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hydrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_gas_hydrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gas_hydrates_in_pipelines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_hydrates_in_pipelines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Gas hydrates in pipelines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_hydrates_in_pipelines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hydrate_formation,_prevention_and_mitigation_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrate_formation,_prevention_and_mitigation_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Hydrate formation, prevention and mitigation philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrate_formation,_prevention_and_mitigation_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrate_inhibitors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrate_inhibitors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Hydrate inhibitors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrate_inhibitors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empty_clathrate_hydrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empty_clathrate_hydrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Empty clathrate hydrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empty_clathrate_hydrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CO2_hydrate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CO2_hydrate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>CO<sub>2</sub> hydrate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CO2_hydrate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Газавыя гідраты – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Газавыя гідраты" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Газохидрат – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Газохидрат" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrat_de_gas" title="Hidrat de gas – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Hidrat de gas" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klatr%C3%A1tov%C3%BD_hydr%C3%A1t" title="Klatrátový hydrát – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Klatrátový hydrát" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gashydrat" title="Gashydrat – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gashydrat" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrato_de_gas" title="Hidrato de gas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hidrato de gas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="هیدرات گازی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هیدرات گازی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clathrate_hydrate" title="Clathrate hydrate – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Clathrate hydrate" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrato_de_gas" title="Hidrato de gas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Hidrato de gas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%80%EC%8A%A4_%ED%95%98%EC%9D%B4%EB%93%9C%EB%A0%88%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8" title="가스 하이드레이트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="가스 하이드레이트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clatrato_idrato" title="Clatrato idrato – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Clatrato idrato" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Газды гидраттар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Газды гидраттар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1zhidr%C3%A1tok" title="Gázhidrátok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gázhidrátok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klatrat_hidrat" title="Klatrat hidrat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Klatrat hidrat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gashydraat" title="Gashydraat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gashydraat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%85%E6%8E%A5%E6%B0%B4%E5%92%8C%E7%89%A9" title="包接水和物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="包接水和物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasshydrat" title="Gasshydrat – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gasshydrat" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrato_de_clatrato" title="Hidrato de clatrato – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hidrato de clatrato" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Газовые гидраты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Газовые гидраты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrati_plinov" title="Hidrati plinov – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Hidrati plinov" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klatrat_hidrat" title="Klatrat hidrat – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Klatrat hidrat" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Гідрати вуглецевих газів – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гідрати вуглецевих газів" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Crystalline solid containing molecules caged in a lattice of frozen water</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gashydrat_mit_Struktur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gashydrat_mit_Struktur.jpg/220px-Gashydrat_mit_Struktur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gashydrat_mit_Struktur.jpg/330px-Gashydrat_mit_Struktur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gashydrat_mit_Struktur.jpg/440px-Gashydrat_mit_Struktur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Methane clathrate block embedded in the sediment of hydrate ridge, off Oregon, USA</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Clathrate hydrates</b>, or <b>gas hydrates</b>, <b>clathrates</b>, or <b>hydrates</b>, are <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystalline</a> water-based <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solids</a> physically resembling <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a>, in which small <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">non-polar</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> (typically <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">polar</a> molecules with large hydrophobic <a href="/wiki/Moiety_(chemistry)" title="Moiety (chemistry)">moieties</a> are trapped inside "cages" of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonded</a>, frozen <a href="/wiki/Water_(molecule)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water (molecule)">water molecules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, clathrate hydrates are <a href="/wiki/Clathrate_compound" title="Clathrate compound">clathrate compounds</a> in which the host molecule is <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> and the guest molecule is typically a gas or liquid. Without the support of the trapped molecules, the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">lattice</a> structure of hydrate clathrates would collapse into conventional ice crystal structure or liquid water. Most low molecular weight gases, including <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a><sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a><sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">N</a><sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></span>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">CO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></span></a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">CH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></span></a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>S</span></a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Ar</a></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Kr</a></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a></span>, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a><sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></span> as well as some higher <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">freons</a>, will form <a href="/wiki/Hydrate" title="Hydrate">hydrates</a> at suitable temperatures and pressures. Clathrate hydrates are not officially chemical compounds, as the enclathrated guest molecules are never bonded to the lattice. The formation and decomposition of clathrate hydrates are <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition#Classification_of_phase_transitions" title="Phase transition">first order phase transitions</a>, not chemical reactions. Their detailed formation and decomposition mechanisms on a molecular level are still not well understood.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clathrate hydrates were first documented in 1810 by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Humphry_Davy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Humphry Davy">Sir Humphry Davy</a> who found that water was a primary component of what was earlier thought to be solidified chlorine.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Clathrates have been found to occur naturally in large quantities. Around 6.4 trillion (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7012640000000000000♠"></span>6.4<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>12</sup></span>) tonnes of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> is trapped in deposits of <a href="/wiki/Methane_clathrate" title="Methane clathrate">methane clathrate</a> on the deep <a href="/wiki/Ocean_floor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean floor">ocean floor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such deposits can be found on the <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_continental_shelf" title="Norwegian continental shelf">Norwegian continental shelf</a> in the northern headwall flank of the <a href="/wiki/Storegga_Slide" title="Storegga Slide">Storegga Slide</a>. Clathrates can also exist as <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>, as at the <a href="/wiki/Mallik_gas_hydrate_site" title="Mallik gas hydrate site">Mallik gas hydrate site</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mackenzie_River" title="Mackenzie River">Mackenzie Delta</a> of northwestern <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Arctic" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Arctic">Canadian Arctic</a>. These natural gas hydrates are seen as a potentially vast energy resource and several countries have dedicated national programs to develop this energy resource.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clathrate hydrate has also been of great interest as technology enabler for many applications like seawater desalination,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gas storage,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> carbon dioxide capture & storage,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cooling medium for data centre<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and district cooling etc. Hydrocarbon clathrates cause problems for the petroleum industry, because they can form inside <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">gas pipelines</a>, often resulting in obstructions. Deep sea deposition of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_clathrate" title="Carbon dioxide clathrate">carbon dioxide clathrate</a> has been proposed as a method to remove this <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> from the atmosphere and control <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. Clathrates are suspected to occur in large quantities on some outer <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">moons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object" title="Trans-Neptunian object">trans-Neptunian objects</a>, binding gas at fairly high temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_etymology">History and etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Clathrate hydrates were discovered in 1810 by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Humphry_Davy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clathrates were studied by P. Pfeiffer in 1927 and in 1930, E. Hertel defined "molecular compounds" as substances decomposed into individual components following the <a href="/wiki/Mass_action_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass action law">mass action law</a> in solution or gas state. Clathrate hydrates were discovered to form blockages in gas pipelines in 1934 by Hammerschmidt that led to increase in research to avoid hydrate formation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1945, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcus_Powell" title="Herbert Marcus Powell">H. M. Powell</a> analyzed the crystal structure of these compounds and named them <i>clathrates</i>. Gas production through <a href="/wiki/Methane_clathrate" title="Methane clathrate">methane hydrates</a> has since been realized and has been tested for energy production in Japan and China.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>clathrate</i> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/clathratus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:clathratus">clathratus</a></i> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">clatratus</i></span>), meaning 'with bars, <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">latticed</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HydrateStructures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/HydrateStructures.jpg/220px-HydrateStructures.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/HydrateStructures.jpg/330px-HydrateStructures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/HydrateStructures.jpg/440px-HydrateStructures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2265" /></a><figcaption>Cages building the different gas hydrate structures</figcaption></figure> <p>Gas hydrates usually form two <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallographic</a> cubic structures: structure (Type) I (named <i>sI</i>) and structure (Type) II (named <i>sII</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of space groups <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Pm{\overline {3}}n}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mn>3</mn> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mi>n</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Pm{\overline {3}}n}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/77baeb62df9ba51304c0cf578332313b249139e1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.458ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Pm{\overline {3}}n}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Fd{\overline {3}}m}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>F</mi> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mn>3</mn> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mi>m</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Fd{\overline {3}}m}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f23e6ba550559497076ea8ecaeb9f6c7bdc8ce8a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.274ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Fd{\overline {3}}m}"></span> respectively. A third hexagonal structure of space group <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P6/mmm}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mn>6</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>m</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P6/mmm}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e2153726d5456266dac55844f23a3111f4a42683" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.192ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P6/mmm}"></span> may also be observed (Type H).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The unit cell of Type I consists of 46 water molecules, forming two types of cages – small and large. The unit cell contains two small cages and six large ones. The small cage has the shape of a pentagonal <a href="/wiki/Dodecahedron" title="Dodecahedron">dodecahedron</a> (5<sup>12</sup>) (which is not a regular dodecahedron) and the large one that of a <a href="/wiki/Tetradecahedron" title="Tetradecahedron">tetradecahedron</a>, specifically a <a href="/wiki/Hexagonal_truncated_trapezohedron" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexagonal truncated trapezohedron">hexagonal truncated trapezohedron</a> (5<sup>12</sup>6<sup>2</sup>). Together, they form a version of the <a href="/wiki/Weaire%E2%80%93Phelan_structure" title="Weaire–Phelan structure">Weaire–Phelan structure</a>. Typical guests forming Type I hydrates are <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_clathrate" title="Carbon dioxide clathrate">carbon dioxide clathrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">CH<sub>4</sub></a> in <a href="/wiki/Methane_clathrate" title="Methane clathrate">methane clathrate</a>. </p><p>The unit cell of Type II consists of 136 water molecules, again forming two types of cages – small and large. In this case there are sixteen small cages and eight large ones in the unit cell. The small cage again has the shape of a pentagonal dodecahedron (5<sup>12</sup>), but the large one is a <a href="/wiki/Hexadecahedron" title="Hexadecahedron">hexadecahedron</a> (5<sup>12</sup>6<sup>4</sup>). Type II hydrates are formed by gases like O<sub>2</sub> and N<sub>2</sub>. </p><p>The unit cell of Type H consists of 34 water molecules, forming three types of cages – two small ones of different types, and one "huge". In this case, the unit cell consists of three small cages of type 5<sup>12</sup>, two small ones of type 4<sup>3</sup>5<sup>6</sup>6<sup>3</sup> and one huge of type 5<sup>12</sup>6<sup>8</sup>. The formation of Type H requires the cooperation of two guest gases (large and small) to be stable. It is the large cavity that allows structure H hydrates to fit in large molecules (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Butane" title="Butane">butane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a>), given the presence of other smaller help gases to fill and support the remaining cavities. Structure H hydrates were suggested to exist in the Gulf of Mexico. Thermogenically produced supplies of heavy hydrocarbons are common there. </p><p>The molar fraction of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> of most clathrate hydrates is 85%. Clathrate hydrates are derived from organic <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-bond">hydrogen-bonded</a> frameworks. These frameworks are prepared from molecules that "self-associate" by multiple hydrogen-bonding interactions. Small molecules or gases (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>) can be encaged as a guest in hydrates. The ideal guest/host ratio for clathrate hydrates range from 0.8 to 0.9. The guest interaction with the host is limited to <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">van der Waals</a> forces. Certain exceptions exist in <i>semiclathrates</i> where guests incorporate into the host structure via <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bonding">hydrogen bonding</a> with the host structure. Hydrates form often with partial guest filling and collapse in the absence of guests occupying the water cages. Like ice, clathrate hydrates are stable at low temperatures and high pressure and possess similar properties like electrical resistivity. Clathrate hydrates are naturally occurring and can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> and oceanic sediments. Hydrates can also be synthesized through seed crystallization or using amorphous precursors for nucleation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xenon-paraquinol_(JAMKEN)_clathrate.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Xenon-paraquinol_%28JAMKEN%29_clathrate.png/220px-Xenon-paraquinol_%28JAMKEN%29_clathrate.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Xenon-paraquinol_%28JAMKEN%29_clathrate.png/330px-Xenon-paraquinol_%28JAMKEN%29_clathrate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Xenon-paraquinol_%28JAMKEN%29_clathrate.png/440px-Xenon-paraquinol_%28JAMKEN%29_clathrate.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1163" /></a><figcaption>Portion of the lattice of the clathrate xenon-paraquinol.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Clathrates have been explored for many applications including: gas storage, gas production, gas separation, <a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">desalination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_materials" title="Thermoelectric materials">thermoelectrics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">photovoltaics</a>, and batteries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrates_on_Earth">Hydrates on Earth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hydrates on Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_gas_hydrates">Natural gas hydrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Natural gas hydrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Methane_clathrate" title="Methane clathrate">Methane clathrate</a></div> <p>Naturally on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> gas hydrates can be found on the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a>, in ocean sediments,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in deep lake sediments (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Lake_Baikal" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a>), as well as in the <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> regions. The amount of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> potentially trapped in natural <a href="/wiki/Methane_clathrate" title="Methane clathrate">methane hydrate</a> deposits may be significant (10<sup>15</sup> to 10<sup>17</sup> cubic metres),<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which makes them of major interest as a potential energy resource. Catastrophic release of methane from the decomposition of such deposits may lead to a global climate change, referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Clathrate_gun_hypothesis" title="Clathrate gun hypothesis">clathrate gun hypothesis</a>", because <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">CH<sub>4</sub></a> is a more potent greenhouse gas than <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO</a><sub>2</sub> (see <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">Atmospheric methane</a>). The fast decomposition of such deposits is considered a <a href="/wiki/Geohazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Geohazard">geohazard</a>, due to its potential to trigger <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>. However, natural gas hydrates do not contain only methane but also other <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> gases, as well as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">H<sub>2</sub>S</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_hydrates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Air hydrates (page does not exist)">Air hydrates</a> are frequently observed in polar ice samples. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pingo" title="Pingo">Pingos</a> are common structures in permafrost regions.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar structures are found in deep water related to methane vents. Significantly, gas hydrates can even be formed in the absence of a liquid phase. Under that situation, water is dissolved in gas or in liquid hydrocarbon phase.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2017, both Japan and China announced that attempts at large-scale <a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">resource extraction</a> of methane hydrates from under the seafloor were successful. However, commercial-scale production remains years away.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2020 Research Fronts report identified gas hydrate accumulation and mining technology as one of the top 10 research fronts in the geosciences.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gas_hydrates_in_pipelines">Gas hydrates in pipelines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gas hydrates in pipelines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thermodynamic conditions favouring hydrate formation are often found in <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipelines</a>. This is highly undesirable, because the clathrate crystals might agglomerate and plug the line<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and cause <a href="/wiki/Flow_assurance" title="Flow assurance">flow assurance</a> failure and damage valves and instrumentation. The results can range from flow reduction to equipment damage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hydrate_formation,_prevention_and_mitigation_philosophy"><span id="Hydrate_formation.2C_prevention_and_mitigation_philosophy"></span>Hydrate formation, prevention and mitigation philosophy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hydrate formation, prevention and mitigation philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hydrates have a strong tendency to <a href="/wiki/Agglomerate" title="Agglomerate">agglomerate</a> and to adhere to the pipe wall and thereby plug the pipeline. Once formed, they can be decomposed by increasing the temperature and/or decreasing the pressure. Even under these conditions, the clathrate dissociation is a slow process. </p><p>Therefore, preventing hydrate formation appears to be the key to the problem. A hydrate prevention philosophy could typically be based on three levels of security, listed in order of priority: </p> <ol><li>Avoid operational conditions that might cause formation of hydrates by depressing the hydrate formation temperature using <a href="/wiki/Glycol_dehydration" title="Glycol dehydration">glycol dehydration</a>;</li> <li>Temporarily change <a href="/w/index.php?title=Operating_conditions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operating conditions (page does not exist)">operating conditions</a> in order to avoid hydrate formation;</li> <li>Prevent formation of hydrates by addition of chemicals that (a) shift the hydrate equilibrium conditions towards lower temperatures and higher pressures or (b) increase hydrate formation time (<a href="/wiki/Reaction_inhibitor" title="Reaction inhibitor">inhibitors</a>)</li></ol> <p>The actual philosophy would depend on operational circumstances such as pressure, temperature, type of flow (gas, liquid, presences of water etc.). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hydrate_inhibitors">Hydrate inhibitors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hydrate inhibitors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When operating within a set of parameters where hydrates could be formed, there are still ways to avoid their formation. Altering the gas composition by adding chemicals can lower the hydrate formation temperature and/or delay their formation. Two options generally exist: </p> <ul><li>Thermodynamic inhibitors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_Inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinetic Inhibitor">Kinetic inhibitors and anti-agglomerants</a></li></ul> <p>The most common thermodynamic inhibitors are <a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethylene_glycol" title="Ethylene glycol">monoethylene glycol</a> (MEG), and <a href="/wiki/Diethylene_glycol" title="Diethylene glycol">diethylene glycol</a> (DEG), commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Glycol" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycol">glycol</a>. All may be recovered and recirculated, but the economics of methanol recovery is not favourable in most cases. MEG is preferred over DEG for applications where the temperature is expected to be −10 °C or lower due to high viscosity at low temperatures. <a href="/wiki/Triethylene_glycol" title="Triethylene glycol">Triethylene glycol</a> (TEG) has too low vapour pressure to be suited as an inhibitor injected into a gas stream. More methanol is lost in the gas phase when compared to MEG or DEG. </p><p>The use of <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_Inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinetic Inhibitor">kinetic inhibitors</a> and anti-agglomerants in actual field operations is a new and evolving technology. It requires extensive tests and optimisation to the actual system. While kinetic inhibitors work by slowing down the kinetics of the nucleation, anti-agglomerants do not stop the nucleation, but stop the agglomeration (sticking together) of gas hydrate crystals. These two kinds of inhibitors are also known as <a href="/wiki/LDHI" class="mw-redirect" title="LDHI">low dosage hydrate inhibitors</a>, because they require much smaller concentrations than the conventional thermodynamic inhibitors. Kinetic inhibitors, which do not require water and hydrocarbon mixture to be effective, are usually polymers or copolymers and anti-agglomerants (requires water and hydrocarbon mixture) are polymers or <a href="/wiki/Zwitterion" title="Zwitterion">zwitterionic</a> – usually ammonium and COOH – surfactants being both attracted to hydrates and hydrocarbons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Empty_clathrate_hydrates">Empty clathrate hydrates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Empty clathrate hydrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Empty clathrate hydrates<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are thermodynamically unstable (guest molecules are of paramount importance to stabilize these structures) with respect to ice, and as such their study using experimental techniques is greatly limited to very specific formation conditions; however, their mechanical stability renders theoretical and computer simulation methods the ideal choice to address their thermodynamic properties. Starting from very cold samples (110–145 K), Falenty et al.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> degassed Ne–sII clathrates for several hours using vacuum pumping to obtain a so-called ice XVI, while employing neutron diffraction to observe that (i) the empty sII hydrate structure decomposes at <span class="nowrap"><i>T</i> ≥ 145 K</span> and, furthermore, (ii) the empty hydrate shows a negative thermal expansion at <span class="nowrap"><i>T</i> < 55 K</span>, and it is mechanically more stable and has a larger lattice constant at low temperatures than the Ne-filled analogue. The existence of such a porous ice had been theoretically predicted before.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From a theoretical perspective, empty hydrates can be probed using Molecular Dynamics or Monte Carlo techniques. Conde et al. used empty hydrates and a fully atomic description of the solid lattice to estimate the phase diagram of H<sub>2</sub>O at negative pressures and <span class="nowrap"><i>T</i> ≤ 300 K</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and obtain the differences in chemical potentials between ice Ih and the empty hydrates, central to the van der Waals−Platteeuw theory. Jacobson et al. performed<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> simulations using a monoatomic (coarse-grained) model developed for H<sub>2</sub>O that is capable of capturing the tetrahedral symmetry of hydrates. Their calculations revealed that, under 1 atm pressure, sI and sII empty hydrates are metastable regarding the ice phases up to their melting temperatures, <span class="nowrap"><i>T</i> = 245 ± 2 K</span> and <span class="nowrap"><i>T</i> = 252 ± 2 K</span>, respectively. Matsui et al. employed<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> molecular dynamics to perform a thorough and systematic study of several ice polymorphs, namely space fullerene ices, zeolitic ices, and aeroices, and interpreted their relative stability in terms of geometrical considerations. </p><p>The thermodynamics of metastable empty sI clathrate hydrates have been probed over broad temperature and pressure ranges, <span class="nowrap">100 K ≤ <i>T</i> ≤ 220 K</span> and <span class="nowrap">100 kPa ≤ <i>p</i> ≤ 500 MPa</span>, by Cruz et al.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using large-scale simulations and compared with experimental data at 100 kPa. The whole <i>p</i>–<i>V</i>–<i>T</i> surface obtained was fitted by the universal form of the Parsafar and Mason equation of state with an accuracy of 99.7–99.9%. Framework deformation caused by applied temperature followed a parabolic law, and there is a critical temperature above which the isobaric thermal expansion becomes negative, ranging from 194.7 K at 100 kPa to 166.2 K at 500 MPa. Response to the applied (<i>p</i>, <i>T</i>) field was analyzed in terms of angle and distance descriptors of a classical tetrahedral structure and observed to occur essentially by means of angular alteration for (<i>p</i>, <i>T</i>) > (200 MPa, 200 K). The length of the hydrogen bonds responsible for framework integrity was insensitive to the thermodynamic conditions and its average value is <span class="nowrap">r(̅O H) = 0.25 nm</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="CO2_hydrate">CO<sub>2</sub> hydrate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: CO2 hydrate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Clathrate hydrate, which encaged CO<sub>2</sub> as guest molecule is termed as CO<sub>2</sub> hydrate. The term CO<sub>2</sub> hydrates are more commonly used these days with its relevance in anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> capture and sequestration. A nonstoichiometric compound, carbon dioxide hydrate, is composed of hydrogen-bonded water molecules arranged in ice-like frameworks that are occupied by molecules with appropriate sizes and regions. In structure I, the CO<sub>2</sub> hydrate crystallizes as one of two cubic hydrates composed of 46 H<sub>2</sub>O molecules (or D<sub>2</sub>O) and eight CO<sub>2</sub> molecules occupying both large cavities (tetrakaidecahedral) and small cavities (pentagonal dodecahedral).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers believed that oceans and permafrost have immense potential to capture anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> in the form CO<sub>2</sub> hydrates. The utilization of additives to shift the CO<sub>2</sub> hydrate equilibrium curve in phase diagram towards higher temperature and lower pressures is still under scrutiny to make extensive large-scale storage of CO<sub>2</sub> viable in shallower subsea depths.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clathrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Clathrate">Clathrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star#Formation_and_evolution" title="Star">Star formation and evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clathrate_gun_hypothesis" title="Clathrate gun hypothesis">Clathrate gun hypothesis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEnglezos1993" class="citation journal cs1">Englezos, Peter (1993). 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(2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021/jp027391j">"CO2 Hydrate: Synthesis, Composition, Structure, Dissociation Behavior, and a Comparison to Structure I CH4 Hydrate"</a>. <i>The Journal of Physical Chemistry B</i>. <b>107</b> (23): 5529–5539. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JPCB..107.5529C">2003JPCB..107.5529C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjp027391j">10.1021/jp027391j</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Physical+Chemistry+B&rft.atitle=CO2+Hydrate%3A+Synthesis%2C+Composition%2C+Structure%2C+Dissociation+Behavior%2C+and+a+Comparison+to+Structure+I+CH4+Hydrate&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=5529-5539&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fjp027391j&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JPCB..107.5529C&rft.au=Circone+S.&rft.au=Stern+L.A.&rft.au=Kirby+S.H.&rft.au=Durham+W.B.&rft.au=Chacoumakos+B.C.&rft.au=Rawn+C.J.&rft.au=Rondinone+A.J.&rft.au=Ishii+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1021%2Fjp027391j&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClathrate+hydrate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZheng_J.Chong_Z.R.Qureshi_M.F.Linga_P.2020" class="citation journal cs1">Zheng J.; Chong Z.R.; Qureshi M.F.; Linga P. (2020). "Carbon Dioxide Sequestration via Gas Hydrates: A Potential Pathway toward Decarbonization". <i>Energy Fuels</i>. <b>34</b> (9): 10529–10546. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.energyfuels.0c02309">10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c02309</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225428567">225428567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy+Fuels&rft.atitle=Carbon+Dioxide+Sequestration+via+Gas+Hydrates%3A+A+Potential+Pathway+toward+Decarbonization&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=10529-10546&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facs.energyfuels.0c02309&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225428567%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Zheng+J.&rft.au=Chong+Z.R.&rft.au=Qureshi+M.F.&rft.au=Linga+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClathrate+hydrate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaoHouseChapman2005" class="citation journal cs1">Gao, Shuqiang; House, Waylon; Chapman, Walter (2005). "NMR/MRI Study of Clathrate Hydrate Mechanisms". <i>J. Phys. Chem. B</i>. <b>109</b> (41): 19090–19093. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjp052071w">10.1021/jp052071w</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16853461">16853461</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18762205">18762205</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Phys.+Chem.+B&rft.atitle=NMR%2FMRI+Study+of+Clathrate+Hydrate+Mechanisms&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=41&rft.pages=19090-19093&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18762205%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16853461&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fjp052071w&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=Shuqiang&rft.au=House%2C+Waylon&rft.au=Chapman%2C+Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClathrate+hydrate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSultanCochonatFoucherMienert2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sultan, N; Cochonat, P; Foucher, J.-P; Mienert, J (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2004/publication-699.pdf">"Effect of gas hydrates melting on seafloor slope instability"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Marine Geology</i>. <b>213</b> (1–4): 379–401. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004MGeol.213..379S">2004MGeol.213..379S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.margeo.2004.10.015">10.1016/j.margeo.2004.10.015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Geology&rft.atitle=Effect+of+gas+hydrates+melting+on+seafloor+slope+instability&rft.volume=213&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=379-401&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.margeo.2004.10.015&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004MGeol.213..379S&rft.aulast=Sultan&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Cochonat%2C+P&rft.au=Foucher%2C+J.-P&rft.au=Mienert%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchimer.ifremer.fr%2Fdoc%2F2004%2Fpublication-699.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClathrate+hydrate" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathrate_hydrate&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110611035202/http://www.ifm-geomar.de/index.php?id=3563&L=1">The SUGAR Project (Submarine Gas Hydrate Reservoirs)</a>, from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081105232040/http://www.ifm-geomar.de/index.php?id=1&L=1">Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences</a>, Kiel (IFM-GEOMAR)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psl-systemtechnik.de/gas_hydrate_autoclave.html?&L=1">Gas hydrates in video</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160321224824/http://www.psl-systemtechnik.de/gas_hydrate_autoclave.html?&L=1">Archived</a> 2016-03-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151121100842/http://www.psl-systemtechnik.de/gas_hydrate_autoclave_knowledge.html?&L=1">– Background knowledge about gas hydrates, their prevention and 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href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major phases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice#Amorphous_ice" title="Phases of ice">Amorphous solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice#Known_phases" title="Phases of ice">Crystalline phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice#Ice_XVIII_(superionic_water)" title="Phases of ice">Superionic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor_ice" title="Anchor ice">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">Cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cave" title="Ice cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_dune" title="Ice dune">Dune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_field" title="Ice field">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">Glacier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">Iceberg</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ice_calving" title="Ice calving">calving</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icicle" title="Icicle">Icicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_jam" title="Ice jam">Jam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">Sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_spike" title="Ice spike">Spike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalactite#Ice_stalactites" title="Stalactite">Stalactites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_volcano" title="Ice volcano">Volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice%E2%80%93albedo_feedback" title="Ice–albedo feedback">Albedo feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_ice" title="Black ice">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_circle" title="Ice circle">Circle or disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_ice" title="Clear ice">Clear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_crystals" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice crystals">Crystals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firn" title="Firn">Firn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_fog" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice fog">Fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frazil_ice" title="Frazil ice">Frazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost" title="Frost">Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_flower" title="Frost flower">Frost flower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Frost_flower_(sea_ice)" title="Frost flower (sea ice)">sea ice</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaze_(ice)" title="Glaze (ice)">Glaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_ice" title="Hair ice">Hair ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_jacking" title="Ice jacking">Jacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9v%C3%A9" title="Névé">Névé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_ice" title="Needle ice">Needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_nucleus" title="Ice nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rime_ice" title="Rime ice">Rime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_shove" title="Ice shove">Shove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuga_(ice)" title="Shuga (ice)">Shuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slurry_ice" title="Slurry ice">Slurry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slush" title="Slush">Slush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Storm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ice-related<br />activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_bath" title="Ice bath">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_blasting" title="Ice blasting">Blasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_blocking" title="Ice blocking">Blocking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_climbing" title="Ice climbing">Climbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_fishing" title="Ice fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_rafting" title="Ice rafting">Rafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_sculpture" title="Ice sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_skating" title="Ice skating">Skating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Winter_sports" title="Winter sports">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandy" title="Bandy">Bandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceboat" title="Iceboat">Iceboating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cricket" title="Ice cricket">Cricket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">Curling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icetrack_cycling" title="Icetrack cycling">Cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_skating" title="Figure skating">Figure skating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_hockey" title="Ice hockey">Ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_racing" title="Ice racing">Ice racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_skating" title="Speed skating">Speed skating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short-track_speed_skating" title="Short-track speed skating">Short-track speed skating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_skating" title="Tour skating">Tour skating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constructions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_bar" title="Ice bar">Bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_bridge" title="Ice bridge">Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_hotel" title="Ice hotel">Hotel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igloo" title="Igloo">Igloo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_palace" title="Ice palace">Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pier" title="Ice pier">Pier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pykrete" title="Pykrete">Pykrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_rink" title="Ice rink">Rink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_road" title="Ice road">Road</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Work</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cutting" title="Ice cutting">Cutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icebox" title="Icebox">Icebox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_house_(building)" title="Ice house (building)">Icehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceman_(occupation)" title="Iceman (occupation)">Iceman (occupation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pick" title="Ice pick">Pick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_trade" title="Ice trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakhch%C4%81l" title="Yakhchāl">Yakhchāl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other uses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_chips" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice chips">Chips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cream" title="Ice cream">Cream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cube" title="Ice cube">Cube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pack" title="Ice pack">Pack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a 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