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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">W. Ross Ashby</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A2%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="ويليام روس آشبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ويليام روس آشبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilyam_E%C5%9Fbi" title="Vilyam Eşbi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vilyam Eşbi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%88%D0%B1%D0%B8_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC" title="Эшби Уильям – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Эшби Уильям" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" title="William Ross Ashby – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="William Ross Ashby" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Ashby" title="Ross Ashby – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ross Ashby" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Ross_Ashby" title="W. Ross Ashby – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="W. Ross Ashby" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" title="William Ross Ashby – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="William Ross Ashby" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Ross_Ashby" title="W. Ross Ashby – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="W. Ross Ashby" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" title="William Ross Ashby – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="William Ross Ashby" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" title="William Ross Ashby – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="William Ross Ashby" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A2%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%89" title="ويليام روس آشبى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ويليام روس آشبى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" title="William Ross Ashby – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="William Ross Ashby" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A3%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%83%93%E3%83%BC" title="ウィリアム・ロス・アシュビー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウィリアム・ロス・アシュビー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Ross_Ashby" title="W. Ross Ashby – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="W. Ross Ashby" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" title="William Ross Ashby – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="William Ross Ashby" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%88%D0%B1%D0%B8,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC" title="Эшби, Уильям – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эшби, Уильям" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81_%D0%95%D1%88%D0%B1%D1%96" title="Вільям Росс Ешбі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вільям Росс Ешбі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%89%BE%E5%B8%8C%E6%AF%94" title="W·罗斯·艾希比 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="W·罗斯·艾希比" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q711172#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> 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href="/w/index.php?title=William_Ross_Ashby&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">English psychiatrist (1903–1972)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">W. Ross Ashby</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:W._Ross_Ashby_(1948).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/W._Ross_Ashby_%281948%29.jpg/220px-W._Ross_Ashby_%281948%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/W._Ross_Ashby_%281948%29.jpg/330px-W._Ross_Ashby_%281948%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/W._Ross_Ashby_%281948%29.jpg/440px-W._Ross_Ashby_%281948%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="800" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">W. Ross Ashby (1948)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1903-09-06</span>)</span>6 September 1903<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">15 November 1972<span style="display:none">(1972-11-15)</span> (aged 69)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Variety_(cybernetics)#Law_of_requisite_variety" title="Variety (cybernetics)">Law of Requisite Variety</a>, Principle of <a href="/wiki/Self-organization#Principles" title="Self-organization">Self-organization</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Systems theory</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:W._Ross_Ashby_signature,_Letter_from_Ashby_to_Jacques_Riguet,_dated_20_April_1953.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/W._Ross_Ashby_signature%2C_Letter_from_Ashby_to_Jacques_Riguet%2C_dated_20_April_1953.svg/150px-W._Ross_Ashby_signature%2C_Letter_from_Ashby_to_Jacques_Riguet%2C_dated_20_April_1953.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/W._Ross_Ashby_signature%2C_Letter_from_Ashby_to_Jacques_Riguet%2C_dated_20_April_1953.svg/225px-W._Ross_Ashby_signature%2C_Letter_from_Ashby_to_Jacques_Riguet%2C_dated_20_April_1953.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/W._Ross_Ashby_signature%2C_Letter_from_Ashby_to_Jacques_Riguet%2C_dated_20_April_1953.svg/300px-W._Ross_Ashby_signature%2C_Letter_from_Ashby_to_Jacques_Riguet%2C_dated_20_April_1953.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="203" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>William Ross Ashby</b> (6 September 1903 – 15 November 1972) was an English <a href="/wiki/Psychiatrist" title="Psychiatrist">psychiatrist</a> and a pioneer in <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>, the study of the science of communications and automatic control systems in both machines and living things. His first name was not used: he was known as <b>Ross Ashby</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pickering_Brain_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pickering_Brain-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 91">: 91 </span></sup> </p><p>His two books, <i>Design for a Brain</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_Cybernetics" title="An Introduction to Cybernetics">An Introduction to Cybernetics</a></i>, introduced exact and logical thinking into the brand new discipline of cybernetics and were highly influential.<sup id="cite_ref-Pickering_Brain_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pickering_Brain-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 93">: 93 </span></sup> These "missionary works" along with his technical contributions made Ashby "the major theoretician of cybernetics after <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Wiener</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Lilienfeld_Systems_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lilienfeld_Systems-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Klir_Architecture_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klir_Architecture-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>William Ross Ashby was born in 1903 in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, where his father was working at an <a href="/wiki/Advertising_agency" title="Advertising agency">advertising agency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bio_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bio-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1921 he studied at <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sussex_College,_Cambridge" title="Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge">Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge</a>, where he received his B.A. in 1924 and his M.B. and B.Ch. in 1928. From 1924 to 1928 he worked at <a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Bartholomew's Hospital">St. Bartholomew's Hospital</a> in London. Later on he also received a Diploma in Psychological Medicine in 1931, and an M.A. 1930 and M.D. from Cambridge in 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-Pickering_Brain_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pickering_Brain-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 91">: 91 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:W._Ross_Ashby,_c._1924,_aged_about_21.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/W._Ross_Ashby%2C_c._1924%2C_aged_about_21.jpg/220px-W._Ross_Ashby%2C_c._1924%2C_aged_about_21.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/W._Ross_Ashby%2C_c._1924%2C_aged_about_21.jpg/330px-W._Ross_Ashby%2C_c._1924%2C_aged_about_21.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/W._Ross_Ashby%2C_c._1924%2C_aged_about_21.jpg/440px-W._Ross_Ashby%2C_c._1924%2C_aged_about_21.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Ashby, c. 1924, aged about 21</figcaption></figure> <p>Ashby started working in 1930 as a Clinical Psychiatrist at the <a href="/wiki/London_County_Council" title="London County Council">London County Council</a>. From 1936 until 1947 he was a Research Pathologist at <a href="/wiki/St_Andrew%27s_Hospital" title="St Andrew's Hospital">St Andrew's Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northampton" title="Northampton">Northampton</a> in England. From 1945 to 1947 he served in India where he was a Major in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps" title="Royal Army Medical Corps">Royal Army Medical Corps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pickering_Brain_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pickering_Brain-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 92">: 92 </span></sup> </p><p>When he returned to England, he served as Director of Research of the <a href="/wiki/Barnwood_House_Hospital" title="Barnwood House Hospital">Barnwood House Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gloucester" title="Gloucester">Gloucester</a> from 1947 until 1959. For a year, he was Director of the <a href="/wiki/Burden_Neurological_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Burden Neurological Institute">Burden Neurological Institute</a> in Bristol. In 1960, he went to the United States and became Professor, Depts. of Biophysics and Electrical Engineering, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign">University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign</a>, until his retirement in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ashby was president of the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_General_Systems_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Society for General Systems Research">Society for General Systems Research</a> from 1962 to 1964. After retiring in August 1970, he became an Honorary Professorial Fellow at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wales" title="University of Wales">University of Wales</a> in 1970 and a fellow of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Psychiatrists" title="Royal College of Psychiatrists">Royal College of Psychiatrists</a> in 1971. In June 1972 he was diagnosed with an inoperable brain tumor, and he died on 15 November.<sup id="cite_ref-bio_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bio-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Work">Work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite being widely influential within <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a> and, more recently, <a href="/wiki/Complex_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex systems">complex systems</a>, Ashby is not as well known as many of the notable scientists his work influenced, including <a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stafford_Beer" title="Stafford Beer">Stafford Beer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Milgram" title="Stanley Milgram">Stanley Milgram</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Kauffman" title="Stuart Kauffman">Stuart Kauffman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journal">Journal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Journal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Ashby kept a journal for over 44 years in which he recorded his ideas about new theories. He started May 1928, when he was medical student at St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London. Over the years, he wrote down a series of 25 volumes totaling 7,189 pages. In 2003, these journals were given to The British Library, London, and in 2008, they were made available online as The W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ashby initially considered his theorizing a private hobby, and his later decision to begin publishing his work caused him some distress. He wrote: </p><blockquote> <p>My fear is now that I may become conspicuous, for a book of mine is in the press. For this sort of success I have no liking. My ambitions are vague—someday to produce something faultless.<sup id="cite_ref-Pickering_Brain_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pickering_Brain-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 97">: 97 </span></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>Ashby found writing so difficult that he took correspondence courses in "Effective English and Personal Efficiency" to prepare to write his first book.<sup id="cite_ref-bio_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bio-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adaptation">Adaptation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Adaptation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ashby was interested in <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)" title="Mechanism (philosophy)">mechanistic</a> explanations for adaptive behavior, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. By 1941, he had developed a coherent theory and written a 197-page booklet, titled "The Origin of Adaptation".<sup id="cite_ref-Pickering_Brain_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pickering_Brain-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 99">: 99 </span></sup> This hand-written monograph was made publicly available in January 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashby_Origin_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashby_Origin-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it, he expressed his opinion that "there is an abstract science of organisation, in the sense that there are laws, theories and discoveries to be made about organisation as such without asking what it is that is organised."<sup id="cite_ref-Ashby_Origin_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashby_Origin-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 35">: 35 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1948 Ashby built a machine, the <a href="/wiki/Homeostat" title="Homeostat">homeostat</a>, to demonstrate his theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Pickering_Brain_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pickering_Brain-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 98">: 98 </span></sup> The machine used a simple mechanical process to return to <a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrium point">equilibrium</a> states after disturbances at its input. Earlier, in 1946, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> had written a letter<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to Ashby suggesting that Ashby use Turing's <a href="/wiki/Automatic_Computing_Engine" title="Automatic Computing Engine">Automatic Computing Engine</a> (ACE) for his experiments instead of building a special machine. <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a>, describing the appearance of purposeful behavior in the Homeostat's random search for equilibrium, called it "one of the great philosophical contributions of the present day".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ashby's first book, <i>Design for a Brain</i>, was published in 1952 and recapitulated this line of research. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cybernetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ashby was one of the original members of the <a href="/wiki/Ratio_Club" title="Ratio Club">Ratio Club</a>, a small informal <a href="/wiki/Dining_club" title="Dining club">dining club</a> of young <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematicians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a> who met to discuss issues in <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>. The club was founded in 1949 by the <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurologist</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Bates_(neurologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Bates (neurologist)">John Bates</a> and continued to meet until 1958. </p><p>The title of his book <i>An Introduction to Cybernetics</i> popularised the usage of the term 'cybernetics' to refer to self-regulating systems, originally coined by <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics:_Or_Control_and_Communication_in_the_Animal_and_the_Machine" title="Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine">Cybernetics</a></i>. The book gave accounts of <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">foresight</a> in living organisms in Ashby's determinist, mechanist terms.<sup id="cite_ref-Lilienfeld_Systems_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lilienfeld_Systems-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ashby's 1964 paper <i>Constraint Analysis of Many-Dimensional Relations</i> began the study of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstructability_analysis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reconstructability analysis (page does not exist)">reconstructability analysis</a>, a multivariate systems modeling methodology based on set theory and information theory, which would later be developed by <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Krippendorff" title="Klaus Krippendorff">Klaus Krippendorff</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Klir_Architecture_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klir_Architecture-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 287–288">: 287–288 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1970, Ashby collaborated on simulation experiments regarding the stability of large interconnected systems.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work inspired <a href="/wiki/Robert_May,_Baron_May_of_Oxford" title="Robert May, Baron May of Oxford">Robert May</a>'s studies of stability and complexity in model ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-May_1972_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-May_1972-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variety">Variety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Variety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>An Introduction to Cybernetics</i>, Ashby used set cardinality, or <a href="/wiki/Variety_(cybernetics)" title="Variety (cybernetics)">variety</a>, as a measure of information. With this he formulated his Law of Requisite Variety. Mathematically, the law is a statement about how "in a two-person game the variety possible is determined by the number of possible choices open to the two players".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When regulation is seen as a game between a regulator <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>R</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}"></span> and source of disturbances <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}"></span>, "only variety in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>R</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}"></span> can force down the variety due to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}"></span>; <i>only variety can destroy variety.</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-I2C_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I2C-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 207">: 207 </span></sup> </p><p>In work with Ashby, Conant augmented this with the "<a href="/wiki/Good_Regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Good Regulator">Good Regulator</a> theorem" stating that "every good regulator of a system must be a model of that system".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stafford_Beer" title="Stafford Beer">Stafford Beer</a> applied the law of variety to the practice of management, founding <a href="/wiki/Management_cybernetics" title="Management cybernetics">management cybernetics</a> and developing the <a href="/wiki/Viable_System_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Viable System Model">Viable System Model</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beer_Brain_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beer_Brain-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A popular paraphrasing of the law is "only complexity absorbs complexity". However, while a web search reveals many attributions to Ashby, it appears such attribution is in error. The phrase is not listed by the <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_Society" title="Cybernetics Society">Cybernetics Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Papers of William Ross Ashby are housed at the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a>. The papers can be accessed through the British Library catalogue.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 4–6 March 2004, a W. Ross Ashby centenary conference was held at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign">University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign</a> to mark the 100th anniversary of his birth. Presenters at the conference included <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Kauffman" title="Stuart Kauffman">Stuart Kauffman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Wolfram" title="Stephen Wolfram">Stephen Wolfram</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 2009, a special issue of the <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_General_Systems" title="International Journal of General Systems">International Journal of General Systems</a> was specifically devoted to Ashby and his work, containing papers from leading scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Krippendorff" title="Klaus Krippendorff">Klaus Krippendorff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Umpleby" title="Stuart Umpleby">Stuart Umpleby</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a>. </p><p>Ashby's work on the law of requisite variety has influenced scholars within the field of <a href="/wiki/Management_science" title="Management science">management studies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beer_Brain_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beer_Brain-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Books</dt></dl> <ul><li>1952. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/designforbrainor00ashb">Design for a Brain</a></i>, Chapman & Hall.</li> <li>1956. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASHBBOOK.html">An Introduction to Cybernetics</a></i>, Chapman & Hall.</li> <li>1981. Conant, Roger C. (ed.). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ashby.info/mechanisms.html">Mechanisms of Intelligence: Ross Ashby's Writings on Cybernetics</a></i>, Intersystems Publishers.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Articles, a selection</dt></dl> <ul><li>1940. "Adaptiveness and equilibrium". In: <i>J. Ment. Sci.</i> 86, 478.</li> <li>1945. "Effects of control on stability". In: <i>Nature</i>, London, 155, 242–243.</li> <li>1946. "The behavioural properties of systems in equilibrium". In: <i>Amer. J. Psychol.</i> 59, 682–686.</li> <li>1947. "Principles of the Self-Organizing Dynamic System". In: <i>Journal of General Psychology</i> (1947). volume 37, pages 125–128.</li> <li>1948. "The homeostat". In: <i>Electron</i>, 20, 380.</li> <li>1962. "Principles of the Self-Organizing System". In: Heinz Von Foerster and George W. Zopf, Jr. (eds.), <i>Principles of Self-Organization</i> (Sponsored by Information Systems Branch, US Office of Naval Research). Republished as a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080515172118/http://emergence.org/ECO_site/ECO_Archive/Issue_6_1-2/Ashby.pdf">PDF</a> in Emergence: Complexity and Organization (E:CO) Special Double Issue Vol. 6, Nos. 1–2 2004, pp. 102–126.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Complex-adaptive-system.jpg/48px-Complex-adaptive-system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Complex-adaptive-system.jpg/64px-Complex-adaptive-system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Systems_science" title="Portal:Systems science">Systems science portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Controllability" title="Controllability">Controllability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Observability" title="Observability">observability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_regulator_theorem" title="Ethical regulator theorem">Ethical regulator theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_amplification" title="Intelligence amplification">Intelligence amplification</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output 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cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPickering2010" class="citation book cs1">Pickering, Andrew (2010). <i>The Cybernetic Brain</i>. London: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cybernetic+Brain&rft.place=London&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Pickering&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+Ross+Ashby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lilienfeld_Systems-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lilienfeld_Systems_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lilienfeld_Systems_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLilienfeld1978" class="citation book cs1">Lilienfeld, Robert (1978). <i>The Rise of Systems Theory: An Ideological Analysis</i>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Systems+Theory%3A+An+Ideological+Analysis&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Lilienfeld&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+Ross+Ashby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klir_Architecture-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Klir_Architecture_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klir_Architecture_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlir1985" class="citation book cs1">Klir, George (1985). <i>Architecture of Systems Problem Solving</i>. New York: Plenum Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture+of+Systems+Problem+Solving&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Plenum+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Klir&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+Ross+Ashby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bio-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bio_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bio_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bio_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ashby.info/biography.html">Biography of W. Ross Ashby</a> The W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ashby.info/autobiography.html">Autobiographical summary</a>, taken from Ashby's own notes, made about 1972.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cosma Shalizi, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bactra.org/notebooks/ashby.html">W. Ross Ashby</a> web page, 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ashby.info/journal/index.html">W. Ross Ashby Journal (1928–1972)</a> The W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ashby_Origin-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ashby_Origin_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ashby_Origin_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">W.R. Ashby, "The Origin of Adaptation", 1941, British Library, London. Available online: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ashby.info/origins.html">W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive</a>, 2021.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ashby.info/letters/turing.html">Alan Turing letter</a> The W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiener1954" class="citation book cs1">Wiener, Norbert (1954). <i>The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Human+Use+of+Human+Beings%3A+Cybernetics+and+Society&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Wiener&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+Ross+Ashby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZwick2004" class="citation journal cs1">Zwick, Martin (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/37775158.pdf">"An overview of reconstructability analysis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Kybernetes</i>. <b>33</b> (5/6): 877–905. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F03684920410533958">10.1108/03684920410533958</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kybernetes&rft.atitle=An+overview+of+reconstructability+analysis&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=5%2F6&rft.pages=877-905&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F03684920410533958&rft.aulast=Zwick&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F37775158.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+Ross+Ashby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardnerAshby1970" class="citation journal cs1">Gardner, M. R.; Ashby, W. R. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F228784a0">"Connectance of Large Dynamic (Cybernetic) Systems: Critical Values for Stability"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>228</b> (5273): 748. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970Natur.228..784G">1970Natur.228..784G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F228784a0">10.1038/228784a0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5472974">5472974</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4217071">4217071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Connectance+of+Large+Dynamic+%28Cybernetic%29+Systems%3A+Critical+Values+for+Stability&rft.volume=228&rft.issue=5273&rft.pages=748&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F228784a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4217071%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5472974&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1970Natur.228..784G&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=M.+R.&rft.au=Ashby%2C+W.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F228784a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+Ross+Ashby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-May_1972-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-May_1972_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay1972" class="citation journal cs1">May, Robert M. (18 August 1972). "Will a Large Complex System be Stable?". <i>Nature</i>. <b>238</b> (5364): 413–414. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972Natur.238..413M">1972Natur.238..413M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F238413a0">10.1038/238413a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4559589">4559589</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4262204">4262204</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Will+a+Large+Complex+System+be+Stable%3F&rft.volume=238&rft.issue=5364&rft.pages=413-414&rft.date=1972-08-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F238413a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4262204%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4559589&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972Natur.238..413M&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+Ross+Ashby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge1971" class="citation book cs1">George, F.H. (1971). <i>Cybernetics</i>. The English Universities Press Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cybernetics&rft.pub=The+English+Universities+Press+Ltd&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=George&rft.aufirst=F.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+Ross+Ashby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-I2C-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-I2C_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshby1956" class="citation book cs1">Ashby, William Ross (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/books/IntroCyb.pdf"><i>An Introduction to Cybernetics</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: Chapman & Hall.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Cybernetics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Chapman+%26+Hall&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Ashby&rft.aufirst=William+Ross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpespmc1.vub.ac.be%2Fbooks%2FIntroCyb.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+Ross+Ashby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger C. Conant and W. Ross Ashby, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Books/Conant_Ashby.pdf">Every good regulator of a system must be a model of that system</a>", <i>International Journal of Systems Science</i> vol <b>1</b> (1970), 89–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beer_Brain-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beer_Brain_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beer_Brain_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeer1981" class="citation book cs1">Beer, Stafford (1981). <i>Brain of the Firm, 2nd Edition</i>. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brain+of+the+Firm%2C+2nd+Edition&rft.place=West+Sussex&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Beer&rft.aufirst=Stafford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AW.+Ross+Ashby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cybsoc.org/ross.htm">"What Ashby Says..."</a> Retrieved 16 May 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://searcharchives.bl.uk/IAMS_VU2:IAMS032-003099590">William Ross Ashby Papers</a>, archives and manuscripts catalogue, the British Library. Retrieved 02 June 2020</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ashby.info/centenary.html">W. Ross Ashby Centenary Conference</a> The W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive, 2008</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a> Untold lives blog, 20 April 2016: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/untoldlives/2016/04/an-introduction-to-w-ross-ashby.html">Pioneering cybernetics: an introduction to W Ross Ashby</a></i>.</li> <li>Asaro, Peter (2008). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727172116/http://peterasaro.org/writing/Asaro%20Ashby.pdf">"From Mechanisms of Adaptation to Intelligence Amplifiers: The Philosophy of W. Ross Ashby,"</a></i> in Michael Wheeler, Philip Husbands and Owen Holland (eds.) <i>The Mechanical Mind in History</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Ross_Ashby&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/W._Ross_Ashby" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/W. Ross Ashby">W. Ross Ashby</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ashby.info/index.html">The W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive</a> includes an extensive biography, bibliography, letters, photographs, movies, and fully indexed images of all 7,189 pages of Ashby's 25 volume journal.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~asc/biographies/ashby/ashby.html">Homepage of William Ross Ashby</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160314143656/https://www.gwu.edu/~asc/biographies/ashby/ashby.html">Archived</a> 14 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> with a short text from the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica Yearbook</i> 1973, and some links.</li> <li>Asaro, Peter M. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cybersophe.org/writing/Asaro%20Ashby.pdf">"From Mechanisms of Adaptation to Intelligence Amplifiers: The Philosophy of W. Ross Ashby,"</a> in Michael Wheeler, Philip Husbands and Owen Holland (eds.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100822150044/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=11479">The Mechanical Mind in History</a>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 149–184.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bactra.org/notebooks/ashby.html">W. Ross Ashby</a> web page by <a href="/wiki/Cosma_Shalizi" title="Cosma Shalizi">Cosma Shalizi</a>, 1999.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASHBBOOK.html">W. Ross Ashby (1956): <i>An Introduction to Cybernetics</i>, (Chapman & Hall, London): available electronically</a>, Principia Cybernetica Web, 1999</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/reqvar.html">The Law of Requisite Variety</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141008212057/http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/REQVAR.HTML">Archived</a> 8 October 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Principia_Cybernetica_Web" class="mw-redirect" title="Principia Cybernetica Web">Principia Cybernetica Web</a>, 2001.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cybsoc.org/ross.htm">159 Aphorisms from Ashby and further links at the Cybernetics Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.panarchy.org/ashby/variety.1956.html">W. Ross Ashby, Cybernetics and Requisite Variety</a> (1956) from <i>An Introduction to Cybernetics</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.panarchy.org/ashby/adaptation.1960.html">W. Ross Ashby, Feedback, Adaptation and Stability</a> (1960) from <i>Design for a Brain</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hjAXkNbPfk"><span class="plainlinks">What is Cybernetics?</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a> Livas short introductory videos</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Neurocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_theory" title="Catastrophe theory">Catastrophe theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_theory" title="Conversation theory">Conversation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">Decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_cybernetics" title="Engineering cybernetics">Engineering cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_cybernetics" title="Management cybernetics">Management cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_cybernetics" title="Medical cybernetics">Medical cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-order_cybernetics" title="Second-order cybernetics">Second-order cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersemiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Cybersemiotics">Cybersemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergetics_(Haken)" title="Synergetics (Haken)">Synergetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyberneticist" title="Cyberneticist">Cyberneticians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lerner" title="Alexander Lerner">Alexander Lerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexey_Lyapunov" title="Alexey Lyapunov">Alexey Lyapunov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Radcliffe-Brown" title="Alfred Radcliffe-Brown">Alfred Radcliffe-Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allenna_Leonard" title="Allenna Leonard">Allenna Leonard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckminster_Fuller" title="Buckminster Fuller">Buckminster Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_(systems_scientist)" title="Charles François (systems scientist)">Charles François</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genevieve_Bell" title="Genevieve Bell">Genevieve Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Boden" title="Margaret Boden">Margaret Boden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_Joslyn" title="Cliff Joslyn">Cliff Joslyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Holst" title="Erich von Holst">Erich von Holst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld" title="Ernst von Glasersfeld">Ernst von Glasersfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Heylighen" title="Francis Heylighen">Francis Heylighen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Vester" title="Frederic Vester">Frederic Vester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Vickers" title="Geoffrey Vickers">Charles Geoffrey Vickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Pask" title="Gordon Pask">Gordon Pask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Brown" title="Gordon S. Brown">Gordon S. Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">I. A. Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Aleksander" title="Igor Aleksander">Igor Aleksander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacque_Fresco" title="Jacque Fresco">Jacque Fresco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_Johann_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" title="Jakob Johann von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Jixuan_Hu" title="Jason Jixuan Hu">Jason Jixuan Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Wilby" title="Jennifer Wilby">Jennifer Wilby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_N._Warfield" title="John N. Warfield">John N. Warfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maleyka_Abbaszadeh" title="Maleyka Abbaszadeh">Maleyka Abbaszadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Clynes" title="Manfred Clynes">Manfred Clynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_Mazur" title="Marian Mazur">Marian Mazur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._Katherine_Hayles" title="N. Katherine Hayles">N. Katherine Hayles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Bekhtereva" title="Natalia Bekhtereva">Natalia Bekhtereva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Grigorenko" title="Petro Grigorenko">Pyotr Grigorenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranulph_Glanville" title="Ranulph Glanville">Ranulph Glanville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trappl" title="Robert Trappl">Robert Trappl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_P._Kurdyumov" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei P. Kurdyumov">Sergei P. Kurdyumov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_Beer" title="Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Kauffman" title="Stuart Kauffman">Stuart Kauffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Umpleby" title="Stuart Umpleby">Stuart Umpleby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulla_Mitzdorf" title="Ulla Mitzdorf">Ulla Mitzdorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Turchin" title="Valentin Turchin">Valentin Turchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentino_Braitenberg" title="Valentino Braitenberg">Valentin Braitenberg</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">William Ross Ashby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Bradford_Cannon" title="Walter Bradford Cannon">Walter Bradford Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pitts" title="Walter Pitts">Walter Pitts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch" title="Warren Sturgis McCulloch">Warren McCulloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Grey_Walter" title="William Grey Walter">William Grey Walter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Systems_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Systems_science" title="Template:Systems science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Systems_science" title="Template talk:Systems science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Systems_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Systems science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Systems_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/System" title="System">System</a><br />types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_art" title="Systems art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_human%E2%80%93environment_system" title="Coupled human–environment system">Coupled human–environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">Multi-agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recommender_system" title="Recommender system">Recommender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">Social</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doubling_time" title="Doubling time">Doubling time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_leverage_points" title="Twelve leverage points">Leverage points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">Limiting factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">Negative feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">Positive feedback</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_systems" title="Living systems">Living systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_pharmacology" title="Systems pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_philosophy" title="Systems philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">Systems thinking</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_scientists" title="List of systems scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Aladjev" title="Victor Aladjev">Victor Aladjev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruzena_Bajcsy" title="Ruzena Bajcsy">Ruzena Bajcsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_H._B%C3%A1n%C3%A1thy" title="Béla H. Bánáthy">Béla H. Bánáthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Stafford_Beer" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Bellman" title="Richard E. Bellman">Richard E. Bellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Boden" title="Margaret Boden">Margaret Boden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_E._Boulding" title="Kenneth E. Boulding">Kenneth E. Boulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bowen" title="Murray Bowen">Murray Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Carley" title="Kathleen Carley">Kathleen Carley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cartwright" title="Mary Cartwright">Mary Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._West_Churchman" title="C. West Churchman">C. West Churchman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Clynes" title="Manfred Clynes">Manfred Clynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Emery" title="Fred Emery">Fred Emery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Forrest" title="Stephanie Forrest">Stephanie Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_J._Grosz" title="Barbara J. Grosz">Barbara Grosz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._S._Hall" title="Charles A. S. Hall">Charles A. S. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Jackson_(systems_scientist)" title="Mike Jackson (systems scientist)">Mike Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Kavraki" title="Lydia Kavraki">Lydia Kavraki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_J._Kay" title="James J. Kay">James J. Kay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faina_Mihajlovna_Kirillova" class="mw-redirect" title="Faina Mihajlovna Kirillova">Faina M. Kirillova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allenna_Leonard" title="Allenna Leonard">Allenna Leonard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Norton_Lorenz" title="Edward Norton Lorenz">Edward Norton Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donella_Meadows" title="Donella Meadows">Donella Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihajlo_D._Mesarovic" title="Mihajlo D. Mesarovic">Mihajlo D. Mesarovic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Grier_Miller" title="James Grier Miller">James Grier Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radhika_Nagpal" title="Radhika Nagpal">Radhika Nagpal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_T._Odum" title="Howard T. Odum">Howard T. Odum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapoport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Seddon" title="John Seddon">John Seddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Senge" title="Peter Senge">Peter Senge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katia_Sycara" title="Katia Sycara">Katia Sycara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Trist" title="Eric Trist">Eric Trist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuela_M._Veloso" title="Manuela M. Veloso">Manuela M. Veloso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Wilby" title="Jennifer Wilby">Jennifer Wilby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory in anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_archaeology" title="Systems theory in archaeology">Systems theory in archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_political_science" title="Systems theory in political science">Systems theory in political science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th 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navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#d3d3d3;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Society_for_General_Systems_Research_Presidents" title="Template:Society for General Systems Research Presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Society_for_General_Systems_Research_Presidents" title="Template talk:Society for General Systems Research Presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Society_for_General_Systems_Research_Presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Society for General Systems Research 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Boulding">Kenneth Boulding</a> (1957–58)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._McClelland" title="Charles A. McClelland">Charles McClelland</a> (1959–1961)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Willam Ashby</a> (1962–1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapaport</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Caws" title="Peter Caws">Peter Caws</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milsum" title="John Milsum">John Milsum</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Rubin" title="Milton Rubin">Milton Rubin</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_B._Slobodkin" title="Lawrence B. Slobodkin">Lawrence Slobodkin</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertram_Myron_Gross" title="Bertram Myron Gross">Bertram Gross</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Stafford_Beer" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Stafford Beer">Stafford Beer</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Grier_Miller" title="James Grier Miller">James Grier Miller</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Pask" title="Gordon Pask">Gordon Pask</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kjell_Samuelson" title="Kjell Samuelson">Kjell Samuelson</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Vickers" title="Geoffrey Vickers">Geoffrey Vickers</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_F._Ericson" title="Richard F. Ericson">Richard Ericson</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_R._Gaines" title="Brian R. Gaines">Brian Gaines</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rosen_(theoretical_biologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Rosen (theoretical biologist)">Robert Rosen</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_N._Warfield" title="John N. Warfield">John N. Warfield</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_A._Dillon" title="John A. Dillon">John A. Dillon</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Checkland" title="Peter Checkland">Peter Checkland</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a> (1987)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; box-shadow: inset 0 1px 0 0 #d3d3d3;;"><div><a href="/wiki/Template:International_Society_for_the_Systems_Sciences_Presidents" title="Template:International Society for the Systems Sciences Presidents"><b>International Society for the Systems Sciences Presidents</b></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/14852636">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1721586/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJdrGMkPdHrtbXfRBWHBfq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/120098032">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50002397">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12380195d">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12380195d">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00519651">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ashby, William Ross"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/SBLV187445">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jx20051018002&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1086886">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p071742468">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90551862">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ashby, William Ross, 1903-1972"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000264204&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=93339">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/dbqt069x30tfkzj">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810557122705606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007433182005171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14699765">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA02234647?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd120098032.html?language=en">Deutsche 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