wiki/Mushika_dynasty" title="Mushika dynasty">Mushika dynasty</a> (northern tip of Kerala).The political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a> There was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51-26">[26]</a> The Cheras are referred to as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay2001-23">[23]</a> The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> in the 1st century CE, in the <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus</a> of the 1st century CE, and by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Claudius Ptolemy</a> in the 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200733-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher2018-10">[10]</a> There are brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator <a href="/wiki/Katyayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyayana">Katyayana</a> (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a> (c. 5th century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Kautilya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kautilya">Kautilya (Chanakya)</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3rd - 4th century BCE) [though Sanskrit grammarian <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Panini</a> (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either the people or the land].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200726–29-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeological_discoveries">Archaeological discoveries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Archaeological discoveries">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chera_Inscription_from_Pugalur,_near_Karur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chera_Inscription_from_Pugalur%2C_near_Karur.jpg/220px-Chera_Inscription_from_Pugalur%2C_near_Karur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chera_Inscription_from_Pugalur%2C_near_Karur.jpg/330px-Chera_Inscription_from_Pugalur%2C_near_Karur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chera_Inscription_from_Pugalur%2C_near_Karur.jpg/440px-Chera_Inscription_from_Pugalur%2C_near_Karur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1025" data-file-height="726" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Brahmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Brahmi">Brahmi</a> inscription from Pugalur, near Karur</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chera_coin_(ancient_south_India)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Chera_coin_%28ancient_south_India%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/147px-Chera_coin_%28ancient_south_India%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="147" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Chera_coin_%28ancient_south_India%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/221px-Chera_coin_%28ancient_south_India%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Chera_coin_%28ancient_south_India%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/294px-Chera_coin_%28ancient_south_India%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2184" data-file-height="2096" /></a><figcaption>A Chera coin with legend "Makkotai"</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="150" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="150" /></a><figcaption>A Chera coin with legend "<a href="/wiki/Kuttuvan_Kotai" title="Kuttuvan Kotai">Kuttuvan Kotai</a>"</figcaption></figure> Archaeologists have found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampakalakshmi2003-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher2018-10">[10]</a> Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near <a href="/wiki/Karur" title="Karur">Karur</a>) dated to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of <a href="/wiki/Perumkadungo" class="mw-redirect" title="Perumkadungo">Perum Kadungo</a>, and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher2018-10">[10]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="; font-size: 100%; color: #202122;background-color: #fffcea;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #fffcea;">Irumporai Cheras from Pugalur inscription</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam <ul><li>Ko Athan Chel (Cheral) Irumporai</li> <li>Perum Kadungon [Irumporai]</li> <li>Ilam Kadungo [Irumporai]</li></ul> </blockquote> </div> A short Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at <a href="/wiki/Edakkal_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Edakkal Caves">Edakkal</a> in the Western Ghats.<a href="#cite_note-The_Hindu_2012-30">[30]</a> Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the <a href="/wiki/Palakkad_Gap" title="Palakkad Gap">Palghat Gap</a> to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Frontline_2012-31">[31]</a> Historians have yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at <a href="/wiki/Pattanam" title="Pattanam">Pattanam</a> (near <a href="/wiki/Kochi" title="Kochi">Cochin</a>) suggest a strong case of identification with the location.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a> Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni).<a href="#cite_note-The_Hindu_2007-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frontline_2012-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chera_coinage">Chera coinage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chera coinage">edit</a>]</div> A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the <a href="/wiki/Amaravati_River" title="Amaravati River">Amaravati</a> riverbed in Tamil Nadu, are a major source of early Chera historiography.<a href="#cite_note-The_Hindu_2007-32">[32]</a> This includes a number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend. Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a> coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to the Cheras, have been discovered from <a href="/wiki/Pattanam" title="Pattanam">Pattanam</a> in central Kerala.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Bronze dyes for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016-12">[12]</a> Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend "<a href="/wiki/Kuttuvan_Kotai" title="Kuttuvan Kotai">Kuttuvan Kotai</a>" above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1st century CE or a little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank.<a href="#cite_note-The_Hindu_2007-32">[32]</a> The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016-12">[12]</a> "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016-12">[12]</a> were also discovered from <a href="/wiki/Karur" title="Karur">Karur</a>. The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016-12">[12]</a> All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained the bow and arrow symbol. An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016-12">[12]</a> The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin. A silver coin with the portrait of a person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family.<a href="#cite_note-The_Hindu_2007-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cheras_from_early_Tamil_texts">Cheras from early Tamil texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cheras from early Tamil texts">edit</a>]</div> A large body of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> works collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam (Academy) texts</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2nd century BCE- 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil199212-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri1955105-35">[35]</a> Among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the <a href="/wiki/Pati%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppattu" title="Patiṟṟuppattu">Pathitrupattu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Agananuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Agananuru">Akananuru</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Purananuru" title="Purananuru">Purananuru</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200726–29-28">[28]</a> The Pathitrupattu, the fourth book in the <a href="/wiki/Ettuthokai" class="mw-redirect" title="Ettuthokai">Ettuthokai</a> anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53-2">[2]</a> Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil199212-34">[34]</a> However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanakasabhai1997-36">[36]</a> A method known as <a href="/wiki/Gajabahu_synchronism" title="Gajabahu synchronism">Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism</a>, is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1st - 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanakasabhai1997-36">[36]</a> Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197337–39-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPillai1956-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197338-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilango_Adigal" title="Ilango Adigal">Ilango Adigal</a> author of the legendary Tamil epic poem <a href="/wiki/Silappatikaram" class="mw-redirect" title="Silappatikaram">Chilapathikaram</a> describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (virakkallu) for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at <a href="/wiki/Thiruvanchikulam_Temple" title="Thiruvanchikulam Temple">Vanchi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETikkanen2018-40">[40]</a> A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with <a href="/wiki/Gajabahu_I_of_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka">Gajabahu</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200770-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon1967-42">[42]</a> In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a> as per akananuru Kaluvul was a velir chieftain of Kamur who fought against the chera supremacy. <a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Perum chera irumporai along with fourteen chieftains attacked kamur but perum chera irumporai was impressed with Kaluvuls resistance in battle field and let him rule kamur and accepted friendship from him. <a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>.Some of the velirs under Kaluvul joined the chera after the defeat. <a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Utiyan_Cheralathan" class="mw-redirect" title="Utiyan Cheralathan">Uthiyan Cheral Athan</a> is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Sangam texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decade of <a href="/wiki/Pati%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppattu" title="Patiṟṟuppattu">Pathitrupattu</a>). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" (<a href="/wiki/Purananuru" title="Purananuru">Purananuru</a>). His headquarters were at Kuzhumur near <a href="/wiki/Kuttanad" title="Kuttanad">Kuttanad</a>(<a href="/wiki/Agananuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Agananuru">Akananuru</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193705–10-47">[47]</a> He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the <a href="/wiki/Kurukshetra_War" title="Kurukshetra War">Kurukshetra War</a> (<a href="/wiki/Purananuru" title="Purananuru">Purananuru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agananuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Agananuru">Akananuru</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193705–10-47">[47]</a> He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan (<a href="/wiki/Pati%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppattu" title="Patiṟṟuppattu">Pathitrupattu (II)</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193705–10-47">[47]</a> Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler <a href="/wiki/Karikala" title="Karikala">Karikala</a>. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193705–10-47">[47]</a> As the name Pathitrupattu indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting a decade of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a> <table class="sortable wikitable" style="width: 90%; font-size: 85%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"> <caption>Cells table centred Cheras from <a href="/wiki/Pati%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppattu" title="Patiṟṟuppattu">Pathitrupattu</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" style="width: 50px;">Decade of <a href="/wiki/Pati%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppattu" title="Patiṟṟuppattu">Pathitrupattu</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 150px;">Chera </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 50px;">Relation </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 50px;">Bard </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 50px;">Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>II </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nedum_Cheralathan" title="Nedum Cheralathan">Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan</a> </td> <td>Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (by Veliyan's daughter Nallini)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193710–13-49">[49]</a> </td> <td>Kannanar<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53-2">[2]</a> </td> <td>Nedum Cheral Athan was also known as "Imayavaramban". He is praised for having subdued "seven crowned kings" to achieve the title of adhiraja.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200767–68-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193710–13-49">[49]</a> Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from <a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari" title="Kanyakumari">Kumari</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200767–68-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193710–13-49">[49]</a> The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadamba Dynasty">Kadambas</a>) whom he defeated in battles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193710–13-49">[49]</a> Nedum Cheral Athan is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51-26">[26]</a> Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193710–13-49">[49]</a> He also punished and extracted ransom from the Yavanas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51-26">[26]</a> Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193736–38-51">[51]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>III </td> <td>Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan </td> <td>Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (younger brother of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193715–17-52">[52]</a> </td> <td>Palai Kauthamanar<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53-2">[2]</a> </td> <td>Credited as the conqueror of "Konkar Nadu".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193715–17-52">[52]</a> Described as lord of Puzhi Nadu and the Cheruppu and Aiyirai Mountains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193715–17-52">[52]</a> Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193715–17-52">[52]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>IV </td> <td>Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral </td> <td>Son of Imayavaramban.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193717–21-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>Kappiyattukku Kappiyanar<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193752–53-54">[54]</a> </td> <td>Narmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/<a href="/wiki/Athiyam%C4%81n" title="Athiyamān">Satyaputra</a> of Tagadur). Initially the Chera was defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200767–68-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon1967-42">[42]</a> Performed his coronation using holy water from both the western and eastern oceans (brought by a relay of elephants).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51-26">[26]</a> Also known as "Vanavaramban".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193717–21-53">[53]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>V </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Senguttuvan" class="mw-redirect" title="Senguttuvan">Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan</a> </td> <td>Son of Nedum Cheral Athan </td> <td>Paranar<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193752–53-54">[54]</a> </td> <td>Chenguttuvan is identified with "Kadal Pirakottiya" Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan. Chenguttuvan was a son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193721–23-55">[55]</a> Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon1967-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200767–68-50">[50]</a> In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative <a href="/wiki/Nalankilli" title="Nalankilli">Nalam Killi</a> on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193721–23-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Silappatikaram" class="mw-redirect" title="Silappatikaram">Chilapathikaram</a>, Chenguttuvan led his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt the idol of goddess Pattini.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51-26">[26]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VI </td> <td>Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193727–32-56">[56]</a> </td> <td>Successor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200770-41">[41]</a>(son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan and brother of Narmudi Cheral)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193727–32-56">[56]</a> </td> <td>Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar (poetess)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193752–53-54">[54]</a> </td> <td>Probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola <a href="/wiki/Karikala" title="Karikala">Karikala</a> at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, Uthiyan Cheral was wounded on the back by <a href="/wiki/Karikala" title="Karikala">Karikala</a>. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193727–32-56">[56]</a> Controlled the port of Naravu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193727–32-56">[56]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VII </td> <td>Selva Kadumko Valia Athan </td> <td>Son of Anthuvan Cheral<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193738–40-57">[57]</a> </td> <td>Kapilar<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193752–53-54">[54]</a> </td> <td>Selvakadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51-26">[26]</a> He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the <a href="/wiki/Pandya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandya">Pandyas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Chola">Cholas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193738–40-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53-2">[2]</a> Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193738–41-58">[58]</a> Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193738–40-57">[57]</a> He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2nd century CE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200770-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53-2">[2]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VIII </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Perum_Cheral_Irumporai" title="Perum Cheral Irumporai">Tagadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193741–43-59">[59]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>Arichil Kizhar<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193752–53-54">[54]</a> </td> <td>"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur Adigaman Ezhni at <a href="/wiki/Dharmapuri" title="Dharmapuri">Tagadur</a>. He is also called "the lord of Puzhinadu and "the lord of Kollimalai" and "the lord of [Poom]Puhar". Puhar was the Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor Idayar chief called Kazhuval (Kazhuvul).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200771-60">[60]</a>Addressed as "Kodai Marba". Father of Illam Cheral Irumporai.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193741–43-59">[59]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>IX </td> <td>"Kudakko" Illam Cheral Irumporai<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193744–45-61">[61]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>Perunkundur Kizhar<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53-2">[2]</a> </td> <td>Illam Cheral Irumporai defeated Perum Chola, Ilam Pazhaiyan Maran and Vicchi, and destroyed "five forts". Lord of Tondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193744–45-61">[61]</a> Described as the descendant of <a href="/wiki/Nedum_Cheralathan" title="Nedum Cheralathan">Nedum Cheral Athan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193710–13-49">[49]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> The following Cheras are knowns from <a href="/wiki/Purananuru" title="Purananuru">Purananuru</a> collection (some of the names are re-duplications).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>Karuvur Eriya Ol-val Ko Perum Cheral Irumporai<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a> - Ruled of Karuvur. Praised by Nariveruttalaiyar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193734–36-62">[62]</a></li> <li>Kadungo Valia Athan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Palai Padiya Perum Kadumko<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Antuvan Cheral Irumporai<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a> - father of Selva Kadumko Valia Athan (VII decade). Contemporary to Chola Mudittalai Ko Perunar Killi (whose elephant famously wandered to Karuvur).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193736–38-51">[51]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanaikatchai_Mantaran_Cheral_Irumporai" title="Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai">"Yanaikatchai" Mantaram Cheral Irumporai</a> ruled from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai on the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle at Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian (early 3rd century CE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a>) captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. However, he managed to escape and regain the lost territories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200772-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Ko Kodai Marban<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Takadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuttuvan_Kodai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuttuvan Kodai">Kuttuvan Kodai</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Perum Cheral Athan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Kanaikkal Irumporai is said to have defeated a chief called Muvan and imprisoned him. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of the prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Thondi. Upon capture by the Chola ruler <a href="/wiki/Kocengannan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kocengannan">Sengannan</a>, Kanaikkal committed suicide by starvation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200772-63">[63]</a></li> <li>Kudakko Cheral Irumporai<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Kottambalattu Tunchiya Makkodai<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a> - probably identical with Kottambalattu Tunchiya Cheraman in <a href="/wiki/Agananuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Agananuru">Akananuru (168)</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193705–10-47">[47]</a></li> <li>Vanchan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Kadalottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Man Venko<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193701–05-48">[48]</a> - a friend of the Pandya Ugra Peruvaluti and the Chola Rajasuyam Vetta Perunar Killi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAiyar193760–61-64">[64]</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cheras_in_the_medieval_period">Cheras in the medieval period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cheras in the medieval period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kongu_Chera_dynasty" title="Kongu Chera dynasty">Kongu Chera dynasty</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kalabhras_territories.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Kalabhras_territories.png" decoding="async" width="270" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="270" data-file-height="143" /></a><figcaption>The approximate extent of Kalabhra supremacy in southern India.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">image reference needed</a>]</figcaption></figure> After the 5th century CE, the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon2007118-14">[14]</a> Comparatively little is known about Cheras during this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201380–81_and_88–93-65">[65]</a> Cheras of Kongu country (<a href="/wiki/Karur" title="Karur">Karur</a>) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93-16">[16]</a> There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93-16">[16]</a> The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre-<a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava</a> (early historic) south India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93-16">[16]</a> <ul><li>An inscription of <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_dynasty" title="Kadamba dynasty">Kadamba</a> king Vishnu Varma, dated 5th or 6th century, can be found at Edakkal cave in <a href="/wiki/Wayanad" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayanad">Wayanad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFawcett1901409–421-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201390-91_and_103-04-67">[67]</a> An early historic Chera graffiti containing the phrase "Kadummi Putra Chera" was also discovered from the cave.<a href="#cite_note-The_Hindu_2012-30">[30]</a></li> <li>Tradition tells that the <a href="/wiki/Kalabhra_dynasty" title="Kalabhra dynasty">Kalabhra</a> (Kalvar<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a>) rulers kept the Chera, <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a> rulers in their confinement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201380–81_and_88–93-65">[65]</a></li> <li>The earliest <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> king to claim overlordship over Chera/Kerala is <a href="/wiki/Kirttivarman_I" title="Kirttivarman I">Kirttivarman I</a> (fl. 566 - 598 CE) (this claim is generally considered as a "boastfull exaggeration" by historians). A later grant (695 CE) of king <a href="/wiki/Vinayaditya_of_Vatapi" title="Vinayaditya of Vatapi">Vinayaditya</a>, with reference to the vassalage of the Kerala country, is now reckoned as a more dependable record.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201390-91_and_103-04-67">[67]</a> Several Chalukya records of the 7th and 8th centuries speak of the conquest and vassalage of the Kerala country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201390-91_and_103-04-67">[67]</a></li> <li>A number of <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava</a> records also mention the vassalage of the Kerala country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201390-91_and_103-04-67">[67]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakuta</a> inscriptions mention "an alliance of Dravida kings including Kerala, Pandya, Chola and Pallava who were defeated" (E. I., XVIII). The Keralas mentioned there might be the Kongu Cheras who had already submitted to the Pandyas (and not <a href="/wiki/Chera/Perumals_of_Makotai" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera/Perumals of Makotai">Chera Perumals</a> of Kerala).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201393–95-68">[68]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pandya_conquests_in_Chera_country">Pandya conquests in Chera country</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pandya conquests in Chera country">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_India_in_early_11th_century_AD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/South_India_in_early_11th_century_AD.jpg/275px-South_India_in_early_11th_century_AD.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/South_India_in_early_11th_century_AD.jpg/413px-South_India_in_early_11th_century_AD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/South_India_in_early_11th_century_AD.jpg/550px-South_India_in_early_11th_century_AD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="6142" /></a><figcaption>Chera Perumal Kingdom with the <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola Empire</a> on the east.</figcaption></figure> There are clear attestations of repeated <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a> conquests of the Kerala or Chera country in the 7th and 8th centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201390-91_and_103-04-67">[67]</a> <ul><li>Pandya king Sendan/Jayantan (fl. 645 – 70 CE) was known as the Vanavan, an ancient name for the Chera king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201390-91_and_103-04-67">[67]</a> Arikesari Maravarman (670 – 710 CE), another Pandya ruler, probably defeated the Keralas/Cheras on several occasions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201390-91_and_103-04-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201380–81-17">[17]</a> His successor Ko Chadayan Ranadhira also made gains against the Cheras.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalziel2016-69">[69]</a></li> <li>The so-called "renewal of the capital city of Vanchi (<a href="/wiki/Karur" title="Karur">Karur</a>) along with Kudal (<a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a>) and Kozhi (<a href="/wiki/Uraiyur" title="Uraiyur">Uraiyur</a>)", described in the Madras Museum Plates of the Pandya king Rajasimha I (730 – 65 CE), may suggest a Pandya occupation of the Kongu Chera capital Karur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201393–95-68">[68]</a></li> <li>It is known that when Pandya king Jatila Parantaka (765 – 815 CE) went to war against the Adigaman of Tagadur (<a href="/wiki/Dharmapuri" title="Dharmapuri">Dharmapuri</a>), the Keralas and the Pallavas went to the aid of the latter though "the Pandyas drove them back to the quarters from which they had emerged" (Madras Museum Plates).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201393-95_and_107-70">[70]</a> Perhaps the Chera branch from present-day Kerala had crossed the <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Ghat Mountains</a> to offer support to the Adigaman and after defeat they were pursued up to the <a href="/wiki/Palakkad_Gap" title="Palakkad Gap">Palghat Gap</a> by the Pandya forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201393-95_and_107-70">[70]</a></li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Ancient_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="602" height="401" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Cheras of central Kerala </figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera/Kerala kingdom (around 8th-9th century CE) to form the Chera/Perumal kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93-16">[16]</a></li> <li>The Pandyas are known to have made a defensive alliance with the Cheras of Kongu country (who were under their influence) in this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalziel2016-69">[69]</a> Pandya king Parantaka Vira Narayana (c. 880 – 900 CE) is known to have married a Kerala (Kongu Chera) princess "Vanavan Maha Devi".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201395-96_and_108-71">[71]</a> The son of this alliance, Rajasimha, described as a member of Chandra-Aditya Kula (Sinnamanur copper plates), was "destroyed by the Chola king Parantaka".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201395-96_and_108-71">[71]</a> It was initially assumed by <a href="/wiki/K._A._Nilakanta_Sastri" title="K. A. Nilakanta Sastri">K. A. N. Sastri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elamkulam_Kunjan_Pillai" title="Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai">E. P. N. K. Pillai</a> that the Vira Narayana had married a Chera Perumal princess of Kerala.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201395-96_and_108-71">[71]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chola_conquests_of_Chera_country">Chola conquests of Chera country</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chola conquests of Chera country">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The Kongu country was conquered by the Cholas (either by Srikantha or <a href="/wiki/Aditya_I" title="Aditya I">Aditya I Chola</a>) in the last years of the 9th century CE (this campaign probably involved battles between Aditya I and Parantaka Vira Narayana). The Pandyas were eventually defeated in the "great battle" of Sripurambiyam (c. 885).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201397-72">[72]</a></li> <li>The Pandyas were defeated by Chola king <a href="/wiki/Parantaka_I" title="Parantaka I">Parantaka</a> in 910 CE (the fate of the Kongu Chera country, then ruled by Kongu Cheras, upon the fall of Madurai is not known).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201398-99_and_111-73">[73]</a> Pandya king Rajasimha II, who was defeated by Parantaka Chola, is known to have found asylum in Kerala or Chera country (c. 920 CE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201398-99_and_111-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Parantaka_II" title="Parantaka II">Chola king Sundara</a> (c. 956 – c. 973 CE) had a Chera or Kerala princess among his queens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013100–01-74">[74]</a></li> <li>Kongu Chera country (and the Chera Perumal kingdom) was subsequently conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Cholas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201380–81-17">[17]</a> <ul><li>Amara Bhujanga Deva, one of the princes defeated by Chola king <a href="/wiki/Rajaraja" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajaraja">Rajaraja</a> (Tiruvalangadu Grant), was probably a Pandya or a Kongu Chera prince.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013116-117_and_136-75">[75]</a></li> <li>Chola king <a href="/wiki/Rajadhiraja" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajadhiraja">Rajadhiraja</a> is known for defeating certain Vira Kerala, one of the so-called "thennavar muvar", and trampling him to death by his war elephant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013121–122-76">[76]</a> This royal was probably a Kongu-Chera of Chandra-Aditya Kula or a <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a> prince (son of a Pandya and a Kongu Chera princess).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013304-05_and_322-23-77">[77]</a> Vira Kerala was previously considered as a Chera Perumal king (<a href="/wiki/K._A._Nilakanta_Sastri" title="K. A. Nilakanta Sastri">K. A. N. Sastri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elamkulam_Kunjan_Pillai" title="Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai">E. P. N. K. Pillai</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201384–85-78">[78]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chera_Perumals_of_Kerala">Chera Perumals of Kerala</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Chera Perumals of Kerala">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chera/Perumals_of_Makotai" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera/Perumals of Makotai">Chera/Perumals of Makotai</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheraman_Perumal_Nayanar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Cheraman_Perumal_Nayanar.jpg/290px-Cheraman_Perumal_Nayanar.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="423" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Cheraman_Perumal_Nayanar.jpg/436px-Cheraman_Perumal_Nayanar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Cheraman_Perumal_Nayanar.jpg/581px-Cheraman_Perumal_Nayanar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1397" data-file-height="2035" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of Cherman Perumal Nayanar - Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur</figcaption></figure> While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–145-1">[1]</a> Scholars tend to identify Alvar saint <a href="/wiki/Kulashekhara_Alwar" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulashekhara Alwar">Kulasekhara</a> and Nayanar saint <a href="/wiki/Cheraman_Perumal_Nayanar" title="Cheraman Perumal Nayanar">Cherman Perumal</a> (literally "the Chera king") with some of the earliest Perumals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–44-79">[79]</a> The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201380–81_and_88–93-65">[65]</a> The Later arrived <a href="/wiki/Nambudiri" title="Nambudiri">Nambutiris</a> from Northern land asked for a regent of the Chera king from Karur in Coimbatore and were granted lands from Tamil kings hailing from <a href="/wiki/Pundurai" class="mw-redirect" title="Pundurai">Pundurai</a>. Hence the Tamil kings lost their power to Newly arrived Namboothris who created <a href="/wiki/Zamorin" title="Zamorin">Zamorin</a> and started to call themselves title 'Punthurakkon' (King from Punthura).<a href="#cite_note-Thurston-80">[80]</a> After this, the Malabar and Kerala parts became autonomous of Karur. The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2004331-32_and_364-65-81">[81]</a> The port of <a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Kollam</a>, in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2004382–83-82">[82]</a> Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in the structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a <a href="/wiki/Tamils" title="Tamils">Tamil</a> military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGanesh20093–21-83">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Nambudiri-Brahmin</a> settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2004331-32_and_379-80-84">[84]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Romila Thapar, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></cite></div></blockquote> The Chera Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Cholas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandyas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2004364–65-85">[85]</a> The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in the early 11th century CE (in order to break the monopoly of trade with the Middle East).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2004364–65-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–144-86">[86]</a> When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in the 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGanesh20093–21-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Government">edit</a>]</div> The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200775-87">[87]</a> The extent of political formation in pre-Pallava<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal2002138–150-9">[9]</a> south India (before c. third century CE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a>) was a matter of considerable debate among historians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53-2">[2]</a> Although earlier scholars visualised early historic south Indian polities as full-fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of state formation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–145-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200777-88">[88]</a> According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, ancient south India was a combination of several "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms". These polities were structured by the dominance of "agro-pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a> Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeluthat201813–31-11">[11]</a> Reaching conclusions based on the early Tamil poems and archaeological evidences is another topic of disagreement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200767-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200775–76-90">[90]</a> It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the early historic period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a>]</div> The early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly "pastoral-cum-agrarian" based system. The emphasis on agriculture increased with time, and provided the base for larger economic change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a> The early historic south India (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a>) can be described as a "semi-tribal political economy". In a 2013 paper, historian Rajan Gurukkal describes ancient south India as a collection of "unevenly evolved and kinship-based redistributive economies."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spice_trade">Spice trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Spice trade">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silk_route.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/309px-Silk_route.jpg" decoding="async" width="309" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/464px-Silk_route.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/618px-Silk_route.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2868" data-file-height="1866" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> (Red) and Spice Routes (Blues)</figcaption></figure> Exchange relations with the merchants from Graeco-Roman world, the "<a href="/wiki/Yavanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavanas">Yavanas</a>", and with north India provided considerable economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom. Indian Ocean exchange was the major economic activity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a> There is some difference of opinion with regard to the nature of the "spice trade" in ancient Chera country. It is disputed whether this "trade" with the Mediterranean world was managed on equal terms by the Tamil merchants, in view of the existence of apparently unequal political institutions in south India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESubbarayalu201521–26-91">[91]</a> Some of the more recent studies point out that the "trade" was an exchange of "serious imbalance", because of its being between the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> and South India with uneven chiefdoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a> The geographical advantages, like the favourable Monsoon winds which carried ships directly from the Arabia to south India as well as the abundance of exotic spices in the interior Ghat mountains (and the presence of a large number of rivers connecting the Ghats with the Arabian Sea) combined to make the Cheras a major power in ancient southern India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdward_Balfour1871584-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a> Spice exchange with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators can be traced back to before the Common Era and was substantially consolidated in the early years of the Common Era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> In the first century CE, the Romans conquered Egypt, which probably helped them to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade. The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> in the 1st century CE, in <a href="/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" class="mw-redirect" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei">Periplus Maris Erythraei</a> of the 1st century CE, and by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Claudius Ptolemy</a> in the 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaldwell199892-24">[24]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus Maris Erythraei</a> portrays the "trade" in the territory of Keprobotras in detail. <a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a> was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the Periplus, "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks". Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were "exported" from the Chera country to the Middle East and Mediterranean kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004105–-94">[94]</a> It is known that the Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for <a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">black pepper</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlin2010-95">[95]</a> This is testified by the Roman coin hoards that have been found in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, in the 1st century CE, laments the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The spice trade across the Indian Ocean dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the 3rd - 4th centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a> With the exit of the Mediterranean from the spice trade, their space was picked up by the Chinese and Arab navigators.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–145-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wootz_steel">Wootz steel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Wootz steel">edit</a>]</div> The famous <a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">damascus blades</a> resulted from the unique properties of <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">wootz crucible steel</a> from medieval south India and Sri Lanka.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high-carbon Indian steel. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BCE at <a href="/wiki/Kodumanal" title="Kodumanal">Kodumanal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Golconda" title="Golconda">Golconda</a> in <a href="/wiki/Telangana" title="Telangana">Telangana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>. This steel was termed "the finest steel in the world" by the Romans who referred to it by the term "Seric". It was exported to Rome, Egypt, China and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> by 500 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz".<a href="#cite_note-Davidson20-100">[100]</a> The method was to heat black <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a> ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>, then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as <a href="/wiki/Senna_auriculata" title="Senna auriculata">Avārai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davidson20-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burton111-101">[101]</a> The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras by the 5th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-Needham282-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Manning365-103">[103]</a> In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as <a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura" title="Anuradhapura">Anuradhapura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tissamaharama" title="Tissamaharama">Tissamaharama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samanalawewa" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanalawewa">Samanalawewa</a>, as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A <a href="/wiki/Tissamaharama_Tamil_Brahmi_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Tissamaharama Tamil Brahmi inscription">200 BCE Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama</a>, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mahathevan-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ragupathy-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Cheras">Early Cheras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Early Cheras">edit</a>]</div> In general, early Tamil texts reflect the southern Indian cultural tradition as well as elements of the northern Indian cultural tradition, which by now was beginning to come into contact with <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">southern India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a> It is logical to conclude that most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian religions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200783-108">[108]</a> Religious practice might have consisted predominantly of conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre-eminent god <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a> The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship. The war goddess <a href="/wiki/Korravai" title="Korravai">Korravai</a> was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat and <a href="/wiki/Palm_toddy" class="mw-redirect" title="Palm toddy">toddy</a>. It is theorised that Kottava was assimilated into the present-day form of the goddess <a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200783-108">[108]</a> It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries. It was only in the 8th century CE that the Aryanisation of the old Chera country reached its organised form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200789-109">[109]</a> Though the vast majority of the population followed native practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brahmanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanism">Brahmanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200783-108">[108]</a> Populations of <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christians" title="Saint Thomas Christians">Christians</a> were also known to have lived in Kerala.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlapak200378-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP._Gregorios_and_R._G._Roberson2008285-111">[111]</a> Early Tamil texts do make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word kudi ("group") to denote "caste".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">[4]</a> A striking feature of the social life of the early historic period (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">[6]</a>) is the high status accorded to women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200778-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200777-88">[88]</a> Agriculture and pastoralism were the primary occupations of the people. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. Poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Early Tamil texts are full of references about the lavish patronage extended to court poets. There were professional poets and poetesses who composed texts praising their patrons and were generously rewarded for this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200779–80-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava dynasty</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–145-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–145_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–145_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–145_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima2014143–145_1-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFKarashima2014">Karashima 2014</a>, pp. 143–145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53_2-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197352–53_2-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFZvelebil1973">Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 52–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historyunravelled.com/kingdoms/the-chera-dynasty">"The Cheras - The creators of the land of Kerala | History Unravelled"</a>. historyunravelled.com. Retrieved 2 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=historyunravelled.com&rft.atitle=The+Cheras+-+The+creators+of+the+land+of+Kerala+%7C+History+Unravelled&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistoryunravelled.com%2Fkingdoms%2Fthe-chera-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2018-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2018_4-11">l</a> <a href="#CITEREFThapar2018">Thapar 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdward_Balfour1871584-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdward_Balfour1871584_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdward_Balfour1871584_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdward_Balfour1871">Edward Balfour 1871</a>, p. 584. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal201526–27_6-16">q</a> <a href="#CITEREFGurukkal2015">Gurukkal 2015</a>, pp. 26–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-Trade-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Trade_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubramanian2007" class="citation news cs1">Subramanian, T. 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Retrieved 28 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Roman+connection+in+Tamil+Nadu&rft.date=2007-01-28&rft.aulast=Subramanian&rft.aufirst=T.+S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindu.com%2Fthehindu%2Fthscrip%2Fprint.pl%3Ffile%3D2007012800201800.htm%26date%3D2007%2F01%2F28%2F%26prd%3Dth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> KA Nilakanta Sastri </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurukkal2002138–150-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal2002138–150_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal2002138–150_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurukkal2002138–150_9-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGurukkal2002">Gurukkal 2002</a>, pp. 138–150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPletcher2018-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher2018_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher2018_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher2018_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPletcher2018_10-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFPletcher2018">Pletcher 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeluthat201813–31-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeluthat201813–31_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeluthat201813–31_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeluthat201813–31_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeluthat201813–31_11-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFVeluthat2018">Veluthat 2018</a>, pp. 13–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016_12-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016_12-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016_12-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016_12-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajumdar2016_12-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFMajumdar2016">Majumdar 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan2013_13-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNarayanan2013">Narayanan 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon2007118-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon2007118_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon2007118_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon2007118_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon2007118_14-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon2007">Menon 2007</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389–90,_92–93-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389–90,_92–93_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNarayanan2013">Narayanan 2013</a>, pp. 89–90, 92–93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93_16-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93_16-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan201389-90_and_92-93_16-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFNarayanan2013">Narayanan 2013</a>, pp. 89-90 and 92-93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan201380–81-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan201380–81_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan201380–81_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan201380–81_17-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNarayanan2013">Narayanan 2013</a>, pp. 80–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2004368-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2004368_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThapar2004">Thapar 2004</a>, p. 368. </li> <li id="cite_note-Logan-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Logan_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Logan_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Logan_19-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Logan_19-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLogan2010" class="citation book cs1">Logan, William (2010). Malabar Manual (Volume-I). New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. pp. 631–666. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120604476" title="Special:BookSources/9788120604476"><bdi>9788120604476</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malabar+Manual+%28Volume-I%29&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=631-666&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9788120604476&rft.aulast=Logan&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Innes-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Innes_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Innes_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Innes_20-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC.A.1908" class="citation book cs1">C.A., Innes (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w806vgAACAAJ">Madras District Gazetteers: Malabar and Anjengo</a>. Government Press, Madras. p. 373. Retrieved 30 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madras+District+Gazetteers%3A+Malabar+and+Anjengo&rft.pages=373&rft.pub=Government+Press%2C+Madras&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=C.A.&rft.aufirst=Innes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw806vgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200721-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200721_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200721_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200721_21-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon2007">Menon 2007</a>, p. 21: Citing K. Achyutha Menon, Ancient Kerala: Studies in Its History and Culture, pp. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon201115-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon201115_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon2011">Menon 2011</a>, p. 15: According to Menon, this etymology of "added" or "reclaimed" land also complements the <a href="/wiki/Parashurama" title="Parashurama">Parashurama</a> myth about the formation of Kerala. In it, Parashurama, one of the avatars of <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a>, flung his axe across the sea from <a href="/wiki/Gokarnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Gokarnam">Gokarnam</a> towards <a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari" title="Kanyakumari">Kanyakumari</a> (or vice versa) and the water receded up to the spot where it landed, thus creating Kerala. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeay2001-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeay2001_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeay2001_23-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeay2001">Keay 2001</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaldwell199892-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaldwell199892_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaldwell199892_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCaldwell1998">Caldwell 1998</a>, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamachandran199134-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamachandran199134_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamachandran1991">Ramachandran 1991</a>, p. 34: "Sri Lanka was known as "Cerantivu" (island of the Cera kings) in those days. The seal has two lines. The line above contains three signs in Indus script and the line below contains three alphabets in the ancient Tamil script known as Tamil" </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51_26-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51_26-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51_26-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarashima201450–51_26-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFKarashima2014">Karashima 2014</a>, pp. 50–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200733-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200733_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon2007">Menon 2007</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200726–29-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200726–29_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200726–29_28-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon2007">Menon 2007</a>, pp. 26–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampakalakshmi2003-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChampakalakshmi2003_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChampakalakshmi2003">Champakalakshmi 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Hindu_2012-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Hindu_2012_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Hindu_2012_30-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFThe_Hindu2012">The Hindu 2012</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frontline_2012-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frontline_2012_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frontline_2012_31-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrontline2012">Frontline 2012</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Hindu_2007-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Hindu_2007_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Hindu_2007_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Hindu_2007_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Hindu_2007_32-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFThe_Hindu2007">The Hindu 2007</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThe_Hindu2004">The Hindu 2004</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil199212-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil199212_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil199212_34-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFZvelebil1992">Zvelebil 1992</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri1955105-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri1955105_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSastri1955">Sastri 1955</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanakasabhai1997-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanakasabhai1997_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanakasabhai1997_36-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKanakasabhai1997">Kanakasabhai 1997</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197337–39-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197337–39_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZvelebil1973">Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 37–39: The opinion that the Gajabahu Synchronism is an expression of genuine historical tradition is accepted by most scholars today. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPillai1956-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPillai1956_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPillai1956">Pillai 1956</a>: "We may be reasonably certain that chronological conclusion reached above is historically sound" </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197338-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197338_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZvelebil1973">Zvelebil 1973</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETikkanen2018-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETikkanen2018_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTikkanen2018">Tikkanen 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200770-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200770_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200770_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200770_41-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon2007">Menon 2007</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon1967-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon1967_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon1967_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon1967_42-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon1967">Menon 1967</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFV2008" class="citation book cs1">V, Ramamurthy (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DH1uAAAAMAAJ&q=kaluvul+velir">History of Kongu: Pre-historic period to 1300 A.D</a>. 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Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Pitt_Rivers_Museum" title="Pitt Rivers Museum">Pitt Rivers Museum</a>. pp. 99–100.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+on+prehistoric+and+early+iron+in+the+Old+World&rft.pages=99-100&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Pitt+Rivers+Museum&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Coghlan&rft.aufirst=Herbert+Henery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSasisekharan1999" class="citation journal cs1">Sasisekharan, B. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150724033115/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf">"Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal"</a> (PDF). Indian Journal of History of Science. 34 (4). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Technology+of+Iron+and+Steel+in+Kodumanal&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Sasisekharan&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.new1.dli.ernet.in%2Fdata1%2Fupload%2Finsa%2FINSA_1%2F20005b66_263.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davidson20-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davidson20_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davidson20_100-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson1998" class="citation book cs1">Davidson, Hilda Roderick Ellis (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nY0T9n4zAQAC&pg=PA20">The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature</a>. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-716-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-716-0"><bdi>978-0-85115-716-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sword+in+Anglo-Saxon+England%3A+Its+Archaeology+and+Literature&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer+Ltd&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-85115-716-0&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Hilda+Roderick+Ellis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnY0T9n4zAQAC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burton111-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Burton111_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurton1884" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton" title="Richard Francis Burton">Burton, Sir Richard Francis</a> (1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/booksword00unkngoog#page/n152/mode/2up">The Book of the Sword</a>. London: Chatto & Windus. p. 111.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+the+Sword&rft.place=London&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Chatto+%26+Windus&rft.date=1884&rft.aulast=Burton&rft.aufirst=Sir+Richard+Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fbooksword00unkngoog%23page%2Fn152%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Needham282-102"><a href="#cite_ref-Needham282_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1 April 1971). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology. Cambridge University Press. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52107-060-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-52107-060-7"><bdi>978-0-52107-060-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+4%2C+Physics+and+Physical+Technology&rft.pages=282&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1971-04-01&rft.isbn=978-0-52107-060-7&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manning365-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Manning365_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning" class="citation book cs1">Manning, Charlotte Speir. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365">Ancient and Medieval India</a>. Vol. 2. p. 365. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-543-92943-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-543-92943-3"><bdi>978-0-543-92943-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+and+Medieval+India&rft.pages=365&rft.isbn=978-0-543-92943-3&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Charlotte+Speir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnmESJR3a0RYC%26pg%3DPA365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Hobbies (April 1963) Vol. 68, No.5, p.45, Chicago: Lightner Publishing Company. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mahathevan-105"><a href="#cite_ref-Mahathevan_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahathevan2010" class="citation news cs1">Mahathevan, Iravatham (24 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/An-epigraphic-perspective-on-the-antiquity-of-Tamil/article16265606.ece">"An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a>. The Hindu Group. Retrieved 31 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=An+epigraphic+perspective+on+the+antiquity+of+Tamil&rft.date=2010-06-24&rft.aulast=Mahathevan&rft.aufirst=Iravatham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fopinion%2Fop-ed%2FAn-epigraphic-perspective-on-the-antiquity-of-Tamil%2Farticle16265606.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ragupathy-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Ragupathy_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRagupathy2010" class="citation news cs1">Ragupathy, P. (28 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=32303">"Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population"</a>. Tamilnet. Retrieved 31 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tamilnet&rft.atitle=Tissamaharama+potsherd+evidences+ordinary+early+Tamils+among+population&rft.date=2010-06-28&rft.aulast=Ragupathy&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tamilnet.com%2Fart.html%3Fcatid%3D79%26artid%3D32303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeology.lk/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Dinithi-Volume-1-Issue-4.pdf">"Dinithi"</a> (PDF). Sri Lanka Archaeology. 1 (4). February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sri+Lanka+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Dinithi&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2012-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeology.lk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F02%2FDinithi-Volume-1-Issue-4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200783-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200783_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200783_108-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200783_108-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon2007">Menon 2007</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200789-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200789_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon2007">Menon 2007</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESlapak200378-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlapak200378_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSlapak2003">Slapak 2003</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEP._Gregorios_and_R._G._Roberson2008285-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEP._Gregorios_and_R._G._Roberson2008285_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFP._Gregorios_and_R._G._Roberson2008">P. Gregorios and R. G. Roberson 2008</a>, p. 285. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200778-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200778_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon2007">Menon 2007</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMenon200779–80-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMenon200779–80_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMenon2007">Menon 2007</a>, pp. 79–80. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_cited">Books cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Books cited">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar2004" class="citation book cs1">Thapar, Romila (2004) [2002]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC">Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520242258" title="Special:BookSources/9780520242258"><bdi>9780520242258</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+India%3A+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780520242258&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-5irrXX0apQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenon2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._Sreedhara_Menon" title="A. Sreedhara Menon">Menon, A. Sreedhara</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C">A Survey of Kerala History</a> (2007 ed.). Kerala, India: D C Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8126415786" title="Special:BookSources/978-8126415786"><bdi>978-8126415786</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Survey+of+Kerala+History&rft.place=Kerala%2C+India&rft.edition=2007&rft.pub=D+C+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-8126415786&rft.aulast=Menon&rft.aufirst=A.+Sreedhara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFVsw35oEBv4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenon1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._Sreedhara_Menon" title="A. Sreedhara Menon">Menon, A. Sreedhara</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N7WaZe2PBy8C">A Survey of Kerala History</a>. Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/555508146">555508146</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Survey+of+Kerala+History&rft.pub=Sahitya+Pravarthaka+Co-operative+Society&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F555508146&rft.aulast=Menon&rft.aufirst=A.+Sreedhara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN7WaZe2PBy8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenon2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._Sreedhara_Menon" title="A. Sreedhara Menon">Menon, A. Sreedhara</a> (4 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC">Kerala History and its Makers</a>. D C Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-264-3782-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-264-3782-5"><bdi>978-81-264-3782-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kerala+History+and+its+Makers&rft.pub=D+C+Books&rft.date=2011-03-04&rft.isbn=978-81-264-3782-5&rft.aulast=Menon&rft.aufirst=A.+Sreedhara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwnAjqjhc1VcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulkeRothermund2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Kulke" title="Hermann Kulke">Kulke, Hermann</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dietmar_Rothermund" title="Dietmar Rothermund">Rothermund, Dietmar</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC&pg=PA105">A History of India</a> (Fourth ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415329200" title="Special:BookSources/9780415329200"><bdi>9780415329200</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+India&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780415329200&rft.aulast=Kulke&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rft.au=Rothermund%2C+Dietmar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV73N8js5ZgAC%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarashima2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Noboru_Karashima" title="Noboru Karashima">Karashima, Noboru</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ">A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198099772" title="Special:BookSources/9780198099772"><bdi>9780198099772</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+South+India%3A+Issues+and+Interpretations&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780198099772&rft.aulast=Karashima&rft.aufirst=Noboru&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfpdVoAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZvelebil1975" class="citation book cs1">Zvelebil, Kamil (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA39">Tamil Literature</a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-04190-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-04190-5"><bdi>978-90-04-04190-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Literature&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-90-04-04190-5&rft.aulast=Zvelebil&rft.aufirst=Kamil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKx4uqyts2t4C%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZvelebil1973" class="citation book cs1">Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VF2VMUoY_okC&pg=PA38">The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India</a>. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-03591-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-03591-1"><bdi>978-90-04-03591-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Smile+of+Murugan%3A+On+Tamil+Literature+of+South+India&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-90-04-03591-1&rft.aulast=Zvelebil&rft.aufirst=Kamil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVF2VMUoY_okC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZvelebil1992" class="citation book cs1">Zvelebil, Kamil (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qAPtq49DZfoC&q=Companion+Studies+to+the+History+of+Tamil+Literature">Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature</a>. E. J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004093656" title="Special:BookSources/9004093656"><bdi>9004093656</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Companion+Studies+to+the+History+of+Tamil+Literature&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9004093656&rft.aulast=Zvelebil&rft.aufirst=Kamil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqAPtq49DZfoC%26q%3DCompanion%2BStudies%2Bto%2Bthe%2BHistory%2Bof%2BTamil%2BLiterature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwell1998" class="citation book cs1">Caldwell, Robert (1998) [1913]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&pg=PA92">A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages</a> (3rd ed.). Asian Educational Services. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0117-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0117-8"><bdi>978-81-206-0117-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comparative+Grammar+of+the+Dravidian+or+South-Indian+Family+of+Languages&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-81-206-0117-8&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5PPCYBApSnIC%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNarayanan2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/M._G._S._Narayanan" title="M. G. S. Narayanan">Narayanan, M.G.S.</a> (2013) [1972]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ">Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy</a>. Thrissur: CosmoBooks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788188765072" title="Special:BookSources/9788188765072"><bdi>9788188765072</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Perumals+of+Kerala%3A+Brahmin+Oligarchy+and+Ritual+Monarchy&rft.place=Thrissur&rft.pub=CosmoBooks&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9788188765072&rft.aulast=Narayanan&rft.aufirst=M.G.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0YDCngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShulman2016" class="citation book cs1">Shulman, David (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA150">Tamil: A Biography</a>. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97465-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97465-4"><bdi>978-0-674-97465-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=The+Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-674-97465-4&rft.aulast=Shulman&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfG8NDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAiyar1937" class="citation book cs1">Aiyar, K.G. Sesha (1937). Chera Kings of the Sangam Period. London: Luzac and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chera+Kings+of+the+Sangam+Period&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Luzac+and+Co.&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Aiyar&rft.aufirst=K.G.+Sesha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajumdar2016" class="citation book cs1">Majumdar, S. B. (2016). "Money Matters: Indigenous and Foreign Coins in the Malabar Coast". In K. S. Mathew (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Imperial-Rome-Indian-Ocean-Regions-and-Muziris-New-Perspectives-on-Maritime/Mathew/p/book/9781138234802">Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade</a>. Cambridge: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Money+Matters%3A+Indigenous+and+Foreign+Coins+in+the+Malabar+Coast&rft.btitle=Imperial+Rome%2C+Indian+Ocean+Regions+and+Muziris%3A+New+Perspectives+on+Maritime+Trade&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Majumdar&rft.aufirst=S.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FImperial-Rome-Indian-Ocean-Regions-and-Muziris-New-Perspectives-on-Maritime%2FMathew%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781138234802&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSastri1955" class="citation book cs1">Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+South+India&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Sastri&rft.aufirst=K.+A.+Nilakanta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanakasabhai1997" class="citation book cs1">Kanakasabhai, V. (1997) [1904]. The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago. Asian Educational Services. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0150-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0150-5"><bdi>978-81-206-0150-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tamils+Eighteen+Hundred+Years+Ago&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-81-206-0150-5&rft.aulast=Kanakasabhai&rft.aufirst=V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeay2001" class="citation book cs1">Keay, John (2001) [2000]. India: A History. Grove Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8021-3797-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8021-3797-0"><bdi>0-8021-3797-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%3A+A+History&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8021-3797-0&rft.aulast=Keay&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLaughlin2010" class="citation book cs1">McLaughlin, Raoul (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nTEdCgAAQBAJ&q=Rome+and+the+distant+East">Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China</a>. London: Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441162236" title="Special:BookSources/9781441162236"><bdi>9781441162236</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+the+Distant+East%3A+Trade+Routes+to+the+Ancient+Lands+of+Arabia%2C+India+and+China&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781441162236&rft.aulast=McLaughlin&rft.aufirst=Raoul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnTEdCgAAQBAJ%26q%3DRome%2Band%2Bthe%2Bdistant%2BEast&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlapak2003" class="citation book cs1">Slapak, Orpa, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC">The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities</a>. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/965-278-179-7" title="Special:BookSources/965-278-179-7"><bdi>965-278-179-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+India%3A+A+Story+of+Three+Communities&rft.pub=The+Israel+Museum%2C+Jerusalem&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=965-278-179-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqhKGPprbQaYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPillai1956" class="citation book cs1">Pillai, Vaiyapuri (1956). History of Tamil Language and Literature: Beginning to 1000 AD. Madras: New Century Book House.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Tamil+Language+and+Literature%3A+Beginning+to+1000+AD&rft.place=Madras&rft.pub=New+Century+Book+House&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Pillai&rft.aufirst=Vaiyapuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamachandran1991" class="citation book cs1">Ramachandran, M. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zRQXAAAAIAAJ&q=The+spring+of+the+Indus+civilisation">The Spring of the Indus Civilisation</a>. Prasanna Pathippagam.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spring+of+the+Indus+Civilisation&rft.pub=Prasanna+Pathippagam&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Ramachandran&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzRQXAAAAIAAJ%26q%3DThe%2Bspring%2Bof%2Bthe%2BIndus%2Bcivilisation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encyclopedic_articles">Encyclopedic articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Encyclopedic articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Thapar, Romila (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46884">"India (History) - Southern Indian Kingdoms"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=India+%28History%29+-+Southern+Indian+Kingdoms&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FIndia%2FThe-Shunga-kingdom%23ref46884&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPletcher2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pletcher, Kenneth (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cera-dynasty">"Cera Dynasty"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cera+Dynasty&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Pletcher&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FCera-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTikkanen2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tikkanen, Amy (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Silappathikaram#ref845622">"Silappathikaram"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Silappathikaram&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Tikkanen&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FSilappathikaram%23ref845622&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalziel2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dalziel, N. R. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe416">"Pandyan Empire"</a>. In J. M. MacKenzie (ed.). The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Empire. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118455074.wbeoe416">10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe416</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118455074" title="Special:BookSources/9781118455074"><bdi>9781118455074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pandyan+Empire&rft.btitle=The+Wiley+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+Empire&rft.pages=1-3&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118455074.wbeoe416&rft.isbn=9781118455074&rft.aulast=Dalziel&rft.aufirst=N.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118455074.wbeoe416&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Balfour1871" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Edward Balfour, ed. (1871). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris">"Muziris"</a>. Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia. Vol. II (Second ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Muziris&rft.btitle=Cyclopaedia+of+India+and+of+Eastern+and+Southern+Asia&rft.edition=Second&rft.date=1871&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeONSAAAAcAAJ%26q%3DMuziris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._Gregorios_and_R._G._Roberson2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">P. Gregorios and R. G. Roberson, ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&q=Muziris">"Muziris"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Vol. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802824172" title="Special:BookSources/9780802824172"><bdi>9780802824172</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Muziris&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Christianity&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780802824172&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlZUBZlth2qgC%26q%3DMuziris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journal_articles">Journal articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Journal articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFawcett1901" class="citation journal cs1">Fawcett, F. (1901). "Notes on the Rock Carvings in the Edakal Caves, Wynaad". The Indian Antiquary. XXX: 409–421.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Antiquary&rft.atitle=Notes+on+the+Rock+Carvings+in+the+Edakal+Caves%2C+Wynaad&rft.volume=XXX&rft.pages=409-421&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Fawcett&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGurukkal2015" class="citation journal cs1">Gurukkal, Rajan (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html?0=ip_login_no_cache=3b49b785309ca821ff5e0a285f43e078">"Classical Indo-Roman Trade: A Misnomer in Political Economy"</a>. Economic and Political Weekly. 48 (26–27).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+and+Political+Weekly&rft.atitle=Classical+Indo-Roman+Trade%3A+A+Misnomer+in+Political+Economy&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=26%E2%80%9327&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Gurukkal&rft.aufirst=Rajan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epw.in%2Fjournal%2F2013%2F26-27%2Fspecial-articles%2Fclassical-indo-roman-trade.html%3F0%3Dip_login_no_cache%3D3b49b785309ca821ff5e0a285f43e078&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischel1967" class="citation journal cs1">Fischel, Walter J. (1967). "The Exploration of the Jewish Antiquities of Cochin on the Malabar Coast". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 87 (3): 230–248. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F597717">10.2307/597717</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/597717">597717</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=The+Exploration+of+the+Jewish+Antiquities+of+Cochin+on+the+Malabar+Coast&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=230-248&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F597717&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F597717%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Fischel&rft.aufirst=Walter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanesh2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ganesh, K. N. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/037698360903600102">"Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala"</a>. Indian Historical Review. 36 (1): 3–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F037698360903600102">10.1177/037698360903600102</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145359607">145359607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Historical+Geography+of+Natu+in+South+India+with+Special+Reference+to+Kerala&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-21&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F037698360903600102&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145359607%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ganesh&rft.aufirst=K.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1177%2F037698360903600102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubbarayalu2015" class="citation journal cs1">Subbarayalu, Y. (2015). "Trade Guilds of South India up to the Tenth Century". Studies in People's History. 02 (1): 21–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2348448915574403">10.1177/2348448915574403</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:133144002">133144002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+People%27s+History&rft.atitle=Trade+Guilds+of+South+India+up+to+the+Tenth+Century&rft.volume=02&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=21-26&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2348448915574403&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A133144002%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Subbarayalu&rft.aufirst=Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeluthat2018" class="citation journal cs1">Veluthat, Kesavan (2018). "History and Historiography in Constituting a Region: The Case of Kerala". Studies in People's History. 5 (1): 13–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2348448918759852">10.1177/2348448918759852</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2348-4489">2348-4489</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166060066">166060066</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+People%27s+History&rft.atitle=History+and+Historiography+in+Constituting+a+Region%3A+The+Case+of+Kerala&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-31&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A166060066%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2348-4489&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2348448918759852&rft.aulast=Veluthat&rft.aufirst=Kesavan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGurukkal2002" class="citation journal cs1">Gurukkal, Rajan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44158082">"Did State Exist in the Pre-Pallavan Tamil Region?"</a>. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 63: 198–150. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44158082">44158082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Indian+History+Congress&rft.atitle=Did+State+Exist+in+the+Pre-Pallavan+Tamil+Region%3F&rft.volume=63&rft.pages=198-150&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44158082%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gurukkal&rft.aufirst=Rajan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44158082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magazine_articles">Magazine articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Magazine articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChampakalakshmi2003" class="citation magazine cs1">Champakalakshmi, R. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30217581.ece">"A Magnum Opus on Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions"</a>. Frontline. The Hindu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontline&rft.atitle=A+Magnum+Opus+on+Tamil-Brahmi+Inscriptions&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Champakalakshmi&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffrontline.thehindu.com%2Fother%2Farticle30217581.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrontline2012" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30166888.ece">"Digging up the Past"</a>. Frontline. The Hindu. 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontline&rft.atitle=Digging+up+the+Past&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffrontline.thehindu.com%2Fother%2Farticle30166888.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newspaper_reports/features">Newspaper reports/features</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Newspaper reports/features">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Hindu2012" class="citation news cs1">Subramanian, T. S. (9 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece">"Edakal Cave Yields One More Tamil-Brahmi Inscription"</a>. The Hindu. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X">0971-751X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Edakal+Cave+Yields+One+More+Tamil-Brahmi+Inscription&rft.date=2012-02-09&rft.issn=0971-751X&rft.aulast=Subramanian&rft.aufirst=T.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Ffeatures%2Ffriday-review%2Fhistory-and-culture%2Fedakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription%2Farticle2872568.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Hindu2007" class="citation news cs1">Subramanian, T. S. (28 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/Roman-connection-in-Tamil-Nadu/article14712060.ece">"Roman Connection in Tamil Nadu"</a>. The Hindu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Roman+Connection+in+Tamil+Nadu&rft.date=2007-01-28&rft.aulast=Subramanian&rft.aufirst=T.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Ftodays-paper%2FRoman-connection-in-Tamil-Nadu%2Farticle14712060.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Hindu2004" class="citation news cs1">Sudhi, K. S. (30 April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/copper-coins-of-adi-chera-period-excavated/article27605129.ece">"Copper Coins of Adi Chera Period Excavated"</a>. The Hindu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Copper+Coins+of+Adi+Chera+Period+Excavated&rft.date=2004-04-30&rft.aulast=Sudhi&rft.aufirst=K.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Ftodays-paper%2Ftp-national%2Ftp-kerala%2Fcopper-coins-of-adi-chera-period-excavated%2Farticle27605129.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Hindu2014" class="citation news cs1">Bhanj, J. D. (3 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/artefacts-from-the-lost-port-of-muziris/article6657446.ece">"Artefacts from the Lost Port of Muziris"</a>. The Hindu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Artefacts+from+the+Lost+Port+of+Muziris&rft.date=2014-12-03&rft.aulast=Bhanj&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fnews%2Fcities%2FDelhi%2Fartefacts-from-the-lost-port-of-muziris%2Farticle6657446.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Hindu2009" class="citation news cs1">Nair, C. G. (3 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/Pattanam-richest-Indo-Roman-site-on-Indian-Ocean-rim/article16589683.ece">"Pattanam Richest Indo-Roman Site on Indian Ocean Rim"</a>. The Hindu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Pattanam+Richest+Indo-Roman+Site+on+Indian+Ocean+Rim&rft.date=2009-05-03&rft.aulast=Nair&rft.aufirst=C.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Ftodays-paper%2Ftp-national%2FPattanam-richest-Indo-Roman-site-on-Indian-Ocean-rim%2Farticle16589683.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chera_Dynasty" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Chera Dynasty">Chera Dynasty</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060718060412/http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.html">Tamil Coins: A Study</a> (1981) R. 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Vanchi Karuvur/Karur (<a href="/wiki/Karur" title="Karur">Karur</a>)</li> <li>Muchiri (<a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a>)</li> <li>Thondi (Tyndis)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg/100px-Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="150" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kongu_Chera_dynasty" title="Kongu Chera dynasty">Kongu Cheras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Karur" title="Karur">Karur</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chera/Perumals_of_Makotai" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera/Perumals of Makotai">Chera Perumals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kodungallur" title="Kodungallur">Kodungallur (Mahodaya Pura/Makothai)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Kurakkeni Kollam (South Kollam)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Venad" class="mw-redirect" title="Venad">Venadu Cheras (Kulasekharas)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Kurakkeni Kollam (South Kollam)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Middle_kingdoms_of_India" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Template:Middle kingdoms of India"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Template talk:Middle kingdoms of India"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle kingdoms of India"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Middle_kingdoms_of_India" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms of India</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"> <table style="width:100%" class="wraplinks"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0; font-size:100%;"> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 100%; width:100%; margin:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2">Timeline and cultural period </td> <td rowspan="2">Northwestern India (<a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sapta_Sindhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapta Sindhu">Sapta Sindhu</a>) </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">Central India </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">Southern India</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#cdcdcd"> <td>Upper Gangetic Plain (<a href="/wiki/Doab" title="Doab">Ganga-Yamuna doab</a>) </td> <td>Middle Gangetic Plain </td> <td>Lower Gangetic Plain </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;background-color:#CED4F2"> <td colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">IRON AGE</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#F8F8FF"> <td>Culture </td> <td colspan="1">Late <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Period">Vedic Period</a> </td> <td colspan="1">Late <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Period">Vedic Period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Srauta" class="mw-redirect" title="Srauta">Srauta</a> culture)<a href="#cite_note-114">[a]</a> <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a> </td> <td colspan="2">Late <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Period">Vedic Period</a> (<a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Shramanic culture</a>)<a href="#cite_note-115">[b]</a> <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Prehistoric_era" title="History of India">Pre-history</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 6th century BCE </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kuru_kingdom" title="Kuru kingdom">Kuru</a>-<a href="/wiki/Panchala" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchala">Panchala</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Magadha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha Empire">Magadha</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">Adivasi (tribes)</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Assaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Assaka">Assaka</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#F8F8FF"> <td>Culture </td> <td colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Persian_and_Greek_conquests" title="History of India">Persian-Greek influences</a> </td> <td colspan="3">"<a href="/wiki/History_of_India#"Second_urbanisation"_(800-200_BCE)" title="History of India">Second Urbanisation</a>" <a href="/wiki/Shramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Shramana">Rise of Shramana movements</a> <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> - <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> - <a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a> - <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Prehistoric_era" title="History of India">Pre-history</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 5th century BCE </td> <td colspan="1">(<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Persian conquests</a>) </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga dynasty</a> </td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">Adivasi (tribes)</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Assaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Assaka">Assaka</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 4th century BCE </td> <td colspan="1">(<a href="/wiki/Greek_conquests_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek conquests in India">Greek conquests</a>) </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Dynasty">Nanda empire</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#CED4F2"> <td colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">HISTORICAL AGE</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#F8F8FF"> <td>Culture </td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">Spread of Buddhism</a> </td> <td>Pre-history </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 3rd century BCE </td> <td colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a> (300 BCE – 200 CE) <a href="/wiki/Early_Cholas" title="Early Cholas">Early Cholas</a> <a href="/wiki/Early_Pandyan_kingdom" title="Early Pandyan kingdom">Early Pandyan kingdom</a> <a href="/wiki/Chera_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera Dynasty">Cheras</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#F8F8FF"> <td>Culture </td> <td colspan="5">Preclassical Hinduism<a href="#cite_note-116">[c]</a> - "Hindu Synthesis"<a href="#cite_note-117">[d]</a> (ca. 200 BC - 300 CE)<a href="#cite_note-118">[e]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[f]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Epics</a> - <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a> - <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> - <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> - <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a> - <a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a> - <a href="/wiki/Smarta_Tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Smarta Tradition">Smarta Tradition</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Buddhism">Mahayana Buddhism</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 2nd century BCE </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greeks">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Maha-Meghavahana_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty">Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty</a> </td> <td rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a> (300 BCE – 200 CE) <a href="/wiki/Early_Cholas" title="Early Cholas">Early Cholas</a> <a href="/wiki/Early_Pandyan_kingdom" title="Early Pandyan kingdom">Early Pandyan kingdom</a> <a href="/wiki/Chera_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera Dynasty">Cheras</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 1st century BCE </td></tr> <tr> <td> 1st century CE </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythians</a> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthians</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kuninda_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuninda Kingdom">Kuninda Kingdom</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 2nd century </td> <td colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 3rd century </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Western_Satraps" title="Western Satraps">Western Satraps</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kamarupa" title="Kamarupa">Kamarupa</a> kingdom </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">Adivasi (tribes)</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#F8F8FF"> <td>Culture </td> <td colspan="6">"Golden Age of Hinduism"(ca. CE 320-650)<a href="#cite_note-120">[g]</a> <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a> Co-existence of Hinduism and Buddhism </td></tr> <tr> <td> 4th century </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Varman_dynasty" title="Varman dynasty">Varman dynasty</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Andhra_Ikshvakus" class="mw-redirect" title="Andhra Ikshvakus">Andhra Ikshvakus</a> <a href="/wiki/Kalabhra_dynasty" title="Kalabhra dynasty">Kalabhra dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadamba Dynasty">Kadamba Dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Ganga_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Ganga Dynasty">Western Ganga Dynasty</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 5th century </td> <td colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">Hephthalite Empire</a> </td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vishnukundina" class="mw-redirect" title="Vishnukundina">Vishnukundina</a> <a href="/wiki/Kalabhra_dynasty" title="Kalabhra dynasty">Kalabhra dynasty</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 6th century </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns">Nezak Huns</a> <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Kabul Shahi</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Maitraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Maitraka">Maitraka</a> </td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">Adivasi (tribes)</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vishnukundina" class="mw-redirect" title="Vishnukundina">Vishnukundina</a> <a href="/wiki/Badami_Chalukyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Badami Chalukyas">Badami Chalukyas</a> <a href="/wiki/Kalabhra_dynasty" title="Kalabhra dynasty">Kalabhra dynasty</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#F8F8FF"> <td>Culture </td> <td colspan="6">Late-Classical Hinduism (ca. CE 650-1100)<a href="#cite_note-121">[h]</a> <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> - <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a> <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of Buddhism in India">Decline of Buddhism in India</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 7th century </td> <td colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Sassanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Sassanids">Indo-Sassanids</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vakataka_dynasty" title="Vakataka dynasty">Vakataka dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Harsha" class="mw-redirect" title="Empire of Harsha">Empire of Harsha</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mlechchha_dynasty" title="Mlechchha dynasty">Mlechchha dynasty</a> </td> <td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">Adivasi (tribes)</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Badami_Chalukyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Badami Chalukyas">Badami Chalukyas</a> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern Chalukyas</a> <a href="/wiki/Pandyan_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan kingdom">Pandyan kingdom (revival)</a> <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 8th century </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Kabul Shahi</a> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern Chalukyas</a> <a href="/wiki/Pandyan_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan kingdom">Pandyan kingdom</a> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Mahishmati" title="Kalachuris of Mahishmati">Kalachuri</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td> 9th century </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara">Gurjara-Pratihara</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakuta dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern Chalukyas</a> <a href="/wiki/Pandyan_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan kingdom">Pandyan kingdom</a> <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Cholas" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Cholas">Medieval Cholas</a> <a href="/wiki/Chera_Dynasty#Chera_Perumals_of_Makkotai" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera Dynasty">Chera Perumals of Makkotai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>10th century </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pala_dynasty_(Kamarupa)" title="Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)">Pala dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Kamboja-Pala_Dynasty_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamboja-Pala Dynasty of Bengal">Kamboja-Pala dynasty</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kalyani_Chalukyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalyani Chalukyas">Kalyani Chalukyas</a> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern Chalukyas</a> <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Cholas" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Cholas">Medieval Cholas</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chera Perumals of Makkotai</a> <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakuta</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">References and sources for table</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> References <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Samuel </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Samuel </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Michaels (2004) p.39 </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Hiltebeitel (2002) </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Michaels (2004) p.39 </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Hiltebeitel (2002) </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Michaels (2004) p.40 </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Michaels (2004) p.41 </li> </ol></div> Sources <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Hinduism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Gavin+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alf_Hiltebeitel" title="Alf Hiltebeitel">Hiltebeitel, Alf</a> (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=nl#v=onepage&q&f=false">Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture"</a>, Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism.+In%3A+Joseph+Kitagawa%2C+%22The+Religious+Traditions+of+Asia%3A+Religion%2C+History%2C+and+Culture%22&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Hiltebeitel&rft.aufirst=Alf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.nl%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkfyzAAAAQBAJ%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26hl%3Dnl%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism.+Past+and+present&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Michaels&rft.aufirst=Axel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Yoga+and+Tantra.+Indic+Religions+to+the+Thirteenth+Century&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChera+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div></div></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&oldid=1258794541">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chera_dynasty&oldid=1258794541</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" 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[\"CITEREFThe_Hindu2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Hindu2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThurston1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTikkanen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFV2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeluthat2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZvelebil1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZvelebil1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZvelebil1992\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Chera Dynasty\"] = 1,\n [\"Chera dynasty topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 34,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Colbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Cquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 6,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 6,\n [\"IPA-ml\"] = 1,\n [\"Image reference needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox former country\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Middle kingdoms of India\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect-multi\"] = 1,\n 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