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Prehistoric era (before c. 3300 BCE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prehistoric_era_(before_c._3300_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Paleolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Neolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronze_Age_(c._3300_–_1800_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze_Age_(c._3300_–_1800_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bronze_Age_(c._3300_–_1800_BCE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BCE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bronze_Age_(c._3300_–_1800_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indus_Valley_Civilisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indus_Valley_Civilisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Indus Valley Civilisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indus_Valley_Civilisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_Age_(c._1800_–_200_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Age_(c._1800_–_200_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Iron_Age_(c._1800_–_200_BCE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Iron_Age_(c._1800_–_200_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vedic_period_(c._1500_–_600_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_period_(c._1500_–_600_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedic_period_(c._1500_–_600_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vedic_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Vedic society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedic_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanskrit_epics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanskrit_epics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Sanskrit epics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanskrit_epics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Janapadas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Janapadas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Janapadas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Janapadas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_urbanisation_(c._600_–_200_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_urbanisation_(c._600_–_200_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_urbanisation_(c._600_–_200_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buddhism_and_Jainism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhism_and_Jainism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Buddhism and Jainism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhism_and_Jainism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mahajanapadas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahajanapadas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Mahajanapadas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahajanapadas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Magadha_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Magadha_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Early Magadha dynasties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Magadha_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nanda_Empire_and_Alexander's_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanda_Empire_and_Alexander's_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanda_Empire_and_Alexander's_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maurya_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maurya_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>Maurya Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maurya_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sangam_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sangam_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.6</span> <span>Sangam period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sangam_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_period_(c._200_BCE_–_650_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_period_(c._200_BCE_–_650_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 650 CE)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_period_(c._200_BCE_–_650_CE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 650 CE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_period_(c._200_BCE_–_650_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_classical_period_(c._200_BCE_–_320_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_classical_period_(c._200_BCE_–_320_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_classical_period_(c._200_BCE_–_320_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shunga_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shunga_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Shunga Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shunga_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satavahana_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satavahana_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Satavahana Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satavahana_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_travels_to_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_travels_to_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Trade and travels to India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_travels_to_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kushan_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kushan_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Kushan Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kushan_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_period_(c._320_–_650_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_period_(c._320_–_650_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_period_(c._320_–_650_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gupta_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gupta_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Gupta Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gupta_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vakataka_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vakataka_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Vakataka Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vakataka_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kamarupa_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kamarupa_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Kamarupa Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kamarupa_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pallava_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pallava_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Pallava Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pallava_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kadamba_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kadamba_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.5</span> <span>Kadamba Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kadamba_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empire_of_Harsha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empire_of_Harsha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.6</span> <span>Empire of Harsha</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empire_of_Harsha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_medieval_period_(c._650_–_1200)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_medieval_period_(c._650_–_1200)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_medieval_period_(c._650_–_1200)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_medieval_period_(c._650_–_1200)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Later_Gupta_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Gupta_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Later Gupta dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Gupta_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chalukya_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chalukya_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Chalukya Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chalukya_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rashtrakuta_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Rashtrakuta Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rashtrakuta_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gurjara-Pratihara_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gurjara-Pratihara_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Gurjara-Pratihara Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gurjara-Pratihara_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gahadavala_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gahadavala_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Gahadavala dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gahadavala_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karnat_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karnat_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Karnat dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karnat_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pala_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pala_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Pala Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pala_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cholas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cholas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Cholas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cholas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Chalukya_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Chalukya_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Western Chalukya Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Chalukya_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_medieval_period_(c._1200_–_1526)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_medieval_period_(c._1200_–_1526)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_medieval_period_(c._1200_–_1526)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Late_medieval_period_(c._1200_–_1526)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Delhi_Sultanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delhi_Sultanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Delhi Sultanate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delhi_Sultanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vijayanagara_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vijayanagara_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Vijayanagara Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vijayanagara_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Other kingdoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bhakti_movement_and_Sikhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bhakti_movement_and_Sikhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Bhakti movement and Sikhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bhakti_movement_and_Sikhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_period_(1526–1858)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_period_(1526–1858)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Early modern period (1526–1858)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_modern_period_(1526–1858)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early modern period (1526–1858) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_period_(1526–1858)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mughal_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mughal_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Mughal Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mughal_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maratha_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maratha_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Maratha Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maratha_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sikh_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sikh_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Sikh Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sikh_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_kingdoms_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_kingdoms_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Other kingdoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_kingdoms_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>European exploration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_India_Company_rule_in_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_India_Company_rule_in_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>East India Company rule in India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_India_Company_rule_in_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indian_indenture_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_indenture_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6.1</span> <span>Indian indenture system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_indenture_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_modern_period_and_contemporary_history_(1857–1947)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_modern_period_and_contemporary_history_(1857–1947)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Late modern period and contemporary history (1857–1947)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_modern_period_and_contemporary_history_(1857–1947)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Late modern period and contemporary history (1857–1947) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Late_modern_period_and_contemporary_history_(1857–1947)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rebellion_of_1857_and_its_consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebellion_of_1857_and_its_consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebellion_of_1857_and_its_consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Raj_(1858–1947)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Raj_(1858–1947)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>British Raj (1858–1947)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Raj_(1858–1947)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indian_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Indian Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Famines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Famines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Famines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Famines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.3</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.4</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_independence_movement_(1885–1947)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_independence_movement_(1885–1947)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Indian independence movement (1885–1947)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_independence_movement_(1885–1947)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-After_World_War_II_(c._1946–1947)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_World_War_II_(c._1946–1947)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1</span> <span>After World War II (c. 1946–1947)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_World_War_II_(c._1946–1947)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independence_and_partition_(1947–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independence_and_partition_(1947–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Independence and partition (1947–present)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independence_and_partition_(1947–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Printed_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printed_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3.1</span> <span>Printed sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printed_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Primary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of India</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 94 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-94" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">94 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskiedenis_van_Indi%C3%AB" title="Geskiedenis van Indië – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskiedenis van Indië" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BD_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="भारत केरऽ इतिहास – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="भारत केरऽ इतिहास" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="تاريخ الهند – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الهند" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ভাৰতৰ ইতিহাস – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভাৰতৰ ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_India" title="Historia de la India – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de la India" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindistan_tarixi" title="Hindistan tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hindistan tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ভারতের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভারতের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Һиндостан тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Һиндостан тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%96" title="Гісторыя Індыі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя Індыі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="भारत के इतिहास – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भारत के इतिहास" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="История на Индия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Индия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="རྒྱ་གར་གི་ལོ་རྒྱུས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རྒྱ་གར་གི་ལོ་རྒྱུས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27%C3%8Dndia" title="Història de l'Índia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'Índia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Indie" title="Dějiny Indie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Indie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_India" title="Hanes India – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes India" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Indiens" title="Geschichte Indiens – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Indiens" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%B0%DE%91%DE%A8%DE%94%DE%A7%DE%8E%DE%AC_%DE%8C%DE%A7%DE%83%DE%A9%DE%9A%DE%AA" title="އިންޑިޔާގެ ތާރީޚު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="އިންޑިޔާގެ ތާރީޚު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_ajalugu" title="India ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="India ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%99%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της Ινδίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της Ινδίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_India" title="Historia de la India – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la India" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_Barato" title="Historio de Barato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de Barato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiako_historia" title="Indiako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Indiako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="تاریخ هند – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ هند" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27Inde" title="Histoire de l'Inde – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'Inde" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_India" title="Historia da India – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da India" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%97%B0%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="印度嗰歷史 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="印度嗰歷史" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AD%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8B_%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B9%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8" title="ભારતનો ઇતિહાસ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ભારતનો ઇતિહાસ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%8F%84%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="인도의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인도의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarihin_%C6%98asar_Indiya" title="Tarihin Ƙasar Indiya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tarihin Ƙasar Indiya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հնդկաստանի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հնդկաստանի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="भारत का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भारत का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Indije" title="Povijest Indije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Indije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_India" title="Historio di India – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di India" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ভারতর ইতিহাস – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="ভারতর ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_India" title="Sejarah India – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah India" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27India" title="Storia dell'India – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'India" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%AA%D7%AA-%D7%94%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A9%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA" title="היסטוריה של תת-היבשת ההודית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של תת-היבשת ההודית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%90nd%C9%A9_caana%CA%8B_t%C9%94m" title="Ɛndɩ caanaʋ tɔm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ɛndɩ caanaʋ tɔm" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ಭಾರತದ ಇತಿಹಾಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭಾರತದ ಇತಿಹಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ინდოეთის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ინდოეთის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Uhindi" title="Historia ya Uhindi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Uhindi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istw%C3%A8_di_End" title="Istwè di End – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Istwè di End" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Indiae" title="Historia Indiae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia Indiae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indijas_v%C4%93sture" title="Indijas vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Indijas vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indijos_istorija" title="Indijos istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Indijos istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_de_Barat" title="Istoria de Barat – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Istoria de Barat" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="India történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="India történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Историја на Индија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Индија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഇന്ത്യാചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇന്ത്യാചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="भारताचा इतिहास – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भारताचा इतिहास" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_India" title="Sejarah India – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah India" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3ria_de_la_%C3%8Dndia" title="Stória de la Índia – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Stória de la Índia" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Энэтхэгийн философи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Энэтхэгийн философи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%92%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9A%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6%E1%81%8F_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="အိန္ဒိယနိုင်ငံ၏ သမိုင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အိန္ဒိယနိုင်ငံ၏ သမိုင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Zuid-Azi%C3%AB" title="Geschiedenis van Zuid-Azië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Zuid-Azië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="भारतको इतिहास – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भारतको इतिहास" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="भारतया इतिहास – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="भारतया इतिहास" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="インドの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="インドの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indias_historie" title="Indias historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Indias historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indisk_historie" title="Indisk historie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Indisk historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27%C3%8Dndia" title="Istòria de l'Índia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria de l'Índia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindiston_tarixi" title="Hindiston tarixi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Hindiston tarixi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਭਾਰਤ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭਾਰਤ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="بھارت دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بھارت دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%84%D9%8A%DA%A9" title="د هند پېښليک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د هند پېښليک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischri_a_India" title="Ischri a India – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ischri a India" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Indii" title="Historia Indii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Indii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_%C3%8Dndia" title="História da Índia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da Índia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="История Индии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История Индии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%83" title="भारतस्य इतिहासः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="भारतस्य इतिहासः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A7%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9B_%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9C_%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A2" title="ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮᱱᱟᱜ ᱱᱟᱜᱟᱢ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮᱱᱟᱜ ᱱᱟᱜᱟᱢ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_Indis%C3%AB" title="Historia e Indisë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e Indisë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="ඉන්දියාවේ ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඉන්දියාවේ ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of India" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina_Indije" title="Zgodovina Indije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina Indije" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Историја Индије – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја Индије" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Indije" title="Historija Indije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija Indije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intian_historia" title="Intian historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Intian historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiska_subkontinentens_historia" title="Indiska subkontinentens historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Indiska subkontinentens historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="இந்திய வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இந்திய வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Һиндстан тарихы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Һиндстан тарихы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B6_%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0" title="భారతదేశ చరిత్ర – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భారతదేశ చరిత్ర" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="ประวัติศาสตร์อินเดีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสตร์อินเดีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B8_%D2%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4" title="Таърихи Ҳинд – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Таърихи Ҳинд" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindistan_tarihi" title="Hindistan tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hindistan tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nkhang_Ndya" title="Nkhang Ndya – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Nkhang Ndya" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%97" title="Історія Індії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Індії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF" title="تاریخ ہند – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تاریخ ہند" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_%E1%BA%A4n_%C4%90%E1%BB%99" title="Lịch sử Ấn Độ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Ấn Độ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaagi_han_Indya" title="Kaagi han Indya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kaagi han Indya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="印度历史 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="印度历史" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A2" title="היסטאריע פון אינדיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="היסטאריע פון אינדיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="印度史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="印度史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="印度历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="印度历史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q133136#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_India" title="Category:History of India">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of <span class="fn org label">India</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><figure class="mw-halign-center mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG/200px-North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG/300px-North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG/400px-North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="4258" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Prehistoric</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowrap" style="text-align:left"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madrasian_culture" title="Madrasian culture">Madrasian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soanian" title="Soanian">Soanian</a>, c. 500,000 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age#Neolithic" title="South Asian Stone Age">Neolithic</a>, c. 7600 – c. 1000 BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhirrana" title="Bhirrana">Bhirrana</a> 7570 – 6200 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jhusi" title="Jhusi">Jhusi</a> 7106 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahuradewa" title="Lahuradewa">Lahuradewa</a> 7000 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a> 7000 – 2600 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age#Neolithic" title="South Asian Stone Age">South Indian Neolithic</a> 3000 – 1000 BCE</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Ancient</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowrap" style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</a>, c. 3300 – c. 1700 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Post Indus Valley Period<br />(Cemetery H Culture)</a>, c. 1700 – c. 1500 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Period">Vedic civilization</a>, c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuru_kingdom" title="Kuru kingdom">Kuru kingdom</a>, c. 1200 – c. 500 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Rigvedic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Rigvedic tribes">Early Vedic period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Rise of Śramaṇa movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janapadas" class="mw-redirect" title="Janapadas">Later Vedic Period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parshvanatha" title="Parshvanatha">Spread of Jainism – Parshvanatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Spread of Jainism – Mahavira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Rise of Buddhism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Kingdom of Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brihadratha_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Brihadratha Dynasty">Brihadratha Dynasty</a> 1700 – 682 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Haryanka Dynasty">Haryanka Dynasty</a> 544 – 413 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaishunaga Dynasty">Shaishunaga Dynasty</a> 413 – 345 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Dynasty</a>, 345 – 322 BCE</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a>, c. 600 – 345 BCE</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Classical_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical India">Classical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowrap" style="text-align:left"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Kingdom of Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mauryan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauryan Empire">Maurya Dynasty</a>, 322 – 185 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya Dynasty</a>, 320 BCE - 280 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Dynasty</a>, 185 – 73 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanva_dynasty" title="Kanva dynasty">Kanva Dynasty</a>, 73 – 28 BCE</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam period</a> 300 BCE – 400 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Dynasty</a>, c. 30 – c. 375 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana Dynasty</a>, c. 228 BCE – c. 224 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Dynasty</a>, c. 240 – c. 550 CE</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Early medieval</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowrap" style="text-align:left"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava dynasty</a>, 275 CE - 897 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalukya Dynasty">Chalukya Dynasty</a>, 543 – 753 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya Dynasty</a>, 590 CE - 920 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Harsha" class="mw-redirect" title="Empire of Harsha">Harsha's Dynasty</a>, c. 606 CE – c. 647 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karkota_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Karkota Empire">Karakota Dynasty</a>, c. 724 – c. 760 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_campaigns_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate campaigns in India">Arab Invasion</a>, c. 738 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Tripartite Struggle</a>, c. 760 – c. 973 CE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pratihara_dynasty" title="Pratihara dynasty">Pratihara dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rastrakuta Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Cholas" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Cholas">Chola Dynasty</a>, c. 848 – c. 1251 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">2nd Chalukya Dynasty</a>, c. 973 – c. 1187 CE</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Late medieval</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowrap" style="text-align:left"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, 1206 – 1526 CE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Dynasty_(Delhi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi)">Mamluk Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalji_dynasty" title="Khalji dynasty">Khalji Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tugluq Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_dynasty" title="Sayyid dynasty">Sayyid Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodi_dynasty" title="Lodi dynasty">Lodhi Dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandyan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan Empire">Pandyan Empire</a>, 1251 – 1618 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a>, 1336 – 1646 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a>, 1342 – 1576 CE</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Early modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowrap" style="text-align:left"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Dynasty</a>, 1526 – 1540 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sur_Empire" title="Sur Empire">Suri Dynasty</a>, 1538/40 – 1556 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Dynasty</a>, 1556 – 1857 CE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a>, c. 1576 – c. 1757 CE</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a>, c. 1674 – c. 1818 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company Raj</a>, c. 1757 – c. 1858 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a>, c. 1760 – c. 1799 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh Empire</a>, c. 1799 – c. 1849 CE</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowrap" style="text-align:left"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">The Great Rebellion</a>, 1857 – 1858 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>, 1858 – 1947 CE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement"> Independence Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">Independent India</a>, 1947 CE – present <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_India" title="Dominion of India">Dominion of India</a>, 1947 – 1950 CE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Republic of India</a>, 1950 CE – present</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowrap" style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline of Indian History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_monarchs" title="List of Indian monarchs">Dynasties in Indian History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economic History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India#History" title="Demographics of India">Demographic History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic history of the Indian subcontinent">Linguistic History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architectural History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_art" title="Indian art">Art History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in India">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Literary History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Philosophical History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India#History" title="Religion in India">History of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_India" title="Music of India">Musical History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of education in the Indian subcontinent">Education History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paper_currency_in_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of paper currency in Indian subcontinent">Paper Currency History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Science and Technology History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">List of Inventions and Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Naval History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_India" title="List of wars involving India">Wars involving India</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; font-size:130%;"><a href="/wiki/South_Asia#History" title="South Asia">History of South Asia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Asia_(orthographic_projection)_without_national_boundaries.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="South Asia (orthographic projection)"><img alt="South Asia (orthographic projection)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/150px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/225px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/300px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">Outline</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Palaeolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(2,500,000–250,000 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Madrasian_culture" title="Madrasian culture">Madrasian culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Soanian" title="Soanian">Soanian culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Neolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(10,800–3300 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhirrana" title="Bhirrana">Bhirrana culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (7570–6200 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (7000–3300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Edakkal_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Edakkal Caves">Edakkal culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (5000–3000 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(3500–1500 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anarta_tradition" title="Anarta tradition">Anarta tradition</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3950</span>–1900 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahar%E2%80%93Banas_culture" title="Ahar–Banas culture">Ahar-Banas culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (3000–1500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pandu_culture" title="Pandu culture">Pandu culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–750 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malwa_culture" title="Malwa culture">Malwa culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jorwe_culture" title="Jorwe culture">Jorwe culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1400–700 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">Bronze Age</a> <span class="nobold">(3300–1300 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(3300–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Early_Harappan" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Early Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(3300–2600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Mature_Harappan" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Mature Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2600–1900 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Late Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1900–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2000–500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2000–1600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Swat culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1600–500 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age</a> <span class="nobold">(1500–200 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1500–500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Janapada" title="Janapada">Janapadas</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1500–600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Black_and_red_ware" title="Black and red ware">Black and Red ware culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1300–1000 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1200–600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (700–200 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pradyota_dynasty" title="Pradyota dynasty">Pradyota dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (799–684 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (684–424 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Three_Crowned_Kings" title="Three Crowned Kings">Three Crowned Kingdoms</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 BC</span> – AD 1600)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Maha Janapadas</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>–300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (550–330 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Ror Dynasty</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (450 BC – AD 489)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (424–345 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (380–321 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (330–323 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (321–184 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (312–303 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 AD</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1345)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1102)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1279)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 AD</span> – AD 800)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahameghavahana_dynasty" title="Mahameghavahana dynasty">Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 BC</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> AD 500</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (247 BC – AD 224)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle Kingdoms</a> <span class="nobold">(230 BC – AD 1206)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (230 BC – AD 220)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kuninda_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuninda Kingdom">Kuninda Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (200 BC – AD 300)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mitra_dynasty_(Mathura)" title="Mitra dynasty (Mathura)">Mitra Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 50 BC</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (185–73 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (180 BC – AD 10)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kanva_dynasty" title="Kanva dynasty">Kanva Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (75–26 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythian Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (50 BC – AD 400)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 21 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 130</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Satraps" title="Western Satraps">Western Satrap Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 35–405 )</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 60–240)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nagas_of_Padmavati" title="Nagas of Padmavati">Bharshiva Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (170–350)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nagas_of_Padmavati" title="Nagas of Padmavati">Nagas of Padmavati</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (210–340)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (224–651)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Indo-Sassanid Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (230–360)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vakataka_dynasty" title="Vakataka dynasty">Vakataka Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalabhra_dynasty" title="Kalabhra dynasty">Kalabhras Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (280–550)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_dynasty" title="Kadamba dynasty">Kadamba Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (345–525)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Ganga_dynasty" title="Western Ganga dynasty">Western Ganga Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (350–1000)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kamarupa" title="Kamarupa">Kamarupa Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (350–1100)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vishnukundina_dynasty" title="Vishnukundina dynasty">Vishnukundina Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (420–624)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maitraka_dynasty" title="Maitraka dynasty">Maitraka Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (475–767)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (475–576)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rai_dynasty" title="Rai dynasty">Rai Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (489–632)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Kabul Shahi Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span> – 1026)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (543–753)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maukhari_dynasty" title="Maukhari dynasty">Maukhari Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 700</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (606–647)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (618–841)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern Chalukya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (624–1075)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (632–661)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (650–1036)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (661–750)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mallabhum_kingdom" title="Mallabhum kingdom">Mallabhum kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (694–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhauma-Kara_dynasty" title="Bhauma-Kara dynasty">Bhauma-Kara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (736–916)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (750–1174)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakuta Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (753–982)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Paramara_dynasty" title="Paramara dynasty">Paramara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (800–1327)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seuna_(Yadava)_dynasty" title="Seuna (Yadava) dynasty">Yadava Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (850–1334)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Somavamshi_dynasty" title="Somavamshi dynasty">Somavamshi Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (882–1110)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chaulukya_dynasty" title="Chaulukya dynasty">Chaulukya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (942–1244)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western Chalukya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (973–1189)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lohara_dynasty" title="Lohara dynasty">Lohara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1003–1320)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1040–1347)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sena_dynasty" title="Sena dynasty">Sena Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1070–1230)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ganga_dynasty" title="Eastern Ganga dynasty">Eastern Ganga Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1078–1434)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1083–1323)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Zamorin" title="Zamorin">Zamorin Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1102–1766)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Tripuri" title="Kalachuris of Tripuri">Kalachuris of Tripuri</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (675–1210)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Kalyani" title="Kalachuris of Kalyani">Kalachuris of Kalyani</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1156–1184)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chutia_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Chutia Kingdom">Chutiya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1187–1673)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deva_dynasty" title="Deva dynasty">Deva Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300</span>)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Late medieval period</a> <span class="nobold">(1206–1526)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (977–1186)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1170–1206)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1206–1526)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Mamluk Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1206–1290)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Khalji_dynasty" title="Khalji dynasty">Khalji Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1290–1320)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1320–1414)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_dynasty" title="Sayyid dynasty">Sayyid Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1414–1451)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Lodi_dynasty" title="Lodi dynasty">Lodi Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1451–1526)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahom_kingdom" title="Ahom kingdom">Ahom Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1228–1826)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Chitradurga" title="Nayakas of Chitradurga">Chitradurga Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1300–1779)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Reddi_Kingdom" title="Reddi Kingdom">Reddy Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1325–1448)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1336–1646)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1352–1576)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Garhwal_Kingdom" title="Garhwal Kingdom">Garhwal Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1358–1803)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Mysore Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1399–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gajapati_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Gajapati Empire">Gajapati Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1434–1541)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Namgyal_dynasty_of_Ladakh" title="Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh">Ladakh Kingdom </a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1470–1842)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deccan_sultanates" title="Deccan sultanates">Deccan sultanates</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1596)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Ahmadnagar_Sultanate" title="Ahmadnagar Sultanate">Ahmadnagar Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1636)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Berar_sultanate" title="Berar sultanate">Berar sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1574)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Bidar_Sultanate" title="Bidar Sultanate">Bidar Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1492–1619)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Bijapur_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bijapur Sultanate">Bijapur Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1492–1686)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Golkonda_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Golkonda Sultanate">Golkonda Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1518–1687)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Keladi" title="Nayakas of Keladi">Keladi Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1499–1763)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Koch_dynasty" title="Koch dynasty">Koch Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1515–1947)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a> <span class="nobold">(1526–1858)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1526–1858)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sur_Empire" title="Sur Empire">Sur Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1540–1556)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Nayak_dynasty" title="Madurai Nayak dynasty">Madurai Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1529–1736)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur_Nayak_kingdom" title="Thanjavur Nayak kingdom">Thanjavur Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1532–1673)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhoi_dynasty" title="Bhoi dynasty">Bhoi dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1541–1804)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1576–1757)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ramnad_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramnad estate">Marava Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–1750)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Sikkim Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1642–1975)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tondaiman" title="Tondaiman">Thondaiman Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1650–1948)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1674–1818)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Misl" class="mw-redirect" title="Misl">Sikh Confederacy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1707–1799)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1729–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1799–1849)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial states</a> <span class="nobold">(1510–1961)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1510–1961)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">Dutch India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1605–1825)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Danish_India" title="Danish India">Danish India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1620–1869)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1759–1954)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company Raj</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1757–1858)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1858–1947)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">National histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maldives" title="History of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nepal" title="History of Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka" title="History of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Regional histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Assam" title="History of Assam">Assam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Balochistan" title="History of Balochistan">Balochistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bengal" title="History of Bengal">Bengal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bihar" title="History of Bihar">Bihar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gujarat" title="History of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="History of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kabul" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kabul">Kabul</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Karnataka" title="History of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kashmir" title="History of Kashmir">Kashmir</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="History of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Khyber Pakhtunkhwa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rajasthan" title="History of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maharashtra" title="History of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="History of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Punjab" title="History of Punjab">Punjab</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Odisha" title="History of Odisha">Odisha</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sindh" title="History of Sindh">Sindh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_India" title="History of South India">South India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="History of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Specialised histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent">Agriculture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architecture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India#History" title="Demographics of India">Demographics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_monarchs" title="List of Indian monarchs">Dynasties</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of education in the Indian subcontinent">Education</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">Indology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_influence_on_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia">Influence on Southeast Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Linguistic history of India">Language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Literature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_studies" title="Pakistan studies">Pakistan studies</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions#History" title="Indian religions">Religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_South_Asia" title="Template:History of South Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_South_Asia" title="Template talk:History of South Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_South_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of South Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/220px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/330px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/440px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>Indus Valley Civilisation, at peak phase (2600–1900 BCE)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">Anatomically modern humans</a> first arrived on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-PetragliaAllchin_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetragliaAllchin-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. <a href="/wiki/Sedentism" title="Sedentism">Sedentariness</a> began in South Asia around 7000 BCE;<sup id="cite_ref-Wright2010-p=44_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wright2010-p=44-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread,<sup id="cite_ref-Wright2010-p=44_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wright2010-p=44-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and gradually evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a>, one of three early <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">cradles of civilisation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE, <a href="/wiki/4.2_kiloyear_event" class="mw-redirect" title="4.2 kiloyear event">persistent drought</a> caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rigvedic tribes">Indo-Aryan tribes</a> moved into the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> in several <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration theory">waves of migration</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Period">Vedic Period</a> of the Vedic people in northern India (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns (<a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>). The social structure was loosely stratified via the <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varna system</a>, incorporated into the highly evolved present-day <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti" title="Jāti">Jāti</a> system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Gangetic plain</a>. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (<a href="/wiki/Janapada" title="Janapada">janapadas</a>) were consolidated into larger states (<a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">mahajanapadas</a>). Second urbanization took place, which came with the rise of new <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">ascetic</a> movements and religious concepts,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the rise of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. The latter <a href="/wiki/Hindu_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu synthesis">was synthesized</a> with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_cultural_zone.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Indian_cultural_zone.svg/220px-Indian_cultural_zone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Indian_cultural_zone.svg/330px-Indian_cultural_zone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Indian_cultural_zone.svg/440px-Indian_cultural_zone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption>Indian cultural influence (<a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timeline_of_Indian_history.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Timeline_of_Indian_history.jpg/220px-Timeline_of_Indian_history.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Timeline_of_Indian_history.jpg/330px-Timeline_of_Indian_history.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Timeline_of_Indian_history.jpg/440px-Timeline_of_Indian_history.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7317" data-file-height="5486" /></a><figcaption>Timeline of Indian history</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Chandragupta Maurya</a> overthrew the <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a> and established the first great empire in ancient India, the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a>. India's Mauryan king <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> is widely recognised for his historical acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and his attempts to spread <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">peace</a> across his empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor <a href="/wiki/Brihadratha_Maurya" title="Brihadratha Maurya">Brihadratha</a> by his general <a href="/wiki/Pushyamitra_Shunga" title="Pushyamitra Shunga">Pushyamitra Shunga</a>. Shunga would form the <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a> in the north and north-east of the subcontinent, while the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a> would claim the north-west and found the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a>. Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>, in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing a <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> religious and intellectual resurgence is known as the <a href="/wiki/Classical_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical India">Classical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_India" title="Golden Age of India">Golden Age of India</a>. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming <a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Flood,_Gavin_2003._pg._273-4_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood,_Gavin_2003._pg._273-4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripartite struggle">Tripartite struggle</a> centred on <a href="/wiki/Kannauj" title="Kannauj">Kannauj</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_India" title="History of South India">Southern India</a> saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a> conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, <a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Indian mathematics</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Hindu_numeral_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu numeral system">Hindu numerals</a>, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, including the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu-Arabic_numeral_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu-Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic numeral system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Islamic conquests</a> made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> as early as the 8th century,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by the invasions of <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Ghazni" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud Ghazni">Mahmud Ghazni</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeri2005146_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeri2005146-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> was founded in 1206 by Central Asian <a href="/wiki/Turkic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkic people">Turks</a> who were <a href="/wiki/Indianization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indianization">Indianized</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmad1939_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmad1939-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-John_Bowman_2000_267_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Bowman_2000_267-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They ruled a major part of the northern Indian subcontinent in the early 14th century. It was ruled by multiple <a href="/wiki/Khilji_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khilji Dynasty">Turk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lodi_dynasty" title="Lodi dynasty">Afghan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Dynasty">Indian</a> dynasties, including the Turco-Mongol Indianized <a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tughlaq Dynasty">Tughlaq Dynasty</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but declined in the late 14th century following the invasions of <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and saw the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Malwa_Sultanate" title="Malwa Sultanate">Malwa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarat_Sultanate" title="Gujarat Sultanate">Gujarat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bahmani_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani Sultanate">Bahmani</a> Sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five <a href="/wiki/Deccan_sultanates" title="Deccan sultanates">Deccan sultanates</a>. The wealthy <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a> also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Eaton1996_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eaton1996-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, multiple strong <a href="/wiki/Hindu_king" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu king">Hindu kingdoms</a>, notably the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Rajput_dynasties_and_states" title="List of Rajput dynasties and states">Rajput states</a>, emerged and played significant roles in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India. </p><p>The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> conquered most of the Indian subcontinent,<sup id="cite_ref-exeter_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-exeter-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> signaling the <a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-industrialisation">proto-industrialisation</a>, becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power.<sup id="cite_ref-Parthasarathi38_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parthasarathi38-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harrison_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Confederacy" title="Maratha Confederacy">Marathas</a>, who took control of extensive regions of the Indian subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>, acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">British government</a>, gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">company rule in India</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a>. India was afterwards ruled directly by the <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">British Crown</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>. Later, the <a href="/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">All-India Muslim League</a> would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_India" title="Dominion of India">Dominion of India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan" title="Dominion of Pakistan">Dominion of Pakistan</a>, each gaining its independence. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistoric_era_(before_c._3300_BCE)"><span id="Prehistoric_era_.28before_c._3300_BCE.29"></span><span class="anchor" id="Prehistory"></span> Prehistoric era (before c. 3300 BCE)</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Over-quotation plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Quotations" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">too many or overly lengthy quotations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_India&action=edit">summarize the quotations</a>. Consider transferring direct quotations to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/History_of_India" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/History of India">Wikiquote</a> or excerpts to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/History_of_India" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/History of India">Wikisource</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:192px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rock_Shelter_15,_Bhimbetka_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Rock_Shelter_15%2C_Bhimbetka_02.jpg/288px-Rock_Shelter_15%2C_Bhimbetka_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Rock_Shelter_15%2C_Bhimbetka_02.jpg/432px-Rock_Shelter_15%2C_Bhimbetka_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Rock_Shelter_15%2C_Bhimbetka_02.jpg/576px-Rock_Shelter_15%2C_Bhimbetka_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> rock art at the <a href="/wiki/Bhimbetka" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhimbetka">Bhimbetka rock shelters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a>, showing a wild animal, perhaps a mythical one, attacking human hunters. Although the rock art has not been directly dated,<sup id="cite_ref-DavidMcNiven2018_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DavidMcNiven2018-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it has been argued on circumstantial grounds that many paintings were completed by 8000 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-Mithen2006_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mithen2006-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some slightly earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-pathak-dubey_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pathak-dubey-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MarayoorDolmen.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/MarayoorDolmen.JPG/142px-MarayoorDolmen.JPG" decoding="async" width="142" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/MarayoorDolmen.JPG/213px-MarayoorDolmen.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/MarayoorDolmen.JPG/284px-MarayoorDolmen.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A <a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">dolmen</a> erected by Neolithic people in <a href="/wiki/Marayur" title="Marayur">Marayur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerala, India">Kerala, India</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg/142px-EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg/213px-EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg/284px-EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> (6,000 BCE) carvings of <a href="/wiki/Edakkal_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Edakkal Caves">Edakkal Caves</a> in Kerala, India.</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">South Asian Stone Age</a></div><p><a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominin</a> expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetragliaAllchin20075_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetragliaAllchin20075-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetraglia2010167–170_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetraglia2010167–170-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dating is based on the known presence of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at <a href="/wiki/Riwat" title="Riwat">Riwat</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetragliaAllchin20075_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetragliaAllchin20075-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-murray_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-murray-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating of <a href="/wiki/Fluvial_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial processes">fluvial sediments</a>, have not been independently verified.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetraglia2010167–170_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetraglia2010167–170-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147–160_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147–160-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of <i>Homo erectus</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i>, from the <a href="/wiki/Narmada_River" title="Narmada River">Narmada Valley</a> in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetragliaAllchin20075_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetragliaAllchin20075-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147–160_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147–160-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147–160_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147–160-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147–160_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147–160-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetraglia2010167–170_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetraglia2010167–170-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:</p><blockquote><p>Modern human beings—<i>Homo sapiens</i>—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. It is virtually certain that there were <i>Homo sapiens</i> in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.<sup id="cite_ref-Dyson2018-1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyson2018-1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> According to Michael D. Petraglia and <a href="/wiki/Bridget_Allchin" title="Bridget Allchin">Bridget Allchin</a>: </p><blockquote><p>Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonisation of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetragliaAllchin20076_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetragliaAllchin20076-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Historian of South Asia, <a href="/wiki/Michael_H._Fisher" title="Michael H. Fisher">Michael H. Fisher</a>, states: </p><blockquote><p>Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher2018-23_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher2018-23-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">anatomically modern humans</a> in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-TunizGillespie2016_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TunizGillespie2016-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although this interpretation is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-Dyson2018-28a_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyson2018-28a-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> According to Tim Dyson: </p><blockquote><p>Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in the subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy.<sup id="cite_ref-Dyson2018-28a_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyson2018-28a-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neolithic">Neolithic</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mehrgarh_ruins.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mehrgarh_ruins.jpg/220px-Mehrgarh_ruins.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mehrgarh_ruins.jpg/330px-Mehrgarh_ruins.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mehrgarh_ruins.jpg/440px-Mehrgarh_ruins.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="654" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a> site in <a href="/wiki/Beluchistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Beluchistan">Beluchistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Settled life</a> emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a> alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a> of the third millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Wright2010-p=44_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wright2010-p=44-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dyson2018-4-5_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyson2018-4-5-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... [and] slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds:<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher2018-33_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher2018-33-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><blockquote><p>The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [<i>Bos indicus</i>] and unhumped [<i>Bos taurus</i>]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher2018-33_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher2018-33-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bronze_Age_(c._3300_–_1800_BCE)"><span id="Bronze_Age_.28c._3300_.E2.80.93_1800_BCE.29"></span>Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BCE)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indus_Valley_Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indus_Valley_Civilisation_sites" title="List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites">List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/220px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/330px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/440px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>Harappan Period at peak, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2600 - 1900 BCE</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent</a> began around 3300 BCE.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Indus Valley region was one of three early <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">cradles of civilisation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>; the Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River" title="Ghaggar-Hakra River">Ghaggar-Hakra River</a> basin. The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such as <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganweriwal" title="Ganweriwal">Ganweriwal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> in modern-day Pakistan, and <a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalibangan" title="Kalibangan">Kalibangan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rakhigarhi" title="Rakhigarhi">Rakhigarhi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a> in modern-day India. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mohenjo-daro.jpg/220px-Mohenjo-daro.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mohenjo-daro.jpg/330px-Mohenjo-daro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mohenjo-daro.jpg/440px-Mohenjo-daro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> (one of the largest Indus cities). View of the site's <a href="/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-daro" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro">Great Bath</a>, showing the surrounding urban layout.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DHOLAVIRA_SITE_(24).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg/220px-DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg/330px-DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg/440px-DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4050" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a>, a city of the Indus Valley civilisation, with <a href="/wiki/Stepwell" title="Stepwell">stepwell</a> steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs<sup id="cite_ref-news_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-news-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG/220px-The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG/330px-The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG/440px-The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Archaeological remains of washroom drainage system at <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage systems, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The civilisation also developed an <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a>, the earliest of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_scripts_of_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Ancient scripts of the Indian subcontinent">ancient Indian scripts</a>, which is presently undeciphered.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the reason why <a href="/wiki/Harappan_language" title="Harappan language">Harappan language</a> is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indus_script.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Indus_script.jpg/260px-Indus_script.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Indus_script.jpg/390px-Indus_script.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Indus_script.jpg/520px-Indus_script.jpg 2x" data-file-width="985" data-file-height="624" /></a><figcaption>Three <a href="/wiki/Stamp_seal" title="Stamp seal">stamp seals</a> and their impressions showing Indus script characters alongside animals: <b>unicorn</b> (left), <b>bull</b> (centre), and <b>elephant</b> (right); at <a href="/wiki/Guimet_Museum" title="Guimet Museum">Guimet Museum</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinauli_chariot_ASI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sinauli_chariot_ASI.jpg/220px-Sinauli_chariot_ASI.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sinauli_chariot_ASI.jpg/330px-Sinauli_chariot_ASI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sinauli_chariot_ASI.jpg/440px-Sinauli_chariot_ASI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption><b><a href="/wiki/Sinauli_excavation_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinauli excavation site">Sinauli</a> chariot</b>, photograph of the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_India" title="Archaeological Survey of India">Archaeological Survey of India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>During the 2nd millennium BCE, <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a> was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlements with agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iron_Age_(c._1800_–_200_BCE)"><span id="Iron_Age_.28c._1800_.E2.80.93_200_BCE.29"></span>Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age in India</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vedic_period_(c._1500_–_600_BCE)"><span id="Vedic_period_.28c._1500_.E2.80.93_600_BCE.29"></span>Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan peoples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrations" title="Indo-Aryan migrations">Indo-Aryan migrations</a></div> <p>Starting <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1900 BCE</span>, <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rigvedic tribes">Indo-Aryan tribes</a> moved into the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> in several <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration theory">waves of migration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund200431_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund200431-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> is when the Vedas were composed of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> in this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008255_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008255-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vedic culture is described in the texts of <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a>. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAntonovaBongard-LevinKotovsky197951_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntonovaBongard-LevinKotovsky197951-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contributed to the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vedic_society">Vedic society</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rigveda_MS2097.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/220px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/330px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/440px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1056" /></a><figcaption>An early 19th century manuscript in the <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> script of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, originally transmitted orally<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, and the upper <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Gangetic Plain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008255_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008255-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Peepal" class="mw-redirect" title="Peepal">Peepal</a> tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the <a href="/wiki/Atharva_Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Atharva Veda">Atharva Veda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> espoused later, like <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a>, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early Vedic society is described in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during the 2nd millennium BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this time, Aryan society consisted of predominantly tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a> in archaeological contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A11_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A11-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Witzel1989_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel1989-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society expanded from the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent into the western <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four <i><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varnas</a></i>, or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_61–93_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51,_61–93-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also eventually by the exclusion of some indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund200441–43_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund200441–43-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into <a href="/wiki/Janapada" title="Janapada">Janapadas</a> (monarchical, state-level polities).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008200_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008200-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sanskrit_epics">Sanskrit epics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_Indian_texts" title="List of historic Indian texts">List of historic Indian texts</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">List of Hindu texts</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kurukshetra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kurukshetra.jpg/250px-Kurukshetra.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kurukshetra.jpg/375px-Kurukshetra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kurukshetra.jpg/500px-Kurukshetra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Manuscript illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kurukshetra" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Kurukshetra">Battle of Kurukshetra</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Sanskrit epics <i>Ramayana</i> and <i>Mahabharata</i> were composed during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Mahabharata</i> remains the longest single poem in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh200818–19_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh200818–19-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 400 BCE and 400 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh200818–19_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh200818–19-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Janapadas">Janapadas</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Janapada" title="Janapada">Janapada</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ten_Kings" title="Battle of the Ten Kings">Battle of the Ten Kings</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Indo-Aryan_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes">List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Late_Vedic_Culture_(1100-500_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/220px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/330px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png/440px-Late_Vedic_Culture_%281100-500_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption>Late Vedic era map showing the boundaries of <a href="/wiki/%C4%80ry%C4%81varta" title="Āryāvarta">Āryāvarta</a> with Janapadas in northern India, beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in India – <a href="/wiki/Kuru_(kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru (kingdom)">Kuru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panchala" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchala">Panchala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kosala" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosala">Kosala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Videha" title="Videha">Videha</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age</a> in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are <a href="/wiki/Realms" class="mw-redirect" title="Realms">realms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Republics">republics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">kingdoms</a>—notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kuru_(kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru (kingdom)">Kuru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panchala" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchala">Panchala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kosala" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosala">Kosala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Videha" title="Videha">Videha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lanman1912_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lanman1912-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-potter1974_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-potter1974-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in north-western India, around 1200–800 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as with the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Witzel_1995_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel_1995-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections and developed the <a href="/wiki/Srauta" class="mw-redirect" title="Srauta">srauta</a> ritual to uphold the social order.<sup id="cite_ref-Witzel_1995_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel_1995-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two key figures of the Kuru state were king <a href="/wiki/Parikshit" title="Parikshit">Parikshit</a> and his successor <a href="/wiki/Janamejaya_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Janamejaya II">Janamejaya</a>, who transformed this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern India.<sup id="cite_ref-Witzel_1995_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel_1995-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Witzel_1995_75-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel_1995-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The archaeological <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">PGW</a> (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in north-eastern India's <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a> and western <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a> regions from about 1100 to 600 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A11_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A11-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is believed to correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pa%C3%B1c%C4%81la" title="Pañcāla">Panchala</a> kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Witzel_1995_75-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel_1995-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201045–51_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201045–51-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Videha" title="Videha">Videha</a> emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> state);<sup id="cite_ref-Witzel1989_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel1989-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reaching its prominence under the king <a href="/wiki/Janaka" title="Janaka">Janaka</a>, whose court provided patronage for <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a> sages and <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">philosophers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yajnavalkya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Aruni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81rg%C4%AB_V%C4%81chaknav%C4%AB" title="Gārgī Vāchaknavī">Gārgī Vāchaknavī</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called <i><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></i>, across Northern India. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_urbanisation_(c._600_–_200_BCE)"><span id="Second_urbanisation_.28c._600_.E2.80.93_200_BCE.29"></span>Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg/220px-City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg/330px-City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg/440px-City_of_Kushinagar_in_the_5th_century_BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1427" data-file-height="805" /></a><figcaption>City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate</figcaption></figure> <p>The period between 800 and 200 BCE saw the formation of the <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></i> movement, from which <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> originated. The first <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> were written during this period. After 500 BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation"<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River" title="Ghaggar-Hakra River">Ghaggar-Hakra</a> and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Central Ganges Plain, where <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a> gained prominence, forming the base of the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a>, was a distinct cultural area,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with new states arising after 500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-EB-Beginning_historical_period_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-Beginning_historical_period-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201042–48_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201042–48-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was influenced by the Vedic culture,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201061_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201061-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "It was the area of the earliest known <a href="/wiki/History_of_rice_cultivation#Indian_subcontinent" title="History of rice cultivation">cultivation of rice in South Asia</a> and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buddhism_and_Jainism">Buddhism and Jainism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">History of Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History of Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">History of Jainism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:119px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MS_Indic_37,_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg/288px-MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg/432px-MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg/576px-MS_Indic_37%2C_Isa_upanisad._Wellcome_L0027330.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="880" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A page of <i><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha Upanishad</a></i> manuscript.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:115px;max-width:115px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:128px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vardhaman_Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Vardhaman_Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg/113px-Vardhaman_Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Vardhaman_Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg/170px-Vardhaman_Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Vardhaman_Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg/226px-Vardhaman_Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3035" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a>, the 24th and last <a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthankara</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:173px;max-width:173px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:128px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddha%27s_cremation_stupa,_Kushinagar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Buddha%27s_cremation_stupa%2C_Kushinagar.jpg/171px-Buddha%27s_cremation_stupa%2C_Kushinagar.jpg" decoding="async" width="171" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Buddha%27s_cremation_stupa%2C_Kushinagar.jpg/257px-Buddha%27s_cremation_stupa%2C_Kushinagar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Buddha%27s_cremation_stupa%2C_Kushinagar.jpg/342px-Buddha%27s_cremation_stupa%2C_Kushinagar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>'s cremation stupa, <a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a> (Kushinara).</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The time between 800 BCE and 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_1996_82_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_1996_82-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mascaró1965_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mascaró1965-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which form the theoretical basis of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">classical Hinduism</a>, and are also known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></i> (conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_1996_82_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_1996_82-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 599–527 BCE), proponent of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 563–483 BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of <a href="/wiki/Samsara" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsara">samsara</a>, and the concept of liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buddha found a <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a> that ameliorated the extreme <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a> found in the <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></i> religions.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around the same time, <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> (the 24th <i><a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthankara</a></i> in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the <i>Tirthankaras</i> predates all known time and scholars believe <a href="/wiki/Parshvanatha" title="Parshvanatha">Parshvanatha</a> (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd <i>Tirthankara</i>, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few <i>Tirthankaras</i> and an ascetic order similar to the <i>Śramaṇa</i> movement.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahajanapadas_(c._500_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/220px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/330px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png/440px-Mahajanapadas_%28c._500_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a> were sixteen powerful polities located mainly within the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>The period from <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 BCE</span> to <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BCE</span> featured the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a>, sixteen powerful <a href="/wiki/Realm" title="Realm">kingdoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oligarchic" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligarchic">oligarchic</a> republics in a belt stretching from <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> in the north-west to <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent—including parts of the trans-<a href="/wiki/Vindhya_Range" title="Vindhya Range">Vindhyan</a> region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008260–261_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008260–261-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a>, like the <i><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85guttara_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Aṅguttara Nikāya">Aṅguttara Nikāya</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—<a href="/wiki/Anga" title="Anga">Anga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Assaka">Assaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avanti_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avanti (India)">Avanti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chedi_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Chedi Kingdom">Chedi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kashi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Kashi">Kashi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kambojas" title="Kambojas">Kamboja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kosala" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosala">Kosala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuru_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru (India)">Kuru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malla_(tribe)" title="Malla (tribe)">Malla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matsya_(tribe)" title="Matsya (tribe)">Matsya</a> (or Machcha), <a href="/wiki/Panchala" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchala">Panchala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surasena" title="Surasena">Surasena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vajjika_League" title="Vajjika League">Vṛji</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vatsa" title="Vatsa">Vatsa</a>. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A107_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A107-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early "republics" or <a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha"><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">gaṇasaṅgha</i></span></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Thapar_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thapar-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Shakya" title="Shakya">Shakyas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliyas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malla_(tribe)" title="Malla (tribe)">Mallakas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Licchavi_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Licchavi (tribe)">Licchavis</a> had republican governments. <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Gaṇasaṅgha</i></span>s,<sup id="cite_ref-Thapar_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thapar-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of <a href="/wiki/Kusinagara" class="mw-redirect" title="Kusinagara">Kusinagara</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Vajjika_League" title="Vajjika League">Vajjika League</a>, centred in the city of <a href="/wiki/Vaishali_(ancient_city)" title="Vaishali (ancient city)">Vaishali</a>, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the <a href="/wiki/Licchavi_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Licchavi (tribe)">Licchavis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a> culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries, a system of weights, <a href="/wiki/Punch-marked_coins" title="Punch-marked coins">punch-marked coins</a>, and the introduction of writing in the form of <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a> scripts.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language of the gentry at that time was <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrits</a>. </p><p>Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A107_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A107-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Magadha_dynasties">Early Magadha dynasties</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Magadha" title="Magadha">Magadha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Magadha_period" title="Magadha period">Magadha period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pradyota_dynasty" title="Pradyota dynasty">Pradyota dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka dynasty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Magadha dynasties</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:270px;max-width:270px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:206px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Magadha_Expansion_(6th-4th_centuries_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Magadha_Expansion_%286th-4th_centuries_BCE%29.png/268px-Magadha_Expansion_%286th-4th_centuries_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="268" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Magadha_Expansion_%286th-4th_centuries_BCE%29.png/402px-Magadha_Expansion_%286th-4th_centuries_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Magadha_Expansion_%286th-4th_centuries_BCE%29.png/536px-Magadha_Expansion_%286th-4th_centuries_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="771" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Magadha state c. 600 BCE, which is later expanded from its capital <a href="/wiki/Rajagriha" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajagriha">Rajagriha</a> – under the <a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka dynasty</a> and the later <a href="/wiki/Shishunaga_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shishunaga dynasty">Shishunaga dynasty</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:118px;max-width:118px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:206px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_Hidush_warrior_480_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Xerxes_Hidush_warrior_480_BCE.jpg/116px-Xerxes_Hidush_warrior_480_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Xerxes_Hidush_warrior_480_BCE.jpg/174px-Xerxes_Hidush_warrior_480_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Xerxes_Hidush_warrior_480_BCE.jpg/232px-Xerxes_Hidush_warrior_480_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="723" data-file-height="1282" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Indian warrior of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid army">Achaemenid army</a>, circa 480 BCE, on the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Xerxes_I" title="Tomb of Xerxes I">Tomb of Xerxes I</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Magadha formed one of the sixteen <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: "Great Realms") or <a href="/wiki/Kingdoms_of_Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdoms of Ancient India">kingdoms in ancient India</a>. The core of the kingdom was the area of <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> south of the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a>; its first capital was <a href="/wiki/Rajagriha" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajagriha">Rajagriha</a> (modern Rajgir) then <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra" title="Pataliputra">Pataliputra</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Patna" title="Patna">Patna</a>). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Licchavi_(kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Licchavi (kingdom)">Licchavi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anga" title="Anga">Anga</a> respectively,<sup id="cite_ref-Ramesh_Chandra_Majumdar_(1977)_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramesh_Chandra_Majumdar_(1977)-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Atharva-Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Atharva-Veda">Atharva-Veda</a> where they are found listed along with the <a href="/wiki/Anga" title="Anga">Angas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandharis</a>, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. Republican communities (such as the community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions. </p><p>Early sources, from the Buddhist <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jain_Agamas_(%C5%9Av%C4%93t%C4%81mbara)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)">Jain Agamas</a> and the Hindu <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a>, mention Magadha being ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Pradyota_dynasty" title="Pradyota dynasty">Pradyota dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka dynasty</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600–413 BCE. King <a href="/wiki/Bimbisara" title="Bimbisara">Bimbisara</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka dynasty</a> led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince <a href="/wiki/Ajatashatru" title="Ajatashatru">Ajatashatru</a>, who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>, the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in <a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a>, gave his first sermon in <a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">first Buddhist council</a> was held in Rajgriha.<sup id="cite_ref-lumbinitrust_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lumbinitrust-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the <a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga dynasty</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by <a href="/wiki/Mahapadma_Nanda" title="Mahapadma Nanda">Mahapadma Nanda</a> in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda and his eight sons). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nanda_Empire_and_Alexander's_campaign"><span id="Nanda_Empire_and_Alexander.27s_campaign"></span>Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">Indian campaign of Alexander the Great</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 345–322 BCE), at its peak, extended from Bengal in the east, to the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> in the west and as far south as the <a href="/wiki/Vindhya_Range" title="Vindhya Range">Vindhya Range</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji198828–33_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji198828–33-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Nanda_dynasty" title="Nanda dynasty">Nanda dynasty</a> built on the foundations laid by their <a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shishunaga_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shishunaga dynasty">Shishunaga</a> predecessors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008273_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008273-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nanda empire have built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a>, 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>, 2,000 war <a href="/wiki/Ratha" title="Ratha">chariots</a> and 3,000 <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">war elephants</a> (at the lowest estimates).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji198834_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji198834-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maurya_Empire">Maurya Empire</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Maurya Empire</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:173px;max-width:173px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:159px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurya_Empire,_c.250_BCE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE.png/171px-Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE.png" decoding="async" width="171" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE.png/257px-Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE.png/342px-Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1121" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a> at its peak under <a href="/wiki/Ashoka_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashoka the Great">Ashoka the Great</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:215px;max-width:215px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:159px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashoka_pillar_at_Vaishali,_Bihar,_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ashoka_pillar_at_Vaishali%2C_Bihar%2C_India.jpg/213px-Ashoka_pillar_at_Vaishali%2C_Bihar%2C_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="213" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ashoka_pillar_at_Vaishali%2C_Bihar%2C_India.jpg/320px-Ashoka_pillar_at_Vaishali%2C_Bihar%2C_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ashoka_pillar_at_Vaishali%2C_Bihar%2C_India.jpg/426px-Ashoka_pillar_at_Vaishali%2C_Bihar%2C_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Ashokan_pillar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashokan pillar">Ashokan pillar</a> at <a href="/wiki/Vaishali_(ancient_city)" title="Vaishali (ancient city)">Vaishali</a>, 3rd century BCE.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empire</a> ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_2006_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_2006-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> and to the east into what is now <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a>. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Chandragupta Maurya</a> assisted by Chanakya (<a href="/wiki/Kautilya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kautilya">Kautilya</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>) when he overthrew the <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied north-western India. The Mauryan Empire defeated <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Mauryan_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid–Mauryan war">Seleucid–Mauryan war</a>, thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son <a href="/wiki/Bindusara" title="Bindusara">Bindusara</a> succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the time he died in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 272 BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_(historical_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalinga (historical region)">Kalinga</a> (around modern day <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a>) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003178–180_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003178–180-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lomas_Rishi_entrance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Lomas_Rishi_entrance.jpg/220px-Lomas_Rishi_entrance.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Lomas_Rishi_entrance.jpg/330px-Lomas_Rishi_entrance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Lomas_Rishi_entrance.jpg/440px-Lomas_Rishi_entrance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3290" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>The Mauryan carved door of <a href="/wiki/Lomas_Rishi_cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Lomas Rishi cave">Lomas Rishi</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Barabar_Caves" title="Barabar Caves">Barabar Caves</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 250 BCE</figcaption></figure> <p>Bindusara was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>, whose reign lasted until his death in about 232 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003204–206_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003204–206-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003178–180_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003178–180-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, <a href="/wiki/Brihadratha_Maurya" title="Brihadratha Maurya">Brihadratha</a>, was assassinated by <a href="/wiki/Pushyamitra_Shunga" title="Pushyamitra Shunga">Pushyamitra Shunga</a> to establish the <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003204–206_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003204–206-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Trunk_Road" title="Grand Trunk Road">Grand Trunk Road</a>, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_War" title="Kalinga War">Kalinga War</a>, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions across the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Mediterranean" title="Indo-Mediterranean">Indo-Mediterranean</a>, into <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Buddhism in Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Mediterranean Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund200467_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund200467-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></i> written by <a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Edicts of Ashoka">Edicts of Ashoka</a> are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a>. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">usury</a> was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAntonovaBongard-LevinKotovsky197991_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntonovaBongard-LevinKotovsky197991-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, a high-quality steel called <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a> was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.<sup id="cite_ref-Menon_R.V.G_p.15_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Menon_R.V.G_p.15-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sangam_period">Sangam period</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sources_of_ancient_Tamil_history" title="Sources of ancient Tamil history">Sources of ancient Tamil history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Three_Crowned_Kings" title="Three Crowned Kings">Three Crowned Kings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Tamil_monarchs" title="List of Tamil monarchs">List of Tamil monarchs</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:243px;max-width:243px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:214px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg/241px-South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg" decoding="async" width="241" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg/362px-South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg/482px-South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1419" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a>, located at the tip of <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a> during the Sangam period, ruled by <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pandyan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan dynasty">Pandyan dynasty</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:214px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Puhar-ILango.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Puhar-ILango.jpg/143px-Puhar-ILango.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Puhar-ILango.jpg/215px-Puhar-ILango.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Puhar-ILango.jpg/286px-Puhar-ILango.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Ilango_Adigal" title="Ilango Adigal">Ilango Adigal</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/Silappatikaram" class="mw-redirect" title="Silappatikaram">Silappatikaram</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Great_Epics_of_Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature">five great epics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>During the Sangam period <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Three_Crowned_Kings" title="Three Crowned Kings">Three Crowned Kings</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a>: <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya dynasty</a> ruled parts of southern India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999204–205_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999204–205-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins.<sup id="cite_ref-The_First_Spring_p.655_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_First_Spring_p.655-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300 BCE – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 CE, <a href="/wiki/Pathupattu" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathupattu">Pathupattu</a>, an anthology of ten mid-length book collections, which is considered part of <a href="/wiki/Sangam_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam Literature">Sangam Literature</a>, were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic works <a href="/wiki/Ettuthogai" class="mw-redirect" title="Ettuthogai">Ettuthogai</a> as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works <a href="/wiki/Pati%E1%B9%89e%E1%B9%87k%C4%AB%E1%B8%BBka%E1%B9%87akku" class="mw-redirect" title="Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku">Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku</a>; while <a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a>, the earliest grammarian work in the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil language</a> was developed.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, during Sangam period, two of <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Great_Epics_of_Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature">the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature</a> were composed. <a href="/wiki/Ilango_Adigal" title="Ilango Adigal">Ilango Adigal</a> composed <i><a href="/wiki/Silappatikaram" class="mw-redirect" title="Silappatikaram">Silappatikaram</a></i>, which is a non-religious work, that revolves around <a href="/wiki/Kannagi_(Tamil_mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kannagi (Tamil mythology)">Kannagi</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Manimekalai" title="Manimekalai">Manimekalai</a></i>, composed by <a href="/wiki/Chithalai_Chathanar" title="Chithalai Chathanar">Chithalai Chathanar</a>, is a sequel to <i>Silappatikaram</i>, and tells the story of the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Kovalan" title="Kovalan">Kovalan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madhavi_(Silappatikaram)" title="Madhavi (Silappatikaram)">Madhavi</a>, who became a <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhuni</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Muk1_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muk1-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_period_(c._200_BCE_–_650_CE)"><span id="Classical_period_.28c._200_BCE_.E2.80.93_650_CE.29"></span>Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 650 CE)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical India">Classical India</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SungaEmpireMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ancient India during the rise of the Shunga Empire from the North, Satavahana dynasty from the Deccan, and Pandyan dynasty and Chola dynasty from the southern part of India."><img alt="Ancient India during the rise of the Shunga Empire from the North, Satavahana dynasty from the Deccan, and Pandyan dynasty and Chola dynasty from the southern part of India." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/SungaEmpireMap.jpg/150px-SungaEmpireMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/SungaEmpireMap.jpg/225px-SungaEmpireMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/SungaEmpireMap.jpg/300px-SungaEmpireMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="1440" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">Ancient India</a> during the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a> from the North, <a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana dynasty</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Deccan" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccan">Deccan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pandyan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan dynasty">Pandyan dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a> from the <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">southern part of India</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Karla_caves_Chaitya.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Great Chaitya in the Karla Caves. The shrines were developed over the period from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE."><img alt="Great Chaitya in the Karla Caves. The shrines were developed over the period from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Karla_caves_Chaitya.jpg/120px-Karla_caves_Chaitya.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Karla_caves_Chaitya.jpg/180px-Karla_caves_Chaitya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Karla_caves_Chaitya.jpg/240px-Karla_caves_Chaitya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1620" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Great Chaitya in the <a href="/wiki/Karla_Caves" title="Karla Caves">Karla Caves</a>. The shrines were developed over the period from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Udayagiri_Caves_-_Rani_Gumpha_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves is home to the Hathigumpha inscription, which was inscribed under Kharavela, then Emperor of Kalinga of the Mahameghavahana dynasty."><img alt="Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves is home to the Hathigumpha inscription, which was inscribed under Kharavela, then Emperor of Kalinga of the Mahameghavahana dynasty." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Udayagiri_Caves_-_Rani_Gumpha_01.jpg/160px-Udayagiri_Caves_-_Rani_Gumpha_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Udayagiri_Caves_-_Rani_Gumpha_01.jpg/240px-Udayagiri_Caves_-_Rani_Gumpha_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Udayagiri_Caves_-_Rani_Gumpha_01.jpg/320px-Udayagiri_Caves_-_Rani_Gumpha_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5053" data-file-height="3368" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Udayagiri_and_Khandagiri_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves">Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves</a> is home to the <a href="/wiki/Hathigumpha_inscription" title="Hathigumpha inscription">Hathigumpha inscription</a>, which was inscribed under <a href="/wiki/Kharavela" title="Kharavela">Kharavela</a>, then Emperor of <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_(historical_kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalinga (historical kingdom)">Kalinga</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mahameghavahana_dynasty" title="Mahameghavahana dynasty">Mahameghavahana dynasty</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Andhra_pradesh,_santuario_a_pi%C3%B9_piani,_da_ghantasala,_90-110_ca..JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Relief of a multi-storied temple, 2nd century CE, Ghantasala Stupa.[125][126]"><img alt="Relief of a multi-storied temple, 2nd century CE, Ghantasala Stupa.[125][126]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Andhra_pradesh%2C_santuario_a_pi%C3%B9_piani%2C_da_ghantasala%2C_90-110_ca..JPG/160px-Andhra_pradesh%2C_santuario_a_pi%C3%B9_piani%2C_da_ghantasala%2C_90-110_ca..JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Andhra_pradesh%2C_santuario_a_pi%C3%B9_piani%2C_da_ghantasala%2C_90-110_ca..JPG/240px-Andhra_pradesh%2C_santuario_a_pi%C3%B9_piani%2C_da_ghantasala%2C_90-110_ca..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Andhra_pradesh%2C_santuario_a_pi%C3%B9_piani%2C_da_ghantasala%2C_90-110_ca..JPG/320px-Andhra_pradesh%2C_santuario_a_pi%C3%B9_piani%2C_da_ghantasala%2C_90-110_ca..JPG 2x" data-file-width="2074" data-file-height="2007" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Relief of a multi-storied temple, 2nd century CE, <a href="/wiki/Ghantasala,_Krishna_district" title="Ghantasala, Krishna district">Ghantasala</a> Stupa.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India.<sup id="cite_ref-stein_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stein-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> (4th–6th century) is regarded as the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_India" title="Golden Age of India">Golden Age of India</a>, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a> flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">India's economy</a> is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Maddisson_World_GDP_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maddisson_World_GDP-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_classical_period_(c._200_BCE_–_320_CE)"><span id="Early_classical_period_.28c._200_BCE_.E2.80.93_320_CE.29"></span>Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE)</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shunga_Empire">Shunga Empire</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:443px;max-width:443px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Shunga Empire</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:223px;max-width:223px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:133px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:East_Gateway_and_Railings_Bharhut_Stupa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/East_Gateway_and_Railings_Bharhut_Stupa.jpg/221px-East_Gateway_and_Railings_Bharhut_Stupa.jpg" decoding="async" width="221" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/East_Gateway_and_Railings_Bharhut_Stupa.jpg/332px-East_Gateway_and_Railings_Bharhut_Stupa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/East_Gateway_and_Railings_Bharhut_Stupa.jpg/442px-East_Gateway_and_Railings_Bharhut_Stupa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5859" data-file-height="3545" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">East Gateway and Railings, <a href="/wiki/Bharhut" title="Bharhut">Bharhut</a> <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a>, 2nd century BCE.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:105px;max-width:105px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:133px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_family_Sunga_West_Bengal_1st_century_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Royal_family_Sunga_West_Bengal_1st_century_BCE.jpg/103px-Royal_family_Sunga_West_Bengal_1st_century_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Royal_family_Sunga_West_Bengal_1st_century_BCE.jpg/155px-Royal_family_Sunga_West_Bengal_1st_century_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Royal_family_Sunga_West_Bengal_1st_century_BCE.jpg/206px-Royal_family_Sunga_West_Bengal_1st_century_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1558" data-file-height="2029" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Shunga art <a href="/wiki/Ancient_vina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient vina">Ancient vina</a>, 1st century BCE.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:109px;max-width:109px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:133px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plaque_with_a_Royal_Family_1st_century_B.C._India_(West_Bengal,_Chandraketugarh).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Plaque_with_a_Royal_Family_1st_century_B.C._India_%28West_Bengal%2C_Chandraketugarh%29.jpg/107px-Plaque_with_a_Royal_Family_1st_century_B.C._India_%28West_Bengal%2C_Chandraketugarh%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="107" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Plaque_with_a_Royal_Family_1st_century_B.C._India_%28West_Bengal%2C_Chandraketugarh%29.jpg/161px-Plaque_with_a_Royal_Family_1st_century_B.C._India_%28West_Bengal%2C_Chandraketugarh%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Plaque_with_a_Royal_Family_1st_century_B.C._India_%28West_Bengal%2C_Chandraketugarh%29.jpg/214px-Plaque_with_a_Royal_Family_1st_century_B.C._India_%28West_Bengal%2C_Chandraketugarh%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2978" data-file-height="3722" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Royal family, 1st century BCE in West Bengal.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Shungas originated from <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a>, and controlled large areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by <a href="/wiki/Pushyamitra_Shunga" title="Pushyamitra Shunga">Pushyamitra Shunga</a>, who overthrew the last <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya emperor</a>. Its capital was <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra" title="Pataliputra">Pataliputra</a>, but later emperors, such as <a href="/wiki/Bhagabhadra" title="Bhagabhadra">Bhagabhadra</a>, also held court at <a href="/wiki/Vidisha" title="Vidisha">Vidisha</a>, modern <a href="/wiki/Besnagar" class="mw-redirect" title="Besnagar">Besnagar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Agnimitra" title="Agnimitra">Agnimitra</a>. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated;<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought with the <a href="/wiki/Mahameghavahana_dynasty" title="Mahameghavahana dynasty">Mahameghavahana dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_(historical_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalinga (historical region)">Kalinga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greeks">Indo-Greeks</a>, and possibly the <a href="/wiki/Panchala" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchala">Panchalas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mitra_dynasty_(Mathura)" title="Mitra dynasty (Mathura)">Mitras of Mathura</a>. </p><p>Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at <a href="/wiki/Bharhut" title="Bharhut">Bharhut</a> and the renowned Great Stupa at <a href="/wiki/Sanchi" title="Sanchi">Sanchi</a>. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of <a href="/wiki/Brahmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmi">Brahmi</a> and was used to write the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit language</a>. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising <a href="/wiki/Indian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian culture">Indian culture</a> at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Satavahana_Empire">Satavahana Empire</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Satavahana_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Satavahana Empire">Satavahana Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Satavahana Empire</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:228px;max-width:228px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:150px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanchi_Stupa_No.2_Front_view1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Sanchi_Stupa_No.2_Front_view1.jpg/226px-Sanchi_Stupa_No.2_Front_view1.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Sanchi_Stupa_No.2_Front_view1.jpg/339px-Sanchi_Stupa_No.2_Front_view1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Sanchi_Stupa_No.2_Front_view1.jpg/452px-Sanchi_Stupa_No.2_Front_view1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Sanchi" title="Sanchi">Sanchi Stupa Two and Southern Gateway</a>, 1st century CE (<a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>).</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:160px;max-width:160px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:150px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_ship_on_lead_coin_of_Vashishtiputra_Shri_Pulumavi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Indian_ship_on_lead_coin_of_Vashishtiputra_Shri_Pulumavi.jpg/158px-Indian_ship_on_lead_coin_of_Vashishtiputra_Shri_Pulumavi.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Indian_ship_on_lead_coin_of_Vashishtiputra_Shri_Pulumavi.jpg/237px-Indian_ship_on_lead_coin_of_Vashishtiputra_Shri_Pulumavi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Indian_ship_on_lead_coin_of_Vashishtiputra_Shri_Pulumavi.jpg/316px-Indian_ship_on_lead_coin_of_Vashishtiputra_Shri_Pulumavi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1506" data-file-height="1435" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Indian ship on lead coin of <a href="/wiki/Vasisthiputra_Sri_Pulamavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi">Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi</a>, testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Śātavāhanas were based from <a href="/wiki/Amaravathi,_Palnadu_district" title="Amaravathi, Palnadu district">Amaravati</a> in <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Junnar" title="Junnar">Junnar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pune" title="Pune">Pune</a>) and Prathisthan (<a href="/wiki/Paithan" title="Paithan">Paithan</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the <a href="/wiki/Mauryan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauryan dynasty">Mauryan dynasty</a>, but declared independence with its decline. </p><p>The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from <a href="/wiki/Ellora_Caves" title="Ellora Caves">Ellora</a> (a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>) to <a href="/wiki/Amaravathi_village,_Guntur_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Amaravathi village, Guntur district">Amaravati</a>. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a> to the southern tip of India. </p><p>They had to compete with the <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a> and then the <a href="/wiki/Kanva_dynasty" title="Kanva dynasty">Kanva dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a> to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like the <a href="/wiki/Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">Sakas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yavanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavanas">Yavanas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pahlavas" title="Pahlavas">Pahlavas</a>. In particular, their struggles with the <a href="/wiki/Western_Kshatrapas" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Kshatrapas">Western Kshatrapas</a> went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Gautamiputra_Satakarni" title="Gautamiputra Satakarni">Gautamiputra Satakarni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Yajna_S%C4%81takarni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Yajna Sātakarni">Sri Yajna Sātakarni</a> were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the <a href="/wiki/Western_Kshatrapas" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Kshatrapas">Western Kshatrapas</a> and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trade_and_travels_to_India">Trade and travels to India</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silk_route.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/220px-Silk_route.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/330px-Silk_route.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/440px-Silk_route.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2868" data-file-height="1866" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a>, ancient trade routes that linked India with the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are marked as red, and the water routes are marked as blue.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> attracted traders from all over the Old World to India. India's Southwest coastal port <a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a> had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE, according to <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian records</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> traders arrived in <a href="/wiki/Kochi" title="Kochi">Kochi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerala, India">Kerala, India</a> as early as 562 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-TheShengold_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheShengold-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> followed by trading along the <a href="/wiki/Incense_route" class="mw-redirect" title="Incense route">incense route</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Roman-India routes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaw1978164_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw1978164-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian</a> ports such as <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian">Ethiopians</a> that became the maritime trading power of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. </p><p>Indian merchants involved in spice trade took <a href="/wiki/Indian_cuisine" title="Indian cuisine">Indian cuisine</a> to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and <a href="/wiki/Curry" title="Curry">curries</a> became popular with the native inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollingham2006245_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollingham2006245-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buddhism entered China through the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road</a> in the 1st or 2nd century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast Asia came to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by patrons. They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade. Buddhism in particular travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the use of coinage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonkin200367,_60–70_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonkin200367,_60–70-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kushan_Empire">Kushan Empire</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Kushan Empire</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:183px;max-width:183px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:167px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png/181px-Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="181" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png/272px-Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png/362px-Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png 2x" data-file-width="2324" data-file-height="2151" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:105px;max-width:105px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:167px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kanishka_Buddha_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Kanishka_Buddha_detail.jpg/103px-Kanishka_Buddha_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Kanishka_Buddha_detail.jpg/155px-Kanishka_Buddha_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Kanishka_Buddha_detail.jpg/206px-Kanishka_Buddha_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> in Kanishka's coinage, <a href="/wiki/Mathura_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathura art">Mathura art</a>, 2nd century CE</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, <a href="/wiki/Kujula_Kadphises" title="Kujula Kadphises">Kujula Kadphises</a>, about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly a <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian speaking</a> tribe,<sup id="cite_ref-TCHAC_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TCHAC-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one of five branches of the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a> confederation.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-liu156_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liu156-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time of his grandson, <a href="/wiki/Kanishka_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanishka the Great">Kanishka the Great</a>, the empire spread to encompass much of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> majority.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Arthur_Smith" title="Vincent Arthur Smith">Vincent Smith</a> said about Kanishka: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and <a href="/wiki/Roman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman empire">Rome</a>. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhara art">Gandhara art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathura_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathura art">Mathura art</a>, which reached its peak during Kushan rule.<sup id="cite_ref-ArtPal1986_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ArtPal1986-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as <i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Kushana" title="Pax Kushana">Pax Kushana</a></i>. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was <a href="/wiki/Vasudeva_I" title="Vasudeva I">Vasudeva I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kushan_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kushan-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_period_(c._320_–_650_CE)"><span id="Classical_period_.28c._320_.E2.80.93_650_CE.29"></span>Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE)</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gupta_Empire">Gupta Empire</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Meghad%C5%ABta" title="Meghadūta">Meghadūta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81na%C5%9B%C4%81kuntala" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhijñānaśākuntala">Abhijñānaśākuntala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rasambhava" title="Kumārasambhava">Kumārasambhava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aryabhatiya" title="Aryabhatiya">Aryabhatiya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian numerals">Indian numerals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kama_Sutra" title="Kama Sutra">Kama Sutra</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Gupta Empire</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:199px;max-width:199px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:182px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Gupta_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Map_of_the_Gupta_Empire.png/197px-Map_of_the_Gupta_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="197" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Map_of_the_Gupta_Empire.png/296px-Map_of_the_Gupta_Empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Map_of_the_Gupta_Empire.png/394px-Map_of_the_Gupta_Empire.png 2x" data-file-width="2324" data-file-height="2151" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> around 420 CE at its peak territorial extent under Kumaragupta I.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:139px;max-width:139px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:182px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg/137px-Mahabodhitemple.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg/206px-Mahabodhitemple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg/274px-Mahabodhitemple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Current structure of the <a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a> built during the Gupta era, 5th century CE. The location are marked where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Gupta period produced scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Kalidasa" title="Kalidasa">Kalidasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aryabhata" title="Aryabhata">Aryabhata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varahamihira" class="mw-redirect" title="Varahamihira">Varahamihira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Sharma" title="Vishnu Sharma">Vishnu Sharma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vatsyayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatsyayana">Vatsyayana</a>. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_I" title="Chandragupta I">Chandragupta I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samudragupta" title="Samudragupta">Samudragupta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_II" title="Chandragupta II">Chandragupta II</a> – brought much of India under their leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period of peace under Gupta rule is known as <i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Gupta" title="Pax Gupta">Pax Gupta</a></i>. </p><p>The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a>, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century CE, with their capital at <a href="/wiki/Bamyan,_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamyan, Afghanistan">Bamiyan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, much of the southern India including <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> were largely unaffected by these events.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vakataka_Empire">Vakataka Empire</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vakataka_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Vakataka Empire">Vakataka Empire</a></div> <p>The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of <a href="/wiki/Malwa" title="Malwa">Malwa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> in the north to the <a href="/wiki/Tungabhadra_River" title="Tungabhadra River">Tungabhadra River</a> in the south as well as from the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a> in the western to the edges of <a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarh" title="Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a> in the east. They were the most important successors of the <a href="/wiki/Satavahanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Satavahanas">Satavahanas</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a>, contemporaneous with the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Guptas</a> in northern India and succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Vishnukundina_dynasty" title="Vishnukundina dynasty">Vishnukundina dynasty</a>. </p><p>The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a> (a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, <a href="/wiki/Harishena" title="Harishena">Harishena</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Madan_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madan-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:AJANTA_CAVES_-_C.SHELARE_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ajanta Caves, 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas."><img alt="Ajanta Caves, 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/AJANTA_CAVES_-_C.SHELARE_%282%29.jpg/180px-AJANTA_CAVES_-_C.SHELARE_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/AJANTA_CAVES_-_C.SHELARE_%282%29.jpg/270px-AJANTA_CAVES_-_C.SHELARE_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/AJANTA_CAVES_-_C.SHELARE_%282%29.jpg/360px-AJANTA_CAVES_-_C.SHELARE_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>, 30 <a href="/wiki/Rock_cut_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock cut architecture">rock-cut</a> Buddhist cave monument built under the <a href="/wiki/Vakatakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vakatakas">Vakatakas</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ajanta_Cave_26_Dagoba_with_praying_monks.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves."><img alt="Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Ajanta_Cave_26_Dagoba_with_praying_monks.jpg/120px-Ajanta_Cave_26_Dagoba_with_praying_monks.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Ajanta_Cave_26_Dagoba_with_praying_monks.jpg/180px-Ajanta_Cave_26_Dagoba_with_praying_monks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Ajanta_Cave_26_Dagoba_with_praying_monks.jpg/240px-Ajanta_Cave_26_Dagoba_with_praying_monks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cave_26,_Ajanta.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves."><img alt="Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg/180px-Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg/270px-Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg/360px-Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4100" data-file-height="2662" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ajanta_Cave_17_frescoe.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves."><img alt="Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ajanta_Cave_17_frescoe.jpg/180px-Ajanta_Cave_17_frescoe.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ajanta_Cave_17_frescoe.jpg/270px-Ajanta_Cave_17_frescoe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ajanta_Cave_17_frescoe.jpg/360px-Ajanta_Cave_17_frescoe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2840" data-file-height="2140" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves.</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kamarupa_Kingdom">Kamarupa Kingdom</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kamarupa_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamarupa Kingdom">Kamarupa Kingdom</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copper_Plate_Seal_of_Kamarupa_Kings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Copper_Plate_Seal_of_Kamarupa_Kings.jpg/120px-Copper_Plate_Seal_of_Kamarupa_Kings.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Copper_Plate_Seal_of_Kamarupa_Kings.jpg/180px-Copper_Plate_Seal_of_Kamarupa_Kings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Copper_Plate_Seal_of_Kamarupa_Kings.jpg/240px-Copper_Plate_Seal_of_Kamarupa_Kings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="834" data-file-height="1548" /></a><figcaption>Copper Plate Seal of Kamarupa Kings at <a href="/wiki/Madan_Kamdev" title="Madan Kamdev">Madan Kamdev</a> ruins.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Samudragupta" title="Samudragupta">Samudragupta</a>'s 4th-century <a href="/wiki/Allahabad_Pillar#Samudragupta_inscription" title="Allahabad Pillar">Allahabad pillar inscription</a> mentions Kamarupa (<a href="/wiki/Western_Assam" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Assam">Western Assam</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Davaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Davaka">Davaka</a> (Central Assam)<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present <a href="/wiki/Sadiya" title="Sadiya">Sadiya</a> and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, <a href="/wiki/North_Bengal" title="North Bengal">North Bengal</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> and, at times <a href="/wiki/Purnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Purnea">Purnea</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ruled by three dynasties <a href="/wiki/Varman_dynasty" title="Varman dynasty">Varmanas</a> (c. 350–650 CE), <a href="/wiki/Mlechchha_dynasty" title="Mlechchha dynasty">Mlechchha dynasty</a> (c. 655–900 CE) and <a href="/wiki/Pala_dynasty_(Kamarupa)" title="Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)">Kamarupa-Palas</a> (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day <a href="/wiki/Guwahati" title="Guwahati">Guwahati</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pragjyotishpura" title="Pragjyotishpura">Pragjyotishpura</a>), Tezpur (<a href="/wiki/Haruppeswara" class="mw-redirect" title="Haruppeswara">Haruppeswara</a>) and <a href="/wiki/North_Gauhati" class="mw-redirect" title="North Gauhati">North Gauhati</a> (<a href="/wiki/Durjaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Durjaya">Durjaya</a>) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from <a href="/wiki/Narakasura" title="Narakasura">Narakasura</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the reign of the Varman king, <a href="/wiki/Bhaskar_Varman" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhaskar Varman">Bhaskar Varman</a> (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> visited the <a href="/wiki/Kamrup_region" title="Kamrup region">region</a> and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended until c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the <a href="/wiki/Khen_dynasty" title="Khen dynasty">Khen dynasty</a> under <a href="/wiki/Sandhya_(ruler_of_Kamarupa)" title="Sandhya (ruler of Kamarupa)">Sandhya</a> of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the <a href="/wiki/Kamata_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamata kingdom">Kamata kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pallava_Empire">Pallava Empire</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pallava_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallava Empire">Pallava Empire</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shore_temple,_mahabalipuram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg/220px-Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg/330px-Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg/440px-Shore_temple%2C_mahabalipuram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shore_Temple" title="Shore Temple">Shore Temple</a> (<a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Mahabalipuram" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahabalipuram">Mahabalipuram</a> built by <a href="/wiki/Narasimhavarman_II" title="Narasimhavarman II">Narasimhavarman II</a>.</figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="/wiki/Pallava" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallava">Pallavas</a>, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the <a href="/wiki/Gupta" title="Gupta">Guptas</a> of the <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North</a>, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South</a> of the Indian subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early Pallavas had different connexions to <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asian</a> countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in <a href="/wiki/Mamallapuram" title="Mamallapuram">Mamallapuram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanchipuram" title="Kanchipuram">Kanchipuram</a> and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">temple architecture</a> and sculpture style of <a href="/wiki/Vastu_Shastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vastu Shastra">Vastu Shastra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Mahendravarman_I" title="Mahendravarman I">Mahendravarman I</a> (571–630 CE) and <a href="/wiki/Narasimhavarman_I" title="Narasimhavarman I">Narasimhavarman I</a> (630–668 CE) and dominated the <a href="/wiki/Telugu_people" title="Telugu people">Telugu</a> and northern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Tamil country">Tamil</a> region until the end of the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-histoworldwhitney_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histoworldwhitney-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kadamba_Empire">Kadamba Empire</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadamba Empire">Kadamba Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Close_up_view_of_shrines_at_Lakshmi_Devi_temple_complex_at_Doddagaddavalli.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Close_up_view_of_shrines_at_Lakshmi_Devi_temple_complex_at_Doddagaddavalli.JPG/220px-Close_up_view_of_shrines_at_Lakshmi_Devi_temple_complex_at_Doddagaddavalli.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Close_up_view_of_shrines_at_Lakshmi_Devi_temple_complex_at_Doddagaddavalli.JPG/330px-Close_up_view_of_shrines_at_Lakshmi_Devi_temple_complex_at_Doddagaddavalli.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Close_up_view_of_shrines_at_Lakshmi_Devi_temple_complex_at_Doddagaddavalli.JPG/440px-Close_up_view_of_shrines_at_Lakshmi_Devi_temple_complex_at_Doddagaddavalli.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Kadamba <i>shikara</i> (tower) with <i>Kalasa</i> (pinnacle) on top, <a href="/wiki/Doddagaddavalli" class="mw-redirect" title="Doddagaddavalli">Doddagaddavalli</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Kadambas originated from <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, was founded by <a href="/wiki/Mayurasharma" title="Mayurasharma">Mayurasharma</a> in 345 CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of <a href="/wiki/Pallavas_of_Kanchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallavas of Kanchi">Pallavas of Kanchi</a> possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Kakusthavarma" title="Kakusthavarma">Kakusthavarma</a>, a notable ruler with whom the kings of <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gupta Dynasty">Gupta Dynasty</a> of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Ganga_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Ganga Dynasty">Western Ganga Dynasty</a> and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the <a href="/wiki/Chalukya" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalukya">Chalukya</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta">Rashtrakuta</a> empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties (<a href="/wiki/Kadambas_of_Goa" title="Kadambas of Goa">Kadambas of Goa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kadambas_of_Halasi" title="Kadambas of Halasi">Kadambas of Halasi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kadambas_of_Hangal" title="Kadambas of Hangal">Kadambas of Hangal</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Empire_of_Harsha">Empire of Harsha</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pushyabhuti_dynasty" title="Pushyabhuti dynasty">Pushyabhuti dynasty</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a> ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of <a href="/wiki/Prabhakarvardhana" class="mw-redirect" title="Prabhakarvardhana">Prabhakarvardhana</a> and the younger brother of <a href="/wiki/Rajyavardhana" title="Rajyavardhana">Rajyavardhana</a>, who were members of the <a href="/wiki/Vardhana_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Vardhana dynasty">Vardhana dynasty</a> and ruled <a href="/wiki/Thanesar" title="Thanesar">Thanesar</a>, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harshavardhana_Circa_AD_606-647.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Harshavardhana_Circa_AD_606-647.jpg/250px-Harshavardhana_Circa_AD_606-647.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Harshavardhana_Circa_AD_606-647.jpg/375px-Harshavardhana_Circa_AD_606-647.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Harshavardhana_Circa_AD_606-647.jpg/500px-Harshavardhana_Circa_AD_606-647.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Coin of <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Emperor Harsha</a>, c. 606–647 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>After the downfall of the prior <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> in the middle of the 6th century, <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a> reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja.<sup id="cite_ref-RN_Kundra_&_SS_Bawa_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RN_Kundra_&_SS_Bawa-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the peak, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East until <a href="/wiki/Kamarupa" title="Kamarupa">Kamarupa</a>, and South until <a href="/wiki/Narmada_River" title="Narmada River">Narmada River</a>; and eventually made <a href="/wiki/Kannauj" title="Kannauj">Kannauj</a> (in present <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Historic_Places_p.507_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Historic_Places_p.507-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors.<sup id="cite_ref-Historic_Places_p.507_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Historic_Places_p.507-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from <a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a> worship.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese traveller <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.<sup id="cite_ref-Historic_Places_p.507_172-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Historic_Places_p.507-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His biography <i><a href="/wiki/Harshacharita" title="Harshacharita">Harshacharita</a></i> ("Deeds of Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet <a href="/wiki/Banabhatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Banabhatta">Banabhatta</a>, describes his association with Thanesar and the palace with a two-storied <i>Dhavalagriha</i> (White Mansion).<sup id="cite_ref-encystan_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encystan-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_medieval_period_(c._650_–_1200)"><span id="Early_medieval_period_.28c._650_.E2.80.93_1200.29"></span>Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Tripartite Struggle</a></div> <p>Early <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">medieval India</a> began after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> in the 6th century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-stein_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stein-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism, which began after the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Harsha" class="mw-redirect" title="Empire of Harsha">Empire of Harsha</a> in the 7th century,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200441_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200441-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> in Northern India;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200443_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200443-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the beginning of Imperial <a href="/wiki/Kannauj" title="Kannauj">Kannauj</a>, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripartite struggle">Tripartite struggle</a>; and the end of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Cholas" class="mw-redirect" title="Later Cholas">Later Cholas</a> with the death of <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Chola_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajendra Chola III">Rajendra Chola III</a> in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a> in the south around the 17th century. </p><p>From the fifth century to the thirteenth, <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a> sacrifices declined, and support for <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a> expanded in royal courts, while the support for Buddhism declined.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanderson,_Alexis_2009_pages_41-43_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanderson,_Alexis_2009_pages_41-43-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lack of appeal among the rural masses, who instead embraced Brahmanical <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> formed in the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu synthesis">Hindu synthesis</a>, and dwindling financial support from trading communities and royal elites, were major factors in the decline of Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 7th century, <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a> formulated his school of <a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a> philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the <a href="/wiki/Gurjara_Pratihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara Pratihara">Gurjara Pratiharas</a> of Malwa, the <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Palas</a> of Bengal, and the <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakutas</a> of the Deccan. The <a href="/wiki/Sena_dynasty" title="Sena dynasty">Sena dynasty</a> would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Malwa" title="Kingdom of Malwa">Kingdom of Malwa</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandelas_of_Bundelkhand&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chandelas of Bundelkhand (page does not exist)">Kingdom of Bundelkhand</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Tripuri" title="Kalachuris of Tripuri">Kingdom of Dahala</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tomaras" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomaras">Tomaras</a> of <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Chahamanas_of_Shakambhari" title="Chahamanas of Shakambhari">Kingdom of Sambhar</a>, these states were some of the earliest <a href="/wiki/List_of_Rajput_dynasties_and_states" title="List of Rajput dynasties and states">Rajput kingdoms</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Chalukyas">Western Chalukyas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath198093_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath198093-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, the <a href="/wiki/Chaulukya_dynasty" title="Chaulukya dynasty">Chaulukya dynasty</a> emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the <a href="/wiki/Dilwara_Temples" title="Dilwara Temples">Dilwara Temples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Temple,_Modhera" title="Sun Temple, Modhera">Modhera Sun Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rani_ki_vav" class="mw-redirect" title="Rani ki vav">Rani ki vav</a><sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the style of <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ru-Gurjara_architecture" title="Māru-Gurjara architecture">Māru-Gurjara architecture</a>, and their capital Anhilwara (modern <a href="/wiki/Patan,_Gujarat" title="Patan, Gujarat">Patan, Gujarat</a>) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola Empire</a> emerged as a major power during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Raja_Raja_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Raja Raja Chola I">Raja Raja Chola I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajendra Chola I">Rajendra Chola I</a> who successfully <a href="/wiki/South-East_Asia_campaign_of_Rajendra_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I">invaded parts of Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chola_occupation_of_Sri_Lanka_(993-1077)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chola occupation of Sri Lanka (993-1077)">Sri Lanka</a> in the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Dancing_Girl_p._129_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Dancing_Girl_p._129-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lalitaditya_Muktapida" title="Lalitaditya Muktapida">Lalitaditya Muktapida</a> (r. 724–760) was an emperor of the Kashmiri <a href="/wiki/Karko%E1%B9%ADa_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Karkoṭa dynasty">Karkoṭa dynasty</a>, which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 until 1003, and was followed by <a href="/wiki/Lohara_dynasty" title="Lohara dynasty">Lohara dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kalhana" title="Kalhana">Kalhana</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Rajatarangini" title="Rajatarangini">Rajatarangini</a> credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu Shahi">Hindu Shahi</a> dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ganga_dynasty" title="Eastern Ganga dynasty">Eastern Ganga Empire</a> rose to power; noted for the advancement of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_architecture" title="Hindu architecture">Hindu architecture</a>, most notable being <a href="/wiki/Jagannath_Temple,_Puri" title="Jagannath Temple, Puri">Jagannath Temple</a> and <a href="/wiki/Konark_Sun_Temple" title="Konark Sun Temple">Konark Sun Temple</a>, as well as being patrons of art and literature. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Martand_Sun_Temple_Central_shrine_(6133772365).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Martand Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated to the deity Surya, and built by the third ruler of the Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the 8th century"><img alt="Martand Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated to the deity Surya, and built by the third ruler of the Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the 8th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Martand_Sun_Temple_Central_shrine_%286133772365%29.jpg/180px-Martand_Sun_Temple_Central_shrine_%286133772365%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Martand_Sun_Temple_Central_shrine_%286133772365%29.jpg/270px-Martand_Sun_Temple_Central_shrine_%286133772365%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Martand_Sun_Temple_Central_shrine_%286133772365%29.jpg/360px-Martand_Sun_Temple_Central_shrine_%286133772365%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Martand_Sun_Temple" title="Martand Sun Temple">Martand Sun Temple</a> Central shrine, dedicated to the deity <a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a>, and built by the third ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Karko%E1%B9%ADa_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Karkoṭa Empire">Karkota dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lalitaditya_Muktapida" title="Lalitaditya Muktapida">Lalitaditya Muktapida</a>, in the 8th century</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Konark_Temple_Panorama2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Konark Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa, built by Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty"><img alt="Konark Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa, built by Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Konark_Temple_Panorama2.jpg/180px-Konark_Temple_Panorama2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Konark_Temple_Panorama2.jpg/270px-Konark_Temple_Panorama2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Konark_Temple_Panorama2.jpg/360px-Konark_Temple_Panorama2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3794" data-file-height="989" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Konark_Sun_Temple" title="Konark Sun Temple">Konark Sun Temple</a> at <a href="/wiki/Konark" title="Konark">Konark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orissa,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Orissa, India">Orissa</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/Narasimhadeva_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Narasimhadeva I">Narasimhadeva I</a> (1238–1264) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Khajuraho_-_Kandariya_Mahadeo_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in the Khajuraho complex was built by the Chandelas"><img alt="Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in the Khajuraho complex was built by the Chandelas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Khajuraho_-_Kandariya_Mahadeo_Temple.jpg/180px-Khajuraho_-_Kandariya_Mahadeo_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Khajuraho_-_Kandariya_Mahadeo_Temple.jpg/270px-Khajuraho_-_Kandariya_Mahadeo_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Khajuraho_-_Kandariya_Mahadeo_Temple.jpg/360px-Khajuraho_-_Kandariya_Mahadeo_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kandariya_Mahadeva_Temple" title="Kandariya Mahadeva Temple">Kandariya Mahadeva Temple</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Khajuraho_Group_of_Monuments" title="Khajuraho Group of Monuments">Khajuraho complex</a> was built by the <a href="/wiki/Chandela" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandela">Chandelas</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE,_PURI,_ORISSA,_INDIA,_ASIA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jagannath Temple at Puri, built by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga dynasty"><img alt="Jagannath Temple at Puri, built by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg/135px-PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg/202px-PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg/270px-PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Jagannath_Temple,_Puri" title="Jagannath Temple, Puri">Jagannath Temple</a> at <a href="/wiki/Puri" title="Puri">Puri</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/Anantavarman_Chodaganga_Deva" class="mw-redirect" title="Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva">Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva</a> of the Eastern Ganga dynasty</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_Gupta_dynasty">Later Gupta dynasty</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Later_Gupta_dynasty" title="Later Gupta dynasty">Later Gupta dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Later_Guptas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Map_of_the_Later_Guptas.jpg/220px-Map_of_the_Later_Guptas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Map_of_the_Later_Guptas.jpg/330px-Map_of_the_Later_Guptas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Map_of_the_Later_Guptas.jpg/440px-Map_of_the_Later_Guptas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2324" data-file-height="2151" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Later Guptas</figcaption></figure> <p>The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a> region in eastern India between the 6th and 7th centuries AD. The Later Guptas succeeded the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">imperial Guptas</a> as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear to be two distinct families.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Later Guptas are so-called because the names of their rulers ended with the suffix "-gupta", which they might have adopted to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the imperial Guptas.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chalukya_Empire">Chalukya Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya dynasty</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya Empire</a> ruled large parts of southern and <a href="/wiki/Central_India" title="Central India">central India</a> between the 6th and the 12th centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern <a href="/wiki/Badami" title="Badami">Badami</a>) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadamba Dynasty">Kadamba</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Banavasi" title="Banavasi">Banavasi</a> and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Pulakeshin_II" title="Pulakeshin II">Pulakeshin II</a>. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the <a href="/wiki/Kaveri" title="Kaveri">Kaveri</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Narmada_River" title="Narmada River">Narmada Rivers</a>. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from <a href="/wiki/Basavakalyan" title="Basavakalyan">Kalyani</a> between 970 and 1190. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Galaganatha_Temple,_Pattadakal,_Karnataka.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Galaganatha Temple at Pattadakal complex (UNESCO World Heritage) is an example of Badami Chalukya architecture"><img alt="Galaganatha Temple at Pattadakal complex (UNESCO World Heritage) is an example of Badami Chalukya architecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Galaganatha_Temple%2C_Pattadakal%2C_Karnataka.jpg/161px-Galaganatha_Temple%2C_Pattadakal%2C_Karnataka.jpg" decoding="async" width="161" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Galaganatha_Temple%2C_Pattadakal%2C_Karnataka.jpg/242px-Galaganatha_Temple%2C_Pattadakal%2C_Karnataka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Galaganatha_Temple%2C_Pattadakal%2C_Karnataka.jpg/323px-Galaganatha_Temple%2C_Pattadakal%2C_Karnataka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="926" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Galaganatha Temple at <a href="/wiki/Pattadakal" title="Pattadakal">Pattadakal complex</a> (<a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage">UNESCO World Heritage</a>) is an example of <a href="/wiki/Badami_Chalukya_architecture" title="Badami Chalukya architecture">Badami Chalukya architecture</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bhutanatha temple complex at Badami, next to a waterfall, during the monsoon."><img alt="Bhutanatha temple complex at Badami, next to a waterfall, during the monsoon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg/180px-View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg/270px-View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg/360px-View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3957" data-file-height="2373" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Bhutanatha_group_of_temples,_Badami" title="Bhutanatha group of temples, Badami">Bhutanatha temple complex</a> at <a href="/wiki/Badami" title="Badami">Badami</a>, next to a <a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">waterfall</a>, during the monsoon.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vishnu_image_inside_cave_number_3_in_Badami.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vishnu image inside the Badami Cave Temple Complex. Example of Indian rock-cut architecture"><img alt="Vishnu image inside the Badami Cave Temple Complex. Example of Indian rock-cut architecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Vishnu_image_inside_cave_number_3_in_Badami.jpg/135px-Vishnu_image_inside_cave_number_3_in_Badami.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Vishnu_image_inside_cave_number_3_in_Badami.jpg/202px-Vishnu_image_inside_cave_number_3_in_Badami.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Vishnu_image_inside_cave_number_3_in_Badami.jpg/270px-Vishnu_image_inside_cave_number_3_in_Badami.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> image inside the <a href="/wiki/Badami_cave_temples" title="Badami cave temples">Badami Cave Temple Complex</a>. Example of <a href="/wiki/Indian_rock-cut_architecture" title="Indian rock-cut architecture">Indian rock-cut architecture</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aihole_Temple_Karnataka.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="8th century Durga temple exterior view at Aihole complex. It includes Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples and monuments"><img alt="8th century Durga temple exterior view at Aihole complex. It includes Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples and monuments" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Aihole_Temple_Karnataka.JPG/180px-Aihole_Temple_Karnataka.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Aihole_Temple_Karnataka.JPG/270px-Aihole_Temple_Karnataka.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Aihole_Temple_Karnataka.JPG/360px-Aihole_Temple_Karnataka.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2256" data-file-height="1496" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">8th century Durga temple exterior view at <a href="/wiki/Aihole" title="Aihole">Aihole complex</a>. It includes Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples and monuments</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rashtrakuta_Empire">Rashtrakuta Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta Empire</a></div> <p>Founded by <a href="/wiki/Dantidurga" title="Dantidurga">Dantidurga</a> around 753,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003334_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003334-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at <a href="/wiki/Manyakheta" class="mw-redirect" title="Manyakheta">Manyakheta</a> for almost two centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandra_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandra-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the <a href="/wiki/Ganges-Yamuna_Doab" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges-Yamuna Doab">Ganges-Yamuna Doab</a> in the north to <a href="/wiki/Cape_Comorin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Comorin">Cape Comorin</a> in the south, a fruitful time of architectural and literary achievements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath198083,_85,_97_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath198083,_85,_97-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999380_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999380-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Govinda_III" title="Govinda III">Govinda III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amoghavarsha" title="Amoghavarsha">Amoghavarsha</a> were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was also an author and wrote <a href="/wiki/Kavirajamarga" title="Kavirajamarga">Kavirajamarga</a>, the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandra_191-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandra-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999380–381_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999380–381-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at <a href="/wiki/Pattadakal" title="Pattadakal">Pattadakal</a> in Karnataka. </p><p>The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniélou2003170_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniélou2003170-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81v%C4%ABra_(mathematician)" title="Mahāvīra (mathematician)">Mahāvīra</a> had a huge impact on medieval south Indian mathematicians.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety of languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandra_191-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandra-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ellora_Cave_16_si0308.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kailasa temple, is one of the largest rock-cut ancient Hindu temples located in Ellora"><img alt="Kailasa temple, is one of the largest rock-cut ancient Hindu temples located in Ellora" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ellora_Cave_16_si0308.jpg/180px-Ellora_Cave_16_si0308.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ellora_Cave_16_si0308.jpg/270px-Ellora_Cave_16_si0308.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ellora_Cave_16_si0308.jpg/360px-Ellora_Cave_16_si0308.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1571" data-file-height="1170" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kailasa_Temple,_Ellora" title="Kailasa Temple, Ellora">Kailasa temple</a>, is one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Indian_rock-cut_architecture" title="Indian rock-cut architecture">rock-cut</a> ancient <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Hindu temples</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Ellora_Caves" title="Ellora Caves">Ellora</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indra_Sabha_Ellora_Temple_Maharashtra_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Shikhara of Indra Sabha at Ellora Caves"><img alt="Shikhara of Indra Sabha at Ellora Caves" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Indra_Sabha_Ellora_Temple_Maharashtra_India.jpg/156px-Indra_Sabha_Ellora_Temple_Maharashtra_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="156" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Indra_Sabha_Ellora_Temple_Maharashtra_India.jpg/233px-Indra_Sabha_Ellora_Temple_Maharashtra_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Indra_Sabha_Ellora_Temple_Maharashtra_India.jpg/311px-Indra_Sabha_Ellora_Temple_Maharashtra_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1038" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Shikhara" title="Shikhara">Shikhara</a> of Indra Sabha at Ellora Caves</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ellora_cave10_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Statue of the Buddha seated. A part of the Carpenter's cave (Buddhist Cave 10)."><img alt="Statue of the Buddha seated. A part of the Carpenter's cave (Buddhist Cave 10)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ellora_cave10_002.jpg/120px-Ellora_cave10_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ellora_cave10_002.jpg/180px-Ellora_cave10_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ellora_cave10_002.jpg/240px-Ellora_cave10_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="853" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Statue of the <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> seated. A part of the Carpenter's cave (Buddhist Cave 10).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ellora_Caves_86.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jain Tirthankara Mahavira with Yaksha Matanga and Yakshi Siddhaiki at Ellora Caves"><img alt="Jain Tirthankara Mahavira with Yaksha Matanga and Yakshi Siddhaiki at Ellora Caves" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Ellora_Caves_86.jpg/180px-Ellora_Caves_86.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Ellora_Caves_86.jpg/270px-Ellora_Caves_86.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Ellora_Caves_86.jpg/360px-Ellora_Caves_86.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain">Jain</a> <a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthankara</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> with <a href="/wiki/Yaksha" title="Yaksha">Yaksha</a> Matanga and <a href="/wiki/Yakshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakshi">Yakshi</a> Siddhaiki at Ellora Caves</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gurjara-Pratihara_Empire">Gurjara-Pratihara Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara Empire">Gurjara-Pratihara Empire</a></div> <p>The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nagabhata_I" title="Nagabhata I">Nagabhata I</a> defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_campaigns_in_India" title="Umayyad campaigns in India">Umayyad campaigns in India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under <a href="/wiki/Nagabhata_II" title="Nagabhata II">Nagabhata II</a>, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Ramabhadra" title="Ramabhadra">Ramabhadra</a>, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Mihira_Bhoja" title="Mihira Bhoja">Mihira Bhoja</a>. Under Bhoja and his successor <a href="/wiki/Mahendrapala_I" title="Mahendrapala I">Mahendrapala I</a>, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory stretched from the border of <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around the <a href="/wiki/Narmada_River" title="Narmada River">Narmada River</a> in the south.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAvari2007204_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAvari2007204-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expansion triggered a <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">tripartite power struggle</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta">Rashtrakuta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a> empires for control of the Indian subcontinent. </p><p>By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Malwa" title="Kingdom of Malwa">Kingdom of Malwa</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandelas_of_Bundelkhand&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chandelas of Bundelkhand (page does not exist)">Kingdom of Bundelkhand</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tomaras" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomaras">Tomaras</a> of <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Chahamanas_of_Shakambhari" title="Chahamanas of Shakambhari">Kingdom of Sambhar</a><sup id="cite_ref-Wink2002p285-286_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wink2002p285-286-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Tripuri" title="Kalachuris of Tripuri">Kingdom of Dahala</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Teli_ka_Mandir_(15702266503).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="One of the four entrances of the Teli ka Mandir, built by the Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja.[200]"><img alt="One of the four entrances of the Teli ka Mandir, built by the Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja.[200]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg/135px-Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg/202px-Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg/270px-Teli_ka_Mandir_%2815702266503%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">One of the four entrances of the <a href="/wiki/Teli_ka_Mandir" title="Teli ka Mandir">Teli ka Mandir</a>, built by the Pratihara emperor <a href="/wiki/Mihira_Bhoja" title="Mihira Bhoja">Mihira Bhoja</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bajpai2006_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bajpai2006-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sculptures_near_Teli_Mandir,_Gwalior_Fort.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, Gwalior Fort"><img alt="Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, Gwalior Fort" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sculptures_near_Teli_Mandir%2C_Gwalior_Fort.jpg/122px-Sculptures_near_Teli_Mandir%2C_Gwalior_Fort.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sculptures_near_Teli_Mandir%2C_Gwalior_Fort.jpg/182px-Sculptures_near_Teli_Mandir%2C_Gwalior_Fort.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sculptures_near_Teli_Mandir%2C_Gwalior_Fort.jpg/243px-Sculptures_near_Teli_Mandir%2C_Gwalior_Fort.jpg 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="976" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, <a href="/wiki/Gwalior_Fort" title="Gwalior Fort">Gwalior Fort</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jain_statues,_Gwalior.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside Siddhachal Caves, Gwalior Fort"><img alt="Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside Siddhachal Caves, Gwalior Fort" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jain_statues%2C_Gwalior.jpg/180px-Jain_statues%2C_Gwalior.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jain_statues%2C_Gwalior.jpg/270px-Jain_statues%2C_Gwalior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jain_statues%2C_Gwalior.jpg/360px-Jain_statues%2C_Gwalior.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2585" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside <a href="/wiki/Siddhachal_Caves" title="Siddhachal Caves">Siddhachal Caves</a>, Gwalior Fort</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Baroli_Temple_Complex1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at Baroli Temples complex. Complex of eight temples, built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, within a walled enclosure"><img alt="Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at Baroli Temples complex. Complex of eight temples, built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, within a walled enclosure" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Baroli_Temple_Complex1.jpg/135px-Baroli_Temple_Complex1.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Baroli_Temple_Complex1.jpg/202px-Baroli_Temple_Complex1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Baroli_Temple_Complex1.jpg/270px-Baroli_Temple_Complex1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at <a href="/wiki/Baroli_Temples" title="Baroli Temples">Baroli Temples complex</a>. Complex of eight temples, built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, within a walled enclosure</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gahadavala_dynasty">Gahadavala dynasty</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gahadavala_dynasty" title="Gahadavala dynasty">Gahadavala dynasty</a></div> <p>Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day <a href="/wiki/Indian_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian states">Indian states</a> of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at <a href="/wiki/Varanasi" title="Varanasi">Varanasi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiyogi195938_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENiyogi195938-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Karnat_dynasty">Karnat dynasty</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Karnat_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Karnat dynasty">Karnat dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pillar_at_Simroungarh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Pillar_at_Simroungarh.jpg/220px-Pillar_at_Simroungarh.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Pillar_at_Simroungarh.jpg/330px-Pillar_at_Simroungarh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Pillar_at_Simroungarh.jpg/440px-Pillar_at_Simroungarh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a><figcaption>Pillar from the Karnat capital of <a href="/wiki/Simraungadh_(medieval_city)" title="Simraungadh (medieval city)">Simraungadh</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals in <a href="/wiki/Darbhanga" title="Darbhanga">Darbhanga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simraungadh" class="mw-redirect" title="Simraungadh">Simraongadh</a>. The dynasty was established by <a href="/wiki/Nanyadeva" title="Nanyadeva">Nanyadeva</a>, a military commander of Karnataka origin. Under this dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a> language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, the <a href="/wiki/Varna_Ratnakara" title="Varna Ratnakara">Varna Ratnakara</a> being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Ghiyasuddin_Tughlaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq">Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chakrabarty10_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chakrabarty10-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pala_Empire">Pala Empire</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nalanda_University_India_ruins.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Nalanda_University_India_ruins.jpg/220px-Nalanda_University_India_ruins.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Nalanda_University_India_ruins.jpg/330px-Nalanda_University_India_ruins.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Nalanda_University_India_ruins.jpg/440px-Nalanda_University_India_ruins.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Excavated ruins of <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a>, a centre of Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a></div> <p>The Pala Empire was founded by <a href="/wiki/Gopala_I" title="Gopala I">Gopala I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nitish2011_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nitish2011-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Biplab2005_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biplab2005-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of <a href="/wiki/Shashanka" title="Shashanka">Shashanka</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gauda_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauda Kingdom">Gauda Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004112,_119_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004112,_119-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Palas were followers of the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tantric_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantric Buddhism">Tantric</a> schools of Buddhism,<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they also patronised <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ChandraPala_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChandraPala-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire reached its peak under <a href="/wiki/Dharmapala_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmapala (emperor)">Dharmapala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Devapala_(Pala_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Devapala (Pala dynasty)">Devapala</a>. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the north-west.<sup id="cite_ref-ChandraPala_210-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChandraPala-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999278_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999278-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dharmapala founded the <a href="/wiki/Vikramashila" title="Vikramashila">Vikramashila</a> and revived Nalanda,<sup id="cite_ref-ChandraPala_210-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChandraPala-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999278_211-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999278-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PNChopra2003_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNChopra2003-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Palas also built many <a href="/wiki/Vihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Vihara">viharas</a>. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cholas">Cholas</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rajendra_map_new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Rajendra_map_new.svg/250px-Rajendra_map_new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Rajendra_map_new.svg/375px-Rajendra_map_new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Rajendra_map_new.svg/500px-Rajendra_map_new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola Empire</a> under <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajendra Chola">Rajendra Chola</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1030</figcaption></figure> <p>Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century and established the greatest empire South India had seen.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Dancing_Girl_p._129_184-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Dancing_Girl_p._129-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under <a href="/wiki/Rajaraja_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajaraja Chola I">Rajaraja Chola I</a> and his successors <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajendra Chola I">Rajendra Chola I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajadhiraja_Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajadhiraja Chola">Rajadhiraja Chola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virarajendra_Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Virarajendra Chola">Virarajendra Chola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kulothunga_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulothunga Chola I">Kulothunga Chola I</a> the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004116_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004116-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-keay215_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keay215-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> (Laccadive) islands, <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a>. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a> in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.<sup id="cite_ref-sastri158_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sastri158-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ranganathaswamy_temple_tiruchirappalli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ranganathaswamy_temple_tiruchirappalli.jpg/300px-Ranganathaswamy_temple_tiruchirappalli.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ranganathaswamy_temple_tiruchirappalli.jpg/450px-Ranganathaswamy_temple_tiruchirappalli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ranganathaswamy_temple_tiruchirappalli.jpg/600px-Ranganathaswamy_temple_tiruchirappalli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4435" data-file-height="3325" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam" title="Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam">Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple</a> is the world's largest functioning Hindu temple<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> present in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_Temple-Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The granite gopuram (tower) of Brihadeeswarar Temple, 1010"><img alt="The granite gopuram (tower) of Brihadeeswarar Temple, 1010" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Big_Temple-Temple.jpg/135px-Big_Temple-Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Big_Temple-Temple.jpg/202px-Big_Temple-Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Big_Temple-Temple.jpg/270px-Big_Temple-Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The granite <a href="/wiki/Gopuram" title="Gopuram">gopuram (tower)</a> of <a href="/wiki/Brihadeeswarar_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Brihadeeswarar Temple">Brihadeeswarar Temple</a>, 1010</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chariot_detail,_Airavatesvara,_Tamil_Nadu.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chariot detail at Airavatesvara Temple built by Rajaraja Chola II in the 12th century"><img alt="Chariot detail at Airavatesvara Temple built by Rajaraja Chola II in the 12th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Chariot_detail%2C_Airavatesvara%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg/180px-Chariot_detail%2C_Airavatesvara%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Chariot_detail%2C_Airavatesvara%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg/270px-Chariot_detail%2C_Airavatesvara%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Chariot_detail%2C_Airavatesvara%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg/360px-Chariot_detail%2C_Airavatesvara%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chariot detail at <a href="/wiki/Airavatesvara_Temple" title="Airavatesvara Temple">Airavatesvara Temple</a> built by <a href="/wiki/Rajaraja_Chola_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajaraja Chola II">Rajaraja Chola II</a> in the 12th century</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Back_view_of_Raja_gopuram.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The pyramidal structure above the sanctum at Brihadisvara Temple."><img alt="The pyramidal structure above the sanctum at Brihadisvara Temple." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Back_view_of_Raja_gopuram.jpg/120px-Back_view_of_Raja_gopuram.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Back_view_of_Raja_gopuram.jpg/180px-Back_view_of_Raja_gopuram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Back_view_of_Raja_gopuram.jpg/240px-Back_view_of_Raja_gopuram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The pyramidal structure above the sanctum at <a href="/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple,_Gangaikonda_Cholapuram" title="Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram">Brihadisvara Temple</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brihadeeswara_Temple_Entrance_Gopurams,_Thanjavur.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams at Thanjavur"><img alt="Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams at Thanjavur" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Brihadeeswara_Temple_Entrance_Gopurams%2C_Thanjavur.JPG/180px-Brihadeeswara_Temple_Entrance_Gopurams%2C_Thanjavur.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Brihadeeswara_Temple_Entrance_Gopurams%2C_Thanjavur.JPG/270px-Brihadeeswara_Temple_Entrance_Gopurams%2C_Thanjavur.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Brihadeeswara_Temple_Entrance_Gopurams%2C_Thanjavur.JPG/360px-Brihadeeswara_Temple_Entrance_Gopurams%2C_Thanjavur.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1728" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams at <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur" title="Thanjavur">Thanjavur</a></div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Chalukya_Empire">Western Chalukya Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western Chalukya Empire</a></div> <p>The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">western Deccan</a>, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Medieval_India_p.24_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medieval_India_p.24-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vast areas between the <a href="/wiki/Narmada_River" title="Narmada River">Narmada River</a> in the north and <a href="/wiki/Kaveri_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaveri River">Kaveri River</a> in the south came under Chalukya control.<sup id="cite_ref-Medieval_India_p.24_222-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medieval_India_p.24-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the <a href="/wiki/Hoysalas" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysalas">Hoysalas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Seuna_Yadavas_of_Devagiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri">Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Kalyani" title="Kalachuris of Kalyani">Southern Kalachuris</a>, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the <a href="/wiki/Kasivisvesvara_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasivisvesvara Temple">Kasivisvesvara Temple</a> at <a href="/wiki/Lakkundi" title="Lakkundi">Lakkundi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mallikarjuna_Temple,_Kuruvatti" title="Mallikarjuna Temple, Kuruvatti">Mallikarjuna Temple</a> at Kuruvatti, the <a href="/wiki/Kalleshvara_Temple,_Bagali" title="Kalleshvara Temple, Bagali">Kallesvara Temple</a> at Bagali, <a href="/wiki/Siddhesvara_Temple" title="Siddhesvara Temple">Siddhesvara Temple</a> at Haveri, and the <a href="/wiki/Mahadeva_Temple_(Itagi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahadeva Temple (Itagi)">Mahadeva Temple</a> at Itagi.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of <a href="/wiki/Kannada_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kannada language">Kannada</a>, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman <a href="/wiki/Basava" title="Basava">Basava</a> and the great mathematician <a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II" title="Bhāskara II">Bhāskara II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Profile_of_the_vimana_(sanctum_outerwall_and_tower)_of_the_Siddhesvara_temple_at_Haveri_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Shrine outer wall and Dravida style superstructure (shikhara) at Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri"><img alt="Shrine outer wall and Dravida style superstructure (shikhara) at Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Profile_of_the_vimana_%28sanctum_outerwall_and_tower%29_of_the_Siddhesvara_temple_at_Haveri_2.JPG/120px-Profile_of_the_vimana_%28sanctum_outerwall_and_tower%29_of_the_Siddhesvara_temple_at_Haveri_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Profile_of_the_vimana_%28sanctum_outerwall_and_tower%29_of_the_Siddhesvara_temple_at_Haveri_2.JPG/180px-Profile_of_the_vimana_%28sanctum_outerwall_and_tower%29_of_the_Siddhesvara_temple_at_Haveri_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Profile_of_the_vimana_%28sanctum_outerwall_and_tower%29_of_the_Siddhesvara_temple_at_Haveri_2.JPG/240px-Profile_of_the_vimana_%28sanctum_outerwall_and_tower%29_of_the_Siddhesvara_temple_at_Haveri_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Shrine outer wall and <i>Dravida</i> style superstructure (<i><a href="/wiki/Shikhara" title="Shikhara">shikhara</a></i>) at <a href="/wiki/Siddhesvara_Temple" title="Siddhesvara Temple">Siddhesvara Temple</a> at <a href="/wiki/Haveri" title="Haveri">Haveri</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ornate_entrance_to_closed_mantapa_in_Kalleshvara_temple_at_Bagali.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Ornate entrance to the closed hall from the south at Kalleshvara Temple at Bagali"><img alt="Ornate entrance to the closed hall from the south at Kalleshvara Temple at Bagali" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Ornate_entrance_to_closed_mantapa_in_Kalleshvara_temple_at_Bagali.JPG/180px-Ornate_entrance_to_closed_mantapa_in_Kalleshvara_temple_at_Bagali.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Ornate_entrance_to_closed_mantapa_in_Kalleshvara_temple_at_Bagali.JPG/270px-Ornate_entrance_to_closed_mantapa_in_Kalleshvara_temple_at_Bagali.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Ornate_entrance_to_closed_mantapa_in_Kalleshvara_temple_at_Bagali.JPG/360px-Ornate_entrance_to_closed_mantapa_in_Kalleshvara_temple_at_Bagali.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ornate entrance to the closed hall from the south at <a href="/wiki/Kalleshvara_Temple,_Bagali" title="Kalleshvara Temple, Bagali">Kalleshvara Temple at Bagali</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shrine_wall_frieze_and_relief_in_Mallikarjuna_temple_at_Kuruvatti.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Shrine wall relief, molding frieze and miniature decorative tower in Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti"><img alt="Shrine wall relief, molding frieze and miniature decorative tower in Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Shrine_wall_frieze_and_relief_in_Mallikarjuna_temple_at_Kuruvatti.JPG/120px-Shrine_wall_frieze_and_relief_in_Mallikarjuna_temple_at_Kuruvatti.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Shrine_wall_frieze_and_relief_in_Mallikarjuna_temple_at_Kuruvatti.JPG/180px-Shrine_wall_frieze_and_relief_in_Mallikarjuna_temple_at_Kuruvatti.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Shrine_wall_frieze_and_relief_in_Mallikarjuna_temple_at_Kuruvatti.JPG/240px-Shrine_wall_frieze_and_relief_in_Mallikarjuna_temple_at_Kuruvatti.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Shrine wall relief, molding frieze and miniature decorative tower in <a href="/wiki/Mallikarjuna_Temple,_Kuruvatti" title="Mallikarjuna Temple, Kuruvatti">Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rear_view_showing_lateral_entrances_of_the_Mahadeva_Temple_at_Itagi_in_the_Koppal_district.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Rear view showing lateral entrances of the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi"><img alt="Rear view showing lateral entrances of the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Rear_view_showing_lateral_entrances_of_the_Mahadeva_Temple_at_Itagi_in_the_Koppal_district.JPG/120px-Rear_view_showing_lateral_entrances_of_the_Mahadeva_Temple_at_Itagi_in_the_Koppal_district.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Rear_view_showing_lateral_entrances_of_the_Mahadeva_Temple_at_Itagi_in_the_Koppal_district.JPG/180px-Rear_view_showing_lateral_entrances_of_the_Mahadeva_Temple_at_Itagi_in_the_Koppal_district.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Rear_view_showing_lateral_entrances_of_the_Mahadeva_Temple_at_Itagi_in_the_Koppal_district.JPG/240px-Rear_view_showing_lateral_entrances_of_the_Mahadeva_Temple_at_Itagi_in_the_Koppal_district.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rear view showing lateral entrances of the <a href="/wiki/Mahadeva_Temple,_Itagi" title="Mahadeva Temple, Itagi">Mahadeva Temple at Itagi</a></div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_medieval_period_(c._1200_–_1526)"><span id="Late_medieval_period_.28c._1200_.E2.80.93_1526.29"></span>Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_kingdoms_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent</a></div> <p>The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions of the Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200647_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200647-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf20066_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf20066-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the rule of the Delhi sultanate, and by the growth of other dynasties and empires, built upon military technology of the Sultanate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200653_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200653-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It turned from a turkic Monopoly to an <a href="/wiki/Indianization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indianization">Indianized</a> Indo-Muslim polity <sup id="cite_ref-Ahmad1939_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmad1939-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-John_Bowman_2000_267_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Bowman_2000_267-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delhi_Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></div> <p>The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive <a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic states</a> based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Indic peoples">Indic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turko-Indian<sup id="cite_ref-whunter_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whunter-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pashtun" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashtun">Pashtun</a> origins.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the early 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-delhi_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-delhi-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Mamluk dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a> managed to conquer large areas of northern India, while the <a href="/wiki/Khalji_dynasty" title="Khalji dynasty">Khalji dynasty</a> conquered most of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal states</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-delhi_236-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-delhi-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a> was born during the Delhi Sultanate period. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, <a href="/wiki/Razia_Sultana" title="Razia Sultana">Razia Sultana</a> (1236–1240). </p><p>While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim, Indic muslim and Pashtun muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–52_238-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–52-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-re2000_239-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-re2000-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_India" title="Mongol invasions of India">Mongol invasions of India</a> were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Khalji" title="Alauddin Khalji">Alauddin Khalji</a>. A major factor in their success was their Turkic <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a> slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–51_240-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–51-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudden200267_241-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudden200267-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migrated</a> into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–51_240-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–51-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Turco-Mongol">Turco-Mongol</a> conqueror in Central Asia, <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the <a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq dynasty</a> in the north Indian city of Delhi.<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">sayyids</a>, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the <a href="/wiki/Lodi_dynasty" title="Lodi dynasty">Lodi dynasty</a>, it was but a shadow of the former. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Qutb Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, whose construction was begun by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, the first Sultan of Delhi."><img alt="Qutb Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, whose construction was begun by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, the first Sultan of Delhi." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg/120px-Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg/180px-Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg/240px-Qutb_minar_ruins.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Qutb_Minar" title="Qutb Minar">Qutb Minar</a>, a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>, whose construction was begun by <a href="/wiki/Qutb_ud-Din_Aibak" title="Qutb ud-Din Aibak">Qutb ud-Din Aibak</a>, the first Sultan of Delhi.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nizamuddin_Dargah_and_Jamaat_Khana_Masjid,_Delhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dargahs of Sufi-saint Nizamuddin Auliya, and poet and musician Amir Khusro in Delhi."><img alt="Dargahs of Sufi-saint Nizamuddin Auliya, and poet and musician Amir Khusro in Delhi." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Nizamuddin_Dargah_and_Jamaat_Khana_Masjid%2C_Delhi.jpg/180px-Nizamuddin_Dargah_and_Jamaat_Khana_Masjid%2C_Delhi.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Nizamuddin_Dargah_and_Jamaat_Khana_Masjid%2C_Delhi.jpg/270px-Nizamuddin_Dargah_and_Jamaat_Khana_Masjid%2C_Delhi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Nizamuddin_Dargah_and_Jamaat_Khana_Masjid%2C_Delhi.jpg/360px-Nizamuddin_Dargah_and_Jamaat_Khana_Masjid%2C_Delhi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Dargah" class="mw-redirect" title="Dargah">Dargahs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Suffism" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffism">Sufi</a>-saint <a href="/wiki/Nizamuddin_Auliya" title="Nizamuddin Auliya">Nizamuddin Auliya</a>, and poet and musician <a href="/wiki/Amir_Khusro" class="mw-redirect" title="Amir Khusro">Amir Khusro</a> in Delhi.</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vijayanagara_Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sangamas_of_the_Vijayanagara_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Sangamas_of_the_Vijayanagara_Empire.png/250px-Sangamas_of_the_Vijayanagara_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Sangamas_of_the_Vijayanagara_Empire.png/375px-Sangamas_of_the_Vijayanagara_Empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Sangamas_of_the_Vijayanagara_Empire.png/500px-Sangamas_of_the_Vijayanagara_Empire.png 2x" data-file-width="2324" data-file-height="2151" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Sangama_dynasty" title="Sangama dynasty">Sangama dynasty</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by <a href="/wiki/Harihara_I" title="Harihara I">Harihara I</a> and his brother <a href="/wiki/Bukka_Raya_I" title="Bukka Raya I">Bukka Raya I</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sangama_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangama Dynasty">Sangama Dynasty</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which originated as a political heir of the <a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya Empire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton200528–29_245-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton200528–29-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Pandyan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan Empire">Pandyan Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri2002239_246-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri2002239-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off <a href="/wiki/Islamic_invasions_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic invasions of India">Islamic invasions</a> by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_sultanates" title="Deccan sultanates">Deccan sultanates</a>. The empire is named after its capital city of <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara" title="Vijayanagara">Vijayanagara</a>, whose ruins surround present day <a href="/wiki/Hampi" title="Hampi">Hampi</a>, now a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> in Karnataka, India.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of <i>Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara</i> ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of <a href="/wiki/Arcot" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcot">Arcot</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reddy" title="Reddy">Reddys</a> of Kondavidu, and the <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Sultanate" title="Madurai Sultanate">Sultan of Madurai</a> and had gained control over <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a> in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna <a href="/wiki/Doab" title="Doab">doab</a> in the north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980170–171_248-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980170–171-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri1955317_249-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri1955317-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Harihara_II" title="Harihara II">Harihara II</a>, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the <a href="/wiki/Krishna_River" title="Krishna River">Krishna River</a> and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.<sup id="cite_ref-umbrella_250-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-umbrella-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next ruler, <a href="/wiki/Deva_Raya_I" title="Deva Raya I">Deva Raya I</a>, emerged successful against the <a href="/wiki/Gajapatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Gajapatis">Gajapatis</a> of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.<sup id="cite_ref-aqueduct_251-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aqueduct-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Italian traveller Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Deva_Raya_II" title="Deva Raya II">Deva Raya II</a> succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri1955244_253-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri1955244-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the <a href="/wiki/Zamorin" title="Zamorin">Zamorin</a> of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Kozhikode" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kozhikode">Calicut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quilon" class="mw-redirect" title="Quilon">Quilon</a> in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pegu" class="mw-redirect" title="Pegu">Pegu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tanintharyi_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanintharyi Division">Tanasserim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980173_255-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980173-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.<sup id="cite_ref-democracy_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-democracy-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kings used titles such as <i>Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya</i> (<i>literally</i>, "protector of cows and Brahmins") and <i>Hindurayasuratrana</i> (<i>lit</i>, "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout <a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaivas</a> (worshippers of <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a>), but made grants to the <a href="/wiki/Vaishnava" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaishnava">Vaishnava</a> order of <a href="/wiki/Sringeri" title="Sringeri">Sringeri</a> with <a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a> as their patron saint, and designated <i><a href="/wiki/Varaha" title="Varaha">Varaha</a></i> (an <a href="/wiki/Avatar" title="Avatar">avatar</a> of Vishnu) as their emblem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980188–189_259-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980188–189-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later <a href="/wiki/Saluva" class="mw-redirect" title="Saluva">Saluva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuluva" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuluva">Tuluva</a> kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord <a href="/wiki/Venkateshwara" class="mw-redirect" title="Venkateshwara">Venkateshwara</a> (Vishnu) at <a href="/wiki/Tirumala_Venkateswara_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirumala Venkateswara Temple">Tirupati</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Sanskrit work, <i>Jambavati Kalyanam</i> by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha <i>Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani</i> ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").<sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kings patronised the saints of the <a href="/wiki/Dvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaita">dvaita</a> order (philosophy of dualism) of <a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a> at <a href="/wiki/Udupi" title="Udupi">Udupi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980189_263-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980189-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruins_of_Bala_Krishna_Temple_Vijayanagara_Hampi_1868_Edmund_Lyon_photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Photograph of the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1868[263]"><img alt="Photograph of the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1868[263]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Ruins_of_Bala_Krishna_Temple_Vijayanagara_Hampi_1868_Edmund_Lyon_photo.jpg/180px-Ruins_of_Bala_Krishna_Temple_Vijayanagara_Hampi_1868_Edmund_Lyon_photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Ruins_of_Bala_Krishna_Temple_Vijayanagara_Hampi_1868_Edmund_Lyon_photo.jpg/270px-Ruins_of_Bala_Krishna_Temple_Vijayanagara_Hampi_1868_Edmund_Lyon_photo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Ruins_of_Bala_Krishna_Temple_Vijayanagara_Hampi_1868_Edmund_Lyon_photo.jpg/360px-Ruins_of_Bala_Krishna_Temple_Vijayanagara_Hampi_1868_Edmund_Lyon_photo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="833" data-file-height="712" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Photograph of the ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a> at <a href="/wiki/Hampi" title="Hampi">Hampi</a>, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1868<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Elephant%27s_stable_or_Gajashaale.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their war elephants.[264]"><img alt="Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their war elephants.[264]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Elephant%27s_stable_or_Gajashaale.JPG/180px-Elephant%27s_stable_or_Gajashaale.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Elephant%27s_stable_or_Gajashaale.JPG/270px-Elephant%27s_stable_or_Gajashaale.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Elephant%27s_stable_or_Gajashaale.JPG/360px-Elephant%27s_stable_or_Gajashaale.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their <a href="/wiki/War_elephants" class="mw-redirect" title="War elephants">war elephants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Krishna_Pushkarani_-_Hampi_Ruins.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vijayanagara marketplace at Hampi, along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple."><img alt="Vijayanagara marketplace at Hampi, along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Krishna_Pushkarani_-_Hampi_Ruins.jpg/180px-Krishna_Pushkarani_-_Hampi_Ruins.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Krishna_Pushkarani_-_Hampi_Ruins.jpg/270px-Krishna_Pushkarani_-_Hampi_Ruins.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Krishna_Pushkarani_-_Hampi_Ruins.jpg/360px-Krishna_Pushkarani_-_Hampi_Ruins.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4201" data-file-height="2661" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Vijayanagara marketplace at <a href="/wiki/Hampi" title="Hampi">Hampi</a>, along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Stone_Chariot,Hampi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi"><img alt="Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg/180px-The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg/270px-The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg/360px-The_Stone_Chariot%2CHampi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician <a href="/wiki/Madhava_of_Sangamagrama" title="Madhava of Sangamagrama">Madhava of Sangamagrama</a> founded the famous <a href="/wiki/Kerala_School_of_Astronomy_and_Mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics">Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics</a> in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like <a href="/wiki/Parameshvara" class="mw-redirect" title="Parameshvara">Parameshvara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nilakantha_Somayaji" title="Nilakantha Somayaji">Nilakantha Somayaji</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jye%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADhadeva" title="Jyeṣṭhadeva">Jyeṣṭhadeva</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.<sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talikota" title="Battle of Talikota">Battle of Talikota</a> (1565). After the death of <a href="/wiki/Aliya_Rama_Raya" class="mw-redirect" title="Aliya Rama Raya">Aliya Rama Raya</a> in the Battle of Talikota, <a href="/wiki/Tirumala_Deva_Raya" title="Tirumala Deva Raya">Tirumala Deva Raya</a> started the <a href="/wiki/Aravidu_dynasty" title="Aravidu dynasty">Aravidu dynasty</a>, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton2005100–101_269-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton2005100–101-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980185_270-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980185-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton2005101–115_272-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton2005101–115-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Mysore Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keladi_Nayaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Keladi Nayaka">Keladi Nayaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Nayak_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Madurai Nayak Dynasty">Nayaks of Madurai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur_Nayaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanjavur Nayaks">Nayaks of Tanjore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Chitradurga" title="Nayakas of Chitradurga">Nayakas of Chitradurga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nayaks_of_Gingee" title="Nayaks of Gingee">Nayak Kingdom of Gingee</a> – all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980185_270-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980185-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_kingdoms">Other kingdoms</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Guhila_dynasty" title="Guhila dynasty">Guhila dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mewar" title="Kingdom of Mewar">Kingdom of Mewar</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tower_of_victory.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vijaya Stambha (Tower of Victory)."><img alt="Vijaya Stambha (Tower of Victory)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Tower_of_victory.jpg/120px-Tower_of_victory.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Tower_of_victory.jpg/181px-Tower_of_victory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Tower_of_victory.jpg/241px-Tower_of_victory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3872" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Vijaya_Stambha" title="Vijaya Stambha">Vijaya Stambha</a> (Tower of Victory).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_in_Rajasthan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Temple inside Chittorgarh fort"><img alt="Temple inside Chittorgarh fort" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Temple_in_Rajasthan.jpg/130px-Temple_in_Rajasthan.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Temple_in_Rajasthan.jpg/195px-Temple_in_Rajasthan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Temple_in_Rajasthan.jpg/260px-Temple_in_Rajasthan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3120" data-file-height="4160" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Temple inside <a href="/wiki/Chittorgarh_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Chittorgarh fort">Chittorgarh fort</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Man_Singh_Palace_as_viewed_in_the_early_hours_of_the_morning.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the Gwalior fort"><img alt="Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the Gwalior fort" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Man_Singh_Palace_as_viewed_in_the_early_hours_of_the_morning.JPG/130px-Man_Singh_Palace_as_viewed_in_the_early_hours_of_the_morning.JPG" decoding="async" width="130" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Man_Singh_Palace_as_viewed_in_the_early_hours_of_the_morning.JPG/195px-Man_Singh_Palace_as_viewed_in_the_early_hours_of_the_morning.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Man_Singh_Palace_as_viewed_in_the_early_hours_of_the_morning.JPG/260px-Man_Singh_Palace_as_viewed_in_the_early_hours_of_the_morning.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the <a href="/wiki/Gwalior_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwalior fort">Gwalior fort</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese manuscript Tribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of Sultan Saifuddin Hamza Shah of Bengal to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China"><img alt="Chinese manuscript Tribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of Sultan Saifuddin Hamza Shah of Bengal to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg/90px-Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg/136px-Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg/181px-Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2063" data-file-height="4096" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chinese manuscript <i>Tribute Giraffe with Attendant</i>, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Saifuddin_Hamza_Shah" title="Saifuddin Hamza Shah">Saifuddin Hamza Shah</a> of Bengal to the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ming_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming China">Ming China</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Complete_view_of_Mahumad_Gawan.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education"><img alt="Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Complete_view_of_Mahumad_Gawan.JPG/130px-Complete_view_of_Mahumad_Gawan.JPG" decoding="async" width="130" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Complete_view_of_Mahumad_Gawan.JPG/195px-Complete_view_of_Mahumad_Gawan.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Complete_view_of_Mahumad_Gawan.JPG/260px-Complete_view_of_Mahumad_Gawan.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2221" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Chero_dynasty" title="Chero dynasty">Chero dynasty</a> ruled much of Eastern <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jharkhand" title="Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a> from the 12th to the 18th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gopal2017_274-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gopal2017-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SinghGaur2008_275-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SinghGaur2008-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Reddy_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Reddy dynasty">Reddy dynasty</a> successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from <a href="/wiki/Cuttack" title="Cuttack">Cuttack</a> in the north to <a href="/wiki/Kanchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanchi">Kanchi</a> in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackenzie1990_276-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackenzie1990-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the north, the <a href="/wiki/Rajput_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajput kingdoms">Rajput kingdoms</a> remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The <a href="/wiki/Mewar_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Mewar dynasty">Mewar dynasty</a> under <a href="/wiki/Maharana_Hammir" class="mw-redirect" title="Maharana Hammir">Maharana Hammir</a> defeated and captured <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Tughlaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Tughlaq">Muhammad Tughlaq</a> with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into teh <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tomaras_of_Gwalior" title="Tomaras of Gwalior">Tomaras</a> established themselves at <a href="/wiki/Gwalior" title="Gwalior">Gwalior</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Man_Singh_Tomar" title="Man Singh Tomar">Man Singh Tomar</a> reconstructed the <a href="/wiki/Gwalior_Fort" title="Gwalior Fort">Gwalior Fort</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sen2_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sen2-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and <a href="/wiki/Rana_Kumbha" class="mw-redirect" title="Rana Kumbha">Rana Kumbha</a> expanded his kingdom at the expense of the <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultanates</a> of <a href="/wiki/Malwa_Sultanate" title="Malwa Sultanate">Malwa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Gujarat" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Gujarat">Gujarat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sen2_277-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sen2-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-278" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next great Rajput ruler, <a href="/wiki/Rana_Sanga" title="Rana Sanga">Rana Sanga</a> of Mewar, became the principal player in <a href="/wiki/Northern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern India">Northern India</a>. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khanwa" title="Battle of Khanwa">Battle of Khanwa</a> consolidated the new <a href="/wiki/Mughal_dynasty" title="Mughal dynasty">Mughal dynasty</a> in India.<sup id="cite_ref-sen2_277-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sen2-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mewar dynasty under Maharana <a href="/wiki/Udai_Singh_II" title="Udai Singh II">Udai Singh II</a> faced further defeat by Mughal emperor <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a>, with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded <a href="/wiki/Udaipur" title="Udaipur">Udaipur</a>, which became the new capital of the <a href="/wiki/Udaipur_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Udaipur State">Mewar kingdom</a>. His son, <a href="/wiki/Maharana_Pratap" title="Maharana Pratap">Maharana Pratap</a> of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the <a href="/wiki/Chittor_Fort" title="Chittor Fort">Chittor Fort</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ap_279-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ap-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the south, the <a href="/wiki/Bahmani_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani Sultanate">Bahmani Sultanate</a> in the Deccan, born from a <a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_Ismail_Mukh" title="Rebellion of Ismail Mukh">rebellion</a> in 1347 against the <a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq dynasty</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton200541–42_280-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton200541–42-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the chief rival of Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for them.<sup id="cite_ref-281" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in 1490, the Bahmani Sultanate's governors revolted, their independent states composing the five <a href="/wiki/Deccan_sultanates" title="Deccan sultanates">Deccan sultanates</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ahmadnagar_Sultanate" title="Ahmadnagar Sultanate">Ahmadnagar</a> declared independence, followed by <a href="/wiki/Bijapur_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bijapur Sultanate">Bijapur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berar_sultanate" title="Berar sultanate">Berar</a> in the same year; <a href="/wiki/Golconda_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Golconda Sultanate">Golkonda</a> became independent in 1518 and <a href="/wiki/Bidar_Sultanate" title="Bidar Sultanate">Bidar</a> in 1528.<sup id="cite_ref-282" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although generally rivals, they allied against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.<sup id="cite_ref-283" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton200598_284-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton200598-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the East, the <a href="/wiki/Gajapati_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Gajapati Kingdom">Gajapati Kingdom</a> remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under <a href="/wiki/Kapilendradeva" class="mw-redirect" title="Kapilendradeva">Kapilendradeva</a>, Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower <a href="/wiki/Ganga" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganga">Ganga</a> in the north to the <a href="/wiki/Kaveri" title="Kaveri">Kaveri</a> in the south.<sup id="cite_ref-285" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>284<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ahom_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahom Kingdom">Ahom Kingdom</a> was a major power for six centuries;<sup id="cite_ref-Sen1999_286-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sen1999-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>285<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Saikia2004_287-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saikia2004-287"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> led by <a href="/wiki/Lachit_Borphukan" title="Lachit Borphukan">Lachit Borphukan</a>, the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saraighat" title="Battle of Saraighat">Battle of Saraighat</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Ahom-Mughal_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahom-Mughal conflicts">Ahom-Mughal conflicts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-288" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further east in Northeastern India was the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Manipur" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Manipur">Kingdom of Manipur</a>, which ruled from their seat of power at <a href="/wiki/Kangla_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Kangla Fort">Kangla Fort</a> and developed a sophisticated Hindu <a href="/wiki/Gaudiya_Vaishnavite" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaudiya Vaishnavite">Gaudiya Vaishnavite</a> culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200483–84,_the_other_major_classical_Indian_dances_are:_Bharatanatyam,_Kathak,_Odissi,_Kathakali,_Kuchipudi,_Cchau,_Satriya,_Yaksagana_and_Bhagavata_Mela_289-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200483–84,_the_other_major_classical_Indian_dances_are:_Bharatanatyam,_Kathak,_Odissi,_Kathakali,_Kuchipudi,_Cchau,_Satriya,_Yaksagana_and_Bhagavata_Mela-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>288<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMassey2004177_290-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMassey2004177-290"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>289<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevi1990175–180_291-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevi1990175–180-291"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>290<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Bengal">Sultanate of Bengal</a> was the dominant power of the <a href="/wiki/Ganges%E2%80%93Brahmaputra_Delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta">Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta</a>, with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It was a <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Muslim">Sunni Muslim</a> monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian and <a href="/wiki/Bengali_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali Muslim">Bengali Muslim</a> elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of <a href="/wiki/Vassal_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Vassal states">vassal states</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a> in the southwest, <a href="/wiki/Arakan" title="Arakan">Arakan</a> in the southeast, and <a href="/wiki/Tripura" title="Tripura">Tripura</a> in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control over <a href="/wiki/Kamarupa" title="Kamarupa">Kamrup</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kamata_Kingdom" title="Kamata Kingdom">Kamata</a> in the northeast and <a href="/wiki/Jaunpur_district" title="Jaunpur district">Jaunpur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Bengal" title="Architecture of Bengal">Bengali style.</a> The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Bengal" title="History of Bengal">history of Bengal</a>. Its decline began with an <a href="/wiki/Interregnum" title="Interregnum">interregnum</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Suri_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Suri Empire">Suri Empire</a>, followed by <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">conquest</a> and disintegration into petty kingdoms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bhakti_movement_and_Sikhism">Bhakti movement and Sikhism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism in India">Buddhism in India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">History of Sikhism</a></div> <p>The Bhakti movement refers to the <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theistic</a> devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19871_292-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19871-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later revolutionised in <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-293" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-293"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>292<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19871_292-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19871-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19871–2_294-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19871–2-294"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>293<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> (Vishnu), <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> (Shiva), <a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a> (Shakti goddesses), and <a href="/wiki/Smartism" class="mw-redirect" title="Smartism">Smartism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-295" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-295"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>294<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-296" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-296"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>295<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-297" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-297"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(Indian_philosophy)" title="Dualism (Indian philosophy)">dualism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a> to absolute <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19872_298-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19872-298"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>297<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-novetzke_299-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-novetzke-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>298<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Sikhism is a <a href="/wiki/Monotheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotheistic">monotheistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panentheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Panentheistic">panentheistic</a> religion based on the spiritual teachings of <a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a>, the first Guru,<sup id="cite_ref-300" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-300"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>299<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the ten successive <a href="/wiki/Sikh_gurus" title="Sikh gurus">Sikh gurus</a>. After the death of the tenth Guru, <a href="/wiki/Guru_Gobind_Singh" title="Guru Gobind Singh">Guru Gobind Singh</a>, the Sikh scripture, <a href="/wiki/Guru_Granth_Sahib" title="Guru Granth Sahib">Guru Granth Sahib</a>, became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.<sup id="cite_ref-301" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-302" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-302"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>301<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-granthfinalguru_303-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-granthfinalguru-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>302<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism in India">Buddhism in India</a> flourished in the <a href="/wiki/Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Himalaya">Himalayan</a> kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Namgyal_dynasty_of_Ladakh" title="Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh">Namgyal Kingdom</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ladakh" title="Ladakh">Ladakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Sikkim Kingdom</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chutia_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Chutia Kingdom">Chutia Kingdom</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal Pradesh</a> of the Late medieval period.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rang_Ghar_Sibsagar.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rang Ghar, built by Pramatta Singha in Ahom kingdom's capital Rangpur, is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent"><img alt="Rang Ghar, built by Pramatta Singha in Ahom kingdom's capital Rangpur, is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Rang_Ghar_Sibsagar.jpg/180px-Rang_Ghar_Sibsagar.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Rang_Ghar_Sibsagar.jpg/270px-Rang_Ghar_Sibsagar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Rang_Ghar_Sibsagar.jpg/360px-Rang_Ghar_Sibsagar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Rang_Ghar" title="Rang Ghar">Rang Ghar</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/Pramatta_Singha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pramatta Singha">Pramatta Singha</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ahom_kingdom" title="Ahom kingdom">Ahom kingdom</a>'s capital <a href="/wiki/Sibsagar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibsagar">Rangpur</a>, is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chittorgarh_fort.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Chittor Fort is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six Hill Forts of Rajasthan"><img alt="Chittor Fort is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six Hill Forts of Rajasthan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Chittorgarh_fort.JPG/180px-Chittorgarh_fort.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Chittorgarh_fort.JPG/270px-Chittorgarh_fort.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Chittorgarh_fort.JPG/360px-Chittorgarh_fort.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Chittor_Fort" title="Chittor Fort">Chittor Fort</a> is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six <a href="/wiki/Hill_Forts_of_Rajasthan" title="Hill Forts of Rajasthan">Hill Forts of Rajasthan</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaumukha_Jain_temple_at_Ranakpur_in_Aravalli_range_near_Udaipur_Rajasthan_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ranakpur Jain temple was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state of Mewar"><img alt="Ranakpur Jain temple was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state of Mewar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chaumukha_Jain_temple_at_Ranakpur_in_Aravalli_range_near_Udaipur_Rajasthan_India.jpg/180px-Chaumukha_Jain_temple_at_Ranakpur_in_Aravalli_range_near_Udaipur_Rajasthan_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chaumukha_Jain_temple_at_Ranakpur_in_Aravalli_range_near_Udaipur_Rajasthan_India.jpg/270px-Chaumukha_Jain_temple_at_Ranakpur_in_Aravalli_range_near_Udaipur_Rajasthan_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chaumukha_Jain_temple_at_Ranakpur_in_Aravalli_range_near_Udaipur_Rajasthan_India.jpg/360px-Chaumukha_Jain_temple_at_Ranakpur_in_Aravalli_range_near_Udaipur_Rajasthan_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ranakpur_Jain_temple" title="Ranakpur Jain temple">Ranakpur Jain temple</a> was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state of <a href="/wiki/Mewar" title="Mewar">Mewar</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GolGumbaz2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gol Gumbaz built by the Bijapur Sultanate, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia"><img alt="Gol Gumbaz built by the Bijapur Sultanate, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GolGumbaz2.jpg/180px-GolGumbaz2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GolGumbaz2.jpg/270px-GolGumbaz2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GolGumbaz2.jpg/360px-GolGumbaz2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gol_Gumbaz" title="Gol Gumbaz">Gol Gumbaz</a> built by the <a href="/wiki/Bijapur_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bijapur Sultanate">Bijapur Sultanate</a>, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a></div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modern_period_(1526–1858)"><span id="Early_modern_period_.281526.E2.80.931858.29"></span>Early modern period (1526–1858)</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> of Indian history is dated from 1526 to 1858, corresponding to the rise and fall of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>, which inherited from the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Renaissance" title="Timurid Renaissance">Timurid Renaissance</a>. During this age India's economy expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronised. This period witnessed the further development of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic architecture</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006115_304-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006115-304"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>303<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobb200190–91_305-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb200190–91-305"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>304<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the growth of <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Marathas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikhs</a> enabled them to rule significant regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire.<sup id="cite_ref-exeter_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-exeter-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_route" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape route">Cape route</a> in the 1500s, the first Europeans to arrive by sea and establish themselves, were the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_in_Goa_and_Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese in Goa and Bombay">Portuguese in Goa and Bombay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-306" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-306"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>305<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mughal_Empire">Mughal Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslin_trade_in_Bengal" title="Muslin trade in Bengal">Muslin trade in Bengal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Mughal_Empire" title="Army of the Mughal Empire">Army of the Mughal Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_clothing" title="Mughal clothing">Mughal clothing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_painting" title="Mughal painting">Mughal painting</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Mughal Empire</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:139px;max-width:139px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:195px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joppen1907India1700a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/51/Joppen1907India1700a.jpg/137px-Joppen1907India1700a.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/51/Joppen1907India1700a.jpg/206px-Joppen1907India1700a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/51/Joppen1907India1700a.jpg/274px-Joppen1907India1700a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Map of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> at its peak in year 1700</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:299px;max-width:299px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:195px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taj_Mahal_(Edited).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg/297px-Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="297" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg/446px-Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg/594px-Taj_Mahal_%28Edited%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2525" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a> is the jewel of Muslim architecture in India <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> declaration, 1983.<sup id="cite_ref-307" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-307"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>306<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>In 1526, <a href="/wiki/Babur" title="Babur">Babur</a> swept across the <a href="/wiki/Khyber_Pass" title="Khyber Pass">Khyber Pass</a> and established the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered much of South Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-308" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-308"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>307<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, his son <a href="/wiki/Humayun" title="Humayun">Humayun</a> was defeated by the Afghan warrior <a href="/wiki/Sher_Shah_Suri" title="Sher Shah Suri">Sher Shah Suri</a> in 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>. After Sher Shah's death, his son <a href="/wiki/Islam_Shah_Suri" title="Islam Shah Suri">Islam Shah Suri</a> and his Hindu general <a href="/wiki/Hemu_Vikramaditya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemu Vikramaditya">Hemu Vikramaditya</a> established secular rule in North India from <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a> until 1556, when <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1556–1605</span>), grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Panipat_(1556)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Panipat (1556)">Second Battle of Panipat</a> on 6 November 1556 after winning <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Delhi_(1556)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Delhi (1556)">Battle of Delhi</a>. Akbar tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the <i><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a></i> tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local <i><a href="/wiki/Maharajas" class="mw-redirect" title="Maharajas">maharajas</a></i>, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique <a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Indo-Saracenic architecture</a>. </p><p>Akbar married princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and had a son, <a href="/wiki/Jahangir" title="Jahangir">Jahangir</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1605–1627</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-309" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-309"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>308<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jahangir followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1628–1658</span>) was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the <a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a> at Agra. </p><p>It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent history,<sup id="cite_ref-Turchin223_310-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turchin223-310"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>309<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and surpassed China to become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-maddison261_311-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maddison261-311"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>310<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the world leader in manufacturing,<sup id="cite_ref-Parthasarathi_312-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parthasarathi-312"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>311<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> producing 25% of global industrial output.<sup id="cite_ref-williamson_313-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williamson-313"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>312<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal <a href="/wiki/Agrarian_reform" title="Agrarian reform">agrarian reforms</a> that intensified agricultural production,<sup id="cite_ref-richards_314-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-richards-314"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>313<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a relatively high degree of <a href="/wiki/Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation">urbanisation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eraly_315-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eraly-315"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>314<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Agra_Fort_20180908_143826.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Agra Fort showing Yamuna river and Taj Mahal in the background"><img alt="Agra Fort showing Yamuna river and Taj Mahal in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Agra_Fort_20180908_143826.jpg/180px-Agra_Fort_20180908_143826.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Agra_Fort_20180908_143826.jpg/270px-Agra_Fort_20180908_143826.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Agra_Fort_20180908_143826.jpg/360px-Agra_Fort_20180908_143826.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4048" data-file-height="3036" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Agra_Fort" title="Agra Fort">Agra Fort</a> showing <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a> river and Taj Mahal in the background</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fatehput_Sikiri_Buland_Darwaza_gate_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, showing Buland Darwaza, the complex built by Akbar, the third Mughal emperor"><img alt="Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, showing Buland Darwaza, the complex built by Akbar, the third Mughal emperor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Fatehput_Sikiri_Buland_Darwaza_gate_2010.jpg/180px-Fatehput_Sikiri_Buland_Darwaza_gate_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Fatehput_Sikiri_Buland_Darwaza_gate_2010.jpg/270px-Fatehput_Sikiri_Buland_Darwaza_gate_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Fatehput_Sikiri_Buland_Darwaza_gate_2010.jpg/360px-Fatehput_Sikiri_Buland_Darwaza_gate_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2938" data-file-height="2536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Fatehpur_Sikri" title="Fatehpur Sikri">Fatehpur Sikri</a>, near Agra, showing <a href="/wiki/Buland_Darwaza" title="Buland Darwaza">Buland Darwaza</a>, the complex built by <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a>, the third Mughal emperor</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Fort_in_Delhi_03-2016_img1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Red Fort, Delhi, constructed in the year 1648"><img alt="Red Fort, Delhi, constructed in the year 1648" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Red_Fort_in_Delhi_03-2016_img1.jpg/180px-Red_Fort_in_Delhi_03-2016_img1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Red_Fort_in_Delhi_03-2016_img1.jpg/270px-Red_Fort_in_Delhi_03-2016_img1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Red_Fort_in_Delhi_03-2016_img1.jpg/360px-Red_Fort_in_Delhi_03-2016_img1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5080" data-file-height="3387" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Red_Fort" title="Red Fort">Red Fort</a>, Delhi, constructed in the year 1648</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1658–1707</span>), under whose reign India surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy.<sup id="cite_ref-316" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-316"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-317" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>316<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the <i>jizya</i> tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed,<sup id="cite_ref-Copland2013_318-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copland2013-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing administrators based on ability rather than religion.<sup id="cite_ref-TruschkePT50_319-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TruschkePT50-319"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>318<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing religious controversy and centralisation. The <a href="/wiki/English_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="English East India Company">English East India Company</a> suffered a defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mughal_War_(1686%E2%80%931690)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Mughal War (1686–1690)">Anglo-Mughal War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-320" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-320"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>319<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-321" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-321"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>320<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22,_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg/150px-1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg/225px-1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg/300px-1751_map_of_India_from_%22Historical_Atlas_of_India%22%2C_by_Charles_Joppen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1259" data-file-height="1824" /></a><figcaption>18th-century political formation in India</figcaption></figure> <p>The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Marathas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajputs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bharatpur_State" title="Bharatpur State">Jats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghans</a>. In 1737, the Maratha general <a href="/wiki/Bajirao" class="mw-redirect" title="Bajirao">Bajirao</a> of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao easily routed the novice Mughal general. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> While Bharatpur State under Jat ruler <a href="/wiki/Suraj_Mal" title="Suraj Mal">Suraj Mal</a>, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Grewal2007_322-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grewal2007-322"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1739, <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a>, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karnal" title="Battle of Karnal">Battle of Karnal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-323" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-323"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>322<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures including the <a href="/wiki/Peacock_Throne" title="Peacock Throne">Peacock Throne</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-324" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>323<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; <a href="/wiki/Banda_Singh_Bahadur" title="Banda Singh Bahadur">Banda Singh Bahadur</a> led the <a href="/wiki/Sikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh">Sikh</a> <a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a> against Mughal religious oppression; Hindu <a href="/wiki/Raja" title="Raja">Rajas</a> of Bengal, <a href="/wiki/Pratapaditya" title="Pratapaditya">Pratapaditya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raja_Sitaram_Ray" title="Raja Sitaram Ray">Raja Sitaram Ray</a> revolted; and <a href="/wiki/Maharaja" title="Maharaja">Maharaja</a> <a href="/wiki/Chhatrasal" title="Chhatrasal">Chhatrasal</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Bundela" title="Bundela">Bundela</a> Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established the <a href="/wiki/Panna_State" title="Panna State">Panna State</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006265_325-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006265-325"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mughal_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal emperors">Mughal dynasty</a> was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. <a href="/wiki/Vadda_Ghalughara" title="Vadda Ghalughara">Vadda Ghalughara</a> took place under the Muslim provincial government based at <a href="/wiki/Lahore" title="Lahore">Lahore</a> to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the <a href="/wiki/Chhota_Ghallughara" title="Chhota Ghallughara">Chhota Ghallughara</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-326" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-326"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>325<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.<sup id="cite_ref-327" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-327"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>326<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maratha_Empire">Maratha Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Army" title="Maratha Army">Maratha Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Navy" title="Maratha Navy">Maratha Navy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battles_involving_the_Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Battles involving the Maratha Empire">Battles involving the Maratha Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Maratha Empire</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:133px;max-width:133px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:168px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:India1760_1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/India1760_1905.jpg/131px-India1760_1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/India1760_1905.jpg/197px-India1760_1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/India1760_1905.jpg/262px-India1760_1905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="1485" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Maratha Empire at its peak in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a> to present-day <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:255px;max-width:255px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:168px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shaniwarwada_gate.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Shaniwarwada_gate.JPG/253px-Shaniwarwada_gate.JPG" decoding="async" width="253" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Shaniwarwada_gate.JPG/380px-Shaniwarwada_gate.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Shaniwarwada_gate.JPG/506px-Shaniwarwada_gate.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1504" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Shaniwarwada" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaniwarwada">Shaniwarwada</a> palace fort in <a href="/wiki/Pune" title="Pune">Pune</a>, the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by <a href="/wiki/Chatrapati_Shivaji" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatrapati Shivaji">Chatrapati Shivaji</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-328" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-328"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>327<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to <i><a href="/wiki/Peshwa" title="Peshwa">Peshwa</a></i> (chief minister) <a href="/wiki/Bajirao_I" title="Bajirao I">Bajirao I</a>. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".<sup id="cite_ref-329" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-329"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>328<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal rule</a> in India.<sup id="cite_ref-pearson_330-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pearson-330"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>329<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-google3_331-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google3-331"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>330<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-google4_332-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google4-332"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>331<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued <a href="/wiki/Battles_involving_the_Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Battles involving the Maratha Empire">their military campaigns</a> against the Mughals, <a href="/wiki/Nizam" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizam">Nizam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nawab_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nawab of Bengal">Nawab of Bengal</a> and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. At its peak, the domain of the Marathas encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-333" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-333"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>332<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and discussed putting <a href="/wiki/Vishwasrao" title="Vishwasrao">Vishwasrao</a> Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-334" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-334"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>333<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> in the south,<sup id="cite_ref-335" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-335"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>334<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Maratha_conquest_of_North-west_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha conquest of North-west India">Peshawar</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Khyber Pakhtunkhwa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a><sup id="cite_ref-XWiACEwPR8C_p.16_336-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-XWiACEwPR8C_p.16-336"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>335<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-338" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-338"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) in the north, and <a href="/wiki/Maratha_expeditions_in_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha expeditions in Bengal">Bengal</a> in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the <a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Panipat" title="Third Battle of Panipat">Third Battle of Panipat</a> (1761). However, the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Resurrection" title="Maratha Resurrection">Maratha authority in the north was re-established</a> within a decade under Peshwa <a href="/wiki/Madhavrao_I" title="Madhavrao I">Madhavrao I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-339" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-339"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>337<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of United Maratha states under the <a href="/wiki/Gaekwad" title="Gaekwad">Gaekwads</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baroda_State" title="Baroda State">Baroda</a>, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Holkar" title="House of Holkar">Holkars</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indore_State" title="Indore State">Indore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malwa" title="Malwa">Malwa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Scindia" class="mw-redirect" title="Scindia">Scindias</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gwalior_State" title="Gwalior State">Gwalior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ujjain" title="Ujjain">Ujjain</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bhonsle_(clan)" title="Bhonsle (clan)">Bhonsales</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nagpur_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagpur kingdom">Nagpur</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Paramara_dynasty" title="Paramara dynasty">Puars</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dhar_State" title="Dhar State">Dhar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dewas_State_(Maratha_Confederacy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dewas State (Maratha Confederacy)">Dewas</a>. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in <a href="/wiki/Pune" title="Pune">Pune</a>, which led to the <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="First Anglo-Maratha War">First Anglo-Maratha War</a>, resulting in a Maratha victory.<sup id="cite_ref-Naravane2_340-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naravane2-340"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>338<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Marathas remained a major power in India until their defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Second Anglo-Maratha War">Second</a> and <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Third Anglo-Maratha War">Third Anglo-Maratha Wars</a> (1805–1818). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sikh_Empire">Sikh Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sikh_architecture" title="Sikh architecture">Sikh architecture</a></div> <p>The Sikh Empire was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, based around the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the <a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a>, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Ranjit_Singh" title="Ranjit Singh">Maharaja Ranjit Singh</a> (1780–1839).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using his <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Khalsa_Army" title="Sikh Khalsa Army">Sikh Khalsa Army</a>, trained in European military techniques and equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He successfully ended the <a href="/wiki/Afghan-Sikh_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan-Sikh Wars">Afghan-Sikh Wars</a>. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.<sup id="cite_ref-341" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-341"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>339<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grewal_342-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grewal-342"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>340<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from the <a href="/wiki/Khyber_Pass" title="Khyber Pass">Khyber Pass</a> in the west, to <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> in the north, to <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> in the south, running along Sutlej river to <a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal</a> in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Anglo-Sikh War">First Anglo-Sikh War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo-Sikh War">Second Anglo-Sikh War</a> marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_kingdoms_2">Other kingdoms</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:India_1763_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/India_1763_EN.svg/220px-India_1763_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/India_1763_EN.svg/330px-India_1763_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/India_1763_EN.svg/440px-India_1763_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="898" data-file-height="1231" /></a><figcaption>Territories of India in 1763</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a> in southern India expanded to its greatest extent under <a href="/wiki/Hyder_Ali" title="Hyder Ali">Hyder Ali</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a> in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces. The <a href="/wiki/Maratha%E2%80%93Mysore_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha–Mysore War">Maratha–Mysore War</a> ended in April 1787, following the finalising of <i>treaty of Gajendragad</i>, in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas. Concurrently, the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mysore_Wars" title="Anglo-Mysore Wars">Anglo-Mysore Wars</a> took place, where the Mysoreans used the <a href="/wiki/Mysorean_rockets" title="Mysorean rockets">Mysorean rockets</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Fourth Anglo-Mysore War">Fourth Anglo-Mysore War</a> (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Seringapatam_(1799)" title="Siege of Seringapatam (1799)">Siege of Seringapatam (1799)</a>. </p><p>Hyderabad was founded by the <a href="/wiki/Qutb_Shahi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qutb Shahi dynasty">Qutb Shahi dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Golconda" title="Golconda">Golconda</a> in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself <a href="/wiki/Nizam_of_Hyderabad" title="Nizam of Hyderabad">Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad</a> in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Palkhed" title="Battle of Palkhed">Battle of Palkhed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-343" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-343"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>341<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassals of the British. <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad_State" title="Hyderabad State">Hyderabad State</a> became a princely state in British India in 1798. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nawab_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nawab of Bengal">Nawabs of Bengal</a> had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out <a href="/wiki/Expeditions_in_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Expeditions in Bengal">six expeditions in Bengal</a> from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, <a href="/wiki/Siraj_ud-Daulah" class="mw-redirect" title="Siraj ud-Daulah">Siraj ud-Daulah</a>, the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mir_Jafar" title="Mir Jafar">Mir Jafar</a>. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the <i>Masnad</i> (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.<sup id="cite_ref-sirajbanglaped2_344-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sirajbanglaped2-344"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>342<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under the direct control of the British. In 1793, when the <i>Nizamat</i> (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away, they remained as mere pensioners of the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-british2_345-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-british2-345"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>343<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dualgovernment2_346-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dualgovernment2-346"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>344<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Second Anglo-Maratha War">Second Anglo-Maratha War</a> distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the <a href="/wiki/Pindari" title="Pindari">Pindaris</a>, raiders who were fled in Maratha territory, which quickly became the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Third Anglo-Maratha War">Third Anglo-Maratha War</a>, and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha <a href="/wiki/Sindhia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sindhia">Sindhia</a> ruler of <a href="/wiki/Gwalior" title="Gwalior">Gwalior</a> gave up the district of <a href="/wiki/Ajmer-Merwara" title="Ajmer-Merwara">Ajmer-Merwara</a> to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end.<sup id="cite_ref-347" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-347"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>345<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_1857" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolt of 1857">Revolt of 1857</a>, and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The <a href="/wiki/Rajputana_Agency" title="Rajputana Agency">Rajputana Agency</a> contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being <a href="/wiki/Udaipur_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Udaipur State">Udaipur State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaipur_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaipur State">Jaipur State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bikaner_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Bikaner State">Bikaner State</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jodhpur_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Jodhpur State">Jodhpur State</a>. </p><p>After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many <a href="/wiki/List_of_Maratha_dynasties_and_states" title="List of Maratha dynasties and states">Maratha dynasties and states</a> became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British. With the decline of the Sikh Empire, after the <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Anglo-Sikh War">First Anglo-Sikh War</a> in 1846, under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amritsar,_1846" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Amritsar, 1846">Treaty of Amritsar</a>, the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja <a href="/wiki/Gulab_Singh" title="Gulab Singh">Gulab Singh</a> and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created by the <a href="/wiki/Dogra_dynasty" title="Dogra dynasty">Dogra dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-348" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>346<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-349" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-349"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>347<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While in eastern and north-eastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states of <a href="/wiki/Cooch_Behar_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooch Behar Kingdom">Cooch Behar Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Twipra_Kingdom" title="Twipra Kingdom">Twipra Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Kingdom of Sikkim</a> were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state. </p><p>After the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polygar" title="Polygar">Polygar</a> states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the <a href="/wiki/Polygar_Wars" title="Polygar Wars">Polygar Wars</a>, where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces.<sup id="cite_ref-350" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-350"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>348<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the 18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Kingdom of Nepal</a> was formed by Rajput rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt2015_351-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt2015-351"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>349<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_exploration">European exploration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gama_route_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Gama_route_1.svg/220px-Gama_route_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Gama_route_1.svg/330px-Gama_route_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Gama_route_1.svg/440px-Gama_route_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>The route followed in <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>'s first voyage (1497–1499)p</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in <a href="/wiki/Velha_Goa" class="mw-redirect" title="Velha Goa">Velha Goa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damaon" class="mw-redirect" title="Damaon">Damaon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dio_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Dio island">Dio island</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a>. The Portuguese instituted the <a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a>, where new Indian converts were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity and non-Christians were condemned.<sup id="cite_ref-Elbl2012p12_352-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elbl2012p12-352"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>350<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Goa remained the main Portuguese territory until it was <a href="/wiki/Indian_annexation_of_Goa" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian annexation of Goa">annexed by India in 1961</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-353" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-353"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>351<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next to arrive <a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">were the Dutch</a>, with their main base in <a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a>. They established ports in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malabar" title="Dutch Malabar">Malabar</a>. However, their expansion into India was halted after their defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Colachel" title="Battle of Colachel">Battle of Colachel</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Kingdom of Travancore</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Travancore-Dutch_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Travancore-Dutch War">Travancore-Dutch War</a>. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.<sup id="cite_ref-354" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-354"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>352<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-355" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-355"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>353<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British — who set up in the west coast port of <a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a> in 1619 — and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of <a href="/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory)" title="Puducherry (union territory)">Pondichéry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chandernagore" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandernagore">Chandernagore</a>, and the Portuguese colonies of <a href="/wiki/Goa,_Daman_and_Diu" title="Goa, Daman and Diu">Goa, Daman and Diu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-356" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-356"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>354<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-357" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-357"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>355<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_India_Company_rule_in_India">East India Company rule in India</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> and <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company rule in India</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:217px;max-width:217px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">India under East India Company rule</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:215px;max-width:215px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:164px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:India1765and1805b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/India1765and1805b.jpg/213px-India1765and1805b.jpg" decoding="async" width="213" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/India1765and1805b.jpg/320px-India1765and1805b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/India1765and1805b.jpg/426px-India1765and1805b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1227" data-file-height="950" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">India in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pink</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:215px;max-width:215px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:165px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:India1837to1857.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/India1837to1857.jpg/213px-India1837to1857.jpg" decoding="async" width="213" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/India1837to1857.jpg/320px-India1837to1857.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/India1837to1857.jpg/426px-India1837to1857.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1232" data-file-height="958" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The English East India Company was founded in 1600. It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Factory_(trading_post)" title="Factory (trading post)">factory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Masulipatnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Masulipatnam">Masulipatnam</a> on the Eastern coast of India in 1611 and a grant of rights by the Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish a factory in <a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a> in 1612. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara ruler</a> farther south, a second factory was established in <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a> on the southeastern coast. The islet of <i><a href="/wiki/Bom_Bahia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bom Bahia">Bom Bahia</a></i> in present-day Mumbai (Bombay), was a Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">outpost</a> not far from Surat, it was presented to <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II of England</a> as <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a>, in his marriage to <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Braganza" title="Catherine of Braganza">Catherine of Braganza</a>; Charles in turn leased Bombay to the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the company established a <a href="/wiki/Trade_post" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade post">trade post</a> in the <a href="/wiki/River_Ganges" class="mw-redirect" title="River Ganges">River Ganges</a> delta. During this time other companies established by the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_East_India_Company" title="Portuguese East India Company">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_East_India_Company" title="French East India Company">French</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Danish_East_India_Company" title="Danish East India Company">Danish</a> were similarly expanding in the subcontinent. </p><p>The company's victory under <a href="/wiki/Robert_Clive" title="Robert Clive">Robert Clive</a> in the 1757 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a> and another victory in the 1764 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buxar" title="Battle of Buxar">Battle of Buxar</a> (in Bihar), consolidated the company's power, and forced emperor <a href="/wiki/Shah_Alam_II" title="Shah Alam II">Shah Alam II</a> to appoint it the <i><a href="/wiki/Diwan_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diwan (title)">diwan</a></i>, or revenue collector, of Bengal, Bihar, and <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Orissa</a>. The company thus became the <i>de facto</i> ruler of large areas of the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Gangetic_Plains_moist_deciduous_forests" title="Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests">lower Gangetic plain</a> by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras. The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mysore_Wars" title="Anglo-Mysore Wars">Anglo-Mysore Wars</a> (1766–99) and the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Maratha_Wars_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)">Anglo-Maratha Wars</a> (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the <a href="/wiki/Sutlej_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutlej River">Sutlej River</a>. With the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Marathas</a>, no native power represented a threat for the company any longer.<sup id="cite_ref-358" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-358"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>356<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions that collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed regions included the <a href="/wiki/North-Western_Provinces" title="North-Western Provinces">North-Western Provinces</a> (comprising <a href="/wiki/Rohilkhand" title="Rohilkhand">Rohilkhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorakhpur,_Uttar_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh">Gorakhpur</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Doab" title="Doab">Doab</a>) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (<a href="/wiki/Ahom_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahom Kingdom">Ahom Kingdom</a> 1828) and <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> (1843). <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/North-West_Frontier_Province" title="North-West Frontier Province">North-West Frontier Province</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> were annexed after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo-Sikh War">Anglo-Sikh Wars</a> in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General). However, Kashmir was immediately sold under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amritsar,_1846" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Amritsar, 1846">Treaty of Amritsar</a> (1850) to the <a href="/wiki/Dogra_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogra Dynasty">Dogra Dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jammu" title="Jammu">Jammu</a> and thereby became a princely state. In 1854, <a href="/wiki/Berar_Province" title="Berar Province">Berar</a> was annexed along with the state of <a href="/wiki/Oudh_State" title="Oudh State">Oudh</a> two years later.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Hastings_greyscale.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Warren Hastings, the first governor-general of Fort William (Bengal) who oversaw the company's territories in India"><img alt="Warren Hastings, the first governor-general of Fort William (Bengal) who oversaw the company's territories in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Warren_Hastings_greyscale.jpg/138px-Warren_Hastings_greyscale.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Warren_Hastings_greyscale.jpg/206px-Warren_Hastings_greyscale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Warren_Hastings_greyscale.jpg/275px-Warren_Hastings_greyscale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="774" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Warren_Hastings" title="Warren Hastings">Warren Hastings</a>, the first governor-general of <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Presidency" title="Bengal Presidency">Fort William (Bengal)</a> who oversaw the company's territories in India</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:India_1835_2_Mohurs.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of William IV, king of United Kingdom from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (do ashrafi in Urdu) issued during Company rule in India"><img alt="Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of William IV, king of United Kingdom from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (do ashrafi in Urdu) issued during Company rule in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/India_1835_2_Mohurs.jpg/180px-India_1835_2_Mohurs.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/India_1835_2_Mohurs.jpg/270px-India_1835_2_Mohurs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/India_1835_2_Mohurs.jpg/360px-India_1835_2_Mohurs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5752" data-file-height="2923" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of <a href="/wiki/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="William IV of the United Kingdom">William IV</a>, king of United Kingdom from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (do <a href="/wiki/Ashrafi" title="Ashrafi">ashrafi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>) issued during <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company rule in India</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Railway_bridge_bhor_ghaut_incline1855.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay"><img alt="Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/Railway_bridge_bhor_ghaut_incline1855.jpg/180px-Railway_bridge_bhor_ghaut_incline1855.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/Railway_bridge_bhor_ghaut_incline1855.jpg/270px-Railway_bridge_bhor_ghaut_incline1855.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/Railway_bridge_bhor_ghaut_incline1855.jpg/360px-Railway_bridge_bhor_ghaut_incline1855.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="438" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> in return for limited internal <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>. Since the company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up <i>political</i> underpinnings for its rule.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p67_359-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p67-359"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>357<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important such support came from the <i><a href="/wiki/Subsidiary_alliance" title="Subsidiary alliance">subsidiary alliances</a></i> with Indian princes.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p67_359-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p67-359"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>357<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p67_359-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p67-359"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>357<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When an Indian ruler who was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-68_360-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-68-360"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>358<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In return, the company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor."<sup id="cite_ref-brown-68_360-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-68-360"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>358<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsidiary alliances created the <a href="/wiki/Princely_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely States">Princely States</a> of the Hindu <a href="/wiki/Maharaja" title="Maharaja">maharajas</a> and the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Nawab" title="Nawab">nawabs</a>. Prominent among the princely states were <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochin" title="Kingdom of Cochin">Cochin</a> (1791), <a href="/wiki/Jaipur_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaipur State">Jaipur</a> (1794), <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore</a> (1795), <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad_State" title="Hyderabad State">Hyderabad</a> (1798), <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Mysore</a> (1799), <a href="/wiki/Cis-Sutlej_states" title="Cis-Sutlej states">Cis-Sutlej Hill States</a> (1815), <a href="/wiki/Central_India_Agency" title="Central India Agency">Central India Agency</a> (1819), <a href="/wiki/Cutch_State" title="Cutch State">Cutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baroda_State" title="Baroda State">Gujarat Gaikwad territories</a> (1819), <a href="/wiki/Rajputana" title="Rajputana">Rajputana</a> (1818),<sup id="cite_ref-ludden-expansion_361-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludden-expansion-361"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>359<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Bahawalpur_(princely_state)" title="Bahawalpur (princely state)">Bahawalpur</a> (1833). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_indenture_system">Indian indenture system</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_indenture_system" title="Indian indenture system">Indian indenture system</a></div> <p>The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a large <a href="/wiki/Indian_diaspora" title="Indian diaspora">Indian diaspora</a> that spread from the Caribbean to the Pacific Ocean and the growth of large <a href="/wiki/Indo-Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Caribbean">Indo-Caribbean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-resident_Indian_and_person_of_Indian_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin">Indo-African</a> populations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_modern_period_and_contemporary_history_(1857–1947)"><span id="Late_modern_period_and_contemporary_history_.281857.E2.80.931947.29"></span>Late modern period and contemporary history (1857–1947)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rebellion_of_1857_and_its_consequences">Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rani_of_jhansi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of lapse."><img alt="Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of lapse." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Rani_of_jhansi.jpg/122px-Rani_of_jhansi.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Rani_of_jhansi.jpg/183px-Rani_of_jhansi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Rani_of_jhansi.jpg/245px-Rani_of_jhansi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="422" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Rani_of_Jhansi" title="Rani of Jhansi">Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi</a>, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_lapse" title="Doctrine of lapse">Doctrine of lapse</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bahadur_Shah_II_of_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor. Crowned Emperor of India by the rebels, he was deposed by the British and died in exile in Burma."><img alt="Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor. Crowned Emperor of India by the rebels, he was deposed by the British and died in exile in Burma." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bahadur_Shah_II_of_India.jpg/140px-Bahadur_Shah_II_of_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bahadur_Shah_II_of_India.jpg/210px-Bahadur_Shah_II_of_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bahadur_Shah_II_of_India.jpg/280px-Bahadur_Shah_II_of_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="2227" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Bahadur_Shah_Zafar" title="Bahadur Shah Zafar">Bahadur Shah Zafar</a> the last Mughal Emperor. Crowned Emperor of India by the rebels, he was deposed by the British and died in exile in Burma.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Canning,_1st_Earl_Canning_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16528.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Charles Canning, the Governor-General of India during the rebellion."><img alt="Charles Canning, the Governor-General of India during the rebellion." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Charles_Canning%2C_1st_Earl_Canning_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16528.jpg/137px-Charles_Canning%2C_1st_Earl_Canning_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16528.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Charles_Canning%2C_1st_Earl_Canning_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16528.jpg/206px-Charles_Canning%2C_1st_Earl_Canning_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16528.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Charles_Canning%2C_1st_Earl_Canning_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16528.jpg/274px-Charles_Canning%2C_1st_Earl_Canning_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16528.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="459" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Canning,_1st_Earl_Canning" title="Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning">Charles Canning</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">Governor-General of India</a> during the rebellion.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dalhousie.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the Doctrine of Lapse."><img alt="Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the Doctrine of Lapse." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Dalhousie.jpg/126px-Dalhousie.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Dalhousie.jpg/190px-Dalhousie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Dalhousie.jpg/253px-Dalhousie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="452" data-file-height="643" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/James_Broun-Ramsay,_1st_Marquess_of_Dalhousie" title="James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie">Lord Dalhousie</a>, the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Lapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Lapse">Doctrine of Lapse</a>.</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition. The key mutineer was <a href="/wiki/Mangal_Pandey" title="Mangal Pandey">Mangal Pandey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Saul_David_page_70_362-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saul_David_page_70-362"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>360<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Lapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Lapse">Doctrine of Lapse</a> and felt that the company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Nana_Sahib" class="mw-redirect" title="Nana Sahib">Nana Sahib</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rani_of_Jhansi" title="Rani of Jhansi">Rani of Jhansi</a> belonged to this group.<sup id="cite_ref-363" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-363"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>361<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the outbreak of the mutiny in <a href="/wiki/Meerut" title="Meerut">Meerut</a>, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The rebels had also captured large tracts of the <a href="/wiki/North-Western_Provinces" title="North-Western Provinces">North-Western Provinces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Awadh" title="Awadh">Awadh</a> (Oudh). Most notably, in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence.<sup id="cite_ref-364" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-364"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>362<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the British East India Company mobilised rapidly with the assistance of friendly <a href="/wiki/Princely_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely states">Princely states</a>, but it took the British the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued.<sup id="cite_ref-365" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-365"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>363<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the <a href="/wiki/British_Crown" class="mw-redirect" title="British Crown">British Crown</a>, which began to administer most of India as provinces. The Crown controlled the company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.<sup id="cite_ref-366" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-366"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>364<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_Raj_(1858–1947)"><span id="British_Raj_.281858.E2.80.931947.29"></span>British Raj (1858–1947)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">British Raj</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:235px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg/288px-British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg/432px-British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg/576px-British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1498" data-file-height="1223" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The British Indian Empire in 1909. <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> is shown in pink; the <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">princely states</a> in yellow.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:145px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Victoriaterminus1903.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Victoriaterminus1903.JPG/288px-Victoriaterminus1903.JPG" decoding="async" width="288" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Victoriaterminus1903.JPG/432px-Victoriaterminus1903.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Victoriaterminus1903.JPG/576px-Victoriaterminus1903.JPG 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="493" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A 1903 stereographic image of <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Terminus" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria Terminus">Victoria Terminus</a> a <a href="/wiki/Terminal_train_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal train station">terminal train station</a>, in Mumbai, completed in 1887, and now a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code" title="Indian Penal Code">Indian Penal Code</a> came into being.<sup id="cite_ref-367" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-367"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>365<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In education, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay,_1st_Baron_Macaulay" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay">Thomas Babington Macaulay</a> had made schooling a priority for the Raj in 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English for instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.<sup id="cite_ref-368" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-368"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>366<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-369" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-369"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>367<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians have been divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer due to British rule.<sup id="cite_ref-370" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-370"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>368<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1905, <a href="/wiki/George_Curzon,_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston" title="George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston">Lord Curzon</a> <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">split the large province of Bengal</a> into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India <a href="/wiki/John_Morley" title="John Morley">John Morley</a> consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1909" title="Indian Councils Act 1909">Morley-Minto reforms of 1909</a> provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government.<sup id="cite_ref-371" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>369<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the <a href="/wiki/All_India_Muslim_League" class="mw-redirect" title="All India Muslim League">All India Muslim League</a> in 1906 to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. The <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Mahasabha" title="Hindu Mahasabha">Hindu Mahasabha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh" title="Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh">Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh</a> (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.<sup id="cite_ref-372" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-372"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>370<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sikhs founded the <a href="/wiki/Shiromani_Akali_Dal" title="Shiromani Akali Dal">Shiromani Akali Dal</a> in 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-373" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-373"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>371<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the largest and oldest political party <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a>, founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.<sup id="cite_ref-374" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-374"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>372<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Two silver rupee coins issued by the British Raj in 1862 and 1886 respectively, the first in obverse showing a bust of Victoria, Queen, the second of Victoria, Empress. Victoria became Empress of India in 1876."><img alt="Two silver rupee coins issued by the British Raj in 1862 and 1886 respectively, the first in obverse showing a bust of Victoria, Queen, the second of Victoria, Empress. Victoria became Empress of India in 1876." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg/140px-VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg/210px-VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg/280px-VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="803" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Two silver rupee coins issued by the British Raj in 1862 and 1886 respectively, the first in obverse showing a bust of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Victoria, Queen</a>, the second of Victoria, Empress. Victoria became <a href="/wiki/Empress_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress of India">Empress of India</a> in 1876.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_R._Ross_on_steps_of_laboratory_in_Calcutta,_1898_Wellcome_L0011943.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ronald Ross, left, at Cunningham's laboratory of Presidency Hospital in Calcutta, where the transmission of malaria by mosquitoes was discovered, winning Ross the second Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902."><img alt="Ronald Ross, left, at Cunningham's laboratory of Presidency Hospital in Calcutta, where the transmission of malaria by mosquitoes was discovered, winning Ross the second Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sir_R._Ross_on_steps_of_laboratory_in_Calcutta%2C_1898_Wellcome_L0011943.jpg/140px-Sir_R._Ross_on_steps_of_laboratory_in_Calcutta%2C_1898_Wellcome_L0011943.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sir_R._Ross_on_steps_of_laboratory_in_Calcutta%2C_1898_Wellcome_L0011943.jpg/210px-Sir_R._Ross_on_steps_of_laboratory_in_Calcutta%2C_1898_Wellcome_L0011943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sir_R._Ross_on_steps_of_laboratory_in_Calcutta%2C_1898_Wellcome_L0011943.jpg/280px-Sir_R._Ross_on_steps_of_laboratory_in_Calcutta%2C_1898_Wellcome_L0011943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1332" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a>, left, at <a href="/wiki/David_Douglas_Cunningham" title="David Douglas Cunningham">Cunningham's</a> laboratory of Presidency Hospital in Calcutta, where the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> by mosquitoes was discovered, winning Ross the second <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physiology_or_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1902.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%27552._Darjeeling._The_loop_No._3,_near_Candaria%27,_albumen_print,_c.1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Darjeeling Himalayan Railway train shown in 1870. The railway became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999."><img alt="A Darjeeling Himalayan Railway train shown in 1870. The railway became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/%27552._Darjeeling._The_loop_No._3%2C_near_Candaria%27%2C_albumen_print%2C_c.1870.jpg/140px-%27552._Darjeeling._The_loop_No._3%2C_near_Candaria%27%2C_albumen_print%2C_c.1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/%27552._Darjeeling._The_loop_No._3%2C_near_Candaria%27%2C_albumen_print%2C_c.1870.jpg/210px-%27552._Darjeeling._The_loop_No._3%2C_near_Candaria%27%2C_albumen_print%2C_c.1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/%27552._Darjeeling._The_loop_No._3%2C_near_Candaria%27%2C_albumen_print%2C_c.1870.jpg/280px-%27552._Darjeeling._The_loop_No._3%2C_near_Candaria%27%2C_albumen_print%2C_c.1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="791" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Darjeeling_Himalayan_Railway" title="Darjeeling Himalayan Railway">Darjeeling Himalayan Railway</a> train shown in 1870. The railway became a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> in 1999.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A second-day cancellation of the stamps issued in February 1931 to commemorate the inauguration of New Delhi as the capital of the British Indian Empire. Between 1858 and 1911, Calcutta had been the capital of the Raj."><img alt="A second-day cancellation of the stamps issued in February 1931 to commemorate the inauguration of New Delhi as the capital of the British Indian Empire. Between 1858 and 1911, Calcutta had been the capital of the Raj." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg/140px-NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg/210px-NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg/280px-NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2233" data-file-height="1321" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A second-day cancellation of the stamps issued in February 1931 to commemorate the inauguration of <a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a> as the capital of the British Indian Empire. Between 1858 and 1911, <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a> had been the capital of the Raj.</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_Renaissance">Indian Renaissance</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bengali_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali Renaissance">Bengali Renaissance</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Syed_Ahmed_Khan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898), the author of Causes of the Indian Mutiny, was the founder of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, later the Aligarh Muslim University"><img alt="Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898), the author of Causes of the Indian Mutiny, was the founder of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, later the Aligarh Muslim University" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Syed_Ahmed_Khan.jpg/135px-Syed_Ahmed_Khan.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Syed_Ahmed_Khan.jpg/202px-Syed_Ahmed_Khan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Syed_Ahmed_Khan.jpg/270px-Syed_Ahmed_Khan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="825" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sir <a href="/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Khan" title="Syed Ahmad Khan">Syed Ahmad Khan</a> (1817–1898), the author of <i>Causes of the Indian Mutiny</i>, was the founder of <a href="/wiki/Muhammadan_Anglo-Oriental_College" title="Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College">Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College</a>, later the <a href="/wiki/Aligarh_Muslim_University" title="Aligarh Muslim University">Aligarh Muslim University</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pandita_Ramabai_Sarasvati_1858-1922_front-page-portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922) was a social reformer, and a pioneer in the education and emancipation of women in India"><img alt="Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922) was a social reformer, and a pioneer in the education and emancipation of women in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Pandita_Ramabai_Sarasvati_1858-1922_front-page-portrait.jpg/131px-Pandita_Ramabai_Sarasvati_1858-1922_front-page-portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Pandita_Ramabai_Sarasvati_1858-1922_front-page-portrait.jpg/196px-Pandita_Ramabai_Sarasvati_1858-1922_front-page-portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Pandita_Ramabai_Sarasvati_1858-1922_front-page-portrait.jpg/262px-Pandita_Ramabai_Sarasvati_1858-1922_front-page-portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1125" data-file-height="1545" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pandita_Ramabai" title="Pandita Ramabai">Pandita Ramabai</a> (1858–1922) was a <a href="/wiki/Reform_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform movement">social reformer</a>, and a pioneer in the education and emancipation of women in India</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rabindranath_Tagore_unknown_location.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) was a Bengali language poet, short-story writer, and playwright, and in addition a music composer and painter, who won the Nobel prize for Literature in 1913"><img alt="Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) was a Bengali language poet, short-story writer, and playwright, and in addition a music composer and painter, who won the Nobel prize for Literature in 1913" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Rabindranath_Tagore_unknown_location.jpg/136px-Rabindranath_Tagore_unknown_location.jpg" decoding="async" width="136" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Rabindranath_Tagore_unknown_location.jpg/204px-Rabindranath_Tagore_unknown_location.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Rabindranath_Tagore_unknown_location.jpg/272px-Rabindranath_Tagore_unknown_location.jpg 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="1319" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a> (1861–1941) was a <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali language</a> poet, short-story writer, and playwright, and in addition a music composer and painter, who won the Nobel prize for Literature in 1913</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Srinivasa_Ramanujan_-_OPC_-_2_(cleaned).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920) was an Indian mathematician who made seminal contributions to number theory"><img alt="Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920) was an Indian mathematician who made seminal contributions to number theory" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Srinivasa_Ramanujan_-_OPC_-_2_%28cleaned%29.jpg/138px-Srinivasa_Ramanujan_-_OPC_-_2_%28cleaned%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Srinivasa_Ramanujan_-_OPC_-_2_%28cleaned%29.jpg/207px-Srinivasa_Ramanujan_-_OPC_-_2_%28cleaned%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Srinivasa_Ramanujan_-_OPC_-_2_%28cleaned%29.jpg/276px-Srinivasa_Ramanujan_-_OPC_-_2_%28cleaned%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Srinivasa_Ramanujan" title="Srinivasa Ramanujan">Srinivasa Ramanujan</a> (1887–1920) was an Indian mathematician who made seminal contributions to <a href="/wiki/Number_theory" title="Number theory">number theory</a></div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>The Bengali Renaissance refers to a social reform movement, dominated by <a href="/wiki/Bengali_Hindus" title="Bengali Hindus">Bengali Hindus</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal region</a> of the Indian subcontinent during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a period of British rule. Historian <a href="/wiki/Nitish_Sengupta" title="Nitish Sengupta">Nitish Sengupta</a> describes the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian <a href="/wiki/Raja_Ram_Mohan_Roy" title="Raja Ram Mohan Roy">Raja Ram Mohan Roy</a> (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate <a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a> (1861–1941).<sup id="cite_ref-375" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-375"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>373<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian <a href="/wiki/David_Kopf" title="David Kopf">David Kopf</a> as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history."<sup id="cite_ref-376" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-376"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>374<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this period, Bengal witnessed an <a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">intellectual</a> awakening that is in some way similar to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> system, the <a href="/wiki/Caste_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Caste system">caste system</a>, and religion. One of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">social movements</a> that emerged during this time was the <a href="/wiki/Young_Bengal" title="Young Bengal">Young Bengal</a> movement, which espoused <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a> as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.<sup id="cite_ref-377" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-377"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>375<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Famines">Famines</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Famine_in_India" title="Famine in India">Famine in India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_major_famines_in_India_during_British_rule" title="Timeline of major famines in India during British rule">Timeline of major famines in India during British rule</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demographics of India</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:FaminesMapOfIndia1800-1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of famines in India during British Empire in year 1800–1885."><img alt="Map of famines in India during British Empire in year 1800–1885." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/FaminesMapOfIndia1800-1885.jpg/124px-FaminesMapOfIndia1800-1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/FaminesMapOfIndia1800-1885.jpg/186px-FaminesMapOfIndia1800-1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/FaminesMapOfIndia1800-1885.jpg/248px-FaminesMapOfIndia1800-1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1783" data-file-height="2586" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of famines in India during <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in year 1800–1885.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bellary_Zilla,Great_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%9378..jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Engraving from The Graphic, October 1877, showing the plight of animals as well as humans in Bellary district, Madras Presidency, British India during the Great Famine of 1876–1878"><img alt="Engraving from The Graphic, October 1877, showing the plight of animals as well as humans in Bellary district, Madras Presidency, British India during the Great Famine of 1876–1878" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Bellary_Zilla%2CGreat_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%9378..jpg/180px-Bellary_Zilla%2CGreat_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%9378..jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Bellary_Zilla%2CGreat_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%9378..jpg/270px-Bellary_Zilla%2CGreat_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%9378..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Bellary_Zilla%2CGreat_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%9378..jpg/360px-Bellary_Zilla%2CGreat_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%9378..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1878" data-file-height="1362" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Engraving from <i><a href="/wiki/The_Graphic" title="The Graphic">The Graphic</a></i>, October 1877, showing the plight of animals as well as humans in <a href="/wiki/Bellary_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Bellary district">Bellary district</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madras_Presidency" title="Madras Presidency">Madras Presidency</a>, British India during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931878" title="Great Famine of 1876–1878">Great Famine of 1876–1878</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:FamineReliefAhmedabad1901.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Government famine relief, Ahmedabad, India, during the Indian famine of 1899–1900"><img alt="Government famine relief, Ahmedabad, India, during the Indian famine of 1899–1900" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/FamineReliefAhmedabad1901.jpg/166px-FamineReliefAhmedabad1901.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/FamineReliefAhmedabad1901.jpg/249px-FamineReliefAhmedabad1901.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/FamineReliefAhmedabad1901.jpg/332px-FamineReliefAhmedabad1901.jpg 2x" data-file-width="608" data-file-height="660" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Government famine relief, Ahmedabad, India, during the <a href="/wiki/Indian_famine_of_1899%E2%80%931900" title="Indian famine of 1899–1900">Indian famine of 1899–1900</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:OrphansWhoSurvivedBengalFamine1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A picture of orphans who survived the Bengal famine of 1943, a man-made disaster by the British government"><img alt="A picture of orphans who survived the Bengal famine of 1943, a man-made disaster by the British government" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/OrphansWhoSurvivedBengalFamine1943.jpg/180px-OrphansWhoSurvivedBengalFamine1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/OrphansWhoSurvivedBengalFamine1943.jpg/270px-OrphansWhoSurvivedBengalFamine1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/OrphansWhoSurvivedBengalFamine1943.jpg/360px-OrphansWhoSurvivedBengalFamine1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1203" data-file-height="701" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A picture of orphans who survived the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a>, a man-made disaster by the British government</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>During British East India Company and <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Crown</a> rule, India experienced some of deadliest ever recorded <a href="/wiki/Famines_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Famines in India">famines</a>. These famines, usually resulting from crop failures and often exacerbated by policies of the colonial government,<sup id="cite_ref-davis_378-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-378"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>376<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> included the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931878" title="Great Famine of 1876–1878">Great Famine of 1876–1878</a> in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died,<sup id="cite_ref-379" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-379"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>377<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Great_Bengal_famine_of_1770" title="Great Bengal famine of 1770">Great Bengal famine of 1770</a> where between 1 and 10 million people died,<sup id="cite_ref-380" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-380"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>378<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-381" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-381"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>379<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Indian_famine_of_1899%E2%80%931900" title="Indian famine of 1899–1900">Indian famine of 1899–1900</a> in which 1.25 to 10 million people died,<sup id="cite_ref-davis_378-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-378"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>376<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a> where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died.<sup id="cite_ref-382" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-382"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>380<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a> in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India.<sup id="cite_ref-383" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-383"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>381<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200 million in 1750,<sup id="cite_ref-384" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-384"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>382<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had reached 389 million by 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-385" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-385"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>383<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_I">World War I</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Army_during_World_War_I" title="Indian Army during World War I">Indian Army during World War I</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hodsons_Horse_France_1917_IWM_Q_2061.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian Cavalry on the Western front 1914"><img alt="Indian Cavalry on the Western front 1914" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hodsons_Horse_France_1917_IWM_Q_2061.jpg/140px-Hodsons_Horse_France_1917_IWM_Q_2061.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hodsons_Horse_France_1917_IWM_Q_2061.jpg/210px-Hodsons_Horse_France_1917_IWM_Q_2061.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hodsons_Horse_France_1917_IWM_Q_2061.jpg/280px-Hodsons_Horse_France_1917_IWM_Q_2061.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3369" data-file-height="2480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Indian Cavalry on the Western front 1914</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2nd_Indian_Cav_Div.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian cavalry from the Deccan Horse during the Battle of Bazentin Ridge in 1916."><img alt="Indian cavalry from the Deccan Horse during the Battle of Bazentin Ridge in 1916." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/2nd_Indian_Cav_Div.jpg/140px-2nd_Indian_Cav_Div.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/2nd_Indian_Cav_Div.jpg/210px-2nd_Indian_Cav_Div.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/2nd_Indian_Cav_Div.jpg/280px-2nd_Indian_Cav_Div.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3011" data-file-height="1870" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Indian cavalry from the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccan Horse">Deccan Horse</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bazentin_Ridge" title="Battle of Bazentin Ridge">Battle of Bazentin Ridge</a> in 1916.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_Army_QF_3.7_inch_gun_battery_Jerusalem_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with 3.7-inch mountain howitzers, Jerusalem 1917"><img alt="Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with 3.7-inch mountain howitzers, Jerusalem 1917" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Indian_Army_QF_3.7_inch_gun_battery_Jerusalem_1917.jpg/140px-Indian_Army_QF_3.7_inch_gun_battery_Jerusalem_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Indian_Army_QF_3.7_inch_gun_battery_Jerusalem_1917.jpg/210px-Indian_Army_QF_3.7_inch_gun_battery_Jerusalem_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Indian_Army_QF_3.7_inch_gun_battery_Jerusalem_1917.jpg/280px-Indian_Army_QF_3.7_inch_gun_battery_Jerusalem_1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="762" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with <a href="/wiki/3.7-inch_mountain_howitzer" class="mw-redirect" title="3.7-inch mountain howitzer">3.7-inch mountain howitzers</a>, Jerusalem 1917</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:India_Gate_in_New_Delhi_03-2016.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the British Indian Army who died in the period 1914–21 in the First World War"><img alt="India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the British Indian Army who died in the period 1914–21 in the First World War" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/India_Gate_in_New_Delhi_03-2016.jpg/140px-India_Gate_in_New_Delhi_03-2016.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/India_Gate_in_New_Delhi_03-2016.jpg/210px-India_Gate_in_New_Delhi_03-2016.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/India_Gate_in_New_Delhi_03-2016.jpg/280px-India_Gate_in_New_Delhi_03-2016.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">British Indian Army</a> who died in the period 1914–21 in the First World War</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-386" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-386"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>384<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Army saw early action on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a> at the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres" title="First Battle of Ypres">First Battle of Ypres</a>. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.<sup id="cite_ref-387" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-387"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>385<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indian Army and <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Service_Troops" title="Imperial Service Troops">Imperial Service Troops</a> fought during the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinai and Palestine Campaign">Sinai and Palestine Campaign</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_Campaign#Suez_Canal_Campaign_(1915–1916)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinai and Palestine Campaign">defence of the Suez Canal</a> in 1915, at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Romani" title="Battle of Romani">Romani</a> in 1916 and to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jerusalem_(1917)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jerusalem (1917)">Jerusalem</a> in 1917. India units <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Jordan_Valley_(1918)" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of the Jordan Valley (1918)">occupied the Jordan Valley</a> and after the <a href="/wiki/German_spring_offensive" title="German spring offensive">German spring offensive</a> they became the major force in the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Expeditionary_Force" title="Egyptian Expeditionary Force">Egyptian Expeditionary Force</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megiddo_(1918)" title="Battle of Megiddo (1918)">Battle of Megiddo</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Desert_Mounted_Corps" title="Desert Mounted Corps">Desert Mounted Corps</a>' advance to <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and on to <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>. Other divisions remained in India guarding the <a href="/wiki/North-West_Frontier_(military_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="North-West Frontier (military history)">North-West Frontier</a> and fulfilling internal security obligations. </p><p>One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died,<sup id="cite_ref-CWrepdirect_388-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CWrepdirect-388"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>386<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and another 67,000 were wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20017_389-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20017-389"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>387<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in World War I and the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Afghan Wars</a> are commemorated by the <a href="/wiki/India_Gate" title="India Gate">India Gate</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_II">World War II</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India in World War II</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Monty,_wavvel,_auk.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="General Claude Auchinleck (right), Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, with the then Viceroy Wavell (centre) and General Montgomery (left)"><img alt="General Claude Auchinleck (right), Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, with the then Viceroy Wavell (centre) and General Montgomery (left)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Monty%2C_wavvel%2C_auk.jpg/140px-Monty%2C_wavvel%2C_auk.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Monty%2C_wavvel%2C_auk.jpg/210px-Monty%2C_wavvel%2C_auk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Monty%2C_wavvel%2C_auk.jpg/280px-Monty%2C_wavvel%2C_auk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">General <a href="/wiki/Claude_Auchinleck" title="Claude Auchinleck">Claude Auchinleck</a> (right), Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, with the then <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">Viceroy</a> <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Wavell,_1st_Earl_Wavell" title="Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell">Wavell</a> (centre) and <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Law_Montgomery,_1st_Viscount_Montgomery_of_Alamein" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein">General Montgomery</a> (left)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_women_training_for_air_raid_precautions_(ARP)_duties_in_Bombay,_1942._IND1492.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian women training for Air Raid Precautions (ARP) duties in Bombay in 1942"><img alt="Indian women training for Air Raid Precautions (ARP) duties in Bombay in 1942" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Indian_women_training_for_air_raid_precautions_%28ARP%29_duties_in_Bombay%2C_1942._IND1492.jpg/140px-Indian_women_training_for_air_raid_precautions_%28ARP%29_duties_in_Bombay%2C_1942._IND1492.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Indian_women_training_for_air_raid_precautions_%28ARP%29_duties_in_Bombay%2C_1942._IND1492.jpg/210px-Indian_women_training_for_air_raid_precautions_%28ARP%29_duties_in_Bombay%2C_1942._IND1492.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Indian_women_training_for_air_raid_precautions_%28ARP%29_duties_in_Bombay%2C_1942._IND1492.jpg/280px-Indian_women_training_for_air_raid_precautions_%28ARP%29_duties_in_Bombay%2C_1942._IND1492.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="1739" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Indian women training for <a href="/wiki/Air_Raid_Precautions" title="Air Raid Precautions">Air Raid Precautions</a> (ARP) duties in Bombay in 1942</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:INDIAN_TROOPS_IN_BURMA,_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian infantrymen of the 7th Rajput Regiment about to go on patrol on the Arakan front in Burma, 1944"><img alt="Indian infantrymen of the 7th Rajput Regiment about to go on patrol on the Arakan front in Burma, 1944" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/INDIAN_TROOPS_IN_BURMA%2C_1944.jpg/140px-INDIAN_TROOPS_IN_BURMA%2C_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/INDIAN_TROOPS_IN_BURMA%2C_1944.jpg/210px-INDIAN_TROOPS_IN_BURMA%2C_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/INDIAN_TROOPS_IN_BURMA%2C_1944.jpg/280px-INDIAN_TROOPS_IN_BURMA%2C_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Indian infantrymen of the <a href="/wiki/7th_Rajput_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="7th Rajput Regiment">7th Rajput Regiment</a> about to go on patrol on the <a href="/wiki/Arakan_Campaign_1942%E2%80%9343" class="mw-redirect" title="Arakan Campaign 1942–43">Arakan front</a> in Burma, 1944</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VictoryWorldWar2BritishRaj.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The stamp series "Victory" issued by the Government of British India to commemorate allied victory in World War II"><img alt="The stamp series "Victory" issued by the Government of British India to commemorate allied victory in World War II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/VictoryWorldWar2BritishRaj.jpg/140px-VictoryWorldWar2BritishRaj.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/VictoryWorldWar2BritishRaj.jpg/210px-VictoryWorldWar2BritishRaj.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/VictoryWorldWar2BritishRaj.jpg/280px-VictoryWorldWar2BritishRaj.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1176" data-file-height="896" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The stamp series "Victory" issued by the Government of British India to commemorate allied victory in World War II</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>British India officially declared war on <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in September 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-Kux_390-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kux-390"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>388<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British Raj, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied Nations</a>, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a>. Additionally, several Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the <a href="/wiki/China_Burma_India_Theater" class="mw-redirect" title="China Burma India Theater">China Burma India Theatre</a>. </p><p>Indians fought throughout the world, including in the <a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">European theatre against Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_African_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="North African Campaign">in North Africa against Germany and Italy</a>, against the Italians in <a href="/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Syria-Lebanon_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria-Lebanon Campaign">the Middle East</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Vichy French">Vichy French</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South Asian region defending India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in Burma</a>. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent died in World War II. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the <a href="/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India Movement</a> in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders. The <a href="/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">Muslim League</a> rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Subhas_Chandra_Bose" title="Subhas Chandra Bose">Subhas Chandra Bose</a> (also called <i>Netaji</i>) broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Legion" title="Indian Legion">Indian Legion</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüller200955_391-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüller200955-391"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>389<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, it was Japan that helped him revamp the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Army" title="Indian National Army">Indian National Army</a> (INA), after the <a href="/wiki/First_Indian_National_Army" title="First Indian National Army">First Indian National Army</a> under <a href="/wiki/Mohan_Singh_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohan Singh (general)">Mohan Singh</a> was dissolved. The INA fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma.<sup id="cite_ref-Fayviiii_392-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fayviiii-392"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>390<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bose also headed the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Free_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Provisional Government of Free India">Provisional Government of Free India</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a>), a government-in-exile based in Singapore.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar410_393-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar410-393"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>391<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-394" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-394"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>392<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1942, neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a> was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of <a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a>. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Free_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Provisional Government of Free India">Provisional Government of Free India</a> on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as <a href="/wiki/Kohima" title="Kohima">Kohima</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nagaland" title="Nagaland">Nagaland</a>. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kohima" title="Battle of Kohima">Battle of Kohima</a> in June and from <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal" title="Battle of Imphal">that of Imphal</a> on 3 July 1944. </p><p>The region of Bengal in British India <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">suffered a devastating famine during 1940–1943</a>. An estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as "man-made",<sup id="cite_ref-395" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-395"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>393<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with most sources asserting that wartime <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonial</a> policies exacerbated the crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-396" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-396"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>394<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_independence_movement_(1885–1947)"><span id="Indian_independence_movement_.281885.E2.80.931947.29"></span>Indian independence movement (1885–1947)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_activists" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian independence activists">Indian independence activists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Movement" title="Pakistan Movement">Pakistan Movement</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1st_INC1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. A. O. Hume, the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.[395]"><img alt="The first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. A. O. Hume, the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.[395]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/1st_INC1885.jpg/140px-1st_INC1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/1st_INC1885.jpg/210px-1st_INC1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/1st_INC1885.jpg/280px-1st_INC1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1060" data-file-height="696" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The first session of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> in 1885. <a href="/wiki/A._O._Hume" class="mw-redirect" title="A. O. Hume">A. O. Hume</a>, the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall2001_397-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall2001-397"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>395<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bhagat_Singh%27s_execution_Lahore_Tribune_Front_page.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Front page of the Tribune (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement."><img alt="Front page of the Tribune (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Bhagat_Singh%27s_execution_Lahore_Tribune_Front_page.jpg/125px-Bhagat_Singh%27s_execution_Lahore_Tribune_Front_page.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Bhagat_Singh%27s_execution_Lahore_Tribune_Front_page.jpg/188px-Bhagat_Singh%27s_execution_Lahore_Tribune_Front_page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Bhagat_Singh%27s_execution_Lahore_Tribune_Front_page.jpg/251px-Bhagat_Singh%27s_execution_Lahore_Tribune_Front_page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="574" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Front page of the <i>Tribune</i> (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of <a href="/wiki/Bhagat_Singh" title="Bhagat Singh">Bhagat Singh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shivaram_Rajguru" title="Shivaram Rajguru">Rajguru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sukhdev_Thapar" title="Sukhdev Thapar">Sukhdev</a> by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nehru_gandhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement.[396] Gandhi is shown here with Jawaharlal Nehru, later the first prime minister of India."><img alt="From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement.[396] Gandhi is shown here with Jawaharlal Nehru, later the first prime minister of India." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Nehru_gandhi.jpg/140px-Nehru_gandhi.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Nehru_gandhi.jpg/210px-Nehru_gandhi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Nehru_gandhi.jpg/280px-Nehru_gandhi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="421" data-file-height="314" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-research_398-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-research-398"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>396<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gandhi is shown here with <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>, later the first prime minister of India.</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>The numbers of British in India were small,<sup id="cite_ref-399" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-399"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>397<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet they were able to rule 52% of the Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the <a href="/wiki/Princely_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely states">princely states</a> that accounted for 48% of the area.<sup id="cite_ref-Markovits2004_400-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markovits2004-400"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>398<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,<sup id="cite_ref-Modern_India,_Bipin_Chandra,_p.76_401-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modern_India,_Bipin_Chandra,_p.76-401"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>399<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests",<sup id="cite_ref-Modern_India,_Bipin_Chandra,_p.76_401-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modern_India,_Bipin_Chandra,_p.76-401"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>399<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "racial discriminations",<sup id="cite_ref-402" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-402"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>400<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "the revelation of India's past".<sup id="cite_ref-403" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-403"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>401<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Councillor" title="Councillor">councillors</a> to advise the British <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroy</a> in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">British Indian Army</a>, with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as <a href="/wiki/Gurkha" title="Gurkha">Gurkhas</a> from Nepal and <a href="/wiki/Sikhs" title="Sikhs">Sikhs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-business-standard_404-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-business-standard-404"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>402<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.<sup id="cite_ref-405" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-405"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>403<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bal_Gangadhar_Tilak" title="Bal Gangadhar Tilak">Bal Gangadhar Tilak</a>, an Indian nationalist leader, declared <a href="/wiki/Swaraj" title="Swaraj">Swaraj</a> (home rule) as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it"<sup id="cite_ref-google6_406-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google6-406"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>404<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> became the source of inspiration. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like <a href="/wiki/Bipin_Chandra_Pal" title="Bipin Chandra Pal">Bipin Chandra Pal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lala_Lajpat_Rai" title="Lala Lajpat Rai">Lala Lajpat Rai</a>, who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the <a href="/wiki/Swadeshi_movement" title="Swadeshi movement">Swadeshi movement</a> involving the boycott of imported items and the use of Indian-made goods;<sup id="cite_ref-Chandra2016p128_407-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandra2016p128-407"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>405<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the triumvirate were popularly known as <a href="/wiki/Lal_Bal_Pal" title="Lal Bal Pal">Lal Bal Pal</a>. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like <a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Dadabhai Naoroji</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gopal Krishna Gokhale</a>, on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandra2016p128_407-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandra2016p128-407"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>405<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">partition of Bengal in 1905</a> further increased the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_movement_for_Indian_independence" title="Revolutionary movement for Indian independence">revolutionary movement for Indian independence</a>. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action. </p><p>The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1919" title="Government of India Act 1919">Government of India Act 1919</a>, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power.<sup id="cite_ref-408" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-408"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>406<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1919, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Dyer" title="Reginald Dyer">Reginald Dyer</a> ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Jallianwala_Bagh_massacre" title="Jallianwala Bagh massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a>; which led to the <a href="/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1909%E2%80%9322)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)">Non-cooperation Movement</a> of 1920–1922. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India.<sup id="cite_ref-409" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-409"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>407<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1920 leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like <a href="/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1909%E2%80%9322)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)">non-co-operation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dandi_March" class="mw-redirect" title="Dandi March">civil disobedience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swadeshi_movement" title="Swadeshi movement">economic resistance</a>. However, <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_movement_for_Indian_independence" title="Revolutionary movement for Indian independence">revolutionary activities</a> against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the <a href="/wiki/Hindustan_Republican_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindustan Republican Association">Hindustan Republican Association</a>, that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/All_India_Azad_Muslim_Conference" title="All India Azad Muslim Conference">All India Azad Muslim Conference</a> gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_partition_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to the partition of India">independent and united India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-QasmiRobb2017_410-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QasmiRobb2017-410"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>408<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1,400 nationalist Muslim delegates.<sup id="cite_ref-Haq1970_411-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haq1970-411"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>409<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed2016_412-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed2016-412"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>410<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ali2017_413-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ali2017-413"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>411<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pro-separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion".<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed2016_412-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed2016-412"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>410<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ali2017_413-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ali2017-413"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>411<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader <a href="/wiki/Allah_Bakhsh_Soomro" class="mw-redirect" title="Allah Bakhsh Soomro">Allah Bakhsh Soomro</a> also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-Ali2017_413-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ali2017-413"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>411<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="After_World_War_II_(c._1946–1947)"><span id="After_World_War_II_.28c._1946.E2.80.931947.29"></span>After World War II (c. 1946–1947)</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:15em; border-width: 1px; font-size: 85%; color: #202122;background-color: #D0F0C0;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new; when an age ends; and when the soul of a nation long suppressed finds utterance." </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="right-aligned" style=""> — From, <a href="/wiki/Tryst_with_destiny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tryst with destiny">Tryst with destiny</a>, a speech given by <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_India" title="Constituent Assembly of India">Constituent Assembly of India</a> on the eve of independence, 14 August 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-Great_Speeches_414-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Great_Speeches-414"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>412<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation. The mutinies came to a head with <a href="/wiki/Royal_Indian_Navy_mutiny" title="Royal Indian Navy mutiny">mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a> in February 1946, followed by others in <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a>. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. In early 1946, new elections were called and <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Congress</a> candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces. </p><p>Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 it announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an <a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_India" title="Interim Government of India">interim government</a>. </p><p>Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. Muslim League leader <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a> proclaimed 16 August 1946 as <a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Day" title="Direct Action Day">Direct Action Day</a>, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "<a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Day" title="Direct Action Day">Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946</a>". The communal violence spread to <a href="/wiki/1946_Bihar_riots" title="1946 Bihar riots">Bihar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noakhali_riots" title="Noakhali riots">Noakhali</a> in Bengal, <a href="/wiki/Garhmukteshwar" title="Garhmukteshwar">Garhmukteshwar</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_(1937-1950)" class="mw-redirect" title="United Provinces (1937-1950)">United Provinces</a>, and on to <a href="/wiki/Rawalpindi" title="Rawalpindi">Rawalpindi</a> in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus were <a href="/wiki/1947_Rawalpindi_massacres" title="1947 Rawalpindi massacres">attacked or driven out</a> by Muslims. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Literacy_India_1901_2011_Detail.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Literacy_India_1901_2011_Detail.png/220px-Literacy_India_1901_2011_Detail.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Literacy_India_1901_2011_Detail.png/330px-Literacy_India_1901_2011_Detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Literacy_India_1901_2011_Detail.png/440px-Literacy_India_1901_2011_Detail.png 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_India" title="Literacy in India">Literacy in India</a> grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Independence_and_partition_(1947–present)"><span id="Independence_and_partition_.281947.E2.80.93present.29"></span>Independence and partition (1947–present)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Asia#Contemporary_era" title="South Asia">South Asia § Contemporary era</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">History of India (1947–present)</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Pakistan (1947–present)">History of Pakistan (1947–present)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">History of Bangladesh</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A map of the prevailing religions of the British Indian empire based on district-wise majorities based on the Indian census of 1909, and published in the Imperial Gazetteer of India. The partition of the Punjab and Bengal was based on such majorities."><img alt="A map of the prevailing religions of the British Indian empire based on district-wise majorities based on the Indian census of 1909, and published in the Imperial Gazetteer of India. The partition of the Punjab and Bengal was based on such majorities." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg/180px-Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg/270px-Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg/360px-Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1534" data-file-height="1241" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A map of the prevailing religions of the British Indian empire based on district-wise majorities based on the Indian census of 1909, and published in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Gazetteer of India">Imperial Gazetteer of India</a>. The partition of the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> and Bengal was based on such majorities.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gandhi_Badshah_Khan_in_Bela_Bihar_1947.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gandhi touring Bela, Bihar, a village struck by religious rioting in March 1947. On the right is Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan."><img alt="Gandhi touring Bela, Bihar, a village struck by religious rioting in March 1947. On the right is Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Gandhi_Badshah_Khan_in_Bela_Bihar_1947.jpg/180px-Gandhi_Badshah_Khan_in_Bela_Bihar_1947.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Gandhi_Badshah_Khan_in_Bela_Bihar_1947.jpg/270px-Gandhi_Badshah_Khan_in_Bela_Bihar_1947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Gandhi_Badshah_Khan_in_Bela_Bihar_1947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="287" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gandhi touring <a href="/wiki/Bela,_Bihar" class="mw-redirect" title="Bela, Bihar">Bela, Bihar</a>, a village struck by religious rioting in March 1947. On the right is <a href="/wiki/Khan_Abdul_Gaffar_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan">Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lord_Mountbatten_swears_in_Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_the_first_Prime_Minister_of_free_India_on_Aug_15,_1947.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jawaharlal Nehru being sworn in as the first prime minister of independent India by viceroy Lord Louis Mountbatten at 8:30 AM 15 August 1947."><img alt="Jawaharlal Nehru being sworn in as the first prime minister of independent India by viceroy Lord Louis Mountbatten at 8:30 AM 15 August 1947." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Lord_Mountbatten_swears_in_Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_the_first_Prime_Minister_of_free_India_on_Aug_15%2C_1947.jpg/180px-Lord_Mountbatten_swears_in_Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_the_first_Prime_Minister_of_free_India_on_Aug_15%2C_1947.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Lord_Mountbatten_swears_in_Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_the_first_Prime_Minister_of_free_India_on_Aug_15%2C_1947.jpg/270px-Lord_Mountbatten_swears_in_Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_the_first_Prime_Minister_of_free_India_on_Aug_15%2C_1947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Lord_Mountbatten_swears_in_Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_the_first_Prime_Minister_of_free_India_on_Aug_15%2C_1947.jpg/360px-Lord_Mountbatten_swears_in_Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_the_first_Prime_Minister_of_free_India_on_Aug_15%2C_1947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="406" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a> being sworn in as the first prime minister of independent India by viceroy <a href="/wiki/Lord_Louis_Mountbatten" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Louis Mountbatten">Lord Louis Mountbatten</a> at 8:30 AM 15 August 1947.</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_India" title="Dominion of India">Union of India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan" title="Dominion of Pakistan">Dominion of Pakistan</a>. In particular, the partition of the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_(British_India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab (British India)">Punjab</a> and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-415" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-415"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>413<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-symonds_416-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-symonds-416"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>414<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Abid2014_417-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abid2014-417"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>415<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).<sup id="cite_ref-symonds_416-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-symonds-416"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>414<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1971, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, formerly <a href="/wiki/East_Pakistan" title="East Pakistan">East Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Bengal" title="East Bengal">East Bengal</a>, seceded from Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-Raghavan2013_418-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raghavan2013-418"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>416<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">Adivasi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Indians" title="Early Indians">Early Indians</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_time_periods#Indian_periods" title="List of time periods">List of Indian periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economic history of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_India" title="Historiography of India">Historiography of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_India" title="Foreign relations of India">Foreign relations of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Indian maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Linguistic history of India">Linguistic history of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military history of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_India" title="Outline of ancient India">Outline of ancient India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_medieval_India" title="Taxation in medieval India">Taxation in medieval India</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_India" title="The Cambridge History of India">The Cambridge History of India</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline of Indian history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_games_of_South_Asia" title="Traditional games of South Asia">Traditional games of South Asia</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Many historians consider <a href="/wiki/Attock" title="Attock">Attock</a> to be the final frontier of the Maratha Empire<sup id="cite_ref-337" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-337"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>336<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-PetragliaAllchin-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PetragliaAllchin_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMichael_D._PetragliaBridget_Allchin2007" class="citation book cs1">Michael D. Petraglia; <a href="/wiki/Bridget_Allchin" title="Bridget Allchin">Bridget Allchin</a> (22 May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA10"><i>The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science & Business Media</a>. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5562-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5562-1"><bdi>978-1-4020-5562-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+and+History+of+Human+Populations+in+South+Asia%3A+Inter-disciplinary+Studies+in+Archaeology%2C+Biological+Anthropology%2C+Linguistics+and+Genetics&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2007-05-22&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1&rft.au=Michael+D.+Petraglia&rft.au=Bridget+Allchin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQm9GfjNlnRwC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span> Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright2010-p=44-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wright2010-p=44_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wright2010-p=44_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wright2010-p=44_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rita_P._Wright" title="Rita P. Wright">Wright, Rita P.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fwgFPQAACAAJ&pg=PA44"><i>The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy and Society</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 44, 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57652-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57652-9"><bdi>978-0-521-57652-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Indus%3A+Urbanism%2C+Economy+and+Society&rft.pages=44%2C+51&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57652-9&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Rita+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfwgFPQAACAAJ%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rita_P._Wright" title="Rita P. Wright">Wright, Rita P.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fwgFPQAACAAJ"><i>The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57652-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57652-9"><bdi>978-0-521-57652-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Indus%3A+Urbanism%2C+Economy%2C+and+Society&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57652-9&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Rita+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfwgFPQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntosh2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_McIntosh" title="Jane McIntosh">McIntosh, Jane</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC"><i>The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-Clio" title="ABC-Clio">ABC-Clio</a>. p. 387. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-907-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-907-2"><bdi>978-1-57607-907-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Indus+Valley%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.pages=387&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-907-2&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1AJO2A-CbccC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. <i>The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism</i>. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273–274</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, Band 1 by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Tarling" title="Nicholas Tarling">Nicholas Tarling</a>, p. 281</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flood,_Gavin_2003._pg._273-4-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Flood,_Gavin_2003._pg._273-4_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. <i>The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism</i>. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273–274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Essays on Ancient India</i> by Raj Kumar p. 199</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 p. 141 <i>"Conquest of <a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makran</a>"</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeri2005146-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeri2005146_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeri2005">Meri 2005</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ahmad1939-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmad1939_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmad1939_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohammad_Aziz_Ahmad1939" class="citation journal cs1">Mohammad Aziz Ahmad (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44252438">"The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India. (1206-1290 A.D.)"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Indian History Congress</i>. <b>3</b>: 832–841. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44252438">44252438</a>. <q>The government had passed from the foreign Turks to the Indian Mussalmans and their Hindu allies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Indian+History+Congress&rft.atitle=The+Foundation+of+Muslim+Rule+in+India.+%281206-1290+A.D.%29&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=832-841&rft.date=1939&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44252438%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Mohammad+Aziz+Ahmad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44252438&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDr._K._S._Lal1967" class="citation book cs1">Dr. K. S. Lal (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w14dAAAAMAAJ&q=khalji+indian+muslim+revolution"><i>History of the Khaljis, A.D. 1290-1320</i></a>. p. 14. <q>The khalji revolt is essentially a revolt of the Indian Muslims against the Turkish hegemony, of those who looked to Delhi, against those who sought inspiration from Ghaur and Ghazna.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Khaljis%2C+A.D.+1290-1320&rft.pages=14&rft.date=1967&rft.au=Dr.+K.+S.+Lal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw14dAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dkhalji%2Bindian%2Bmuslim%2Brevolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadhey_Shyam_Chaurasia2002" class="citation book cs1">Radhey Shyam Chaurasia (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8XnaL7zPXPUC&q=history+of+medieval+india+chaurasia"><i>History of Medieval India:From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D.</i></a> Atlantic. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-269-0123-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-269-0123-4"><bdi>978-81-269-0123-4</bdi></a>. <q>In spite of all this, capturing the throne for Khilji was a revolution, as instead of Turks, Indian Muslims gained power</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Medieval+India%3AFrom+1000+A.D.+to+1707+A.D.&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Atlantic&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-81-269-0123-4&rft.au=Radhey+Shyam+Chaurasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8XnaL7zPXPUC%26q%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Bmedieval%2Bindia%2Bchaurasia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Bowman_2000_267-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-John_Bowman_2000_267_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_Bowman_2000_267_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Bowman2000" class="citation book cs1">John Bowman (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C"><i>Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p. 267. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-50004-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-50004-3"><bdi>978-0-231-50004-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Columbia+Chronologies+of+Asian+History+and+Culture&rft.pages=267&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-231-50004-3&rft.au=John+Bowman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcYoHOqC7Yx4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2015" class="citation book cs1">Eaton, Richard Maxwell (8 March 2015). <i>The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300-1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 41–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-6815-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-6815-5"><bdi>978-1-4008-6815-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sufis+of+Bijapur%2C+1300-1700%3A+Social+Roles+of+Sufis+in+Medieval+India&rft.pages=41-42&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015-03-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-6815-5&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+Maxwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumar2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kumar, Sunil (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse">"Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_B%C3%B6wering" title="Gerhard Böwering">Bowering, Gerhard</a> (ed.). <i>The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 127–128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13484-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13484-0"><bdi>978-0-691-13484-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Delhi+Sultanate+%281206-1526%29&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Political+Thought&rft.pages=127-128&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13484-0&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Sunil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprincetonencyclo0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eaton1996-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eaton1996_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Eaton" title="Richard M. Eaton">Eaton, Richard M.</a> (31 July 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA64"><i>The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. pp. 64–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20507-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20507-9"><bdi>978-0-520-20507-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Islam+and+the+Bengal+Frontier%2C+1204%E2%80%931760&rft.pages=64-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1996-07-31&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20507-9&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgKhChF3yAOUC%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-exeter-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-exeter_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-exeter_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/history/modules/hih1407/">"India before the British: The Mughal Empire and its Rivals, 1526–1857"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Exeter" title="University of Exeter">University of Exeter</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Exeter&rft.atitle=India+before+the+British%3A+The+Mughal+Empire+and+its+Rivals%2C+1526%E2%80%931857&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhumanities.exeter.ac.uk%2Fhistory%2Fmodules%2Fhih1407%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parthasarathi38-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Parthasarathi38_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParthasarathi2011" class="citation book cs1">Parthasarathi, Prasannan (11 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38"><i>Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 39–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49889-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49889-0"><bdi>978-1-139-49889-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Europe+Grew+Rich+and+Asia+Did+Not%3A+Global+Economic+Divergence%2C+1600%E2%80%931850&rft.pages=39-45&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011-08-11&rft.isbn=978-1-139-49889-0&rft.aulast=Parthasarathi&rft.aufirst=Prasannan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1_YEcvo-jqcC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+Centre+Studies+The+World+Economy+Historical+Statistics%3A+Historical+Statistics&rft.pages=259-261&rft.pub=OECD+Publishing&rft.date=2003-09-25&rft.isbn=9264104143&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrHJGz3HiJbcC%26pg%3DPA259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrison-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harrison_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrisonBerger2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Harrison_(academic)" title="Lawrence Harrison (academic)">Harrison, Lawrence E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Berger, Peter L.</a> (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developingcultur0000unse"><i>Developing cultures: case studies</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-95279-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-95279-8"><bdi>978-0-415-95279-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Developing+cultures%3A+case+studies&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-95279-8&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+E.&rft.au=Berger%2C+Peter+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevelopingcultur0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan_CoplandIan_MabbettAsim_RoyKate_Brittlebank2012" class="citation book cs1">Ian Copland; Ian Mabbett; Asim Roy; et al. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+Ice%3A+A+Global+Human+History%2C+20%2C000%E2%80%935000+BC&rft.pages=411-&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01999-7&rft.aulast=Mithen&rft.aufirst=Steven+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNVygmardAA4C%26pg%3DPA411&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pathak-dubey-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pathak-dubey_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDubey-Pathak2014" class="citation journal cs1">Dubey-Pathak, Meenakshi (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/a14pathak.pdf">"The Rock Art of the Bhimbetka Area in India"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Adoranten</i>: 16, 19. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210913162516/https://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/a14pathak.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 13 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Adoranten&rft.atitle=The+Rock+Art+of+the+Bhimbetka+Area+in+India&rft.pages=16%2C+19&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Dubey-Pathak&rft.aufirst=Meenakshi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rockartscandinavia.com%2Fimages%2Farticles%2Fa14pathak.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChauhan2010147_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChauhan2010">Chauhan 2010</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Genetic+and+archaeological+perspectives+on+the+initial+modern+human+colonization+of+southern+Asia&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=26&rft.pages=10699-10704&rft.date=2013-06-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3696785%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23754394&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1306043110&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PNAS..11010699M&rft.aulast=Mellars&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Gori%2C+Kevin+C.&rft.au=Carr%2C+Martin&rft.au=Soares%2C+Pedro+A.&rft.au=Richards%2C+Martin+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3696785&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dyson2018-28a-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dyson2018-28a_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Population+History+of+India%3A+From+the+First+Modern+People+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-882905-8&rft.aulast=Dyson&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3TRtDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dyson2018-4-5-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dyson2018-4-5_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyson2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Dyson" title="Tim Dyson">Dyson, Tim</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4"><i>A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the 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Princeton, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ramayanaofva01valm/page/23">23</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01485-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01485-2"><bdi>978-0-691-01485-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ramayana+of+Valmiki%3A+An+Epic+of+Ancient+India%2C+Volume+1%3A+Balakanda&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1990-04-10&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01485-2&rft.au=Valmiki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Framayanaofva01valm%2Fpage%2F23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Romila Thapar, <i>A History of India Part 1</i>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh200818–19-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh200818–19_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh200818–19_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUpinder_Singh2008">Upinder Singh 2008</a>, pp. 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrockington1998" class="citation book cs1">Brockington, J. L. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C&pg=PA26"><i>The Sanskrit epics, Part 2</i></a>. Vol. 12. Brill. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10260-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10260-6"><bdi>978-90-04-10260-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit+epics%2C+Part+2&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10260-6&rft.aulast=Brockington&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHR-_LK5kl18C%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lanman1912-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lanman1912_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanman1912" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rockwell_Lanman" title="Charles Rockwell Lanman">Lanman, Charles Rockwell</a> (1912) [First published 1884]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/sanskritreaderwi00lanmiala#page/158/mode/1up"><i>A Sanskrit reader: with vocabulary and notes</i></a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Ginn_%26_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Ginn & Co.">Ginn & Co.</a> <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/633836">633836</a>. <q><i>... jána, m. creature; man; person; in plural, and collectively in singular, folks; a people or race or tribe ... cf. γένος, Lat. genus, Eng. kin, 'race' ...</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Sanskrit+reader%3A+with+vocabulary+and+notes&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Ginn+%26+Co.&rft.date=1912&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F633836&rft.aulast=Lanman&rft.aufirst=Charles+Rockwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fsanskritreaderwi00lanmiala%23page%2F158%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-potter1974-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-potter1974_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotterSargent1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Potter" title="Stephen Potter">Potter, Stephen</a>; Sargent, Laurens Christopher (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8SNDAAAAIAAJ"><i>Pedigree: The Origins of Words from Nature</i></a>. Taplinger Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8008-6248-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8008-6248-0"><bdi>978-0-8008-6248-0</bdi></a>. <q><i>... *gen-, found in Skt. jana, 'a man', and Gk. genos and L. genus, 'a race' ...</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pedigree%3A+The+Origins+of+Words+from+Nature&rft.pub=Taplinger+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-8008-6248-0&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Sargent%2C+Laurens+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8SNDAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasu2013" class="citation book cs1">Basu, Abhijit (2013). <i>Marvels and Mysteries of the Mahabharata</i>. Leadstart publishing. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-84027-47-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-84027-47-6"><bdi>978-93-84027-47-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marvels+and+Mysteries+of+the+Mahabharata&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Leadstart+publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-93-84027-47-6&rft.aulast=Basu&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel_1995-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel_1995_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel_1995_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel_1995_75-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel_1995_75-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel_1995_75-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407172825/https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/823/913">"Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State"</a>. <i>Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies</i>. <b>1</b> (4): 1–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11588%2Fejvs.1995.4.823">10.11588/ejvs.1995.4.823</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/823/913">the original</a> on 7 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Journal+of+Vedic+Studies&rft.atitle=Early+Sanskritization.+Origins+and+Development+of+the+Kuru+State&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1-26&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11588%2Fejvs.1995.4.823&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcrossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2Findex.php%2Fejvs%2Farticle%2Fview%2F823%2F913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201045–51-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201045–51_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 45–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H.C. Raychaudhuri (1950), <i>Political History of Ancient India and Nepal</i>, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeitzman2008" class="citation book cs1">Heitzman, James (31 March 2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cityinsouthasia0000heit"><i>The City in South Asia</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cityinsouthasia0000heit/page/12">12</a>–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-28963-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-28963-9"><bdi>978-1-134-28963-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+City+in+South+Asia&rft.pages=12-13&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008-03-31&rft.isbn=978-1-134-28963-9&rft.aulast=Heitzman&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcityinsouthasia0000heit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201048–51_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 48–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB-Beginning_historical_period-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EB-Beginning_historical_period_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46844/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce">"The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 BCE"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+beginning+of+the+historical+period%2C+c.+500%E2%80%93150+BCE&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F285248%2FIndia%2F46844%2FThe-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201042–48-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201042–48_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 42–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201061-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201061_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel201049-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel201049_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flood_1996_82-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Flood_1996_82_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Flood_1996_82_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Flood, Gavin Dennis</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82"><i>An Introduction to Hinduism</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43878-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43878-0"><bdi>978-0-521-43878-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Hinduism&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43878-0&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Gavin+Dennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKpIWhKnYmF0C%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mascaró1965-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mascaró1965_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMascaró1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Juan_Mascar%C3%B3" title="Juan Mascaró">Mascaró, Juan</a> (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/upanishads00masc"><i>The Upanishads</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/upanishads00masc/page/7">7</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044163-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044163-5"><bdi>978-0-14-044163-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Upanishads&rft.pages=7-&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044163-5&rft.aulast=Mascar%C3%B3&rft.aufirst=Juan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fupanishads00masc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivelle2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Olivelle" title="Patrick Olivelle">Olivelle, Patrick</a> (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/upanisads00oliv/page/"><i>Upaniṣads</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/upanisads00oliv/page/">xxiv–xxix</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954025-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954025-9"><bdi>978-0-19-954025-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Upani%E1%B9%A3ads&rft.pages=xxiv-xxix&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954025-9&rft.aulast=Olivelle&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fupanisads00oliv%2Fpage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumann2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Baumann, Martin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA1324">"Hinduism"</a>. In Melton, J. Gordon; <a href="/wiki/J._Gordon_Melton" title="J. Gordon Melton">Baumann, Martin</a> (eds.). <i>Religions of the World</i>. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/ABC-Clio" title="ABC-Clio">ABC-Clio</a>. p. 1324. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-204-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-204-3"><bdi>978-1-59884-204-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hinduism&rft.btitle=Religions+of+the+World&rft.pages=1324&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-204-3&rft.aulast=Baumann&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv2yiyLLOj88C%26pg%3DPA1324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivelle2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Olivelle" title="Patrick Olivelle">Olivelle, Patrick</a> (2003). "The Renouncer Tradition". In <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Flood, Gavin</a> (ed.). <i>The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism</i>. Blackwell. pp. 273–274. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21535-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21535-6"><bdi>978-0-631-21535-6</bdi></a>. <q>The second half of the first millennium BC was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history. ... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism, in particular, were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara—the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana—the goal of human existence ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Renouncer+Tradition&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Hinduism&rft.pages=273-274&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21535-6&rft.aulast=Olivelle&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaumakis2008" class="citation book cs1">Laumakis, Stephen (2008). <i>An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-38589-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-38589-6"><bdi>978-0-511-38589-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Buddhist+Philosophy&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-511-38589-6&rft.aulast=Laumakis&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Pat_Fisher" title="Mary Pat Fisher">Fisher, Mary Pat</a> (2011) [First published 1991]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205835874/page/121/mode/1up"><i>Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths</i></a></span> (8th ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-83585-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-83585-0"><bdi>978-0-205-83585-0</bdi></a>. <q>Jainism's major teacher for this age is Mahavira ... was a contemporary of the Buddha and died approximately 527 BCE.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Religions%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+the+World%27s+Faiths&rft.pages=121&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-205-83585-0&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Mary+Pat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780205835874%2Fpage%2F121%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Pat_Fisher" title="Mary Pat Fisher">Fisher, Mary Pat</a> (2011) [First published 1991]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205835874/page/122/mode/1up"><i>Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths</i></a></span> (8th ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-83585-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-83585-0"><bdi>978-0-205-83585-0</bdi></a>. <q>The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-Vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Religions%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+the+World%27s+Faiths&rft.pages=122&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-205-83585-0&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Mary+Pat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780205835874%2Fpage%2F122%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008260–261-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008260–261_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUpinder_Singh2008">Upinder Singh 2008</a>, pp. 260–261.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anguttara Nikaya I. p. 213; IV. pp. 252, 256, 261.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A107-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A107_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReddy2003A107_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReddy2003">Reddy 2003</a>, p. A107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thapar-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thapar_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thapar_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Thapar, Romila</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=PA147"><i>Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. pp. 146–150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24225-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24225-8"><bdi>978-0-520-24225-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+India%3A+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300&rft.pages=146-150&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24225-8&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-5irrXX0apQC%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), <i>Political History of Ancient India</i>, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p. 107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zcoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93"><i>Republics in ancient India</i></a>. Brill Archive. pp. 93–. GGKEY:HYY6LT5CFT0.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Republics+in+ancient+India&rft.pages=93-&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzcoUAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.M. Kenoyer (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In <i>Historical Roots" in the Making of 'the Aryan</i>, R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 21–49. New Delhi, National Book Trust.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaffer1993" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jim_G._Shaffer" title="Jim G. Shaffer">Shaffer, Jim</a> (1993). "Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond". <i>Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times</i>. Symposium Papers XV. Vol. 31. National Gallery of Art. pp. 53–67. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42620472">42620472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Reurbanization%3A+The+eastern+Punjab+and+beyond&rft.btitle=Urban+Form+and+Meaning+in+South+Asia%3A+The+Shaping+of+Cities+from+Prehistoric+to+Precolonial+Times&rft.series=Symposium+Papers+XV&rft.pages=53-67&rft.pub=National+Gallery+of+Art&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42620472%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Shaffer&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ramesh_Chandra_Majumdar_(1977)-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ramesh_Chandra_Majumdar_(1977)_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajumdar1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._C._Majumdar" title="R. C. Majumdar">Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra</a> (1977). <i>Ancient India</i> (8th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Motilal Banarsidass Publishers">Motilal Banarsidass Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0436-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0436-4"><bdi>978-81-208-0436-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+India&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0436-4&rft.aulast=Majumdar&rft.aufirst=Ramesh+Chandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/magadha-empire.html">"Magadha Empire – Magadha Empire in India, History of Magadh Empire"</a>. <i>iloveindia.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iloveindia.com&rft.atitle=Magadha+Empire+%E2%80%93+Magadha+Empire+in+India%2C+History+of+Magadh+Empire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iloveindia.com%2Fhistory%2Fancient-india%2Fmagadha-empire.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lumbinitrust-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lumbinitrust_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140306041858/http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214">"Lumbini Development Trust: Restoring the Lumbini Garden"</a>. lumbinitrust.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214">the original</a> on 6 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lumbini+Development+Trust%3A+Restoring+the+Lumbini+Garden&rft.pub=lumbinitrust.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lumbinitrust.org%2Farticles%2Fview%2F214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji198828–33-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji198828–33_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji1988">Mookerji 1988</a>, pp. 28–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008273-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUpinder_Singh2008273_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUpinder_Singh2008">Upinder Singh 2008</a>, p. 273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji198834-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji198834_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji1988">Mookerji 1988</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaychaudhuriMukherjee1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hem_Chandra_Raychaudhuri" title="Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri">Raychaudhuri, Hem Chandra</a>; <a href="/wiki/B._N._Mukherjee" title="B. N. Mukherjee">Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath</a> (1996) [First published 1923]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory0000rayc"><i>Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty</i></a></span> (8th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 208–209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-563789-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-563789-2"><bdi>978-0-19-563789-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+History+of+Ancient+India%3A+From+the+Accession+of+Parikshit+to+the+Extinction+of+the+Gupta+Dynasty&rft.pages=208-209&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-563789-2&rft.aulast=Raychaudhuri&rft.aufirst=Hem+Chandra&rft.au=Mukherjee%2C+Bratindra+Nath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticalhistory0000rayc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peter_2006-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peter_2006_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="citation journal cs1">Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381">"East–West Orientation of Historical Empires"</a>. <i>Journal of World-Systems Research</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 223. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East%E2%80%93West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=223&rft.date=2006-12&rft.issn=1076-156X&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwsr.pitt.edu%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fjwsr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F369%2F381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomila_Thapar" class="citation book cs1">Romila Thapar. <i>A History of India: Volume 1</i>. p. 70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+India%3A+Volume+1&rft.pages=70&rft.au=Romila+Thapar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003178–180-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003178–180_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003178–180_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThapar2003">Thapar 2003</a>, pp. 178–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003204–206-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003204–206_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003204–206_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThapar2003">Thapar 2003</a>, pp. 204–206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhandari2016" class="citation web cs1">Bhandari, Shirin (5 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://roadsandkingdoms.com/2016/dinner-on-the-grand-trunk-road/">"Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road"</a>. <i>Roads & Kingdoms</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Roads+%26+Kingdoms&rft.atitle=Dinner+on+the+Grand+Trunk+Road&rft.date=2016-01-05&rft.aulast=Bhandari&rft.aufirst=Shirin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Froadsandkingdoms.com%2F2016%2Fdinner-on-the-grand-trunk-road%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund200467-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund200467_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund2004">Kulke & Rothermund 2004</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomila_Thapar" class="citation book cs1">Romila Thapar. <i>A History of India: Volume 1</i>. p. 78.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+India%3A+Volume+1&rft.pages=78&rft.au=Romila+Thapar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntonovaBongard-LevinKotovsky197991-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAntonovaBongard-LevinKotovsky197991_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAntonovaBongard-LevinKotovsky1979">Antonova, Bongard-Levin & Kotovsky 1979</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Menon_R.V.G_p.15-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Menon_R.V.G_p.15_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Technology and Society</i> by Menon, R.V.G. p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen1975" class="citation journal cs1">Rosen, Elizabeth S. (1975). "Prince ILango Adigal, Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet), translated by Alain Damelou. Review". <i>Artibus Asiae</i>. <b>37</b> (1/2): 148–150. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3250226">10.2307/3250226</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250226">3250226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artibus+Asiae&rft.atitle=Prince+ILango+Adigal%2C+Shilappadikaram+%28The+anklet+Bracelet%29%2C+translated+by+Alain+Damelou.+Review.&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=148-150&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3250226&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3250226%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999204–205-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999204–205_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen1999">Sen 1999</a>, pp. 204–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Essays on Indian Renaissance</i> by Raj Kumar p. 260</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_First_Spring_p.655-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_First_Spring_p.655_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The First Spring: The Golden Age of India</i> by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Eraly" title="Abraham Eraly">Abraham Eraly</a> p. 655</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* Zvelebil, Kamil. 1973. The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden: Brill. Zvelebil dates the <i>Ur-Tholkappiyam</i> to the 1st or 2nd century BCE</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130411214545/http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html">"Silappathikaram Tamil Literature"</a>. Tamilnadu.com. 22 January 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html">the original</a> on 11 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Silappathikaram+Tamil+Literature&rft.pub=Tamilnadu.com&rft.date=2013-01-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftamilnadu.com%2Farts%2Fliterature-silappathikaram.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muk1-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Muk1_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMukherjee1999">Mukherjee 1999</a>, p. 277</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/4_drav/tamil/pm/pm141__u.htm">"Cittalaiccattanar (c. 500): Manimekalai"</a>. <i>gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de&rft.atitle=Cittalaiccattanar+%28c.+500%29%3A+Manimekalai&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fgretil%2F4_drav%2Ftamil%2Fpm%2Fpm141__u.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardy1995" class="citation book cs1">Hardy, Adam (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C&pg=PA41"><i>Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries</i></a>. Abhinav Publications. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-312-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-312-0"><bdi>978-81-7017-312-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Temple+Architecture%3A+Form+and+Transformation+%3A+the+Kar%E1%B9%87%C4%81%E1%B9%ADa+Dr%C4%81vi%E1%B8%8Da+Tradition%2C+7th+to+13th+Centuries&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-81-7017-312-0&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaU0hCAS2-08C%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe2010" class="citation book cs1">Le, Huu Phuoc (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA238"><i>Buddhist Architecture</i></a>. Grafikol. p. 238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9844043-0-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9844043-0-8"><bdi>978-0-9844043-0-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Architecture&rft.pages=238&rft.pub=Grafikol&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-9844043-0-8&rft.aulast=Le&rft.aufirst=Huu+Phuoc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9jb364g4BvoC%26pg%3DPA238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stein-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stein_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stein_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStein2010" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Burton_Stein" title="Burton Stein">Stein, B.</a> (27 April 2010), Arnold, D. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA105"><i>A History of India</i></a> (2nd ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, p. 105, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9509-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9509-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-9509-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+India&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=105&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010-04-27&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQY4zdTDwMAQC%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Social History of Early India</i> by Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya p. 259</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maddisson_World_GDP-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Maddisson_World_GDP_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf">"The World Economy (GDP) : Historical Statistics by Professor Angus Maddison"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. World Economy<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+World+Economy+%28GDP%29+%3A+Historical+Statistics+by+Professor+Angus+Maddison&rft.pub=World+Economy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theworldeconomy.org%2FMaddisonTables%2FMaddisontableB-18.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaddison2006" class="citation book cs1">Maddison, Angus (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?K=5L9ZBQKL5RLW&lang=EN&sort=sort_date%2Fd&stem=true&sf1=Title&st1=world+economy&sf3=SubjectCode&sp1=not&st4=E4+or+E5+or+P5&sf4=SubVersionCode&ds=world+economy%3B+All+Subjects%3B+&m=3&dc=26&plang=en"><i>The World Economy – Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics</i></a>. OECD Publishing by <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a>. p. 656. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-64-02262-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-64-02262-1"><bdi>978-92-64-02262-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Economy+%E2%80%93+Volume+1%3A+A+Millennial+Perspective+and+Volume+2%3A+Historical+Statistics&rft.pages=656&rft.pub=OECD+Publishing+by+Organisation+for+Economic+Co-operation+and+Development&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-92-64-02262-1&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecdbookshop.org%2Foecd%2Fdisplay.asp%3FK%3D5L9ZBQKL5RLW%26lang%3DEN%26sort%3Dsort_date%252Fd%26stem%3Dtrue%26sf1%3DTitle%26st1%3Dworld%2Beconomy%26sf3%3DSubjectCode%26sp1%3Dnot%26st4%3DE4%2Bor%2BE5%2Bor%2BP5%26sf4%3DSubVersionCode%26ds%3Dworld%2Beconomy%253B%2BAll%2BSubjects%253B%2B%26m%3D3%26dc%3D26%26plang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStadtner1975" class="citation journal cs1">Stadtner, Donald (1975). "A Śuṅga Capital from Vidiśā". <i>Artibus Asiae</i>. <b>37</b> (1/2): 101–104. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3250214">10.2307/3250214</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-3648">0004-3648</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250214">3250214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artibus+Asiae&rft.atitle=A+%C5%9Au%E1%B9%85ga+Capital+from+Vidi%C5%9B%C4%81&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=101-104&rft.date=1975&rft.issn=0004-3648&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3250214%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3250214&rft.aulast=Stadtner&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. A. Nilkantha Shastri (1970), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E3tDAAAAYAAJ"><i>A Comprehensive History of India: Volume 2</i></a>, p. 108: "Soon after Agnimitra there was no 'Sunga empire'".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bhandare, Shailendra. "Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta Interlude in the Gangetic Plain" in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC"><i>Between the Empires: Society in India, 300 to 400</i></a> ed. Patrick Olivelle (2006), p. 96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSircar2008" class="citation book cs1">Sircar, D. C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA113"><i>Studies in Indian Coins</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120829732" title="Special:BookSources/9788120829732"><bdi>9788120829732</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Indian+Coins&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9788120829732&rft.aulast=Sircar&rft.aufirst=D.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm1JYwP5tVQUC%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TheShengold-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TheShengold_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchreiber2003" class="citation book cs1">Schreiber, Mordecai (2003). <i>The Shengold Jewish Encyclopedia</i>. Rockville, MD: Schreiber Publishing. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-887563-77-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-887563-77-2"><bdi>978-1-887563-77-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shengold+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Rockville%2C+MD&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Schreiber+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-887563-77-2&rft.aulast=Schreiber&rft.aufirst=Mordecai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw1978164-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaw1978164_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaw1978">Law 1978</a>, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/source/alex5.htm"><i>Greatest emporium in the world</i></a>, CSI, UNESCO.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollingham2006245-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollingham2006245_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollingham2006">Collingham 2006</a>, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLFXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA506"><i>The Medical Times and Gazette, Volume 1</i></a>. London: John Churchill. 1867. p. 506.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medical+Times+and+Gazette%2C+Volume+1&rft.place=London&rft.pages=506&rft.pub=John+Churchill&rft.date=1867&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZLFXAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA506&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonkin200367,_60–70-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonkin200367,_60–70_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonkin2003">Donkin 2003</a>, pp. 67, 60–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TCHAC-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TCHAC_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoeweShaughnessy1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Loewe, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Shaughnessy" title="Edward L. Shaughnessy">Shaughnessy, Edward L.</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC"><i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 87–88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47030-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Ancient+China%3A+From+the+Origins+of+Civilization+to+221+BC&rft.pages=87-88&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47030-8&rft.aulast=Loewe&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Shaughnessy%2C+Edward+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcHA7Ey0-pbEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRunion2007" class="citation book cs1">Runion, Meredith L. (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyafghanist00runi_653"><i>The history of Afghanistan</i></a></span>. Westport: Greenwood Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyafghanist00runi_653/page/n66">46</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33798-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33798-7"><bdi>978-0-313-33798-7</bdi></a>. <q>The Yuezhi people conquered Bactria in the second century BCE. and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which would become the Kushan Empire. Recognizing the importance of unification, these five tribes combined under the one dominate Kushan tribe, and the primary rulers descended from the Yuezhi.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Afghanistan&rft.place=Westport&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33798-7&rft.aulast=Runion&rft.aufirst=Meredith+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryafghanist00runi_653&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-liu156-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-liu156_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2001" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Xinrui (2001). Adas, Michael (ed.). <i>Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history</i>. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56639-832-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56639-832-9"><bdi>978-1-56639-832-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricultural+and+pastoral+societies+in+ancient+and+classical+history&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-56639-832-9&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Xinrui&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120307154447/http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm"><i>Buddhist Records of the Western World</i></a> Si-Yu-Ki, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-Sing, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 318–350</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrégoire_Frumkin1970" class="citation book cs1">Grégoire Frumkin (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum"><i>Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia</i></a></span>. Brill Archive. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum/page/51">51</a>–. GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+in+Soviet+Central+Asia&rft.pages=51-&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Gr%C3%A9goire+Frumkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farchaeologyinsov0000frum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRafi_U._Samad2011" class="citation book cs1">Rafi U. Samad (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA93"><i>The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys</i></a>. Algora Publishing. pp. 93–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-859-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-859-2"><bdi>978-0-87586-859-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grandeur+of+Gandhara%3A+The+Ancient+Buddhist+Civilization+of+the+Swat%2C+Peshawar%2C+Kabul+and+Indus+Valleys&rft.pages=93-&rft.pub=Algora+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-87586-859-2&rft.au=Rafi+U.+Samad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpNUwBYGYgxsC%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford History of India – Vincent Smith</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ArtPal1986-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ArtPal1986_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLos_Angeles_County_Museum_of_ArtPratapaditya_Pal1986" class="citation book cs1">Los Angeles County Museum of Art; Pratapaditya Pal (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa"><i>Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.–A.D. 700</i></a></span>. University of California Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa/page/151">151</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05991-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05991-7"><bdi>978-0-520-05991-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Sculpture%3A+Circa+500+B.C.%E2%80%93A.D.+700&rft.pages=151-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05991-7&rft.au=Los+Angeles+County+Museum+of+Art&rft.au=Pratapaditya+Pal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findiansculpturec00losa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kushan-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kushan_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150707162312/http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm">"The History of Pakistan: The Kushans"</a>. kushan.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm">the original</a> on 7 July 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Pakistan%3A+The+Kushans&rft.pub=kushan.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kushan.org%2Fgeneral%2Fother%2Fpart1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Si-Yu-Ki, <i>Buddhist Records of the Western World</i>, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-Sing, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100330103811/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century">"Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century">the original</a> on 30 March 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gupta+dynasty%3A+empire+in+4th+century&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic-art%2F285248%2F1960%2FThe-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html">"The Story of India – Photo Gallery"</a>. PBS<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+India+%E2%80%93+Photo+Gallery&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fthestoryofindia%2Fgallery%2Fphotos%2F8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coedes, G. (1968) <i>The Indianized States of Southeast Asia</i> Edited by Walter F. Vella. Translated by Susan Brown Cowing. Canberra: Australian National University Press. Introduction... <i>The geographic area here called </i>Farther India<i> consists of Indonesia, or island Southeast Asia....</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_Philippe_Groslier1962" class="citation book cs1">Bernard Philippe Groslier (1962). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artofindochinain00gros"><i>The art of Indochina: including Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia</i></a></span>. Crown Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+art+of+Indochina%3A+including+Thailand%2C+Vietnam%2C+Laos+and+Cambodia&rft.pub=Crown+Publishers&rft.date=1962&rft.au=Bernard+Philippe+Groslier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartofindochinain00gros&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Iaroslav Lebedynsky, <i>Les Nomades</i>, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Early History of India</i>, p. 339, Dr V.A. Smith; See also <i>Early Empire of Central Asia</i> (1939), W.M. McGovern.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ancient India</i>, 2003, p. 650, Dr V.D. Mahajan; <i>History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj</i>, p. 50, Dr <a href="/wiki/R.C._Majumdar" class="mw-redirect" title="R.C. Majumdar">R.C. Majumdar</a>, Dr A.D. Pusalkar.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Madan-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Madan_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGopal1990" class="citation book cs1">Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada"><i>India through the ages</i></a>. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/173">173</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+through+the+ages&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=Publication+Division%2C+Ministry+of+Information+and+Broadcasting%2C+Government+of+India&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Gopal&rft.aufirst=Madan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findiathroughages00mada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The precise number varies according to whether or not some barely started excavations, such as cave 15A, are counted. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ajanta.asp">The ASI say</a> "In all, total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also include an unfinished one", UNESCO and Spink "about 30". The controversies over the end date of excavation is covered below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tej Ram Sharma, 1978, "Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. (1.publ.)", p. 254, Kamarupa consisted of the Western districts of the Brahmaputra valley which being the most powerful state.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suresh Kant Sharma, Usha Sharma – 2005, "Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture, ... – Volume 3", p. 248, Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The eastern border of Kamarupa is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in <a href="/wiki/Kalika_Purana" title="Kalika Purana">Kalika Purana</a>) near present-day Sadiya. "...the temple of the goddess Tameshwari (Dikkaravasini) is now located at modern Sadiya about 100 miles to the northeast of Sibsagar" (<a href="#CITEREFSircar1990">Sircar 1990</a>, pp. 63–68).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarpujari1990" class="citation book cs1">Barpujari, H.K., ed. (1990). <i>The Comprehensive History of Assam</i> (1st ed.). Guwahati, India: Assam Publication Board. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/499315420">499315420</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Comprehensive+History+of+Assam&rft.place=Guwahati%2C+India&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Assam+Publication+Board&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F499315420&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarkar, J.N. (1992), "Chapter II The Turko-Afghan Invasions", in Barpujari, H.K., <i>The Comprehensive History of Assam</i>, 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 35–48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skyknowledge.com/pallava.htm">"Pallava script"</a>. SkyKnowledge.com. 30 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pallava+script&rft.pub=SkyKnowledge.com&rft.date=2010-12-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fskyknowledge.com%2Fpallava.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nilakanta Sastri, pp. 412–413</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-histoworldwhitney-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-histoworldwhitney_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2005" class="citation book cs1">Hall, John Whitney, ed. (2005) [1988]. "India". <i>History of the World: Earliest Times to the Present Day</i>. John Grayson Kirk. North Dighton, MA: World Publications Group. p. 246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57215-421-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57215-421-6"><bdi>978-1-57215-421-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=India&rft.btitle=History+of+the+World%3A+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=North+Dighton%2C+MA&rft.pages=246&rft.pub=World+Publications+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57215-421-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=261204">"CNG: eAuction 329. India, Post-Gupta (Ganges Valley). Vardhanas of Thanesar and Kanauj. Harshavardhana. Circa AD 606–647. AR Drachm (13 mm, 2.28 g, 1h)"</a>. <i>cngcoins.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cngcoins.com&rft.atitle=CNG%3A+eAuction+329.+India%2C+Post-Gupta+%28Ganges+Valley%29.+Vardhanas+of+Thanesar+and+Kanauj.+Harshavardhana.+Circa+AD+606%E2%80%93647.+AR+Drachm+%2813+mm%2C+2.28+g%2C+1h%29.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cngcoins.com%2FCoin.aspx%3FCoinID%3D261204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RN_Kundra_&_SS_Bawa-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RN_Kundra_&_SS_Bawa_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">RN Kundra & SS Bawa, History of Ancient and Medieval India</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Historic_Places_p.507-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Historic_Places_p.507_172-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Historic_Places_p.507_172-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Historic_Places_p.507_172-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania by Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda p. 507</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha">"Harsha"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Harsha&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F256065%2FHarsha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-encystan-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-encystan_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/566090/Sthanvishvara">"Sthanvishvara (historical region, India)"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sthanvishvara+%28historical+region%2C+India%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F566090%2FSthanvishvara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha">"Harsha (Indian emperor)"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Harsha+%28Indian+emperor%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F256065%2FHarsha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200441-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200441_176-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200443-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200443_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sanderson,_Alexis_2009_pages_41-43-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sanderson,_Alexis_2009_pages_41-43_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanderson2009" class="citation book cs1">Sanderson, Alexis (2009). "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period". In Einoo, Shingo (ed.). <i>Genesis and Development of Tantrism</i>. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series. Vol. 23. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo. pp. 41–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-7963-0188-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-7963-0188-6"><bdi>978-4-7963-0188-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%C5%9Aaiva+Age%3A+The+Rise+and+Dominance+of+%C5%9Aaivism+during+the+Early+Medieval+Period&rft.btitle=Genesis+and+Development+of+Tantrism&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.series=Institute+of+Oriental+Culture+Special+Series&rft.pages=41-43&rft.pub=Institute+of+Oriental+Culture%2C+University+of+Tokyo&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-4-7963-0188-6&rft.aulast=Sanderson&rft.aufirst=Alexis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarao, <i>Decline of Buddhism in India</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sheridan, Daniel P. "Kumarila Bhatta", in <i>Great Thinkers of the Eastern World</i>, ed. Ian McGready, New York: HarperCollins, 1995, pp. 198–201. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-270085-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-270085-5">0-06-270085-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvari2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Burjor_Avari" title="Burjor Avari">Avari, Burjor</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DmB_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT204"><i>India: The Ancient Past. A History of the Indian-Subcontinent from 7000 BC to AD 1200</i></a>. New York: Routledge. pp. 204–205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-08850-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-08850-0"><bdi>978-0-203-08850-0</bdi></a>. <q>Madhyadesha became the ambition of two particular clans among a tribal people in Rajasthan, known as Gurjara and Pratihara. They were both parts of a larger federation of tribes, some of which later came to be known as the Rajputs</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%3A+The+Ancient+Past.+A+History+of+the+Indian-Subcontinent+from+7000+BC+to+AD+1200&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=204-205&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-203-08850-0&rft.aulast=Avari&rft.aufirst=Burjor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDmB_AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath198093-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath198093_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamath1980">Kamath 1980</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinod_Chandra_Srivastava2008" class="citation book cs1">Vinod Chandra Srivastava (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjZVwYVmNcC&pg=PA857"><i>History of Agriculture in India, Up to C. 1200 A.D.</i></a> Concept. p. 857. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8069-521-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8069-521-6"><bdi>978-81-8069-521-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Agriculture+in+India%2C+Up+to+C.+1200+A.D.&rft.pages=857&rft.pub=Concept&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-8069-521-6&rft.au=Vinod+Chandra+Srivastava&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFvjZVwYVmNcC%26pg%3DPA857&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Dancing_Girl_p._129-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Dancing_Girl_p._129_184-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Dancing_Girl_p._129_184-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India</i> by Balaji Sadasivan p. 129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollock2006" class="citation book cs1">Pollock, Sheldon (2006). <i>The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India</i>. University of California Press. pp. 241–242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93202-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93202-9"><bdi>978-0-520-93202-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+of+the+Gods+in+the+World+of+Men%3A+Sanskrit%2C+Culture%2C+and+Power+in+Premodern+India&rft.pages=241-242&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-520-93202-9&rft.aulast=Pollock&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sunil Fotedar (June 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ikashmir.net/glimpses/doc/glimpses.pdf"><i>The Kashmir Series: Glimpses of Kashmiri Culture – Vivekananda Kendra, Kanyakumari</i> (p. 57).</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. C. Mazumdar, <i>Ancient India</i>, p. 383</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl_J._Schmidt2015" class="citation book cs1">Karl J. Schmidt (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ"><i>An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History</i></a>. Routledge. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317476818" title="Special:BookSources/9781317476818"><bdi>9781317476818</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Atlas+and+Survey+of+South+Asian+History&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781317476818&rft.au=Karl+J.+Schmidt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBqdzCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSailendra_Nath_Sen1999" class="citation book cs1">Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA246"><i>Ancient Indian History and Civilization</i></a>. New Age. p. 246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788122411980" title="Special:BookSources/9788122411980"><bdi>9788122411980</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Indian+History+and+Civilization&rft.pages=246&rft.pub=New+Age&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9788122411980&rft.au=Sailendra+Nath+Sen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWk4_ICH_g1EC%26pg%3DPA246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar2003334-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar2003334_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThapar2003">Thapar 2003</a>, p. 334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chandra-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chandra_191-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chandra_191-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chandra_191-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandra2009" class="citation book cs1">Chandra, Satish (2009). <i>History of Medieval India</i>. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan. pp. 19–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-250-3226-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-250-3226-7"><bdi>978-81-250-3226-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Medieval+India&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=19-20&rft.pub=Orient+Blackswan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-81-250-3226-7&rft.aulast=Chandra&rft.aufirst=Satish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath198083,_85,_97-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath198083,_85,_97_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamath1980">Kamath 1980</a>, pp. 83, 85, 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuttaswamy2012" class="citation book cs1">Puttaswamy, T.K. (2012). "Mahavira". <i>Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians</i>. London: Elsevier Publications. p. 231. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-397913-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-397913-1"><bdi>978-0-12-397913-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mahavira&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Achievements+of+Pre-modern+Indian+Mathematicians&rft.place=London&rft.pages=231&rft.pub=Elsevier+Publications&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-12-397913-1&rft.aulast=Puttaswamy&rft.aufirst=T.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999380-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999380_194-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen1999">Sen 1999</a>, p. 380.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999380–381-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999380–381_195-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen1999">Sen 1999</a>, pp. 380–381.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniélou2003170-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniélou2003170_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniélou2003">Daniélou 2003</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Britannica Guide to Algebra and Trigonometry</i> by William L. Hosch p. 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWink2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Wink" title="André Wink">Wink, André</a> (2002) [First published 1990]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA283"><i>Al-Hind: The making of the Indo-Islamic World</i></a>. Vol. I. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 283–284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-391-04173-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-391-04173-8"><bdi>978-0-391-04173-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Hind%3A+The+making+of+the+Indo-Islamic+World&rft.pages=283-284&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-391-04173-8&rft.aulast=Wink&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg2m7_R5P2oAC%26pg%3DPA283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAvari2007204-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAvari2007204_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAvari2007">Avari 2007</a>, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wink2002p285-286-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wink2002p285-286_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWink2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Wink" title="André Wink">Wink, André</a> (2002) [First published 1990]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA283"><i>Al-Hind: The making of the Indo-Islamic World</i></a>. Vol. I. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 285–286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-391-04173-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-391-04173-8"><bdi>978-0-391-04173-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Hind%3A+The+making+of+the+Indo-Islamic+World&rft.pages=285-286&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-391-04173-8&rft.aulast=Wink&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg2m7_R5P2oAC%26pg%3DPA283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bajpai2006-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bajpai2006_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.D._Bajpai2006" class="citation book cs1">K.D. Bajpai (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3KcwLKuRnYC&pg=PA31"><i>History of Gopāchala</i></a>. Bharatiya Jnanpith. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-263-1155-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-263-1155-2"><bdi>978-81-263-1155-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Gop%C4%81chala&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Bharatiya+Jnanpith&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-81-263-1155-2&rft.au=K.D.+Bajpai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ3KcwLKuRnYC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENiyogi195938-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiyogi195938_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiyogi1959">Niyogi 1959</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinha1969" class="citation journal cs1">Sinha, CPN (1969). "Origin of the Karnatas of Mithila - A Fresh Appraisal". <i>Proceedings of the Indian History Congress</i>. <b>31</b>: 66–72. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44138330">44138330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Indian+History+Congress&rft.atitle=Origin+of+the+Karnatas+of+Mithila+-+A+Fresh+Appraisal&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=66-72&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44138330%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=CPN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chakrabarty10-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chakrabarty10_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChakrabarty2010" class="citation book cs1">Chakrabarty, Dilip (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAyDwAAQBAJ&dq=the+focus+of+the+history+of+bihar+in+the+eleventh+and+twelfth+century+is+on+Mithila&pg=PT115"><i>The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 47–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-908832-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-908832-4"><bdi>978-0-19-908832-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geopolitical+Orbits+of+Ancient+India%3A+The+Geographical+Frames+of+the+Ancient+Indian+Dynasties&rft.pages=47-48&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-908832-4&rft.aulast=Chakrabarty&rft.aufirst=Dilip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEIAyDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dthe%2Bfocus%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bhistory%2Bof%2Bbihar%2Bin%2Bthe%2Beleventh%2Band%2Btwelfth%2Bcentury%2Bis%2Bon%2BMithila%26pg%3DPT115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Epigraphia_Indica" title="Epigraphia Indica">Epigraphia Indica</a></i>, XXIV, p. 43, Dr N.G. Majumdar</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nitish2011-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nitish2011_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNitish_K._Sengupta2011" class="citation book cs1">Nitish K. Sengupta (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA40"><i>Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib</i></a>. Penguin Books India. pp. 43–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-341678-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-341678-4"><bdi>978-0-14-341678-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Land+of+Two+Rivers%3A+A+History+of+Bengal+from+the+Mahabharata+to+Mujib&rft.pages=43-45&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+India&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-14-341678-4&rft.au=Nitish+K.+Sengupta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkVSh_TyJ0YoC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biplab2005-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Biplab2005_207-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiplab_Dasgupta2005" class="citation book cs1">Biplab Dasgupta (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YRRnRK8lEYEC&pg=PA341"><i>European Trade and Colonial Conquest</i></a>. Anthem Press. pp. 341–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-029-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-029-7"><bdi>978-1-84331-029-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Trade+and+Colonial+Conquest&rft.pages=341-&rft.pub=Anthem+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-84331-029-7&rft.au=Biplab+Dasgupta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYRRnRK8lEYEC%26pg%3DPA341&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004112,_119-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004112,_119_208-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund2004">Kulke & Rothermund 2004</a>, pp. 112, 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>History of Buddhism in India</i>, Translation by A Shiefner</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChandraPala-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChandraPala_210-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChandraPala_210-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChandraPala_210-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandra2009" class="citation book cs1">Chandra, Satish (2009). <i>History of Medieval India</i>. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan. pp. 13–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-250-3226-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-250-3226-7"><bdi>978-81-250-3226-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Medieval+India&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=13-15&rft.pub=Orient+Blackswan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-81-250-3226-7&rft.aulast=Chandra&rft.aufirst=Satish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESen1999278-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999278_211-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESen1999278_211-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen1999">Sen 1999</a>, p. 278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PNChopra2003-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PNChopra2003_212-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPN_ChopraBN_PuriMN_DasAC_Pradhan2003" class="citation book cs1">PN Chopra; BN Puri; MN Das; AC Pradhan, eds. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA201"><i>A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set)</i></a>. Sterling. pp. 200–202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-207-2503-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-207-2503-4"><bdi>978-81-207-2503-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+History+Of+Ancient+India+%283+Vol.+Set%29&rft.pages=200-202&rft.pub=Sterling&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-81-207-2503-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgE7udqBkACwC%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A.D.</i> by Radhey Shyam Chaurasia p. 237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004116-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004116_214-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKulkeRothermund2004">Kulke & Rothermund 2004</a>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-keay215-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-keay215_215-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeay2000">Keay 2000</a>, p. 215: The Cholas were in fact the most successful dynasty since the Guptas ... The classic expansion of Chola power began anew with the accession of Rajaraja I in 985.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100120085302/http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php">"The Last Years of Cholas: The decline and fall of a dynasty"</a>. En.articlesgratuits.com. 22 August 2007. Archived from the original on 20 January 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Last+Years+of+Cholas%3A+The+decline+and+fall+of+a+dynasty&rft.pub=En.articlesgratuits.com&rft.date=2007-08-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.en.articlesgratuits.com%2Fthe-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sastri158-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sastri158_217-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/K._A._Nilakanta_Sastri" title="K. A. Nilakanta Sastri">K. A. Nilakanta Sastri</a>, <i>A History of South India</i>, p. 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations</i> by Tansen Sen p. 229</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>History of Asia</i> by B.V. Rao p. 297</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Indian Civilization and Culture</i> by Suhas Chatterjee p. 417</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/">"Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sri+Ranganathaswamy+Temple%2C+Srirangam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Ftentativelists%2F5894%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Medieval_India_p.24-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Medieval_India_p.24_222-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Medieval_India_p.24_222-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: by Farooqui Salma Ahmed, Salma Ahmed Farooqui p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ancient Indian History and Civilization</i> by Sailendra Nath Sen pp. 403–405</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India</i>, Band 1 by ʻAlī Jāvīd pp. 132–134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>History of Kannada Literature</i> by E.P. Rice p. 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bilhana</i> by Prabhakar Narayan Kawthekar, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200647-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200647_227-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006">Asher & Talbot 2006</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf20066-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf20066_228-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006">Metcalf & Metcalf 2006</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200653-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200653_229-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006">Asher & Talbot 2006</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDr._K._S._Lal1967" class="citation book cs1">Dr. K. S. Lal (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w14dAAAAMAAJ&q=khalji+indian+muslim+revolution"><i>History of the Khaljis, A.D. 1290-1320</i></a>. p. 14. <q>The khalji revolt is essentially a revolt of the Indian Muslims against the Turkish hegemony, of those who looked to Delhi, against those who sought inspiration from Ghaur and Ghazna.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Khaljis%2C+A.D.+1290-1320&rft.pages=14&rft.date=1967&rft.au=Dr.+K.+S.+Lal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw14dAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dkhalji%2Bindian%2Bmuslim%2Brevolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadhey_Shyam_Chaurasia2002" class="citation book cs1">Radhey Shyam Chaurasia (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8XnaL7zPXPUC&q=history+of+medieval+india+chaurasia"><i>History of Medieval India:From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D.</i></a> Atlantic. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-269-0123-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-269-0123-4"><bdi>978-81-269-0123-4</bdi></a>. <q>In spite of all this, capturing the throne for Khilji was a revolution, as instead of Turks, Indian Muslims gained power</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Medieval+India%3AFrom+1000+A.D.+to+1707+A.D.&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Atlantic&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-81-269-0123-4&rft.au=Radhey+Shyam+Chaurasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8XnaL7zPXPUC%26q%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Bmedieval%2Bindia%2Bchaurasia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaston,_Richard_M.2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Eaton" title="Richard M. Eaton">Easton, Richard M.</a> (2019). <i>India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765</i>. University of California Press. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520325128" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520325128"><bdi>978-0520325128</bdi></a>. <q>The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan, illustrates the transition to an increasingly polycentric north India.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+in+the+Persianate+Age%3A+1000%E2%80%931765&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0520325128&rft.au=Easton%2C+Richard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrsiniSheikh2014" class="citation book cs1">Orsini, Francesca; Sheikh, Samira (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=59OFoAEACAAJ&q=after+timur+left"><i>After Timur Left: Culture and Circulation in Fifteenth-century North India</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-945066-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-945066-4"><bdi>978-0-19-945066-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Timur+Left%3A+Culture+and+Circulation+in+Fifteenth-century+North+India&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-945066-4&rft.aulast=Orsini&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft.au=Sheikh%2C+Samira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D59OFoAEACAAJ%26q%3Dafter%2Btimur%2Bleft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-whunter-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-whunter_234-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Hunter (1903), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5IQqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA124">A Brief History of the Indian Peoples</a></i>, p. 124, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, 23rd Edition, pp. 124–127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamananda_Chatterjee1961" class="citation book cs1">Ramananda Chatterjee (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FgPSAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Modern Review</i></a>. Vol. 109. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>. p. 84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Review&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Indiana+University&rft.date=1961&rft.au=Ramananda+Chatterjee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFgPSAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-delhi-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-delhi_236-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-delhi_236-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/156530/Delhi-sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartel1999" class="citation web cs1">Bartel, Nick (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612001214/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Seven.html">"Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India"</a>. <i>The Travels of Ibn Battuta – A Virtual Tour with the 14th Century Traveler</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Seven.html">the original</a> on 12 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Travels+of+Ibn+Battuta+%E2%80%93+A+Virtual+Tour+with+the+14th+Century+Traveler&rft.atitle=Battuta%27s+Travels%3A+Delhi%2C+capital+of+Muslim+India&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Bartel&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfusd.k12.ca.us%2Fschwww%2Fsch618%2FIbn_Battuta%2FBattuta%27s_Trip_Seven.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–52-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–52_238-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006">Asher & Talbot 2006</a>, pp. 50–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-re2000-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-re2000_239-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Eaton (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150406011408/http://jis.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/3/283.extract">Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States</a>, Journal of Islamic Studies, 11(3), pp. 283–319</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–51-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–51_240-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200650–51_240-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006">Asher & Talbot 2006</a>, pp. 50–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELudden200267-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudden200267_241-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLudden2002">Ludden 2002</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071012090047/http://gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm">"Timur – conquest of India"</a>. <i>Gardenvisit</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm">the original</a> on 12 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gardenvisit&rft.atitle=Timur+%E2%80%93+conquest+of+India&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gardenvisit.com%2Ftravel%2Fclavijo%2Ftimurconquestofindia.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliot_&_Dawson" class="citation book cs1">Elliot & Dawson. <i>The History of India As told By Its Own Historians Vol III</i>. pp. 445–446.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+India+As+told+By+Its+Own+Historians+Vol+III&rft.pages=445-446&rft.au=Elliot+%26+Dawson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>History of Classical Sanskrit Literature</i>: by M. Srinivasachariar p. 211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton200528–29-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton200528–29_245-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton2005">Eaton 2005</a>, pp. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri2002239-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri2002239_246-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSastri2002">Sastri 2002</a>, p. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>South India</i> by Amy Karafin, Anirban Mahapatra p. 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980170–171-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980170–171_248-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamath1980">Kamath 1980</a>, pp. 170–171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri1955317-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri1955317_249-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSastri1955">Sastri 1955</a>, p. 317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-umbrella-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-umbrella_250-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of Muhammad II Bahmani, according to <a href="#CITEREFSastri1955">Sastri 1955</a>, p. 242</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aqueduct-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aqueduct_251-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct 15 miles (24 km) long was cut out of rock (<a href="#CITEREFSastri1955">Sastri 1955</a>, p. 243).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowman2000" class="citation book cs1">Bowman, John Stewart, ed. (2000). <i>Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture</i>. Columbia University Press. p. 271. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-11004-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-11004-9"><bdi>0-231-11004-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Columbia+Chronologies+of+Asian+History+and+Culture&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-231-11004-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri1955244-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri1955244_253-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSastri1955">Sastri 1955</a>, p. 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire. (<a href="#CITEREFSastri1955">Sastri 1955</a>, p. 245)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980173-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980173_255-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamath1980">Kamath 1980</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From the notes of Abdur Razzak about Vijayanagara: <i>a city like this had not been seen by the pupil of the eye nor had an ear heard of anything equal to it in the world</i> (<i>Hampi, A Travel Guide</i> 2003, p. 11)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-democracy-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-democracy_257-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From the notes of Duarte Barbosa. (<a href="#CITEREFKamath1980">Kamath 1980</a>, p. 189)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagoner1996" class="citation journal cs1">Wagoner, Phillip B. (November 1996). "Sultan among Hindu Kings: Dress, Titles, and the Islamicization of Hindu Culture at Vijayanagara". <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>55</b> (4): 851–880. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2646526">10.2307/2646526</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2646526">2646526</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163090404">163090404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Sultan+among+Hindu+Kings%3A+Dress%2C+Titles%2C+and+the+Islamicization+of+Hindu+Culture+at+Vijayanagara&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=851-880&rft.date=1996-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163090404%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2646526%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2646526&rft.aulast=Wagoner&rft.aufirst=Phillip+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980188–189-259"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980188–189_259-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamath1980">Kamath 1980</a>, pp. 188–189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritzMichell2015" class="citation book cs1">Fritz, John M.; Michell, George (2015) [First published 2011]. <i>Hampi Vijayanagara</i>. Jaico Publishing House. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8_1-8495-602-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-8 1-8495-602-3"><bdi>978-8 1-8495-602-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hampi+Vijayanagara&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Jaico+Publishing+House&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-81-8495-602-3&rft.aulast=Fritz&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft.au=Michell%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritzMichell2015" class="citation book cs1">Fritz, John M.; Michell, George (2015) [First published 2011]. <i>Hampi Vijayanagara</i>. Jaico Publishing House. pp. 41, 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8_1-8495-602-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-8 1-8495-602-3"><bdi>978-8 1-8495-602-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hampi+Vijayanagara&rft.pages=41%2C+43&rft.pub=Jaico+Publishing+House&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-81-8495-602-3&rft.aulast=Fritz&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft.au=Michell%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagoner2001" class="citation book cs1">Wagoner, Phillip B. (2001). "Architecture and Royal Authority under the Early Sangamas". In Fritz, John. M.; Michell, George (eds.). <i>New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara</i>. Marg Publications. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-85026-53-X" title="Special:BookSources/81-85026-53-X"><bdi>81-85026-53-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Architecture+and+Royal+Authority+under+the+Early+Sangamas&rft.btitle=New+Light+on+Hampi%3A+Recent+Research+at+Vijayanagara&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Marg+Publications&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=81-85026-53-X&rft.aulast=Wagoner&rft.aufirst=Phillip+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980189-263"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980189_263-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamath1980">Kamath 1980</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_architecture" title="Dravidian architecture">Dravidian</a> temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned." From the brief description <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241">UNESCO World Heritage List</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170517222359/http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/Ele_Stables.html">"Vijayanagara Research Project::Elephant Stables"</a>. Vijayanagara.org. 9 February 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/ele_stables.html">the original</a> on 17 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vijayanagara+Research+Project%3A%3AElephant+Stables&rft.pub=Vijayanagara.org&rft.date=2014-02-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vijayanagara.org%2Fhtml%2Fele_stables.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>History of Science and Philosophy of Science</i> by Pradip Kumar Sengupta p. 91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526)</i> by Satish Chandra pp. 188–189</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Art History</i>, Volume II: 1400–present by Boundless p. 243</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton2005100–101-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton2005100–101_269-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton2005">Eaton 2005</a>, pp. 100–101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamath1980185-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980185_270-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamath1980185_270-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamath1980">Kamath 1980</a>, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVijaya_Ramaswamy2007" class="citation book cs1">Vijaya Ramaswamy (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC"><i>Historical Dictionary of the Tamils</i></a>. Scarecrow Press. pp. li–lii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6445-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6445-0"><bdi>978-0-8108-6445-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Tamils&rft.pages=li-lii&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6445-0&rft.au=Vijaya+Ramaswamy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH4q0DHGMcjEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton2005101–115-272"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton2005101–115_272-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton2005">Eaton 2005</a>, pp. 101–115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2021" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Pradyuman (19 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=399UDwAAQBAJ&q=chero+dynasty&pg=PT71"><i>Bihar General Knowledge Digest</i></a>. Prabhat Prakashan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789352667697" title="Special:BookSources/9789352667697"><bdi>9789352667697</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bihar+General+Knowledge+Digest&rft.pub=Prabhat+Prakashan&rft.date=2021-01-19&rft.isbn=9789352667697&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Pradyuman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D399UDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dchero%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPT71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gopal2017-274"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gopal2017_274-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurendra_Gopal2017" class="citation book cs1">Surendra Gopal (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mCZFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT289"><i>Mapping Bihar: From Medieval to Modern Times</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 289–295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-03416-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-03416-6"><bdi>978-1-351-03416-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mapping+Bihar%3A+From+Medieval+to+Modern+Times&rft.pages=289-295&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-351-03416-6&rft.au=Surendra+Gopal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmCZFDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SinghGaur2008-275"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SinghGaur2008_275-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurinder_SinghI._D._Gaur2008" class="citation book cs1">Surinder Singh; I. D. Gaur (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QVA0JAzQJkYC&pg=PA77"><i>Popular Literature and Pre-modern Societies in South Asia</i></a>. Pearson Education India. pp. 77–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1358-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1358-7"><bdi>978-81-317-1358-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popular+Literature+and+Pre-modern+Societies+in+South+Asia&rft.pages=77-&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-317-1358-7&rft.au=Surinder+Singh&rft.au=I.+D.+Gaur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQVA0JAzQJkYC%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mackenzie1990-276"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mackenzie1990_276-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon_Mackenzie1990" class="citation book cs1">Gordon Mackenzie (1990) [First published 1883]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=430nAMZz8LwC&pg=PA10"><i>A manual of the Kistna district in the presidency of Madras</i></a>. Asian Educational Services. pp. 9–10, 224–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0544-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0544-2"><bdi>978-81-206-0544-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+manual+of+the+Kistna+district+in+the+presidency+of+Madras&rft.pages=9-10%2C+224-&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-81-206-0544-2&rft.au=Gordon+Mackenzie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D430nAMZz8LwC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sen2-277"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sen2_277-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sen2_277-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sen2_277-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen2013" class="citation book cs1">Sen, Sailendra (2013). <i>A Textbook of Medieval Indian History</i>. Primus Books. pp. 116–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-80607-34-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-80607-34-4"><bdi>978-93-80607-34-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Textbook+of+Medieval+Indian+History&rft.pages=116-117&rft.pub=Primus+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-93-80607-34-4&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Sailendra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Lectures on Rajput history and culture</i> by Dr. <a href="/wiki/Dasharatha_Sharma" title="Dasharatha Sharma">Dasharatha Sharma</a>. Publisher: Motilal Banarsidass, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 1970. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8426-0262-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8426-0262-3">0-8426-0262-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ap-279"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ap_279-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Merci, Kim Smith; James Leuck (1922). "Muslim conquest and the Rajputs". The Medieval History of India pg 67–115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton200541–42-280"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton200541–42_280-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton2005">Eaton 2005</a>, pp. 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Farooqui Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, (Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd., 2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajumdar1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._C._Majumdar" title="R. C. Majumdar">Majumdar, R. C.</a>, ed. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mughulempire00bhar/page/n6/mode/2up"><i>The Mughul Empire</i></a>. The History and Culture of the Indian People. Vol. VII. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 412.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mughul+Empire&rft.place=Bombay&rft.series=The+History+and+Culture+of+the+Indian+People&rft.pages=412&rft.pub=Bharatiya+Vidya+Bhavan&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmughulempire00bhar%2Fpage%2Fn6%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchellZebrowski1999" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, George; Zebrowski, Mark (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ju1XvgAACAAJ"><i>Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7)</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56321-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-56321-6"><bdi>0-521-56321-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture+and+Art+of+the+Deccan+Sultanates+%28The+New+Cambridge+History+of+India+Vol.+I%3A7%29&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-521-56321-6&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Zebrowski%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dju1XvgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton200598-284"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton200598_284-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton2005">Eaton 2005</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajumdarPusalkerMajumdar1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._C._Majumdar" title="R. C. Majumdar">Majumdar, R. C.</a>; Pusalker, A. D.; Majumdar, A. K., eds. (1980) [First published 1960]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/delhisultanate0006rcma/page/367/mode/1up"><i>The Delhi Sultanate</i></a>. The History and Culture of the Indian People. Vol. VI (3rd ed.). Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 367. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/664485">664485</a>. <q>[Describing the Gajapati kings of Orissa] Kapilendra was the most powerful Hindu king of his time, and under him Orissa became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Delhi+Sultanate&rft.place=Bombay&rft.series=The+History+and+Culture+of+the+Indian+People&rft.pages=367&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Bharatiya+Vidya+Bhavan&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F664485&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdelhisultanate0006rcma%2Fpage%2F367%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sen1999-286"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sen1999_286-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSailendra_Nath_Sen1999" class="citation book cs1">Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA305"><i>Ancient Indian History and Civilization</i></a>. New Age International. p. 305. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-224-1198-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-224-1198-0"><bdi>978-81-224-1198-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Indian+History+and+Civilization&rft.pages=305&rft.pub=New+Age+International&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-224-1198-0&rft.au=Sailendra+Nath+Sen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWk4_ICH_g1EC%26pg%3DPA305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saikia2004-287"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saikia2004_287-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYasmin_Saikia2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yasmin_Saikia" title="Yasmin Saikia">Yasmin Saikia</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC&pg=PA8"><i>Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India</i></a>. Duke University Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-8616-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-8616-2"><bdi>978-0-8223-8616-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fragmented+Memories%3A+Struggling+to+be+Tai-Ahom+in+India&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-8616-2&rft.au=Yasmin+Saikia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWfSmsuO6QugC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarkar1992" class="citation cs2">Sarkar, J.N. (1992), "Chapter VIII Assam-Mughal Relations", in Barpujari, H.K. (ed.), <i>The Comprehensive History of Assam</i>, vol. 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, p. 213</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+VIII+Assam-Mughal+Relations&rft.btitle=The+Comprehensive+History+of+Assam&rft.place=Guwahati&rft.pages=213&rft.pub=Assam+Publication+Board&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Sarkar&rft.aufirst=J.N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200483–84,_the_other_major_classical_Indian_dances_are:_Bharatanatyam,_Kathak,_Odissi,_Kathakali,_Kuchipudi,_Cchau,_Satriya,_Yaksagana_and_Bhagavata_Mela-289"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200483–84,_the_other_major_classical_Indian_dances_are:_Bharatanatyam,_Kathak,_Odissi,_Kathakali,_Kuchipudi,_Cchau,_Satriya,_Yaksagana_and_Bhagavata_Mela_289-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams2004">Williams 2004</a>, pp. 83–84, the other major classical Indian dances are: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Cchau, Satriya, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMassey2004177-290"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMassey2004177_290-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMassey2004">Massey 2004</a>, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevi1990175–180-291"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevi1990175–180_291-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDevi1990">Devi 1990</a>, pp. 175–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19871-292"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19871_292-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchomerMcLeod19871_292-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchomerMcLeod1987">Schomer & McLeod (1987)</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohar1999" class="citation book cs1">Johar, Surinder (1999). <i>Guru Gobind Singh: A Multi-faceted Personality</i>. 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United States: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingsikhscript00mann/page/n33">21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513024-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513024-9"><bdi>978-0-19-513024-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Sikh+Scripture&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513024-9&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Gurinder+Singh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingsikhscript00mann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006115-304"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2006115_304-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006">Asher & Talbot 2006</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb200190–91-305"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobb200190–91_305-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobb2001">Robb 2001</a>, pp. 90–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlores2018" class="citation book cs1">Flores, Jorge (5 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ITxsDwAAQBAJ&q=early+modern+India"><i>Unwanted Neighbours: The Mughals, the Portuguese, and Their Frontier Zones</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Maratha+empire+%7C+History%2C+Definition%2C+Map%2C+%26+Facts+%7C+Britannica&rft.date=2023-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FMaratha-Empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhazi2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mahmood_Ahmed_Ghazi" title="Mahmood Ahmed Ghazi">Ghazi, Mahmood Ahmad</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QO4KjzuJ52QC&q=vishwasrao+peshwa+throne+delhi&pg=PA129"><i>Islamic Renaissance in South Asia 1707–1867: The Role of Shāh Walī Allāh and His Successors</i></a>. Islamic Research Institute. pp. 129–130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/969-408-232-3" title="Special:BookSources/969-408-232-3"><bdi>969-408-232-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Renaissance+in+South+Asia+1707%E2%80%931867%3A+The+Role+of+Sh%C4%81h+Wal%C4%AB+All%C4%81h+and+His+Successors&rft.pages=129-130&rft.pub=Islamic+Research+Institute&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=969-408-232-3&rft.aulast=Ghazi&rft.aufirst=Mahmood+Ahmad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQO4KjzuJ52QC%26q%3Dvishwasrao%2Bpeshwa%2Bthrone%2Bdelhi%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMehta2005" class="citation book cs1">Mehta, Jaswant Lal (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA204"><i>Advanced Study in the History of Modern India, 1707–1813</i></a>. New Dawn Press. p. 204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932705-54-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-932705-54-6"><bdi>978-1-932705-54-6</bdi></a>. <q>The Maratha Governor of Trichinopoly</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advanced+Study+in+the+History+of+Modern+India%2C+1707%E2%80%931813&rft.pages=204&rft.pub=New+Dawn+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-932705-54-6&rft.aulast=Mehta&rft.aufirst=Jaswant+Lal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd1wUgKKzawoC%26pg%3DPA204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-XWiACEwPR8C_p.16-336"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-XWiACEwPR8C_p.16_336-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSailendra_Nath_Sen2010" class="citation book cs1">Sailendra Nath Sen (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PR22"><i>An Advanced History of Modern India</i></a>. Macmillan India. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-32885-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-32885-3"><bdi>978-0-230-32885-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Advanced+History+of+Modern+India&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Macmillan+India&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-230-32885-3&rft.au=Sailendra+Nath+Sen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbXWiACEwPR8C%26pg%3DPR22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bharatiya Itihasa Samiti, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar – <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_and_Culture_of_the_Indian_People" title="The History and Culture of the Indian People">The History and Culture of the Indian People</a>: The Maratha supremacy</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN.G._Rathod1994" class="citation book cs1">N.G. Rathod (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uPq640stHJ0C&pg=PA8"><i>The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia</i></a>. Sarup & Sons. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85431-52-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-85431-52-9"><bdi>978-81-85431-52-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Maratha+Mahadaji+Scindia&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Sarup+%26+Sons&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-81-85431-52-9&rft.au=N.G.+Rathod&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuPq640stHJ0C%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naravane2-340"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Naravane2_340-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaravane2014" class="citation book cs1">Naravane, M.S. (2014). <i>Battles of the Honorourable East India Company</i>. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-313-0034-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-313-0034-3"><bdi>978-81-313-0034-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battles+of+the+Honorourable+East+India+Company&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=A.P.H.+Publishing+Corporation&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-81-313-0034-3&rft.aulast=Naravane&rft.aufirst=M.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh1981" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Gulcharan (July 1981). "Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Principles of War". <i>USI Journal</i>. <b>111</b> (465): 184–192.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USI+Journal&rft.atitle=Maharaja+Ranjit+Singh+and+the+Principles+of+War&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=465&rft.pages=184-192&rft.date=1981-07&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Gulcharan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grewal-342"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grewal_342-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrewal1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._S._Grewal" title="J. S. Grewal">Grewal, J.S.</a> (1990). <i>The Sikhs of the Punjab</i>. The New Cambridge History of India. Vol. II.3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 101, 103–104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26884-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26884-4"><bdi>978-0-521-26884-4</bdi></a>. <q>Aggrandisement which made him the master of an empire ... the British recognized Ranjit Singh as the sole sovereign ruler of the Punjab and left him free to ... oust the Afghans from Multan and Kashmir ... Peshawar was taken over ... The real strength of Ranjit Singh's army lay in its infantry and artillery ... these new wings played an increasingly decisive role ... possessed 200 guns. Horse artillery was added in the 1820s ... nearly half of his army in terms of numbers consisted of men and officers trained on European lines ... In the expansion of Ranjit Singh's dominions ... vassalage proved to be nearly as important as the westernized wings of his army.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sikhs+of+the+Punjab&rft.series=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+India&rft.pages=101%2C+103-104&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-26884-4&rft.aulast=Grewal&rft.aufirst=J.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen2006" class="citation book cs1">Sen, S. N. (15 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ga-pmgxsWwoC&q=Bajirao+I&pg=PA12"><i>History Modern India</i></a>. New Age International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788122417746" title="Special:BookSources/9788122417746"><bdi>9788122417746</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+Modern+India&rft.pub=New+Age+International&rft.date=2006-08-15&rft.isbn=9788122417746&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=S.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dga-pmgxsWwoC%26q%3DBajirao%2BI%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sirajbanglaped2-344"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sirajbanglaped2_344-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaudhuryMohsin2012" class="citation book cs1">Chaudhury, Sushil; Mohsin, KM (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150614191817/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula">"Sirajuddaula"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sirajul_Islam" title="Sirajul Islam">Islam, Sirajul</a>; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). <i>Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh</i> (Second ed.). <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Society_of_Bangladesh" title="Asiatic Society of Bangladesh">Asiatic Society of Bangladesh</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula">the original</a> on 14 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sirajuddaula&rft.btitle=Banglapedia%3A+National+Encyclopedia+of+Bangladesh&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Asiatic+Society+of+Bangladesh&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Chaudhury&rft.aufirst=Sushil&rft.au=Mohsin%2C+KM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.banglapedia.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DSirajuddaula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-british2-345"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-british2_345-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2009" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Vipul (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=75avUTXB11AC&pg=PA29"><i>Longman History & Civics (Dual Government in Bengal)</i></a>. Pearson Education India. pp. 29–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8131728888" title="Special:BookSources/978-8131728888"><bdi>978-8131728888</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+History+%26+Civics+%28Dual+Government+in+Bengal%29&rft.pages=29-&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-8131728888&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Vipul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D75avUTXB11AC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dualgovernment2-346"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dualgovernment2_346-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QnyaLNskRfEC&pg=PA11"><i>Madhya Pradesh National Means-Cum-Merit Scholarship Exam (Warren Hasting's system of Dual Government)</i></a>. Upkar Prakashan. 2009. pp. 11–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7482-744-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7482-744-9"><bdi>978-81-7482-744-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madhya+Pradesh+National+Means-Cum-Merit+Scholarship+Exam+%28Warren+Hasting%27s+system+of+Dual+Government%29&rft.pages=11-&rft.pub=Upkar+Prakashan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-81-7482-744-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQnyaLNskRfEC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2006" class="citation cs2">Black, Jeremy (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hNVtQY4sXYMC&q=9780275990398"><i>A Military History of Britain: from 1775 to the Present</i></a>, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 78, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99039-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99039-8"><bdi>978-0-275-99039-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+Britain%3A+from+1775+to+the+Present&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-275-99039-8&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhNVtQY4sXYMC%26q%3D9780275990398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140826235201/http://www.kashmir-issue.com/images3/treatyOfamritsar.pdf">"Treaty of Amritsar"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Princeton University Press. pp. 27, 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11688-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11688-4"><bdi>978-0-691-11688-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hindu+Rulers%2C+Muslim+Subjects%3A+Islam%2C+Rights%2C+and+the+History+of+Kashmir&rft.pages=27%2C+133&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11688-4&rft.aulast=Rai&rft.aufirst=Mridu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx5azvT2hjW0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=SL3-PA114"><i>Indian History</i></a>. 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Pattabhi Sitaramayya (1935)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNitish_Sengupta2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nitish_Sengupta" title="Nitish Sengupta">Nitish Sengupta</a> (2001). <i>History of the Bengali-speaking People</i>. UBS Publishers' Distributors. pp. 210–213. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7476-355-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7476-355-6"><bdi>978-81-7476-355-6</bdi></a>. <q>Producing in about three quarters of a century so many creative stalwarts in literature, art, music, social and religious reform and also trading and industry ... The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) ... On the whole, it remained an elitist movement restricted to Hindu <i>bhadralok</i> (gentry) and <i>zamindars</i>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Bengali-speaking+People&rft.pages=210-213&rft.pub=UBS+Publishers%27+Distributors&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-81-7476-355-6&rft.au=Nitish+Sengupta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-376"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKopf1994" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Kopf" title="David Kopf">Kopf, David</a> (December 1994). "Amiya P. Sen. Hindu Revivalism in Bengal 1872". <i>American Historical Review</i> (Book review). <b>99</b> (5): 1741–1742. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2168519">10.2307/2168519</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2168519">2168519</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Amiya+P.+Sen.+Hindu+Revivalism+in+Bengal+1872&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1741-1742&rft.date=1994-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2168519&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2168519%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kopf&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-377"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-377">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma2012" class="citation web cs1">Sharma, Mayank (January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181114224008/http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010119327/essay-on-derozio-and-the-young-bengal-movement.html">"Essay on 'Derozio and the Young Bengal Movement'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010119327/essay-on-derozio-and-the-young-bengal-movement.html">the original</a> on 14 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Essay+on+%27Derozio+and+the+Young+Bengal+Movement%27&rft.date=2012-01&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Mayank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.preservearticles.com%2F2012010119327%2Fessay-on-derozio-and-the-young-bengal-movement.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-davis-378"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-davis_378-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davis_378-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, Mike. <i>Late Victorian Holocausts</i>. 1. Verso, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-739-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-739-0">1-85984-739-0</a> p. 173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-379"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, Mike. <i>Late Victorian Holocausts</i>. 1. Verso, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-739-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-739-0">1-85984-739-0</a> p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDatta2000" class="citation book cs1">Datta, Rajat (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44927255"><i>Society, economy, and the market : commercialization in rural Bengal, c. 1760-1800</i></a>. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors. pp. 262, 266. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7304-341-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-7304-341-8"><bdi>81-7304-341-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44927255">44927255</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Society%2C+economy%2C+and+the+market+%3A+commercialization+in+rural+Bengal%2C+c.+1760-1800&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=262%2C+266&rft.pub=Manohar+Publishers+%26+Distributors&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44927255&rft.isbn=81-7304-341-8&rft.aulast=Datta&rft.aufirst=Rajat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F44927255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-381"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmartya_Sen1981" class="citation book cs1">Amartya Sen (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/povertyfamineses0000sena"><i>Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/povertyfamineses0000sena/page/39">39</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-828463-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-828463-5"><bdi>978-0-19-828463-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poverty+and+Famines%3A+An+Essay+on+Entitlement+and+Deprivation&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-19-828463-5&rft.au=Amartya+Sen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpovertyfamineses0000sena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-382"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-382">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenough1982" class="citation book cs1">Greenough, Paul Robert (1982). <i>Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943–1944</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503082-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503082-2"><bdi>978-0-19-503082-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prosperity+and+Misery+in+Modern+Bengal%3A+The+Famine+of+1943%E2%80%931944&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503082-2&rft.aulast=Greenough&rft.aufirst=Paul+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-383"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090217172854/http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html">"Plague"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html">the original</a> on 17 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plague&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fvaccine_research%2Fdiseases%2Fzoonotic%2Fen%2Findex4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span>. World Health Organisation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-384"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColin_Clark1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colin_Clark_(economist)" title="Colin Clark (economist)">Colin Clark</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0KKvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64"><i>Population Growth and Land Use</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-15775-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-15775-4"><bdi>978-1-349-15775-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Population+Growth+and+Land+Use&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-1-349-15775-4&rft.au=Colin+Clark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0KKvCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.petersoninstitute.org/publications/chapters_preview/98/1iie2806.pdf">"Reintegrating India with the World Economy"</a>. Peterson Institute for International Economics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPati1996">Pati 1996</a>, p. 31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-387"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mgtrust.org/ind1.htm">"Participants from the Indian subcontinent in the First World War"</a>. <i>Memorial Gates Trust</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Memorial+Gates+Trust&rft.atitle=Participants+from+the+Indian+subcontinent+in+the+First+World+War&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mgtrust.org%2Find1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CWrepdirect-388"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CWrepdirect_388-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220138/http://www.cwgc.org/document.asp?menuid=5&submenuid=24&id=6&menuname=%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Annual%20report&menu=subsub">"Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2007–2008 Online"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cwgc.org/document.asp?menuid=5&submenuid=24&id=6&menuname=%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Annual%20report&menu=subsub">the original</a> on 26 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Commonwealth+War+Graves+Commission+Annual+Report+2007%E2%80%932008+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cwgc.org%2Fdocument.asp%3Fmenuid%3D5%26submenuid%3D24%26id%3D6%26menuname%3D%2520%2520%2520%2520%2520%2520%2520%2520%2520Annual%2520report%26menu%3Dsubsub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20017-389"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20017_389-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSumner2001">Sumner 2001</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kux-390"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kux_390-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKux1992" class="citation book cs1">Kux, Dennis (1992). <i>India and the United States: estranged democracies, 1941–1991</i>. 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J. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC&pg=PAPA179"><i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire</i></a>, Cambridge University Press, p. 179, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00254-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00254-7"><bdi>978-0-521-00254-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00254-7&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=P.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS2EXN8JTwAEC%26pg%3DPAPA179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span> Quote: "The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-research-398"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-research_398-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/indian-national-congress">"Information about the Indian National Congress"</a>. <i>open.ac.uk</i>. Arts & Humanities Research council<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=open.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Information+about+the+Indian+National+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.open.ac.uk%2Fresearchprojects%2Fmakingbritain%2Fcontent%2Findian-national-congress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-399"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-399">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/CensusOfIndia1931/Census+of+India+1931#page/n437/mode/2up">"Census Of India 1931"</a>. <i>archive.org</i>. 1933.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.org&rft.atitle=Census+Of+India+1931&rft.date=1933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FCensusOfIndia1931%2FCensus%2Bof%2BIndia%2B1931%23page%2Fn437%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Markovits2004-400"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Markovits2004_400-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkovits,_Claude2004" class="citation book cs1">Markovits, Claude (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C"><i>A history of modern India, 1480–1950</i></a>. Anthem Press. pp. 386–409. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-004-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84331-004-4"><bdi>978-1-84331-004-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+modern+India%2C+1480%E2%80%931950&rft.pages=386-409&rft.pub=Anthem+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-84331-004-4&rft.au=Markovits%2C+Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuzOmy2y0Zh4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Modern_India,_Bipin_Chandra,_p.76-401"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Modern_India,_Bipin_Chandra,_p.76_401-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Modern_India,_Bipin_Chandra,_p.76_401-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Modern India</i>, Bipin Chandra, p. 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-402"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-402">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>India Awakening and Bengal</i>, N.S. Bose, 1976, p. 237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-403"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-403">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>British Paramountcy and Indian Renaissance</i>, Part–II, Dr. R.C. Majumdar, p. 466</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-business-standard-404"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-business-standard_404-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-s-well-timed-diversification-of-army-helped-democracy-115032000283_1.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'India's well-timed diversification of army helped democracy' | Business Standard News"</a>. <i>Business Standard</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Standard&rft.atitle=%27India%27s+well-timed+diversification+of+army+helped+democracy%27+%26%23124%3B+Business+Standard+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.business-standard.com%2Farticle%2Fnews-ians%2Findia-s-well-timed-diversification-of-army-helped-democracy-115032000283_1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-405"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-405">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anil Chandra Banerjee, <i>A Constitutional History of India 1600–1935</i> (1978) pp. 171–173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google6-406"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google6_406-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR,_B.S.Bakshi,_S.R.1990" class="citation book cs1">R, B.S.; Bakshi, S.R. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LOjhv5g629UC"><i>Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Struggle for Swaraj</i></a>. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7041-262-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7041-262-5"><bdi>978-81-7041-262-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bal+Gangadhar+Tilak%3A+Struggle+for+Swaraj&rft.pub=Anmol+Publications+Pvt.+Ltd&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-81-7041-262-5&rft.au=R%2C+B.S.&rft.au=Bakshi%2C+S.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLOjhv5g629UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chandra2016p128-407"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chandra2016p128_407-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chandra2016p128_407-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandraMukherjeeMukherjeeMahajan2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bipan_Chandra" title="Bipan Chandra">Chandra, Bipan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mridula_Mukherjee" title="Mridula Mukherjee">Mukherjee, Mridula</a>; Mukherjee, Aditya; Mahajan, Sucheta; <a href="/wiki/K._N._Panikkar" title="K. N. Panikkar">Panikkar, K.N.</a> (2016) [First published 1987]. <i>India's Struggle for Independence</i> (Revised and updated ed.). Penguin Books. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-010781-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-010781-4"><bdi>978-0-14-010781-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%27s+Struggle+for+Independence&rft.pages=128&rft.edition=Revised+and+updated&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-14-010781-4&rft.aulast=Chandra&rft.aufirst=Bipan&rft.au=Mukherjee%2C+Mridula&rft.au=Mukherjee%2C+Aditya&rft.au=Mahajan%2C+Sucheta&rft.au=Panikkar%2C+K.N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-408"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-408">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert, Sir Courtenay Peregrine. <i>The Government of India</i>. Clarendon Press, 1922. p. 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-409"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-409">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBond1963" class="citation magazine cs1">Bond, Brian (October 1963). "Amritsar 1919". <i>History Today</i>. Vol. 13, no. 10. pp. 666–676.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Amritsar+1919&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=666-676&rft.date=1963-10&rft.aulast=Bond&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-QasmiRobb2017-410"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-QasmiRobb2017_410-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQasmiRobb2017" class="citation book cs1">Qasmi, Ali Usman; Robb, Megan Eaton (2017). <i>Muslims against the Muslim League: Critiques of the Idea of Pakistan</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-62123-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-62123-6"><bdi>978-1-108-62123-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslims+against+the+Muslim+League%3A+Critiques+of+the+Idea+of+Pakistan&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-108-62123-6&rft.aulast=Qasmi&rft.aufirst=Ali+Usman&rft.au=Robb%2C+Megan+Eaton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haq1970-411"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Haq1970_411-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaq1970" class="citation book cs1">Haq, Mushir U. (1970). <i>Muslim politics in modern India, 1857–1947</i>. Meenakshi Prakashan. p. 114. <q>This was also reflected in one of the resolutions of the Azad Muslim Conference, an organization which attempted to be representative of all the various nationalist Muslim parties and groups in India.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+politics+in+modern+India%2C+1857%E2%80%931947&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Meenakshi+Prakashan&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Haq&rft.aufirst=Mushir+U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ahmed2016-412"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmed2016_412-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmed2016_412-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed2016" class="citation web cs1">Ahmed, Ishtiaq (27 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/the-dissenters/">"The dissenters"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Friday_Times" title="The Friday Times">The Friday Times</a></i>. <q>However, the book is a tribute to the role of one Muslim leader who steadfastly opposed the Partition of India: the Sindhi leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro. Allah Bakhsh belonged to a landed family. He founded the Sindh People's Party in 1934, which later came to be known as 'Ittehad' or 'Unity Party'. ... Allah Bakhsh was totally opposed to the Muslim League's demand for the creation of Pakistan through a division of India on a religious basis. Consequently, he established the Azad Muslim Conference. In its Delhi session held during April 27–30, 1940 some 1,400 delegates took part. They belonged mainly to the lower castes and working class. The famous scholar of Indian Islam, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, feels that the delegates represented a 'majority of India's Muslims'. Among those who attended the conference were representatives of many Islamic theologians and women also took part in the deliberations ... Shamsul Islam argues that the All-India Muslim League at times used intimidation and coercion to silence any opposition among Muslims to its demand for Partition. He calls such tactics of the Muslim League as a 'Reign of Terror'. He gives examples from all over India including the NWFP where the Khudai Khidmatgars remain opposed to the Partition of India.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Friday+Times&rft.atitle=The+dissenters&rft.date=2016-05-27&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Ishtiaq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefridaytimes.com%2Ftft%2Fthe-dissenters%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ali2017-413"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ali2017_413-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ali2017_413-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ali2017_413-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2017" class="citation web cs1">Ali, Afsar (17 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.milligazette.com/news/15756-partition-of-india-and-patriotism-of-indian-muslims">"Partition of India and Patriotism of Indian Muslims"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Milli_Gazette" title="The Milli Gazette">The Milli Gazette</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Milli+Gazette&rft.atitle=Partition+of+India+and+Patriotism+of+Indian+Muslims&rft.date=2017-07-17&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Afsar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.milligazette.com%2Fnews%2F15756-partition-of-india-and-patriotism-of-indian-muslims&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Great_Speeches-414"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Great_Speeches_414-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/series/greatspeeches">"Great speeches of the 20th century"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 8 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Great+speeches+of+the+20th+century&rft.date=2008-02-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftheguardian%2Fseries%2Fgreatspeeches&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-415"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-415">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Ziegler, <i>Mountbatten</i>(1985) p. 401.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-symonds-416"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-symonds_416-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-symonds_416-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSymonds1950" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Symonds_(academic)" title="Richard Symonds (academic)">Symonds, Richard</a> (1950). <i>The Making of Pakistan</i>. London: Faber and Faber. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1462689">1462689</a>. <q>At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve millions became homeless.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Pakistan&rft.place=London&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Faber+and+Faber&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1462689&rft.aulast=Symonds&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abid2014-417"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Abid2014_417-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbid2014" class="citation web cs1">Abid, Abdul Majeed (29 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nation.com.pk/29-Dec-2014/the-forgotten-massacre">"The forgotten massacre"</a>. <i>The Nation</i>. <q>On the same dates [4 and 5 March 1947], Muslim League-led mobs fell with determination and full preparations on the helpless Hindus and Sikhs scattered in the villages of Multan, Rawalpindi, Campbellpur, Jhelum and Sargodha. The murderous mobs were well supplied with arms, such as daggers, swords, spears and fire-arms. (A former civil servant mentioned in his autobiography that weapon supplies had been sent from NWFP and money was supplied by Delhi-based politicians.)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=The+forgotten+massacre&rft.date=2014-12-29&rft.aulast=Abid&rft.aufirst=Abdul+Majeed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnation.com.pk%2F29-Dec-2014%2Fthe-forgotten-massacre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Raghavan2013-418"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Raghavan2013_418-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrinath_Raghavan2013" class="citation book cs1">Srinath Raghavan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2S-wAQAAQBAJ"><i>1971</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-73129-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-73129-5"><bdi>978-0-674-73129-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1971&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-674-73129-5&rft.au=Srinath+Raghavan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2S-wAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Printed_sources">Printed sources</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntonovaBongard-LevinKotovsky1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Koka_Antonova" title="Koka Antonova">Antonova, K.A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Bongard-Levin" title="Grigory Bongard-Levin">Bongard-Levin, G.</a>; Kotovsky, G. (1979). <i>История Индии</i> [<i>History of India</i>] (in Russian). Moscow: Progress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B8&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=Progress&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Antonova&rft.aufirst=K.A.&rft.au=Bongard-Levin%2C+G.&rft.au=Kotovsky%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1991" class="citation cs2">Arnold, David (1991), <i>Famine: Social Crisis and Historical Change</i>, Wiley-Blackwell, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15119-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15119-7"><bdi>978-0-631-15119-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Famine%3A+Social+Crisis+and+Historical+Change&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-631-15119-7&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsherTalbot2006" class="citation cs2">Asher, C.B.; Talbot, C (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC"><i>India Before Europe</i></a> (1st ed.), <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51750-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51750-8"><bdi>978-0-521-51750-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+Before+Europe&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51750-8&rft.aulast=Asher&rft.aufirst=C.B.&rft.au=Talbot%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZvaGuaJIJgoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBandyopadhyay2004" class="citation cs2">Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (2004), <i>From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India</i>, Orient Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-250-2596-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-250-2596-2"><bdi>978-81-250-2596-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Plassey+to+Partition%3A+A+History+of+Modern+India&rft.pub=Orient+Longman&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-250-2596-2&rft.aulast=Bandyopadhyay&rft.aufirst=Sekhar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayly2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Bayly" title="Christopher Bayly">Bayly, Christopher Alan</a> (2000) [1996], <i>Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57085-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57085-5"><bdi>978-0-521-57085-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+and+Information%3A+Intelligence+Gathering+and+Social+Communication+in+India%2C+1780%E2%80%931870&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57085-5&rft.aulast=Bayly&rft.aufirst=Christopher+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoseJalal2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Sugata_Bose" title="Sugata Bose">Bose, Sugata</a>; 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Brown">Brown, Judith M.</a> (1994), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111212082220/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59677250"><i>Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy</i></a> (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873113-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873113-9"><bdi>978-0-19-873113-9</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59677250">the original</a> on 12 December 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+India%3A+The+Origins+of+an+Asian+Democracy&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-873113-9&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Judith+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D59677250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentley1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_H._Bentley" title="Jerry H. Bentley">Bentley, Jerry H.</a> (June 1996), "Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in World History", <i>The American Historical Review</i>, <b>101</b> (3): 749–770, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2169422">10.2307/2169422</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2169422">2169422</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Cross-Cultural+Interaction+and+Periodization+in+World+History&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=749-770&rft.date=1996-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2169422&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2169422%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bentley&rft.aufirst=Jerry+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChauhan2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Chauhan, Partha R. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CO5zfl460CEC">"The Indian Subcontinent and 'Out of Africa 1'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. In Fleagle, John G.; Shea, John J.; Grine, Frederick E.; Baden, Andrea L.; Leakey, Richard E. (eds.). <i>Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 145–164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-9036-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-9036-2"><bdi>978-90-481-9036-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Indian+Subcontinent+and+%27Out+of+Africa+1%27&rft.btitle=Out+of+Africa+I%3A+The+First+Hominin+Colonization+of+Eurasia&rft.pages=145-164&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-481-9036-2&rft.aulast=Chauhan&rft.aufirst=Partha+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCO5zfl460CEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollingham2006" class="citation cs2">Collingham, Lizzie (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/curry00lizz"><i>Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors</i></a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532001-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532001-5"><bdi>978-0-19-532001-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Curry%3A+A+Tale+of+Cooks+and+Conquerors&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532001-5&rft.aulast=Collingham&rft.aufirst=Lizzie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcurry00lizz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniélou2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alain_Dani%C3%A9lou" title="Alain Daniélou">Daniélou, Alain</a> (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani"><i>A Brief History of India</i></a>, Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89281-923-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89281-923-2"><bdi>978-0-89281-923-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+India&rft.place=Rochester%2C+VT&rft.pub=Inner+Traditions&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-89281-923-2&rft.aulast=Dani%C3%A9lou&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbriefhistoryofin00dani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDattSundharam2009" class="citation cs2">Datt, Ruddar; Sundharam, K.P.M. 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(2005), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialhistoryofd0000eato"><i>A Social History of the Deccan: 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives</i></a></span>, The new Cambridge history of India, vol. I.8, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25484-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25484-7"><bdi>978-0-521-25484-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Social+History+of+the+Deccan%3A+1300%E2%80%931761%3A+Eight+Indian+Lives&rft.series=The+new+Cambridge+history+of+India&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-25484-7&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialhistoryofd0000eato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFay1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Peter_W._Fay" title="Peter W. 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(2001). <i>New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara</i>. Marg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85026-53-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-85026-53-4"><bdi>978-81-85026-53-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Light+on+Hampi%3A+Recent+Research+at+Vijayanagara&rft.pub=Marg&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-81-85026-53-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritzMichell2016" class="citation book cs1">Fritz, John M.; Michell, George (2016). <i>Hampi Vijayanagara</i>. 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Social Science Press. pp. 77–116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-87358-29-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-87358-29-9"><bdi>978-81-87358-29-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mahabharata%2C+Myth+and+Reality&rft.btitle=Delhi+%E2%80%93+Ancient+History&rft.pages=77-116&rft.pub=Social+Science+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-87358-29-9&rft.au=Gupta%2C+S.P.&rft.au=Ramachandra%2C+K.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamath1980" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Suryanath_U._Kamath" title="Suryanath U. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-577940-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-577940-0"><bdi>978-0-19-577940-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Cities+of+the+Indus+Valley+Civilisation&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-577940-0&rft.aulast=Kenoyer&rft.aufirst=J.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulkeRothermund2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Kulke" title="Hermann Kulke">Kulke, Hermann</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dietmar_Rothermund" title="Dietmar Rothermund">Rothermund, Dietmar</a> (2004) [First published 1986], <i>A History of India</i> (4th ed.), <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15481-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15481-9"><bdi>978-0-415-15481-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+India&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-15481-9&rft.aulast=Kulke&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rft.au=Rothermund%2C+Dietmar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaw1978" class="citation cs2">Law, R. 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(1978), "North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305", in <a href="/wiki/John_Fage" title="John Fage">Fage, J.D.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roland_Oliver" title="Roland Oliver">Oliver, Roland</a> (eds.), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory02fage"><i>The Cambridge History of Africa</i></a></span>, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20413-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20413-2"><bdi>978-0-521-20413-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=North+Africa+in+the+Hellenistic+and+Roman+periods%2C+323+BC+to+AD+305&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Africa&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20413-2&rft.aulast=Law&rft.aufirst=R.+C.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgehistory02fage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLudden2002" class="citation cs2">Ludden, D. 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Abhinav Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-434-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-434-9"><bdi>978-81-7017-434-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%27s+Dances%3A+Their+History%2C+Technique%2C+and+Repertoire&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-7017-434-9&rft.aulast=Massey&rft.aufirst=Reginald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt6MJ8jbHqIwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Metcalf" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbara Metcalf">Metcalf, B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Metcalf" title="Thomas R. 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New Delhi: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-560686-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-560686-7"><bdi>978-0-19-560686-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+South+India+from+prehistoric+times+to+the+fall+of+Vijayanagar&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.isbn=978-0-19-560686-7&rft.aulast=Sastri&rft.aufirst=K.+A.+Nilakanta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSastri2002" class="citation book cs1">Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (2002) [1955]. <i>A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar</i>. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-560686-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-560686-7"><bdi>978-0-19-560686-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+South+India+from+prehistoric+times+to+the+fall+of+Vijayanagar&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-560686-7&rft.aulast=Sastri&rft.aufirst=K.+A.+Nilakanta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchomerMcLeod1987" class="citation book cs1">Schomer, Karine; McLeod, W.H., eds. (1987). <i>The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India</i>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0277-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0277-3"><bdi>978-81-208-0277-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sants%3A+Studies+in+a+Devotional+Tradition+of+India&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0277-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen1999" class="citation book cs1">Sen, Sailendra Nath (1 January 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA278"><i>Ancient Indian History and Civilization</i></a>. New Age International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-224-1198-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-224-1198-0"><bdi>978-81-224-1198-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Indian+History+and+Civilization&rft.pub=New+Age+International&rft.date=1999-01-01&rft.isbn=978-81-224-1198-0&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Sailendra+Nath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWk4_ICH_g1EC%26pg%3DPA278&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUpinder_Singh2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Upinder_Singh" title="Upinder Singh">Singh, Upinder</a> (2008), <i>A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century</i>, <a href="/wiki/Pearson_PLC" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson PLC">Pearson</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0"><bdi>978-81-317-1120-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+India%3A+From+the+Stone+Age+to+the+12th+Century&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-317-1120-0&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Upinder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSircar1990" class="citation cs2">Sircar, D C (1990), "Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa", in Barpujari, H K (ed.), <i>The Comprehensive History of Assam</i>, vol. I, Guwahati: Publication Board, Assam, pp. 59–78</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa&rft.btitle=The+Comprehensive+History+of+Assam&rft.place=Guwahati&rft.pages=59-78&rft.pub=Publication+Board%2C+Assam&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Sircar&rft.aufirst=D+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSumner2001" class="citation cs2">Sumner, Ian (2001), <i>The Indian Army, 1914–1947</i>, Osprey Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-196-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-84176-196-6"><bdi>1-84176-196-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indian+Army%2C+1914%E2%80%931947&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-84176-196-6&rft.aulast=Sumner&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar1977" class="citation cs2">Thapar, Romila (1977), <i>A History of India. Volume One</i>, Penguin Books</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+India.+Volume+One&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar1978" class="citation cs2">Thapar, Romila (1978), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150214082038/http://www.philoshistorydepartment.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/8/7/12870319/ancient_indian_social_history_some_interpretation_by_romila_thapar.pdf"><i>Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Orient Blackswan, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philoshistorydepartment.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/8/7/12870319/ancient_indian_social_history_some_interpretation_by_romila_thapar.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 February 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Indian+Social+History%3A+Some+Interpretations&rft.pub=Orient+Blackswan&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philoshistorydepartment.weebly.com%2Fuploads%2F1%2F2%2F8%2F7%2F12870319%2Fancient_indian_social_history_some_interpretation_by_romila_thapar.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar2003" class="citation book cs1">Thapar, Romila (2003). <i>The Penguin History of Early India</i> (First ed.). Penguin Books India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-302989-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-302989-2"><bdi>978-0-14-302989-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+History+of+Early+India&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+India&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-14-302989-2&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2004" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Drid (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121105/http://jashm.press.illinois.edu/12.3/12-3IntheShadow_Williams78-99.pdf">"In the Shadow of Hollywood Orientalism: Authentic East Indian Dancing"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Visual Anthropology</i>. <b>17</b> (1). Routledge: 69–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08949460490274013">10.1080/08949460490274013</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29065670">29065670</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jashm.press.illinois.edu/12.3/12-3IntheShadow_Williams78-99.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Visual+Anthropology&rft.atitle=In+the+Shadow+of+Hollywood+Orientalism%3A+Authentic+East+Indian+Dancing&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=69-98&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08949460490274013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29065670%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Drid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjashm.press.illinois.edu%2F12.3%2F12-3IntheShadow_Williams78-99.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A._L._Basham" class="mw-redirect" title="A. L. Basham">Basham, A.L.</a>, ed. <i>The Illustrated Cultural History of India</i> (Oxford University Press, 2007)</li> <li>Buckland, C.E. <i>Dictionary of Indian Biography</i> (1906) 495pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_InFTmnS4crYC">full text</a></li> <li>Chakrabarti D.K. 2009. India, an archaeological history : palaeolithic beginnings to early historic foundations.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChattopadhyaya" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/D._P._Chattopadhyaya" title="D. P. Chattopadhyaya">Chattopadhyaya, D. P.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Project_of_History_of_Indian_Science,_Philosophy_and_Culture" title="Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture">History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization</a></i>. Vol. 15-volum + parts Set. Delhi: <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Studies_in_Civilizations" title="Centre for Studies in Civilizations">Centre for Studies in Civilizations</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Science%2C+Philosophy+and+Culture+in+Indian+Civilization&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Centre+for+Studies+in+Civilizations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. <i>The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751–1970</i> (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles</li> <li>Fisher, Michael. <i>An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century</i> (Cambridge UP, 2018)</li> <li>Guha, Ramachandra. <i>India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy</i> (2007), 890pp; since 1947</li> <li>James, Lawrence. <i>Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India</i> (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raj00lawr">online</a></li> <li>Khan, Yasmin. <i>The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War</i> (2015); also published as <i>India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199753490/excerpt">India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War</a>.</li> <li>Khan, Yasmin. <i>The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan</i> (2n d ed. Yale UP 2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Great-Partition-Making-India-Pakistan/dp/030023032X/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Mcleod, John. <i>The History of India</i> (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DAwmUphO6eAC">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._C._Majumdar" title="R. C. Majumdar">Majumdar, R.C.</a> : <i><a href="/wiki/An_Advanced_History_of_India" title="An Advanced History of India">An Advanced History of India</a></i>. London, 1960. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-90298-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-90298-X">0-333-90298-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._C._Majumdar" title="R. C. Majumdar">Majumdar, R.C.</a> (ed.) : <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_and_Culture_of_the_Indian_People" title="The History and Culture of the Indian People">The History and Culture of the Indian People</a></i>, Bombay, 1977 (in eleven volumes).</li> <li>Mansingh, Surjit <i>The A to Z of India</i> (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia</li> <li>Markovits, Claude, ed. <i>A History of Modern India, 1480–1950</i> (2002) by a team of French scholars</li> <li>Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. <i>A Concise History of Modern India</i> (2006)</li> <li>Peers, Douglas M. <i>India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885</i> (2006), 192pp</li> <li>Riddick, John F. <i>The History of British India: A Chronology</i> (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Es6x4u_g19UC">excerpt</a></li> <li>Riddick, John F. <i>Who Was Who in British India</i> (1998); 5000 entries <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LI8UAQAAIAAJ">excerpt</a></li> <li>Rothermund, Dietmar. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo00roth">An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_Sharan_Sharma" title="Ram Sharan Sharma">Sharma, R.S.</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=India%27s_Ancient_Past&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="India's Ancient Past (page does not exist)">India's Ancient Past</a></i>, (Oxford University Press, 2005)</li> <li>Sarkar, Sumit. <i>Modern India, 1885–1947</i> (2002)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSenior2006" class="citation book cs1">Senior, R.C. (2006). <i>Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV</i>. Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9709268-6-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9709268-6-9"><bdi>978-0-9709268-6-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-Scythian+coins+and+history.+Volume+IV.&rft.pub=Classical+Numismatic+Group%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-9709268-6-9&rft.aulast=Senior&rft.aufirst=R.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Singhal, D.P. <i>A History of the Indian People</i> (1983)</li> <li>Smith, Vincent. <i>The Oxford History of India</i> (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear,_Percival" class="mw-redirect" title="Spear, Percival">Spear, Percival</a>. <i>A History of India</i>. Volume 2. Penguin Books. (1990) [First published 1965]</li> <li>Stein, Burton. <i>A History of India</i> (1998)</li> <li>Thapar, Romila. <i>Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300</i> (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. <i>Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India</i> (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=93fnssiWvjoC">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Tomlinson, B.R. <i>The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970</i> (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)</li> <li>Tomlinson, B.R. <i>The political economy of the Raj, 1914–1947</i> (1979) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicaleconomy0000toml">online</a></li> <li>Wolpert, Stanley. <i>A New History of India</i> (8th ed. 2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofindi0000wolp">online 7th edition</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBannerjee1921" class="citation book cs1">Bannerjee, Gauranganath (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/indiaasknowntoan00banerich#page/n3/mode/2up"><i>India as known to the ancient world</i></a>. London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+as+known+to+the+ancient+world&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Humphrey+Milford%2C+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Bannerjee&rft.aufirst=Gauranganath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Findiaasknowntoan00banerich%23page%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayly1985" class="citation journal cs1">Bayly, C.A. (November 1985). "State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years". <i>The Economic History Review</i>. <b>38</b> (4): 583–596. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x">10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2597191">2597191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=State+and+Economy+in+India+over+Seven+Hundred+Years&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=583-596&rft.date=1985-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2597191%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bayly&rft.aufirst=C.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", <i>History Today</i> 57#9 (2007) pp. 34–. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023376478">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110915152404/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023376478">Archived</a> 15 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliotDowson1867" class="citation book cs1">Elliot, Henry Miers; Dowson, John (1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090825184925/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0"><i>The History of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan Period</i></a>. London: Trübner and Co. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0">the original</a> on 25 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+India%2C+as+told+by+its+own+historians.+The+Muhammadan+Period&rft.pub=London%3A+Tr%C3%BCbner+and+Co.&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Elliot&rft.aufirst=Henry+Miers&rft.au=Dowson%2C+John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersian.packhum.org%2Fpersian%2Fmain%3Furl%3Dpf%253Ffile%253D80201010%2526ct%253D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahn2011" class="citation book cs1">Kahn, Yasmin (2011). "Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World War". In Martin Gegner; Bart Ziino (eds.). <i>The Heritage of War</i>. Routledge. pp. 177–193.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Remembering+and+Forgetting%3A+South+Asia+and+the+Second+World+War&rft.btitle=The+Heritage+of+War&rft.pages=177-193&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Kahn&rft.aufirst=Yasmin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJain2011" class="citation book cs1">Jain, M. (2011). "4". <i>The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts</i>. <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>: Ocean Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4&rft.btitle=The+India+They+Saw%3A+Foreign+Accounts&rft.pub=Delhi%3A+Ocean+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Jain&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLal2003" class="citation book cs1">Lal, Vinay (2003). <i>The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+History%3A+Politics+and+Scholarship+in+Modern+India&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Lal&rft.aufirst=Vinay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalit2008" class="citation book cs1">Palit, Chittabrata (2008). <i>Indian Historiography</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Historiography&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Palit&rft.aufirst=Chittabrata&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arvind_Sharma" title="Arvind Sharma">Sharma, Arvind</a> (2003). <i>Hinduism and Its Sense of History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566531-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566531-4"><bdi>978-0-19-566531-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism+and+Its+Sense+of+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-566531-4&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Arvind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSreedharan2004" class="citation book cs1">Sreedharan, E. (2004). <i>A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Textbook+of+Historiography%2C+500+B.C.+to+A.D.+2000&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Sreedharan&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarder1972" class="citation book cs1">Warder, A.K. (1972). <i>An introduction to Indian historiography</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+Indian+historiography&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Warder&rft.aufirst=A.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary">Primary</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/"><i>The Imperial Gazetteer of India</i></a>. 1908–1931.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Gazetteer+of+India&rft.date=1908%2F1931&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Freference%2Fgazetteer%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+India" class="Z3988"></span> Highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Asia" title="Template:History of Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li 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title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bahrain" title="History of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brunei" title="History of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cambodia" title="History of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Timor" title="History of East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">India</a></li> <li><a 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Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_State_of_Palestine" title="History of the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a 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countries">Countries and regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_India" title="Northwest India">Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of islands in India">Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punjab,_Pakistan" title="Punjab, Pakistan">Punjab</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asia#Regions" title="South Asia">South Asian regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_South_Asia" title="Northwestern South Asia">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_South_Asia" title="Northern South Asia">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_South_Asia" title="Eastern South Asia">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_South_Asia" title="Southern South Asia">Southern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:GeoSouthAsia" title="Template:GeoSouthAsia">General geography</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="11" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/80px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/120px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/160px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Ethnic groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andamanese_peoples" title="Andamanese peoples">Andamanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_peoples_of_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Austroasiatic peoples of South Asia">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#Austronesian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_peoples" title="Dravidian peoples">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#Iranic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Iranic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuristani peoples">Nuristani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#Tibeto-Burman_people" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a></li> <li>Other groups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Asians_in_South_Asia" title="Afro-Asians in South Asia">Afro-Asians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#European_and_Eurasian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">European and Eurasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#Semitic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Semitic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_diaspora" title="South Asian diaspora">Diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_South_Asia" title="Culture of South Asia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_architecture" title="Category:South Asian architecture">Architecture‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_art" title="Indian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_cinema" title="South Asian cinema">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_cuisine" title="South Asian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Cultural sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Clothing_in_South_Asia" title="Template:Clothing in South Asia">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_literature" title="South Asian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Music_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Music of South Asia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_mythology" title="Category:South Asian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_philosophy" title="Category:South Asian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Surnames_of_South_Asian_origin" title="Category:Surnames of South Asian origin">Surnames</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Environment_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Environment of South Asia">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Monsoon" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian Monsoon">Monsoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in South Asia">Climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_South_Asia" title="Economy of South Asia">Economy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Politics of South Asia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in South Asia">Human rights in South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_nationalism" title="Religious nationalism">Religious nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_nationalism_in_South_Asia" title="Muslim nationalism in South Asia">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalistan_movement" title="Khalistan movement">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Asian_stock_exchanges#Southern_Asia" title="List of Asian stock exchanges">Stock exchanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste#In_South_Asia" title="Caste">Caste system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Asia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeology_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Archaeology of South Asia">Archaeology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_cultures_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Archaeological cultures of South Asia">Archaeological cultures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India#Early_modern_India" title="India">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asia#Contemporary_era" title="South Asia">Contemporary era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_South_Asia" title="Category:Former countries in South Asia">Former countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Asia" title="Religion in South Asia">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmic_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmic religions">Dharmic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism in South Asia">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_South_Asia" title="Hinduism in South Asia">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia" title="Islam in South Asia">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Bangladesh#Persecution" title="Freedom of religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India#Modern_India" title="Religious violence in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_in_Pakistan" title="Religious discrimination in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_South_Asia" title="Sport in South Asia">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cricket_in_South_Asia" title="Cricket in South Asia">Cricket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Football_Federation" title="South Asian Football Federation">South Asian Football Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Games" title="South Asian Games">South Asian Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_physical_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_games_of_South_Asia" title="Traditional games of South Asia">Traditional games</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Education_in_South_Asia" title="Category:Education in South Asia">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian studies">South Asian studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of education in the Indian subcontinent">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts" title="Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts">Indo-Pakistani conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan%E2%80%93Pakistan_border_skirmishes" title="Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmishes">Afghanistan–Pakistan skirmishes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Institutes_of_Technology" title="Indian Institutes of Technology">Indian Institutes of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_swords" title="Category:South Asian swords">Swords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_traditional_medicine" title="Category:South Asian traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="India_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:India_topics" title="Template:India topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:India_topics" title="Template talk:India topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:India_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:India topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="India_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">India topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_India" title="List of years in India">Years</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in India">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Linguistic history of India">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paper_currency_in_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of paper currency in Indian subcontinent">Paper currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_India" title="Postage stamps and postal history of India">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_on_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavana_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavana Kingdom">Yavana Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Mauryan_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid–Mauryan war">Seleucid–Mauryan war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Marathas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">European trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_War" title="Bengal War">Bengal War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Late modern">Late modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princely state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Plassey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">1857 rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India#History" title="Rail transport in India">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India_under_the_British_Raj" title="Economy of India under the British Raj">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief,_India" title="Commander-in-Chief, India">Commander-in-Chief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamindar#British_era" title="Zamindar">Zamindari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Renaissance" title="Bengal Renaissance">Bengal Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1909" title="Indian Councils Act 1909">Political reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">1943 famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Republic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_integration_of_India" title="Political integration of India">Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="India and the Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Year_Plans_of_India" title="Five-Year Plans of India">Five-Year Plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts" title="Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts">Indo-Pakistani wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India" title="Green Revolution in India">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Flood">White Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxalite">Naxal Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smiling_Buddha" title="Smiling Buddha">Smiling Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Space programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(India)" title="The Emergency (India)">The Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Peace_Keeping_Force" title="Indian Peace Keeping Force">Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">History of India (1947–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Economic liberalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pokhran-II" title="Pokhran-II">Pokhran-II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="COVID-19 pandemic in India">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_India" title="Geography of India">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology_of_India" title="Category:Geology of India">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_Parks_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil Parks of India">Fossil Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Plate">Indian Plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heritage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Geological_Monuments_of_India" title="National Geological Monuments of India">National Geological Monuments of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_groves_of_India" title="Sacred groves of India">Sacred groves of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains#India" title="Sacred mountains">Sacred mountains of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River#Sacred" title="River">Sacred rivers of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stones_of_India" title="Stones of India">Stones of India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_India" title="Environment of India">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_classification_of_India" title="Biogeographic classification of India">Biogeographic classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere_reserves_of_India" title="Biosphere reserves of India">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_India" title="Climate of India">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_India" title="Climate change in India">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_India" title="List of earthquakes in India">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_India" title="List of ecoregions in India">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_India" title="Environmental issues in India">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_India" title="Fauna of India">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forests_in_India" title="List of forests in India">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_India" title="Flora of India">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_India" title="Protected areas of India">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_India" title="Wildlife of India">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wildlife_sanctuaries_of_India" title="List of wildlife sanctuaries of India">sanctuaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_India" title="List of beaches in India">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_India" title="List of canals in India">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_India" title="Coastal India">Coasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_India" title="Exclusive economic zone of India">ECZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_India" title="List of extreme points of India">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of glaciers of India">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_and_union_territories_by_highest_point" title="List of Indian states and union territories by highest point">Highest point by states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_India" title="List of islands of India">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_India" title="List of lakes of India">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_India" title="List of mountains in India">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_passes_of_India" title="List of mountain passes of India">Mountain passes</a></li> <li>Plains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Coastal_Plains" title="Eastern Coastal Plains">Eastern coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Coastal_Plains" title="Western Coastal Plains">Western coastal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_India" title="List of rivers of India">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_in_India" title="List of valleys in India">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_India" title="List of volcanoes in India">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of waterfalls of India">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_India" title="Central India">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India" title="East India">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_India" title="Northwest India">Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest India">Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast India">Southeast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_India" title="Western India">West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Autonomous administrative divisions of India">Autonomous administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_India" title="Template:Borders of India">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_India_by_population" title="List of towns in India by population">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_India_by_population" title="List of cities in India by population">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_India" title="List of districts in India">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_governance_in_India" title="Municipal governance in India">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">States and union territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monuments_of_National_Importance_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Monuments of National Importance of India">National monuments of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature worship</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian-origin religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="World Heritage Sites in India">World Heritage Sites in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Culture of India</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_India" title="Tourism in India">Tourism in India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agencies_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of agencies of the government of India">Agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_India" title="Energy policy of India">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_India" title="Foreign relations of India">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_India" title="Parliament of India">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lok_Sabha" title="Lok Sabha">Lok Sabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajya_Sabha" title="Rajya Sabha">Rajya Sabha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_India" title="Vice President of India">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Council_of_Ministers" title="Union Council of Ministers">Union Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India" title="Civil Services of India">Civil Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Secretary_(India)" title="Cabinet Secretary (India)">Cabinet Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_India" title="State governments of India">State governments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_India" title="State legislative assemblies of India">State legislative assemblies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_councils_of_India" title="State legislative councils of India">State legislative councils</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(India)" title="Governor (India)">Governors, Lieutenant Governors and Administrators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_minister_(India)" title="Chief minister (India)">Chief Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_secretary_(India)" title="Chief secretary (India)">Chief Secretaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code" title="Indian Penal Code">Penal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India" title="Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India">Fundamental rights, principles and duties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_India" title="Human rights in India">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in India">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_courts_of_India" title="High courts of India">High Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_courts_of_India" title="District courts of India">District Courts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_India" title="Law enforcement in India">Enforcement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Federal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_Security_Force" title="Border Security Force">Border Security Force (BSF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Industrial_Security_Force" title="Central Industrial Security Force">Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Reserve_Police_Force" title="Central Reserve Police Force">Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Tibetan_Border_Police" title="Indo-Tibetan Border Police">Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Guard" title="National Security Guard">National Security Guard (NSG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Force" title="Railway Protection Force">Railway Protection Force (RPF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sashastra_Seema_Bal" title="Sashastra Seema Bal">Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Protection_Group" title="Special Protection Group">Special Protection Group (SPG)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_intelligence_agencies" title="List of Indian intelligence agencies">Intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Police_Research_and_Development" title="Bureau of Police Research and Development">Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Central Bureau of Investigation">Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorate_of_Revenue_Intelligence" title="Directorate of Revenue Intelligence">Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate" title="Enforcement Directorate">Enforcement Directorate (ED)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_Bureau_(India)" title="Intelligence Bureau (India)">Intelligence Bureau (IB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Council_(India)" title="National Security Council (India)">Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotics_Control_Bureau" title="Narcotics Control Bureau">Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Investigation_Agency" title="National Investigation Agency">National Investigation Agency (NIA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_Analysis_Wing" title="Research and Analysis Wing">Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forces" title="Indian Armed Forces">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Navy" title="Indian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Air_Force" title="Indian Air Force">Air Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_India" title="Censorship in India">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationality_law" title="Indian nationality law">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_India" title="Elections in India">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_India" title="Democracy in India">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationalism" title="Indian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India" title="List of political parties in India">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scandals_in_India" title="List of scandals in India">Scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">Scheduled groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_India" title="Secularism in India">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_political_participation_in_India" title="Women's political participation in India">Women in politics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India" title="Economy of India">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_India" title="List of companies of India">Companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BSE_SENSEX" title="BSE SENSEX">BSE SENSEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIFTY_50" title="NIFTY 50">NIFTY 50</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(India)" title="Ministry of Finance (India)">Ministry of Finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_(India)" title="Minister of Finance (India)">Finance ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(India)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)">Ministry of Commerce and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finance_Commission" title="Finance Commission">Finance Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Advisory_Council" title="Economic Advisory Council">Economic Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Statistics_Office_(India)" title="Central Statistics Office (India)">Central Statistical Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Board_of_India" title="Securities and Exchange Board of India">Securities and Exchange Board of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate" title="Enforcement Directorate">Enforcement Directorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_debt_of_India" title="External debt of India">External debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_India" title="Foreign trade of India">Foreign trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_India" title="Foreign direct investment in India">Foreign direct investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign-exchange_reserves_of_India" title="Foreign-exchange reserves of India">Foreign exchange reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remittances_to_India" title="Remittances to India">Remittances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_India" title="Taxation in India">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidies_in_India" title="Subsidies in India">Subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_licensing_in_India" title="Industrial licensing in India">Industrial licensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voluntary_Guidelines_on_Social,_Environmental_and_Economic_Responsibilities_of_Business" title="National Voluntary Guidelines on Social, Environmental and Economic Responsibilities of Business">Voluntary guidelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NITI_Aayog" title="NITI Aayog">NITI Aayog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make_in_India" title="Make in India">Make in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmanirbhar_Bharat" title="Atmanirbhar Bharat">Atmanirbhar Bharat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee" title="Indian rupee">Indian rupee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee_sign" title="Indian rupee sign">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_rupee" title="History of the rupee">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_rate_history_of_the_Indian_rupee" title="Exchange rate history of the Indian rupee">Historical Forex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rupee" title="Digital rupee">Digital rupee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_paisa" title="Indian paisa">Paisa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="Reserve Bank of India">Reserve Bank of India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_the_Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="List of governors of the Reserve Bank of India">Governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_Government_Mint" title="India Government Mint">Mint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflation_in_India" title="Inflation in India">Inflation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Financial services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_India" title="Banking in India">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_India" title="Insurance in India">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi_Commodity_Exchange" title="Multi Commodity Exchange">Multi Commodity Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gold_(Control)_Act,_1968" title="The Gold (Control) Act, 1968">Bullion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_black_money" title="Indian black money">Black money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombay_Stock_Exchange" title="Bombay Stock Exchange">Bombay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Stock_Exchange_of_India" title="National Stock Exchange of India">National</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development_in_India" title="Economic development in India">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Liberalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licence_Raj" title="Licence Raj">Licence Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India" title="Green Revolution in India">Green revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schemes_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of schemes of the government of India">Government initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_numbering_system" title="Indian numbering system">Numbering system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indians_by_net_worth" title="List of Indians by net worth">By net worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_India" title="Income in India">Income</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">Poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_labour_law" title="Indian labour law">Labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_India" title="Pensions in India">Pensions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Employees%27_Provident_Fund_Organisation" title="Employees' Provident Fund Organisation">EPFO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pension_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="National Pension Scheme">NPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Provident_Fund_(India)" title="Public Provident Fund (India)">PPF</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Andhra_Pradesh" title="Economy of Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Assam" title="Economy of Assam">Assam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Bihar" title="Economy of Bihar">Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Delhi" title="Economy of Delhi">Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Goa" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Goa">Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Gujarat" title="Economy of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Haryana" title="Economy of Haryana">Haryana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="Economy of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Jammu and Kashmir">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Jharkhand" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Karnataka" title="Economy of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Kerala" title="Economy of Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ladakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Ladakh">Ladakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Madhya_Pradesh" title="Economy of Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Maharashtra" title="Economy of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Mizoram" title="Economy of Mizoram">Mizoram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Odisha" title="Economy of Odisha">Odisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Punjab,_India" title="Economy of Punjab, India">Punjab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Rajasthan" title="Economy of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Economy of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Telangana" title="Economy of Telangana">Telangana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Uttarakhand" title="Economy of Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Economy of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_West_Bengal" title="Economy of West Bengal">West Bengal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_India" title="Agriculture in India">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry_in_India" title="Animal husbandry in India">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_in_India" title="Fishing in India">Fishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_India" title="Automotive industry in India">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_India" title="Chemical industry in India">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_India" title="Construction industry of India">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_industry_of_India" title="Defence industry of India">Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_India" title="Energy in India">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India" title="Electricity sector in India">Electricity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India" title="Nuclear power in India">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industry_in_India" title="Oil and gas industry in India">Oil and gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_India" title="Wind power in India">Wind</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_and_semiconductor_manufacturing_industry_in_India" title="Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India">Electronics and semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_industry_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Entertainment industry in India">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_India" title="Forestry in India">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_India" title="Gambling in India">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_India" title="Healthcare in India">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_India" title="List of hospitals in India">Hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_in_India" title="Information technology in India">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of India">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_India" title="Cinema of India">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting_in_India" title="FM broadcasting in India">FM Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_India" title="Television in India">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_industry_in_India" title="Printing industry in India">Printing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_India" title="Mining in India">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_India" title="Coal in India">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">Iron and Steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_India" title="Pharmaceutical industry in India">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry_in_India" title="Pulp and paper industry in India">Pulp and paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retailing_in_India" title="Retailing in India">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_India" title="Science and technology in India">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_in_India" title="Biotechnology in India">Biotechnology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_industry_of_India" title="Space industry of India">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_India" title="Textile industry in India">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_India" title="Tourism in India">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_India" title="Transport in India">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_India" title="Aviation in India">Aviation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_India" title="Civil aviation in India">Civil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ports_in_India" title="List of ports in India">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India" title="Rail transport in India">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_India" title="Roads in India">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electricity_organisations_in_India" title="List of electricity organisations in India">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_sector_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Power sector in India">Power</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulator</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_Regulatory_and_Development_Authority" title="Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority">IRDAI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="Reserve Bank of India">RBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEBI" class="mw-redirect" title="SEBI">SEBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Board_of_India" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India">IBBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension_Fund_Regulatory_and_Development_Authority" title="Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority">PFRDA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Company_Law_Tribunal" title="National Company Law Tribunal">NCLT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Company_Law_Appellate_Tribunal" title="National Company Law Appellate Tribunal">NCLAT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_for_Industrial_and_Financial_Reconstruction" title="Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction">BIFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Board_of_India" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India">IBBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Code,_2016" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016">IBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securitisation_and_Reconstruction_of_Financial_Assets_and_Enforcement_of_Security_Interest_Act,_2002" title="Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, 2002">SARFESI Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income-tax_Act,_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="Income-tax Act, 1961">Income Tax Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companies_Act,_2013" class="mw-redirect" title="Companies Act, 2013">Companies Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_Regulation_Act,_1949" title="Banking Regulation Act, 1949">Banking Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_Act,_1938" title="Insurance Act, 1938">Insurance Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Exchange_Management_Act" title="Foreign Exchange Management Act">FEMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mumbai_Consensus" title="Mumbai Consensus">Mumbai Consensus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Society and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">Caste system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_India" title="Corruption in India">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_India" title="Crime in India">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_India" title="List of universities in India">Universities in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_colleges_in_India" title="List of medical colleges in India">Medical colleges in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_in_India" title="List of law schools in India">Law colleges in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education_in_India" title="Engineering education in India">Engineering colleges in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_relations_in_India" title="Ethnic relations in India">Ethnic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_India" title="Health in India">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_by_life_expectancy_at_birth" title="List of Indian states by life expectancy at birth">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_India" title="Literacy in India">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_India" title="Prisons in India">Prisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issue#India" title="Social issue">Socio-economic issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_India" title="Standard of living in India">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_India" title="Women in India">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_India" title="Sexuality in India">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_India" title="Youth in India">Youth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_entertainment_in_India" title="Arts and entertainment in India">Arts and entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_blogosphere" title="Indian blogosphere">Blogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_India" title="Cinema of India">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_comics" title="Indian comics">Comics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Webcomics_in_India" title="Webcomics in India">Webcomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_cuisine" title="Indian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_wine" title="Indian wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_dance" title="Indian classical dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_India" title="Clothing in India">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_India" title="Folklore of India">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_India" title="List of festivals in India">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_India" title="Mass media in India">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_India" title="Television in India">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_India" title="Music of India">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_painting" title="Indian painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_physical_culture" title="Indian physical culture">Physical culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_India" title="Public holidays in India">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent">Sculpture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_tallest_statues_in_India" title="List of the tallest statues in India">tallest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_India" title="Sport in India">Sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_games_of_India" title="Traditional games of India">Traditional</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/21px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/32px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/42px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>History of India</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:History_of_India" class="extiw" title="c:category:History of India">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/History_of_India" class="extiw" title="q:History of India">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/History_of_India" class="extiw" title="v:History of India">Resources</a></b> from Wikiversity</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133136" class="extiw" title="d:Q133136">Data</a></b> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 4.86% 232.859 1 Template:History_of_Asia"," 4.66% 223.604 8 Template:Navbox"," 4.65% 222.907 50 Template:Main"," 4.50% 215.929 36 Template:Citation"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"3.053","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24782231,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbid2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbraham_Eraly2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmed2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAli2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmartya_Sen1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAntonovaBongard-LevinKotovsky1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnold1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsherTalbot2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAudrey_Truschke2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAvari2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBandyopadhyay2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBannerjee1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarpujari1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartel1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBasu2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaumann2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBayly1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBayly2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBentley1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernard_Philippe_Groslier1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhandari2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiplab_Dasgupta2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBond1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoseJalal2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrockington1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCapper,_J.1918\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCentre\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChakrabarty2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandra2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFChandraMukherjeeMukherjeeMahajan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChattopadhyaya\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaudhuryMohsin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChauhan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColin_Clark1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollingham2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniélou2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDattSundharam2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDatta2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDay1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevereux2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevi1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoniger1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonkin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDr._K._S._Lal1967\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDubey-Pathak2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDupuy,_R._ErnestTrevor_N._Dupuy1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyson2018\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFEaston,_Richard_M.2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElliotDowson1867\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElliot_\u0026amp;_Dawson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFay1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFisher2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFlood1996\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFlores2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFritzMichell2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFritzMichell2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFritzMichell2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhazi2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiorgio_Riello,_Tirthankar_Roy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlenn_Ames2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGopal1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon_Mackenzie1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenough1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrewal1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrégoire_Frumkin1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta,_S.P.Ramachandra,_K.S.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuptaRamachandran1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaq1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardy1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisonBerger2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasan1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeitzman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFI.D._Derbyshire1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIan_CoplandIan_MabbettAsim_RoyKate_Brittlebank2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJain2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffrey_G._Williamson,_David_Clingingsmith2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohar1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Bowman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK.D._Bajpai2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahn2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamath1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarl_J._Schmidt2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKeay2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenoyer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKopf1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoshy1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulkeRothermund2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumar\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumar2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKux1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLal2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLanman1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaumakis2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaw1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLe2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoeweShaughnessy1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLos_Angeles_County_Museum_of_ArtPratapaditya_Pal1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLudden2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacKenzie1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddison2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddison2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagedera2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajumdar1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajumdar1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajumdarPusalkerMajumdar1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMann2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkovits,_Claude2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkovits2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMascaró1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMassey2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcIntosh2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMehta2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMellarsGoriCarrSoares2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenonMishra2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeri2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_D._PetragliaBridget_Allchin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaels2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaud1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMishra1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchellZebrowski1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMithen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohammad_Aziz_Ahmad1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMookerji1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukerjee2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukherjee1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMüller2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFN.G._Rathod1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaravane2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNitish_K._Sengupta2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNitish_Sengupta2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiyogi1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNovetzke2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlivelle2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlivelle2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrsiniSheikh2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPN_ChopraBN_PuriMN_DasAC_Pradhan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalit2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParthasarathi2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPati1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearson1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetraglia2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetragliaAllchin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetragliaHaslamFullerBoivin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPochhammer1981\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPollock2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotterSargent1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPraval2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuttaswamy2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQasmiRobb2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR,_B.S.Bakshi,_S.R.1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadhey_Shyam_Chaurasia2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRafi_U._Samad2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRai2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamananda_Chatterjee1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatnagar2006a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaychaudhuriHabib1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaychaudhuriMukherjee1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReddy2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobb1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobb2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomila_Thapar\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRosen1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoyina_Grewal2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRunion2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSailendra_Nath_Sen1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSailendra_Nath_Sen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanderson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarkar1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarkar1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarkarMukherjeeBeraDas2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSastri1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSastri2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchomerMcLeod1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchreiber2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen,_S.N.2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSenior2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaffer1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShuichi_Takezawa2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinghalGupta2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinha1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSircar1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSircar2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSreedharan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrinath_Raghavan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaal1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStadtner1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStein2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSumner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSurendra_Gopal2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuresh_Chandra_Ghosh1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSurinder_SinghI._D._Gaur2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSymonds1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaçon2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTunizGillespieJones2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFUpinder_Singh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValmiki1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaugn2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVijaya_Ramaswamy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVinod_Chandra_Srivastava2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWagoner1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWagoner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarder1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWink2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2010\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFYasmin_Saikia2004\"] = 1,\n [\"Prehistory\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 18,\n [\"Citation\"] = 36,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 184,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 26,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite tech report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 32,\n [\"Col div\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Gallery\"] = 22,\n [\"Google books\"] = 2,\n [\"Harv\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 19,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Asia\"] = 1,\n [\"HistoryOfSouthAsia\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 12,\n [\"India topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 50,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 13,\n [\"Over-quotation\"] = 1,\n [\"Part of History of India\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect2\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 4,\n [\"See also\"] = 14,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 92,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"South Asian topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 2,\n [\"Use Indian English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","780","23.9"],["?","380","11.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","280","8.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","160","4.9"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","160","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","120","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","100","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","100","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","2.5"],["date","80","2.5"],["[others]","1020","31.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-7556f8b5dd-6nrfn","timestamp":"20241123184011","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of India","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_India","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q133136","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q133136","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia 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