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id="toc-Energy_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Places_with_near_100%_renewable_electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Places_with_near_100%_renewable_electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Places with near 100% renewable electricity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Places_with_near_100%_renewable_electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-100%_clean_electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#100%_clean_electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 100% clean electricity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-100%_clean_electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obstacles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obstacles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Obstacles </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Obstacles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Obstacles subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Obstacles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lack_of_urgency_and_coordination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lack_of_urgency_and_coordination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Lack of urgency and coordination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lack_of_urgency_and_coordination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Required_minerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Required_minerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Required minerals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Required_minerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutional_inertia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutional_inertia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Institutional inertia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutional_inertia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturing_concentration_in_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturing_concentration_in_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Manufacturing concentration in China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manufacturing_concentration_in_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intermittency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermittency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Intermittency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermittency-sublist" 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg/120px-Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg/180px-Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg/240px-Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">Carbon-neutral fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crosswind_kite_power" title="Crosswind kite power">Crosswind kite power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_heating" title="Geothermal heating">Geothermal heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">Run-of-the-river</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">Micro hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pico_hydro" title="Pico hydro">Pico hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_hydro" title="Small hydro">Small hydro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Marine current power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator" title="Tidal stream generator">Tidal stream generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_proposed_as_renewable_energy" title="Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy">Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country_and_territory" title="List of renewable energy topics by country and territory">Topics by country and territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Marketing and policy trends</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renewable_energy_sources" title="Template:Renewable energy sources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renewable_energy_sources" title="Template talk:Renewable energy sources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Renewable_energy_sources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Renewable energy sources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shepherds_Flat_Wind_Farm_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Shepherds_Flat_Wind_Farm_2011.jpg/220px-Shepherds_Flat_Wind_Farm_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Shepherds_Flat_Wind_Farm_2011.jpg/330px-Shepherds_Flat_Wind_Farm_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Shepherds_Flat_Wind_Farm_2011.jpg/440px-Shepherds_Flat_Wind_Farm_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2693" data-file-height="1801" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Shepherds_Flat_Wind_Farm" title="Shepherds Flat Wind Farm">Shepherds Flat Wind Farm</a> is an 845 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">megawatt</a> (MW) wind farm in the U.S. state of <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:02-09-15_First_Solar_Desert_Sunlight_Solar_Farm_(15863210084).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/02-09-15_First_Solar_Desert_Sunlight_Solar_Farm_%2815863210084%29.jpg/220px-02-09-15_First_Solar_Desert_Sunlight_Solar_Farm_%2815863210084%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/02-09-15_First_Solar_Desert_Sunlight_Solar_Farm_%2815863210084%29.jpg/330px-02-09-15_First_Solar_Desert_Sunlight_Solar_Farm_%2815863210084%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/02-09-15_First_Solar_Desert_Sunlight_Solar_Farm_%2815863210084%29.jpg/440px-02-09-15_First_Solar_Desert_Sunlight_Solar_Farm_%2815863210084%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2002" /></a><figcaption>The 550 MW <a href="/wiki/Desert_Sunlight_Solar_Farm" title="Desert Sunlight Solar Farm">Desert Sunlight Solar Farm</a> in California</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg/220px-ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg/330px-ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg/440px-ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2847" data-file-height="1768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>, China</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/220px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/330px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/440px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Plant in <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eingvellir" title="Þingvellir">Þingvellir</a>, Iceland</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ivanpah_Solar_Power_Facility_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ivanpah_Solar_Power_Facility_%282%29.jpg/220px-Ivanpah_Solar_Power_Facility_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ivanpah_Solar_Power_Facility_%282%29.jpg/330px-Ivanpah_Solar_Power_Facility_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ivanpah_Solar_Power_Facility_%282%29.jpg/440px-Ivanpah_Solar_Power_Facility_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1123" /></a><figcaption>The 392 MW <a href="/wiki/Ivanpah_Solar_Power_Facility" title="Ivanpah Solar Power Facility">Ivanpah Solar Power Facility</a> in California: The facility's three towers.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abengoa_Solar_(7336087392).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Abengoa_Solar_%287336087392%29.jpg/220px-Abengoa_Solar_%287336087392%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Abengoa_Solar_%287336087392%29.jpg/330px-Abengoa_Solar_%287336087392%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Abengoa_Solar_%287336087392%29.jpg/440px-Abengoa_Solar_%287336087392%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3926" data-file-height="2495" /></a><figcaption> Construction of the Salt Tanks, which provide efficient <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">thermal energy storage</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> so that output can be provided after the sun goes down, and output can be scheduled to meet demand requirements.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The 280 MW <a href="/wiki/Solana_Generating_Station" title="Solana Generating Station">Solana Generating Station</a> is designed to provide six hours of energy storage. This allows the plant to generate about 38 percent of its rated capacity over the course of a year.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bp_world_energy_consumption_2016.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bp_world_energy_consumption_2016.gif/220px-Bp_world_energy_consumption_2016.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bp_world_energy_consumption_2016.gif/330px-Bp_world_energy_consumption_2016.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bp_world_energy_consumption_2016.gif/440px-Bp_world_energy_consumption_2016.gif 2x" data-file-width="482" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption>Comparing trends in worldwide energy use. The growth of renewable energy to 2015 is the green line.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></figcaption></figure> 100% renewable energy is the goal of the use <a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">renewable resources</a> for all energy. 100% <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> for electricity, heating, cooling and transport is motivated by <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, pollution and other environmental issues, as well as economic and <a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a> concerns. Shifting the total global <a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">primary energy</a> supply to renewable sources requires <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy transition">a transition of the energy system</a>, since most of today's energy is derived from non-renewable <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>. Research into this topic is fairly new, with few studies published before 2009, but has gained increasing attention in recent years. The majority of studies show that a global transition to 100% renewable energy across all sectors – power, heat, transport and industry – is feasible and economically viable.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-8">[8]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] A cross-sectoral, holistic approach is seen as an important feature of 100% renewable energy systems and is based on the assumption "that the best solutions can be found only if one focuses on the synergies between the sectors" of the energy system such as electricity, heat, transport or industry.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen_et_al.-9">[9]</a> The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are seen to be primarily social and political rather than technological or economic.<a href="#cite_note-Koumoundouros-10">[10]</a> The key roadblocks are: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">climate change denial</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels_lobby" title="Fossil fuels lobby">fossil fuels lobby</a>, political inaction, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">unsustainable energy consumption</a>, outdated <a href="/wiki/Energy_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy infrastructure">energy infrastructure</a>, and financial constraints.<a href="#cite_note-John_Wiseman_et_al-11">[11]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Feasibility">Feasibility</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Feasibility">edit</a>]</div> No uniform definition for 100% renewable energy systems has been adopted across the published literature.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen_et_al.-9">[9]</a> Recent studies show that a global <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy transition">transition to 100% renewable energy</a> across all sectors – power, heat, transport and desalination well before 2050 is feasible.<a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-8">[8]</a> According to a review of the 181 <a href="/wiki/Peer-review" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-review">peer-reviewed</a> papers on 100% renewable energy that were published until 2018, "[t]he great majority of all publications highlights the technical feasibility and economic viability of 100% RE systems."<a href="#cite_note-Hansen_et_al.-9">[9]</a> A review of 97 papers published since 2004 and focusing on islands concluded that across the studies 100% renewable energy was found to be "technically feasible and economically viable."<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> A 2022 <a href="/wiki/Scientific_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific review">review</a> found that the main conclusion of most of the literature in the field is that 100% renewables is feasible worldwide at low cost.<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a> Existing technologies, including storage, are capable of generating a secure energy supply at every hour throughout the year. The sustainable energy system is more efficient and cost effective than the existing system.<a href="#cite_note-LUT-14">[14]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) stated in their <a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation" title="Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation">2011 report</a> that there is little that limits integrating <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable</a> technologies for satisfying the total global energy demand. <a href="/wiki/Mark_Z._Jacobson" title="Mark Z. Jacobson">Mark Z. Jacobson</a>, professor of civil and environmental engineering at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program, says that producing all new energy with <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a> by 2030 is feasible, and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic".<a href="#cite_note-Koumoundouros2-16">[16]</a> Jacobson says that <a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">energy costs</a> today with a wind, solar, and water system should be similar to today's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies.<a href="#cite_note-enpol20112-17">[17]</a> The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> His conclusions have been disputed by other researchers.<a href="#cite_note-disputeJacobson2-19">[19]</a> Jacobson published a response that disputed the piece point by point<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-20">[20]</a> and claimed that the authors were motivated by allegiance to energy technologies that the 2015 paper excluded.<a href="#cite_note-disputeJacobson2-19">[19]</a> Jacobson says that <a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">energy costs</a> today with a wind, solar, and water system should be similar to today's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies and he has rebutted their criticisms.<a href="#cite_note-enpol2011-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-disputeJacobson-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-20">[20]</a> A followup paper was published by Jacobson and others in 2022, in which paths to 100% renewable energy by 2035 and 2050 were developed for 145 countries.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The study concluded that a wind-water-solar (WWS) based system "requires less energy, costs less, and creates more jobs than business as usual". The cost reduction was primarily due to the substantial (-56.4%) decrease in overall energy demand thanks to the increased efficiency of relying on renewable electricity for all energy needs. In 2014, renewable sources such as <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">biomass</a>, and burnt waste provided 19% of the total energy consumed worldwide, with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass.<a href="#cite_note-Armaroli-24">[24]</a> The largest sector in terms of energy consumption is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8%, most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6%, followed by wind with 3.1%.<a href="#cite_note-Armaroli-24">[24]</a> As of 2018<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit">[update]</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/REN21" title="REN21">REN21</a>, transformation is picking up speed in the power sector, but urgent action is required in heating, cooling and transport.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033199720">.mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style>see <a href="#Places_with_near_100%_renewable_electricity">below</a>). At the national level, at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of the energy supply.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy use</a> has grown more quickly than even advocates anticipated.<a href="#cite_note-pg11-27">[27]</a> As of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit">[update]</a>, however, it needs to grow six times faster to limit global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F).<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_transition">Energy transition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Energy transition">edit</a>]</div> 100% renewable energy is an energy system where all energy use is sourced from <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy source">renewable energy sources</a>. The endeavor to use 100% renewable energy for electricity, heating/cooling and transport is motivated by <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>, pollution and other environmental issues, as well as economic and <a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a> concerns. Shifting the total global <a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">primary energy</a> supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system, since most of today's energy is derived from non-renewable <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> technologies to meet most of total global energy demand. <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy use</a> has grown more quickly than even advocates anticipated.<a href="#cite_note-pg112-29">[29]</a> As of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit">[update]</a>, however, it needs to grow six times faster to limit global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F).<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> 100% renewable energy in a country is typically a more challenging goal than <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon neutrality">carbon neutrality</a>. The latter is a <a href="/wiki/Climate_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate mitigation">climate mitigation</a> target, politically decided by many countries, and may also be achieved by balancing the total <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a> of the country (not only emissions from energy and fuel) with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon project">carbon projects</a> abroad. As of 2018<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit">[update]</a> according to <a href="/wiki/REN21" title="REN21">REN21</a> transformation is picking up speed in the power sector, but urgent action is required in heating, cooling and transport.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy. At the national level, at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of the energy supply.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] According to a review of the 181 <a href="/wiki/Peer-review" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-review">peer-reviewed</a> papers on 100% renewable energy published until 2018, "[t]he great majority of all publications highlights the technical feasibility and economic viability of 100% RE systems." While there are still many publications that focus on electricity only, there is a growing number of papers that cover different energy sectors and <a href="/wiki/Sector_coupling" class="mw-redirect" title="Sector coupling">sector-coupled</a>, integrated energy systems. This cross-sectoral, holistic approach is seen as an important feature of 100% renewable energy systems and is based on the assumption "that the best solutions can be found only if one focuses on the synergies between the sectors" of the energy system such as electricity, heat, transport or industry.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen_et_al.2-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_W._Pacala" title="Stephen W. Pacala">Stephen W. Pacala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Socolow" title="Robert H. Socolow">Robert H. Socolow</a> of Princeton University have developed a series of "<a href="/wiki/Climate_stabilization_wedge" title="Climate stabilization wedge">climate stabilization wedges</a>" that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, and "renewable energy sources", in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges".<a href="#cite_note-Pacala2-33">[33]</a> Similarly, in the United States, the independent <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (United States)">National Research Council</a> has noted that "sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">electricity generation</a> and thus help confront issues related to climate change, <a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a>, and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand."<a href="#cite_note-NRC2-34">[34]</a> The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological. According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">climate change denial</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels_lobby" title="Fossil fuels lobby">fossil fuels lobby</a>, political inaction, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">unsustainable energy consumption</a>, outdated <a href="/wiki/Energy_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy infrastructure">energy infrastructure</a>, and financial constraints.<a href="#cite_note-John_Wiseman_et_al2-35">[35]</a> Studies have shown that Southeast Asia countries could achieve almost 100% renewable elecitricity based on solar, wind, and off-river pumped hydro energy storage at a competitive LCOE of around US$55–115/MWh.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Using 100% renewable energy was first suggested in a paper in <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a><a href="#cite_note-sorensen-1975-37">[37]</a> published in 1975 by Danish physicist <a href="/wiki/Bent_S%C3%B8rensen_(physicist)" title="Bent Sørensen (physicist)">Bent Sørensen</a>, which was followed by several other proposals.<a href="#cite_note-Hohmeyer-38">[38]</a> In 1976, <a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">energy policy</a> analyst <a href="/wiki/Amory_Lovins" title="Amory Lovins">Amory Lovins</a> coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Soft_energy_path" title="Soft energy path">soft energy path</a>" to describe an alternative future where <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a> and appropriate <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> sources steadily replace a centralized energy system based on fossil and nuclear fuels.<a href="#cite_note-joshua2011-39">[39]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timeline_of_selected_key_milestones_of_100%25_renewable_energy_systems_research.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Timeline_of_selected_key_milestones_of_100%25_renewable_energy_systems_research.gif/220px-Timeline_of_selected_key_milestones_of_100%25_renewable_energy_systems_research.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Timeline_of_selected_key_milestones_of_100%25_renewable_energy_systems_research.gif/330px-Timeline_of_selected_key_milestones_of_100%25_renewable_energy_systems_research.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Timeline_of_selected_key_milestones_of_100%25_renewable_energy_systems_research.gif/440px-Timeline_of_selected_key_milestones_of_100%25_renewable_energy_systems_research.gif 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="252" /></a><figcaption>Timeline of selected key milestones of 100% renewable energy systems research<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1998, the first detailed analysis of scenarios with high shares of renewables were published. These were followed by the first detailed 100% scenarios. In 2006, a PhD thesis was published by Czisch in which it was shown that in a 100% renewable scenario energy supply could match demand in every hour of the year in Europe and North Africa. In the same year, Danish Energy professor <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Lund_(academic)" title="Henrik Lund (academic)">Henrik Lund</a> published a first paper<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> in which he addresses the optimal combination of renewables, which was followed by several other papers on the <a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">transition</a> to 100% renewable energy in Denmark. Since then, Lund has been publishing several papers on 100% renewable energy. After 2009, publications began to rise steeply, covering 100% scenarios for countries in Europe, America, Australia and other parts of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Hohmeyer-38">[38]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Development_of_peer-reviewed_journal_articles_based_on_100%25_RE_system_analyses_for_concrete_geographic_entities.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Development_of_peer-reviewed_journal_articles_based_on_100%25_RE_system_analyses_for_concrete_geographic_entities.gif/220px-Development_of_peer-reviewed_journal_articles_based_on_100%25_RE_system_analyses_for_concrete_geographic_entities.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Development_of_peer-reviewed_journal_articles_based_on_100%25_RE_system_analyses_for_concrete_geographic_entities.gif/330px-Development_of_peer-reviewed_journal_articles_based_on_100%25_RE_system_analyses_for_concrete_geographic_entities.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Development_of_peer-reviewed_journal_articles_based_on_100%25_RE_system_analyses_for_concrete_geographic_entities.gif/440px-Development_of_peer-reviewed_journal_articles_based_on_100%25_RE_system_analyses_for_concrete_geographic_entities.gif 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption>Development of peer-reviewed journal articles based on 100% RE system analyses for concrete geographic entities<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a></figcaption></figure> Even in the early 21st century, it was extraordinary for scientists and decision-makers to consider the concept of 100% renewable electricity. However, renewable energy progress has been so rapid that things have totally changed since then:<a href="#cite_note-diesrev-41">[41]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> <a href="/wiki/Solar_photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar photovoltaic">Solar photovoltaic</a> modules have dropped about 75 percent in price. Current scientific and technological advances in the laboratory suggest that they may become less expensive than the cost of installation of a photovoltaic system on residential or commercial buildings. On-shore <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a> is spreading over all continents and is economically competitive with fossil and nuclear power in several regions. <a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_thermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentrated solar thermal">Concentrated solar thermal</a> power (CST) with <a href="/wiki/Thermal_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal storage">thermal storage</a> has moved from the demonstration stage of maturity to the limited commercial stage and still has the potential for further cost reductions of about 50 percent.<a href="#cite_note-diesrev-41">[41]</a> </blockquote> Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates had anticipated.<a href="#cite_note-pg11-27">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">Wind turbines</a> generate 39<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> percent of Danish electricity, and Denmark has many <a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">biogas</a> digesters and waste-to-energy plants as well. Together, wind and biomass provide 44% of the electricity consumed by the country's six million inhabitants. In 2010, Portugal's 10 million people produced more than half their electricity from indigenous renewable energy resources. Spain's 40 million inhabitants meet one-third of their electrical needs from renewables.<a href="#cite_note-pg11-27">[27]</a> Renewable energy has a history of strong public support. In America, for example, a 2013 <a href="/wiki/Gallup_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup survey">Gallup survey</a> showed that two in three Americans want the U.S. to increase domestic energy production using solar power (76%), wind power (71%), and natural gas (65%). Far fewer want more petroleum production (46%) and more nuclear power (37%). Least favored is coal, with about one in three Americans favouring it.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/REN21" title="REN21">REN21</a> says renewable energy already plays a significant role and there are many policy targets that aim to increase this: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond, and some 120 countries have various policy targets for longer-term shares of renewable energy, including a binding 20% by 2020 target for the European Union. Some countries have much higher long-term policy targets of up to 100% renewables. Outside Europe, a diverse group of 20 or more other countries target renewable energy shares in the 2020–2030 time frame that range from 10% to 50%.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> </blockquote> Supporters of 100% renewable energy do not consider <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> as renewable or <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">perceived risks</a> of disasters and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Waste">high-level waste management</a>, and consider <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> to have limited safe storage potential.<a href="#cite_note-Hohmeyer-38">[38]</a> These constraints have also led to an interest in 100% renewable energy. A well established body of academic literature has been written over the past decade[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>], evaluating scenarios for 100% renewable energy for various geographical areas. In recent years[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>], more detailed analyses have emerged from government and industry sources.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The incentive to use 100% renewable energy is created by <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> and ecological as well as economic concerns, post <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Renewable_energy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Renewable_energy.png/350px-Renewable_energy.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Renewable_energy.png/525px-Renewable_energy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Renewable_energy.png/700px-Renewable_energy.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Share of electricity production from renewables, 2023<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></figcaption></figure> The first country to propose 100% renewable energy was <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, in 1998.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Proposals have been made for Japan in 2003,<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and for Australia in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_electricity_production_from_renewable_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources">Albania, Iceland, and Paraguay</a> obtain essentially all of their electricity from renewable sources (Albania and Paraguay 100% from <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectricity</a>, Iceland 72% hydro and 28% geothermal).<a href="#cite_note-:2-50">[50]</a> Norway obtains nearly all of its electricity from renewable sources (97 percent from hydropower).<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Iceland proposed using hydrogen for transportation and its fishing fleet. Australia proposed biofuel for those elements of transportation not easily converted to electricity. The road map for the United States,<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> commitment by Denmark,<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> and Vision 2050 for Europe set a 2050 timeline for converting to 100% renewable energy,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> later reduced to 2040 in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Zero Carbon Britain 2030 proposes eliminating carbon emissions in Britain by 2030 by transitioning to renewable energy.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In 2015, Hawaii enacted a law that the Renewable Portfolio Standard shall be 100 percent by 2045. This is often confused with renewable energy. If electricity produced on the grid is 65 GWh from fossil fuel and 35 GWh from renewable energy and rooftop off grid solar produces 80 GWh of renewable energy, then the total renewable energy is 115 GWh and the total electricity on the grid is 100 GWh. Then the RPS is 115 percent.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Cities like <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a> in France, planned to use 100% renewable energy by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Similarly, in the United States, the independent <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (United States)">National Research Council</a> has noted that "sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, <a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a>, and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand."<a href="#cite_note-NRC-61">[61]</a> It is estimated that the world will spend an extra $8 trillion over the next 25 years to prolong the use of non-renewable resources, a cost that would be eliminated by transitioning instead to 100% renewable energy.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Research that has been published in <a href="/wiki/Energy_Policy_(journal)" title="Energy Policy (journal)">Energy Policy</a> suggests that converting the entire world to 100% renewable energy by 2050 is both possible and affordable, but requires political support.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> It would require building many more <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a> and solar power systems but wouldn't utilize <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a>. Other changes involve use of <a href="/wiki/Electric_car" title="Electric car">electric cars</a> and the development of enhanced transmission grids and storage.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> As part of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>, countries periodically update their climate change targets for the future, by 2018 no <a href="/wiki/G20" title="G20">G20 country</a> had committed to a 100% renewable target.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Until 2018, there were 181 peer-reviewed papers on 100% renewable energy. In the same year, 100% renewable energy was also mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_%C2%B0C" title="Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C">Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C</a> as a potential means to "expand the range of 1.5 °C pathways", if the findings can be corroborated.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen_et_al.-9">[9]</a> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:#00CC4B; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 267.17780051813px; border-left-color:#de2821"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#de2821"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#de2821"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 137.63819204712px; border-left-color:#005CE6"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#005CE6"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#005CE6"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 55.796527497726px; border-left-color:#ef8e39"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#ef8e39"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#ef8e39"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:50.362320163576px 86.392341719284px 0 0; border-top-color:#313c42"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#313c42"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:0; border-width:0 41.053772886846px 100px 0; border-right-color:#7C6250"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;right:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 100px 0;border-color:#7C6250"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> World total primary energy consumption by type in 2020<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Oil (31.2%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Coal (27.2%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Natural Gas (24.7%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Hydro (<a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewables</a>) (6.9%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Nuclear (4.3%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Others (<a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewables</a>) (5.7%)</div> </div> </div></div> As of 2021, wind and solar were consistently increasing their share worldwide, but still represented just 5% of global primary energy consumption, albeit far more of <a href="/wiki/Exergy" title="Exergy">useful energy consumption</a>. A report by <a href="/wiki/J.P._Morgan_Asset_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="J.P. Morgan Asset Management">J.P. Morgan Asset Management</a> (the biggest lender to fossil fuels in the world) analyzed renewable energy forecasts made by eight scientists and research bodies (including <a href="/wiki/Bent_S%C3%B8rensen_(physicist)" title="Bent Sørensen (physicist)">Bent Sorensen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Z._Jacobson" title="Mark Z. Jacobson">Mark Z. Jacobson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amory_Lovins" title="Amory Lovins">Amory Lovins</a>) between 1970 and 2020 and claimed that all of them were unrealistically optimistic as they ignored "energy density, intermittency and the complex realities of incumbent energy systems".<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Places_with_near_100%_renewable_electricity">Places with near 100% renewable electricity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Places with near 100% renewable electricity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_renewable_electricity_production" title="List of countries by renewable electricity production">List of countries by renewable electricity production</a></div> The following places meet 90% or more of their average yearly electricity demand with renewable energy (incomplete list): <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg/21px-Flag_of_Albania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg/32px-Flag_of_Albania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg/42px-Flag_of_Albania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>: Hydroelectric<a href="#cite_note-:2-50">[50]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_American_Samoa.svg/23px-Flag_of_American_Samoa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_American_Samoa.svg/35px-Flag_of_American_Samoa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_American_Samoa.svg/46px-Flag_of_American_Samoa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tau,_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Tau, American Samoa">Tau</a>: ~100% solar power, with battery backup<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /> <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>: Hydropower supplies 100 percent of Tasmania's electricity. (Pending legislation plans for %200 renewable power by 2040, with the remainder to be sent to mainland Australia via <a href="/wiki/Submarine_power_cable" title="Submarine power cable">submarine power cables</a>)<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Austria" title="Lower Austria">Lower Austria</a>: 63% hydroelectricity, 26% wind, 9% biomass, 2% solar<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bhutan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bhutan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bhutan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>: Largely hydroelectricity; exports 70% of its production due to excess energy generated; no fossil fuel power plants.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>: 97% hydroelectric<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a>: 97% hydroelectricity, 3% wind, <1% petroleum (diesel in four off-grid communities), <1% natural gas<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a>: 95% hydroelectricity<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>: 99% renewable electricity is the main <a href="/wiki/Quebec#Energy" title="Quebec">energy used in Quebec</a> (41%), followed by oil (38%) and natural gas (10%)<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a>: 94% hydroelectricity<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>: 99% renewable electricity. Hydroelectric (90%), geothermal, wind (and others)<a href="#cite_note-:1-82">[82]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/31px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>: Almost 100% hydro, but only 9% have access to electricity.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /> <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sams%C3%B8" title="Samsø">Samsø</a>: Net greater than 100% wind power and biomass, connected to mainland for balance and backup power<a href="#cite_note-time-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>: Mostly hydroelectricity (>90%). Smaller quantities of wind, solar, and geothermal. 45% of the population has access to electricity As of 2018<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit">[update]</a>, and there is a 100% access target set in 2017 for 2025.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aller-Leine_Valley" title="Aller-Leine Valley">Aller-Leine Valley</a>: 63.5% wind, 30% biogas, 10.7% hydro, 3.1% solar<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildpoldsried" title="Wildpoldsried">Wildpoldsried</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>: 500% wind, solar, hydro<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /> <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tilos" title="Tilos">Tilos</a>: 100% wind and solar power, with battery backup<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/21px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/42px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="900" /> <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>: 72% hydroelectricity, 28% geothermal, wind, and solar power, less than 0.1% combustible fuel (off-grid diesel)<a href="#cite_note-auto-92">[92]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /> <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>: 96% hydroelectricity, 2% combustible fuel, 2% geothermal, wind, and solar<a href="#cite_note-auto-92">[92]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/23px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/35px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/46px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Island" title="South Island">South Island</a>: 98.2% hydroelectricity and 1.6% wind. Around one-fifth of generation is exported to the <a href="/wiki/North_Island" title="North Island">North Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag" title="Flag">Tokelau</a>: 93% solar power, with battery backup and 7% coconut biofuel<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg/23px-Flag_of_Paraguay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg/35px-Flag_of_Paraguay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg/46px-Flag_of_Paraguay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="660" /> <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>: <a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Paraguay" title="Electricity sector in Paraguay">Electricity sector in Paraguay</a> is 100% hydroelectricity, about 90% of which is exported, remaining 10% covers domestic demand<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="280" /> <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>: Hydropower supplies nearly 100 percent of Tajikistan's electricity.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>: 97% of electricity (2020) produced from renewables, mainly wind followed by hydroelectric.<a href="#cite_note-RenLowCarbon-98">[98]</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kodiak_Island" title="Kodiak Island">Kodiak Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flag" title="Flag">Alaska</a>: 80.9% hydroelectricity, 19.8% wind power, 0.3% diesel generator<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_Alto" class="mw-redirect" title="Palo Alto">Palo Alto</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>: 50% hydro, rest a combination of solar, wind and biogas<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspen,_Colorado" title="Aspen, Colorado">Aspen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>: Hydroelectric, wind and solar and geothermal<a href="#cite_note-aspentimes-101">[101]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensburg,_Kansas" title="Greensburg, Kansas">Greensburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>: 100% - wind balanced with grid connection<a href="#cite_note-aspentimes-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgetown,_Texas" title="Georgetown, Texas">Georgetown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>: 100% - 154MW solar and wind balanced with grid connection<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlington,_Vermont" title="Burlington, Vermont">Burlington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a>: 35.3% hydro, 35.3% wood, 27.9% wind, 1.4% solar photovoltaic<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centralia,_Washington" title="Centralia, Washington">Centralia</a>: 90.6% hydro, 7.9% nuclear<a href="#cite_note-:0-105">[105]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chelan_County,_Washington" title="Chelan County, Washington">Chelan County</a>: 100% renewable energy made up of 99.98% hydroelectric and 0.02% wind power.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_County,_Washington" title="Douglas County, Washington">Douglas County</a>: 100% hydro<a href="#cite_note-:0-105">[105]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pend_Oreille_County,_Washington" title="Pend Oreille County, Washington">Pend Oreille County</a>: 97.1% hydro<a href="#cite_note-:0-105">[105]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seattle,_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle</a>: 86% hydroelectricity, 7% wind, 1% biogas<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-105">[105]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacoma,_Washington" title="Tacoma, Washington">Tacoma</a>: 85% hydro, 6% wind<a href="#cite_note-:0-105">[105]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/23px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/35px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/45px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>: 94.5% renewable electricity; wind power (and biomass and solar power) is used to stretch hydroelectricity reserves into the dry season<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></li></ul> Some other places have high percentages, for example the <a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Denmark" title="Electricity sector in Denmark">electricity sector in Denmark</a>, as of 2014<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit">[update]</a>, is 45% wind power, with plans in place to reach 85%. The <a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Canada" title="Electricity sector in Canada">electricity sector in Canada</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_New_Zealand" title="Electricity sector in New Zealand">electricity sector in New Zealand</a> have even higher percentages of renewables (mostly hydro), 65% and 75% respectively, and Austria is approaching 70%.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> As of 2015<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit">[update]</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Germany" title="Electricity sector in Germany">electricity sector in Germany</a> sometimes meets almost 100% of the electricity demand with PV and wind power, and renewable electricity is over 25%.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a> has 94.8% of installed capacity as hydroelectric, 5.2% diesel generator; but Albania imports 39% of its electricity.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> In 2016, Portugal achieved 100% renewable electricity for four days between 7 and 11 May, partly because <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">efficient energy use</a> had reduced electricity demand.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> France and Sweden have low carbon intensity, since they predominantly use a mixture of nuclear power and hydroelectricity. In 2018 Scotland met 76% of their demand from renewable sources.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Although electricity is currently around a quarter of <a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">world energy supply and consumption</a>; primary energy use is expected to decrease with renewable energy deployment as electricity use increases, as it is likely to be combined with some degree of further electrification.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Electric_car" title="Electric car">electric cars</a> achieve much better <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">fuel efficiency</a> than fossil fuel cars, and another example is <a href="/wiki/Renewable_heat" title="Renewable heat">renewable heat</a> such as in the case of Denmark, which is proposing to move to greater use of heat pumps for heating buildings to provide multiple kilowatts of heat per kilowatt of electricity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="100%_clean_electricity">100% clean electricity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 100% clean electricity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Renewable_portfolio_standard" title="Renewable portfolio standard">Renewable portfolio standard</a></div> Other electricity generating sources are considered clean, though not necessarily renewable, as they also do not emit carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases and air pollutants. The largest of these is nuclear energy, which produces no emissions. Some argue that transitioning to 100% renewable energy would be too slow to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">limit climate change</a>, and that closing down <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power stations</a> is a mistake.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a> projects may still use coal or natural gas but capture carbon dioxide for storage or alternative uses. Pathways to eliminate greenhouse gases may include these in addition to renewable energy to save money,<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> or to avoid shutting down existing plants and allow for flexibility in designing a carbon-free electric grid. In 2018, California passed SB 100, which mandates 100% clean, carbon-free by 2045, including a 60% renewable electricity goal by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> 2019 legislation in <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> also requires 100% clean electricity by 2045, eliminating coal by 2025.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Further states and territories to require 100% carbon-free electricity are Hawaii, Maine, Minnesota, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, Virginia, Puerto Rico, and Washington, DC.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> According to a study by Global Energy Monitor, China is expected to generate 1,200 gigawatts of renewable energy (wind and solar) by 2025.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Obstacles">Obstacles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Obstacles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of global warming">Politics of global warming</a></div> According to <a href="/wiki/Mark_Z._Jacobson" title="Mark Z. Jacobson">Mark Z. Jacobson</a>, the most significant barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low carbon energy strategies, at the pace required to prevent <a href="/wiki/Runaway_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway climate change">runaway climate change</a>, are primarily political and not technological.<a href="#cite_note-Koumoundouros-10">[10]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:100%25_renewable_energy#Dubious" title="Talk:100% renewable energy">discuss</a>] According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are:<a href="#cite_note-John_Wiseman_et_al-11">[11]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels_lobby" title="Fossil fuels lobby">Efforts to impede renewable energy by the fossil fuel industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Political</a> paralysis</li> <li>Unsustainable consumption of energy and resources</li> <li>Path dependencies and outdated infrastructure</li> <li>Financial and governance constraints</li></ul> </blockquote> In 2011, the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>, some of the world's leading climate researchers selected by the United Nations, said "as infrastructure and energy systems develop, in spite of the complexities, there are few, if any, fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet a majority share of total energy demand in locations where suitable renewable resources exist or can be supplied".<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2011_17-127">[127]</a> IPCC scenarios "generally indicate that growth in renewable energy will be widespread around the world".<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2011_22-128">[128]</a> The IPCC said that if governments were supportive, and the full complement of renewable energy technologies were deployed, renewable energy supply could account for almost 80% of the world's energy use within forty years.<a href="#cite_note-ipccccc-129">[129]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Pachauri" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajendra Pachauri">Rajendra Pachauri</a>, chairman of the IPCC, said the necessary investment in renewables would cost only about 1% of global GDP annually. This approach could contain greenhouse gas levels to less than 450 parts per million, the safe level beyond which climate change becomes catastrophic and irreversible.<a href="#cite_note-ipccccc-129">[129]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_W._Pacala" title="Stephen W. Pacala">Stephen W. Pacala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Socolow" title="Robert H. Socolow">Robert H. Socolow</a> have developed a series of "<a href="/wiki/Climate_stabilization_wedge" title="Climate stabilization wedge">climate stabilization wedges</a>" that can allow societies to maintain their quality of life while avoiding catastrophic <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, and "renewable energy sources", in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges".<a href="#cite_note-Pacala-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lack_of_urgency_and_coordination">Lack of urgency and coordination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lack of urgency and coordination">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation#Enaction_of_a_state_of_emergency" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation § Enaction of a state of emergency</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Lester_R._Brown" title="Lester R. Brown">Lester R. Brown</a> founder and president of the <a href="/wiki/Earth_Policy_Institute" title="Earth Policy Institute">Earth Policy Institute</a>, a nonprofit research organization based in Washington, D.C., says a rapid transition to 100% renewable energy is both possible and necessary. Brown compares with the U.S. entry into World War II and the subsequent rapid mobilization and transformation of the US industry and economy. A quick transition to 100% renewable energy and saving of our civilization is proposed by Brown to follow an approach with similar urgency.<a href="#cite_note-Plan_B_4.0-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Required_minerals">Required minerals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Required minerals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_aspects_of_the_electric_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental aspects of the electric car">Environmental aspects of the electric car</a></div> According to <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> the "below 2°C" climate scenario requires 3 billions of tonnes of metals and minerals by 2050. Supply of mined resources such as zinc, molybdenum, silver, nickel, copper must increase by up to 500%.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> A 2018 study analysed the metal requirements to transition the global energy system up to 2060. Currently used battery technologies and known reserves are not compatible with the transition scenario as a result of insufficient <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> reserves. Batteries containing less or no cobalt are feasible. Lithium is much more difficult to replace with maintained performance and cost.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Institutional_inertia">Institutional inertia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Institutional inertia">edit</a>]</div> A review suggests large institutions are prone to resisting "the challenge of 100% RE scenarios based on the dogma that the world cannot do without fossil fuels and nuclear energy". Institutions that have received extensive criticism include the <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>, with the latter also being criticized for not including studies on 100% RE systems in their IPCC reports.<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manufacturing_concentration_in_China">Manufacturing concentration in China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Manufacturing concentration in China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable energy in China</a></div> A report found that China is about to produce "almost 95% of the world's polysilicon and the ingots and wafers" of the solar panel supply chain, with this level of concentration in any global supply chain "would represent a considerable vulnerability".<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intermittency">Intermittency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Intermittency">edit</a>]</div> One of the main obstacles to 100% renewable energy is the <a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">intermittency or variability of renewable energy sources</a> – such as times when sufficient amounts of energy can be generated neither via wind nor via solar power ("<a href="/wiki/Dunkelflaute" title="Dunkelflaute">Dunkelflauten</a>"). Proposed notable options to manage this intermittency by the time the first transitional period to 100% renewable energy is completed include: <ul><li>certain forms of (flexible) <a href="/wiki/Dispatchable_generation" title="Dispatchable generation">dispatchable generation</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.energy.2017.07.027-135">[135]</a> such as biomass (including forms of <a href="/wiki/Pellet_fuel" title="Pellet fuel">pellet fuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woodchips" title="Woodchips">woodchips</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae_fuel" title="Algae fuel">algae fuel</a>/<a href="/wiki/Algae_bioreactor" title="Algae bioreactor">bioreactors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> grown on land <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat">formerly used for meat-production</a>) or hydroelectricity</li> <li>diversification of (nonsynchronous) renewables<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.energy.2017.07.027-135">[135]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_grid" title="Super grid">super grids</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.energy.2017.07.027-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.esr.2019.01.007-137">[137]</a> (due to foreign unique capacities/resources for generation and storage) and strengthening interconnections<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a> and larger grids in general (due to differences in weather or daytime)</li> <li>curtailing excess generation<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.energy.2017.07.027-135">[135]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Power-to-X" title="Power-to-X">power-to-X</a> (e.g. producing green hydrogen immediately when there is abundant energy)<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal energy</a> to reduce energy storage needs<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> or potentially as dispatchable energy via in-reservoir storage<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></li> <li>oversizing solar and wind capacities<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a></li> <li>flexible energy demand- and supply-regulating <a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">smart grids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_response" title="Demand response">Demand response</a> technologies<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.energy.2017.07.027-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle-to-grid" title="Vehicle-to-grid">Vehicle-to-grid</a> uses a vehicle's battery to supply the grid when needed<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a></li> <li>Smart scheduling<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></li> <li>Monitoring and/or controlling energy use that is noncritical during periods of peak power consumption, and returning their function during nonpeak hours, such as for residential devices (like washing machines)<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></li> <li>Optimizing the interaction between electricity, heat, transport, and industry<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a></li></ul></li> <li>technologies and options for <a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">energy storage</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.energy.2017.07.027-135">[135]</a> For example: <ul><li>Batteries<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.renene.2021.11.067-149">[149]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">Thermal energy storage</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></li> <li>Ammonia<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">Green hydrogen</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_energy_storage_projects" class="mw-redirect" title="List of energy storage projects">List of energy storage projects</a></div></li></ul></li></ul> In 2013, Smil analyzed proposals to depend on wind and solar-generated electricity including the proposals of Jacobson and colleagues, and writing in an issue of Spectrum prepared by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a>, he identified numerous points of concern, such as cost, intermittent power supply, growing <a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBYism</a>, and a lack of infrastructure as negative factors and said that "History and a consideration of the technical requirements show that the problem is much greater than these advocates have supposed."<a href="#cite_note-slate.com-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Smil and Hansen are concerned about the <a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">variable output</a> of solar and wind power. According to <a href="/wiki/Amory_Lovins" title="Amory Lovins">Amory Lovins</a> the <a href="/wiki/Electricity_grid" class="mw-redirect" title="Electricity grid">electricity grid</a> alone can compensate for variability, just as it routinely backs up nonworking coal-fired and nuclear plants with working ones.<a href="#cite_note-lovi12-157">[157]</a> In November 2014 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change came out with their <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Fifth Assessment Report">fifth report</a>, saying that in the absence of any one technology (such as bioenergy, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_capture_and_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide capture and storage">carbon dioxide capture and storage</a>, nuclear, wind and solar), climate change mitigation costs can increase substantially depending on which technology is absent. For example, it may cost 40% more to reduce carbon emissions without carbon dioxide capture. (Table 3.2)<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> According to a 2018 study, "in the absence of firm low-carbon <a href="/wiki/Dispatchable_generation" title="Dispatchable generation">[dispatchable]</a> resources, the cost of decarbonizing power generation rises rapidly as the emissions limit approaches zero" and a renewable-only generation (with batteries) results in energy prices 42-163% higher in regions with lower VRE availability, and 11-105% higher in regions with higher VRE availability. The study introduced the term "firm low-carbon energy source" (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal</a>), which is intended to operate along "fast-burst" sources (e.g. batteries) and "fuel saving" (VRE).<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> says that there has been too much attention on issue of the variability of renewable electricity production.<a href="#cite_note-IEA-160">[160]</a> The issue of <a href="/wiki/Intermittent_energy_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermittent energy source">intermittent supply</a> applies to popular renewable technologies, mainly <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar photovoltaics">solar photovoltaics</a>, and its significance depends on a range of factors that include the market penetration of the renewables concerned, the balance of plant and the wider connectivity of the system, as well as the demand side flexibility. Variability is rarely a barrier to increased renewable energy deployment when <a href="/wiki/Dispatchable_generation" title="Dispatchable generation">dispatchable generation</a> such as hydroelectricity or solar thermal storage is also available. But at high levels of market penetration it requires careful analysis and management, and additional costs may be required for back-up or system modification.<a href="#cite_note-IEA-160">[160]</a> Renewable electricity supply in the 20-50+% penetration range has already been implemented in several European systems, albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system:<a href="#cite_note-Lovins11-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seasonal_energy_storage">Seasonal energy storage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Seasonal energy storage">edit</a>]</div> Hydropower is currently the only large scale low-carbon seasonal energy storage. In countries with high variation in energy demand by season (for example the UK uses far more gas for heating in the winter than it uses electricity) but lacking hydropower <a href="/wiki/Electrical_interconnector" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical interconnector">electrical interconnectors</a> to countries with lots of hydropower (e.g. UK - Norway), electricity from hydropower is likely to be insufficient and development of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_economy" title="Hydrogen economy">hydrogen economy</a> would likely be needed: this is being trialled in the UK and 8 TWh of inter-seasonal hydrogen energy storage has been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> In Australia, as well as storing renewable energy as hydrogen, it is also proposed to be exported in the form of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Open_research_questions">Open research questions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Open research questions">edit</a>]</div> A review identified major gaps and neglected aspects – open <a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">research questions</a> – in the 100% RE literature. These include:<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_multi-scalar_policy_mix_for_reducing_vulnerability_to_low-carbon_transitions.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/A_multi-scalar_policy_mix_for_reducing_vulnerability_to_low-carbon_transitions.jpg/220px-A_multi-scalar_policy_mix_for_reducing_vulnerability_to_low-carbon_transitions.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/A_multi-scalar_policy_mix_for_reducing_vulnerability_to_low-carbon_transitions.jpg/330px-A_multi-scalar_policy_mix_for_reducing_vulnerability_to_low-carbon_transitions.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/A_multi-scalar_policy_mix_for_reducing_vulnerability_to_low-carbon_transitions.jpg/440px-A_multi-scalar_policy_mix_for_reducing_vulnerability_to_low-carbon_transitions.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1117" /></a><figcaption>A multi-scalar <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policy</a> mix for reducing vulnerability to low-carbon transitions<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Coupling of energy system models and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_assessment_modelling" title="Integrated assessment modelling">integrated assessment models</a></li> <li>Holistic analysis of material criticality for 100% RE systems, with consideration of <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy#Conservation_areas,_recycling_and_rare-earth_elements" title="Renewable energy">recycling</a></li> <li>Impact of inter-annual resource variations and respective inter-annual storage demand</li> <li>District heating and cooling in transition scenarios</li> <li>Increased geo-spatial resolution and coverage of global 100% RE system analyses</li> <li>Including <a href="/wiki/Off-the-grid" title="Off-the-grid">off-grid solutions</a> or a transition of off-grid and on-grid solutions in comprehensive energy system transition pathways</li> <li>Societal risks and issues of the transition, including linking it to energy security and consequences for peace and stability, and maximum area availability in societies</li> <li>Model intercomparisons of analyses</li> <li>Various questions for design particulars of intermittency management</li> <li>Issues of equity, environmental issues, community wellbeing, energy justice, social acceptance, and good governance – research on how to make RE technologies more equitable, accountable, and just, which may help to both contextualize and manage this potential barrier (including <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policy</a> mechanisms)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plans_and_models">Plans and models</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Plans and models">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:85%"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Name of Plan </th> <th rowspan="2">Organization </th> <th rowspan="2">Regional Scale </th> <th rowspan="2">Publication (year) </th> <th rowspan="2">Warming Target </th> <th rowspan="2">Timescale </th> <th rowspan="2">Total Investments </th> <th rowspan="2">Number of Jobs </th> <th rowspan="2">Total CO2 Emissions (gt CO2) </th> <th rowspan="2">Primary Energy Supply (GW) </th> <th rowspan="2">Final Energy Demand (GW) </th> <th colspan="5">Energy Sources at End of Timeline </th></tr> <tr> <th>Solar </th> <th>Wind </th> <th>Biomass </th> <th>Hydro </th> <th>Other </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Project_Drawdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Project Drawdown">Project Drawdown</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] (Global) </td> <td>Project Drawdown </td> <td>Global </td> <td>Living </td> <td>1.5-2C </td> <td> </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>N/A </td></tr> <tr> <td>Princeton Net-Zero by 2050<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> (USA) </td> <td>Princeton </td> <td>USA </td> <td>2020 </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>2020-2050 </td> <td>5910 </td> <td>8.5 million </td> <td>78 </td> <td>20465.29121 </td> <td>14582.09104 </td> <td>29% </td> <td>53% </td> <td>17% </td> <td>1% </td> <td>0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Carbon-Neutral Pathways for the United States: Central<a href="#cite_note-Williams_2021_e2020AV000284-167">[167]</a> (USA) </td> <td>University of San Francisco / UC Berkeley </td> <td>USA </td> <td>2021 </td> <td>2, 1.5, 1C </td> <td>no target </td> <td>Decarbonization: 600/Yr </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>15190 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>34% </td> <td>64% </td> <td>0% </td> <td>2% </td> <td>0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Carbon-Neutral Pathways for the United States: 100% RE<a href="#cite_note-Williams_2021_e2020AV000284-167">[167]</a> (USA) </td> <td>University of San Francisco / UC Berkeley </td> <td>Global </td> <td>2021 </td> <td>2C, 1.5C, and 1C </td> <td>2070 </td> <td>0.2-1.2% of annual GDP </td> <td>0 </td> <td>74.8 </td> <td>15190 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0% </td> <td>Several different scenarios clearly laid out in SI </td> <td>0% </td> <td>0% </td> <td>0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5 °C and +2 °C<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> (Global) </td> <td>University of Technology Sydney - Institute for Sustainable Futures </td> <td>USA </td> <td>2019 </td> <td>1.5 C by 2050 </td> <td>2020-2050 </td> <td>63500 (total investments from 2015 to 2020) </td> <td>47.8 million </td> <td>450 </td> <td>114444 </td> <td>70277 </td> <td>32% </td> <td>17% </td> <td>14% </td> <td>2% </td> <td>0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Designing a Model for the Global Energy System—GENeSYS-MOD: An Application of the Open-Source Energy Modeling System (OSeMOSYS)<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> (Global) </td> <td>Workgroup for Infrastructure and Policy, TU Berlin </td> <td>Global </td> <td>2017 </td> <td>650 Gt of CO2 (compared to the predicted 550-1300 emitted between 2011 and 2050) / 1.5-2 C (section 3.5) </td> <td>2020-2050 </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>519 </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>97575 </td> <td>23% </td> <td>36% </td> <td>32% </td> <td>8% </td> <td>0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Global Energy System Based on 100% Renewable Energy<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> </td> <td>LUT University </td> <td>Global </td> <td>2019 </td> <td>net-zero emissions by 2050 </td> <td>2050 </td> <td>7200 </td> <td>35 million </td> <td>115 </td> <td>141189 </td> <td>134018 </td> <td>72% </td> <td>18% </td> <td>6% </td> <td>3% </td> <td>0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Energy System Model (GENeSYS-MOD)<a href="#cite_note-:4-171">[171]</a> (Mexico) </td> <td>DIW Berlin, Cide Mexico </td> <td>Mexico </td> <td>2019 </td> <td>Full decaronization of the energy system by 2050. </td> <td> </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>7.16 for renewable target and 12 for national target. P. 15 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>320.73 GW for national target, 842.89, GW 100% renewables </td> <td>78% </td> <td>22% </td> <td>0% </td> <td><1% </td> <td>0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Energy System Model (GENeSYS-MOD) - 100% RE Scenario<a href="#cite_note-:4-171">[171]</a> </td> <td>DIW Berlin, Cide Mexico </td> <td>Mexico </td> <td> </td> <td>Full decaronization of the energy system by 2050. </td> <td> </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>7.16 </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>8835.914153 </td> <td>58% </td> <td>27% </td> <td>15% </td> <td>1% </td> <td>0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Transformation towards a Renewable Energy System in Brazil and Mexico—Technological and Structural Options for Latin America<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>Mexico </td> <td>2018 </td> <td>70-95% emissions reduction </td> <td> </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0% </td> <td>0% </td> <td>0% </td> <td>0% </td> <td>0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Advanced Energy [r]evolution<a href="#cite_note-:5-173">[173]</a> </td> <td>Greenpeace </td> <td>Global </td> <td>2021 </td> <td>>2 degrees </td> <td> </td> <td>48 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>149722.222 </td> <td>32% </td> <td>32% </td> <td>1% </td> <td>1% </td> <td>34% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Basic Energy [r]evolution<a href="#cite_note-:5-173">[173]</a> </td> <td>Greenpeace </td> <td>Global </td> <td> </td> <td>>2 degrees </td> <td> </td> <td>64.6 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>80277.7778 </td> <td>16% </td> <td>30% </td> <td>4% </td> <td>10% </td> <td>38% </td></tr> <tr> <td>100% Clean and Renewable Wind, Water, and Sunlight All-Sector Energy Roadmaps for 139 Countries of the World<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> </td> <td>Stanford </td> <td>Global/intern. </td> <td>2017 </td> <td>Net Zero by 2050 </td> <td> </td> <td>124700 </td> <td>24262122 </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>58% </td> <td>37% </td> <td>0% </td> <td>4% </td> <td>-36% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Full energy sector transition towards 100% renewable energy supply: Integrating power, heat, transport and industry sectors including desalination<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> </td> <td>LUT University </td> <td>Global </td> <td>2020 </td> <td>Net Zero by 2050 </td> <td>2050 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Zero air pollution and zero carbon from all energy at low cost and without blackouts in variable weather throughout the U.S. with 100% wind-water-solar and storage<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.renene.2021.11.067-149">[149]</a> </td> <td>Stanford </td> <td>USA </td> <td>2021 </td> <td>Net Zero by 2050 </td> <td>2050 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solar_PV_and_wind_electricity_generation_in_(TWh_per_yr)_in_global_100%25_RE_scenarios_in_the_year_2050.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Solar_PV_and_wind_electricity_generation_in_%28TWh_per_yr%29_in_global_100%25_RE_scenarios_in_the_year_2050.gif/220px-Solar_PV_and_wind_electricity_generation_in_%28TWh_per_yr%29_in_global_100%25_RE_scenarios_in_the_year_2050.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Solar_PV_and_wind_electricity_generation_in_%28TWh_per_yr%29_in_global_100%25_RE_scenarios_in_the_year_2050.gif/330px-Solar_PV_and_wind_electricity_generation_in_%28TWh_per_yr%29_in_global_100%25_RE_scenarios_in_the_year_2050.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Solar_PV_and_wind_electricity_generation_in_%28TWh_per_yr%29_in_global_100%25_RE_scenarios_in_the_year_2050.gif/440px-Solar_PV_and_wind_electricity_generation_in_%28TWh_per_yr%29_in_global_100%25_RE_scenarios_in_the_year_2050.gif 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>Solar PV and wind electricity generation in (TWh per yr) in global 100% RE scenarios in the year 2050<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_100%25_RE_System_Analyses.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Global_100%25_RE_System_Analyses.gif/220px-Global_100%25_RE_System_Analyses.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Global_100%25_RE_System_Analyses.gif/330px-Global_100%25_RE_System_Analyses.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Global_100%25_RE_System_Analyses.gif/440px-Global_100%25_RE_System_Analyses.gif 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>Global 100% RE system analyses<a href="#cite_note-10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3193402-13">[13]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_developments">Recent developments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Recent developments">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="List of renewable energy topics by country">Renewable energy by country</a></div> <a href="/wiki/The_Fourth_Revolution:_Energy" title="The Fourth Revolution: Energy">The Fourth Revolution: Energy</a> is a German <a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">documentary film</a> released in 2010. It shows the vision of a global society, which lives in a world where the energy is produced 100% with renewable energies, showing a complete reconstruction of the economy, to reach this goal. In 2011, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Scheer" title="Hermann Scheer">Hermann Scheer</a> wrote the book The Energy Imperative: 100 Percent Renewable Now, published by Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Reinventing_Fire" title="Reinventing Fire">Reinventing Fire</a> is a book by Amory Lovins released in October 2011. Lovins claims that combining reduced energy use with <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a> gains would result in a $5 trillion saving and a faster-growing economy. This can all be done with the profitable commercialization of existing energy-saving technologies, through market forces, led by business.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Former US president <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> says the book is a "wise, detailed and comprehensive blueprint".<a href="#cite_note-nytrf-177">[177]</a> The first paragraph of the preface says: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> Imagine fuel without fear. No climate change. No oil spills, dead coal miners, dirty air, devastated lands, lost wildlife. No <a href="/wiki/Energy_poverty" title="Energy poverty">energy poverty</a>. No oil-fed wars, tyrannies, or terrorists. Nothing to run out. Nothing to cut off. Nothing to worry about. Just energy abundance, benign and affordable, for all, for ever.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> </blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> has said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand. In a 2011 review of 164 recent scenarios of future renewable energy growth, the report noted that the majority expected renewable sources to supply more than 17% of total energy by 2030, and 27% by 2050; the highest forecast projected 43% supplied by renewables by 2030 and 77% by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2011_17-127">[127]</a> In 2011, the <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> has said that <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a> technologies, in its many forms, can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces:<a href="#cite_note-ie11-179">[179]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> The development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries' energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared.<a href="#cite_note-ie11-179">[179]</a> </blockquote> In 2011, the refereed journal <a href="/wiki/Energy_Policy_(journal)" title="Energy Policy (journal)">Energy Policy</a> published two articles by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Z._Jacobson" title="Mark Z. Jacobson">Mark Z. Jacobson</a>, a professor of engineering at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>, and research scientist Mark A. Delucchi, about changing our energy supply mix and "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power". The articles analyze the feasibility of providing worldwide energy for electric power, transportation, and heating/cooling from wind, water, and sunlight (WWS), which are safe clean options. In Part I, Jacobson and Delucchi discuss WWS energy system characteristics, aspects of energy demand, WWS resource availability, WWS devices needed, and material requirements.<a href="#cite_note-enpol2010-180">[180]</a> They estimate that 3,800,000 5 MW <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbines" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind turbines">wind turbines</a>, 5350 100 MW <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">geothermal power</a> plants, and 270 new 1300 MW <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric power">hydroelectric power</a> plants would be required. In terms of <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a>, an additional 49,000 300 MW <a href="/wiki/Concentrating_solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentrating solar">concentrating solar</a> plants, 40,000 300 MW <a href="/wiki/Solar_photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar photovoltaic">solar photovoltaic</a> power plants, and 1.7 billion 3 kW rooftop photovoltaic systems would also be needed. Such an extensive WWS infrastructure could decrease world power demand by 30%.<a href="#cite_note-enpol2010-180">[180]</a> In Part II, Jacobson and Delucchi address variability of supply, system economics, and energy policy initiatives associated with a WWS system. The authors advocate producing all new energy with WWS by 2030 and replacing existing energy supply arrangements by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Energy costs with a WWS system should be similar to today's energy costs.<a href="#cite_note-enpol2011-21">[21]</a> In general, Jacobson has said wind, water and solar technologies can provide 100 percent of the world's energy, eliminating all <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> He advocates a "smart mix" of renewable energy sources to reliably meet electricity demand: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> Because the wind blows during stormy conditions when the sun does not shine and the sun often shines on calm days with little wind, combining wind and solar can go a long way toward meeting demand, especially when geothermal provides a steady base and hydroelectric can be called on to fill in the gaps.<a href="#cite_note-wws-182">[182]</a> </blockquote> A 2012 study by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Delaware" title="University of Delaware">University of Delaware</a> for a 72 GW system considered 28 billion combinations of renewable energy and storage and found the most cost-effective, for the <a href="/wiki/PJM_Interconnection" title="PJM Interconnection">PJM Interconnection</a>, would use 17 GW of solar, 68 GW of <a href="/wiki/Offshore_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore wind">offshore wind</a>, and 115 GW of onshore wind, although at times as much as three times the demand would be provided. 0.1% of the time would require generation from other sources.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> In March 2012, Denmark's parliament agreed on a comprehensive new set promotional programs for energy efficiency and renewable energy aimed at reaching 100 percent of electricity, heat and fuels from renewables by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> IRENEC is an annual conference on 100% renewable energy started in 2011 by <a href="/wiki/Eurosolar" title="Eurosolar">Eurosolar</a> Turkey. The 2013 conference was in Istanbul.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> More recently, Jacobson and his colleagues have developed detailed proposals for switching to 100% renewable energy produced by wind, water and sunlight, for New York,<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> California<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> and Washington<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> states, by 2050. As of 2014<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit">[update]</a>, a more expansive new plan for the 50 states has been drawn up, which includes an online interactive map showing the renewable resource potential of each of the 50 states. The 50-state plan is part of <a href="/wiki/The_Solutions_Project" title="The Solutions Project">The Solutions Project</a>, an independent outreach effort led by Jacobson, actor <a href="/wiki/Mark_Ruffalo" title="Mark Ruffalo">Mark Ruffalo</a>, and film director <a href="/wiki/Josh_Fox" title="Josh Fox">Josh Fox</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> As of 2014<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit">[update]</a>, many detailed assessments show that the energy service needs of a world enjoying radically higher levels of wellbeing, can be economically met entirely through the diverse currently available technological and organizational innovations around wind, solar, biomass, biofuel, hydro, ocean and geothermal energy. Debate over detailed plans remain, but transformations in global energy services based entirely around renewable energy are in principle technically practicable, economically feasible, socially viable, and so realisable. This prospect underpins the ambitious commitment by Germany, one of the world's most successful industrial economies, to undertake a major <a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">energy transition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Energiewende" title="Energiewende">Energiewende</a>.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> In 2015 a study was published in <a href="/wiki/Energy_and_Environmental_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy and Environmental Science">Energy and Environmental Science</a> that describes a pathway to 100% renewable energy in the United States by 2050 without using biomass. Implementation of this roadmap is regarded as both environmentally and economically feasible and reasonable, as by 2050 it would save about $600 Billion Dollars <a href="/wiki/Health_costs" class="mw-redirect" title="Health costs">health costs</a> a year due to reduced <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> and $3.3 Trillion global warming costs. This would translate in yearly cost savings per head of around $8300 compared to a business as usual pathway. According to that study, barriers that could hamper implementation are neither technical nor economic but social and political, as most people didn't know that benefits from such a transformation far exceeded the costs.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> In June 2017, twenty-one researchers published an article in the <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</a> rejecting Jacobson's earlier PNAS article, accusing him of modeling errors and of using invalid modeling tools.<a href="#cite_note-NYT21june17-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> They further asserted he made implausible assumptions through his reliance upon increasing national <a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">energy storage</a> from 43 minutes to 7 weeks, increasing <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">hydrogen production</a> by 100,000%, and increasing <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a> by the equivalent of 600 <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Dam" title="Hoover Dam">Hoover Dams</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT21june17-193">[193]</a> Article authors <a href="/wiki/David_G._Victor" title="David G. Victor">David G. Victor</a> called Jacobson's work "dangerous" and <a href="/wiki/Ken_Caldeira" title="Ken Caldeira">Ken Caldeira</a> emphasized that increasing hydropower output by 1,300 gigawatts, a 25% increase, is the equivalent flow of 100 <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi Rivers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT21june17-193">[193]</a> Jacobson published a response in the same issue of the PNAS and also authored a blog post where he asserted the researchers were advocates of the fossil fuel industry.<a href="#cite_note-NYT21june17-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Another study published in 2017 confirmed the earlier results for a 100% renewable power system for North America, without changes in hydropower assumptions, but with more realistic emphasis on a balanced storage portfolio, in particular seasonal storage, and for competitive economics.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grid_integration_simulation">Grid integration simulation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Grid integration simulation">edit</a>]</div> In 2015, Jacobson and Delucchi, together with Mary Cameron and Bethany Frew, examined with computer simulation (Loadmatch), in more detail how a wind-water-solar (WWS) system can track the energy demand from minute to minute. This turned out to be possible in the United States for 6 years, including WWS variability by extreme weather events.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> In 2017, the plan was further developed for 139 countries by a team of 27 researchers<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> and in 2018, Jacobson and Delucchi with Mary Cameron and Brian Mathiesen published the Loadmatch results for 20 regions in which the 139 countries in the world are divided. According to this research, a WWS system can follow the demand in all regions.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> The program Loadmatch receives as input estimated series, per half minute during 2050–2055, of <ul><li>the energy demand</li> <li>the intermittent wind and solar energy supply predicted with a 3D global climate / weather model GATOR-GCMOM<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a></li> <li>the hydropower, geothermal, tidal and wave energy</li></ul> and specifications of <ul><li>the capacities and maximum loading / unloading speeds of the different types of storage</li> <li>losses due to storage, transport, distribution and maintenance</li> <li>a demand-supply management system (<a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">smart grid</a>).</li></ul> The program has been carried out for each region 10-20 times with adapted input for the storage capacities, until a solution was found in which the energy demand was followed, per half minute for 5 years, with low costs. The WWS system is assumed to connect in the electric network <ul><li>geographically dispersed variable energy sources, <a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">concentrated solar power</a> (CSP) and hydro power</li> <li>storage facilities: <a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">pumped hydro</a>, as heat in CSP plants, in batteries, as hydrogen by electrolysis of water, or as <a href="/wiki/Compressed-air_energy_storage" title="Compressed-air energy storage">compressed air</a> underground.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>World</th> <th>China</th> <th>United States</th> <th>Europe</th> <th>Africa </th></tr> <tr> <td>Supply 2018<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a></td> <td>860</td> <td>244</td> <td>92</td> <td>169</td> <td>24 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Supply 2050</td> <td>12040</td> <td>3223</td> <td>1400</td> <td>1157</td> <td>580 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unused supply</td> <td>2215</td> <td>598</td> <td>336</td> <td>84</td> <td>40 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Transmission loss</td> <td>807</td> <td>221</td> <td>98</td> <td>77</td> <td>37 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other loss</td> <td>325</td> <td>76</td> <td>24</td> <td>56</td> <td>22 </td></tr> <tr> <td>End-use</td> <td>8693</td> <td>2327</td> <td>939</td> <td>940</td> <td>482 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Storage (TWh)</td> <td></td> <td>1279</td> <td>321</td> <td>664</td> <td>109 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> In 2020, Jacobson clarified in a textbook<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> computer simulation results of a WWS energy system. To match demand with supply every minute more solar and wind farms and high-voltage lines must be installed than to match year-averaged demand and supply. Oversizing (also in a conventional energy system) ensures that the demand can be followed during peak hours, but causes unused supply during off-peak hours. In a WWS system, more energy exchange between areas leads to more transmission loss. The table shows WWS supply, unused supply, losses and end-use, in GW average power to reliably supply the world and four major regions with energy by 2050. See textbook Table 8.10; energy in TWh is divided by 26.3 kh (1000 hours) to get power in GW. The bottom row is the storage capacity of pumped hydro plants (Table 8.7). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/28px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/42px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/56px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_bubble" title="Carbon bubble">Carbon bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon neutrality">Carbon neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_and_political_action_on_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual and political action on climate change">Individual and political action on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Renewable_Energy_Agency" title="International Renewable Energy Agency">International Renewable Energy Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_proposed_as_renewable_energy" title="Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy">Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sustainable_energy_research_2020%E2%80%93present" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present">Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=100%25_renewable_energy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Wright, Matthew; Hearps, Patrick; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.bze.org.au/ZCA2020_Stationary_Energy_Report_v1.pdf">Australian Sustainable Energy: Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151124173114/http://media.bze.org.au/ZCA2020_Stationary_Energy_Report_v1.pdf">Archived</a> 24 November 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Energy Research Institute, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Melbourne" title="University of Melbourne">University of Melbourne</a>, October 2010, p. 33. 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Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Kenya" title="Renewable energy in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Morocco" title="Renewable energy in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Seychelles" title="Renewable energy in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_South_Africa" title="Renewable energy in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Asia" title="Renewable energy in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Afghanistan" title="Renewable energy in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Bangladesh" title="Renewable energy in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Bhutan" title="Renewable energy in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Brunei" title="Renewable energy in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_India" title="Renewable energy in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Kazakhstan" title="Renewable energy in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Nepal" title="Renewable energy in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Pakistan" title="Renewable energy in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Palestine" title="Renewable energy in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Philippines" title="Renewable energy in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Taiwan" title="Renewable energy in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Thailand" title="Renewable energy in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Vietnam" title="Renewable energy in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.3em;padding-right:0.3em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_European_Union" title="Renewable energy in the European Union">European Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Austria" title="Renewable energy in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Renewable energy in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Cyprus#Renewable_energy" title="Energy in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Denmark" title="Renewable energy in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Finland" title="Renewable energy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_France" title="Renewable energy in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Germany" title="Renewable energy in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Greece" title="Renewable energy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Hungary" title="Renewable energy in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Renewable energy in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Italy" title="Renewable energy in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Lithuania" title="Renewable energy in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Malta" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Netherlands" title="Renewable energy in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Portugal" title="Renewable energy in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Spain" title="Renewable energy in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.3em;padding-right:0.3em;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Albania" title="Renewable energy in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Armenia" title="Renewable energy in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Belarus" title="Renewable energy in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable 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energy in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Renewable energy in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_French_Polynesia" title="Renewable energy in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_New_Zealand" title="Renewable energy in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Tuvalu" title="Renewable energy in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Brazil" title="Renewable energy in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Chile" 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