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Hydrogen bonding and stability subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hydrogen_bonding_and_stability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Base_analogs_and_intercalators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Base_analogs_and_intercalators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Base analogs and intercalators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Base_analogs_and_intercalators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mismatch_repair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mismatch_repair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mismatch repair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mismatch_repair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Length_measurements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Length_measurements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Length measurements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Length_measurements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unnatural_base_pair_(UBP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unnatural_base_pair_(UBP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Unnatural base pair (UBP)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unnatural_base_pair_(UBP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-canonical_base_pairing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-canonical_base_pairing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Non-canonical base pairing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-canonical_base_pairing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Base pair</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">49 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basispaar" title="Basispaar – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Basispaar" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%AC_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="زوج قاعدي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="زوج قاعدي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%A2m-ki-t%C3%B9i" title="Iâm-ki-tùi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iâm-ki-tùi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Базова двойка – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Базова двойка" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazni_par" title="Bazni par – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Bazni par" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parell_de_bases" title="Parell de bases – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Parell de bases" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1rov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_b%C3%A1z%C3%AD" title="Párování bází – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Párování bází" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basepar" title="Basepar – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Basepar" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basenpaar" title="Basenpaar – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Basenpaar" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluspaar" title="Aluspaar – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aluspaar" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par_de_bases" title="Par de bases – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Par de bases" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baza_paro" title="Baza paro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Baza paro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pare" title="Base pare – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Base pare" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%81%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="جفت‌باز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جفت‌باز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paire_de_bases" title="Paire de bases – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Paire de bases" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par_de_bases" title="Par de bases – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Par de bases" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%BC%EA%B8%B0%EC%8C%8D" title="염기쌍 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="염기쌍" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%A4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D5%A3" title="Նուկլեոտիդների զույգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նուկլեոտիդների զույգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazni_par" title="Bazni par – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bazni par" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasangan_basa" title="Pasangan basa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pasangan basa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basapar" title="Basapar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Basapar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coppia_di_basi" title="Coppia di basi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Coppia di basi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%95%D7%92_%D7%91%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9D" title="זוג בסיסים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זוג בסיסים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Base pair" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par_basium" title="Par basium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Par basium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A1zisp%C3%A1r" title="Bázispár – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bázispár" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasangan_bes" title="Pasangan bes – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pasangan bes" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basenpaar" title="Basenpaar – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Basenpaar" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%A9%E5%9F%BA%E5%AF%BE" title="塩基対 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="塩基対" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basepar" title="Basepar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Basepar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%AC_%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF" title="زوج قواعد – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="زوج قواعد" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para_zasad" title="Para zasad – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Para zasad" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par_de_bases" title="Par de bases – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Par de bases" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pereche_de_baze" title="Pereche de baze – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Pereche de baze" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Спаренные основания – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Спаренные основания" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Base pair" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A1zov%C3%BD_p%C3%A1r" title="Bázový pár – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Bázový pár" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazni_par" title="Bazni par – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bazni par" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazni_par" title="Bazni par – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Bazni par" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazni_par" title="Bazni par – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bazni par" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Em%C3%A4spari" title="Emäspari – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Emäspari" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baspar" title="Baspar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Baspar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%88%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AA_(%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C)" title="คู่เบส (อณูพันธุศาสตร์) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คู่เบส (อณูพันธุศาสตร์)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baz_%C3%A7ifti" title="Baz çifti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Baz çifti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Пара основ – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Пара основ" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%AC_%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF" title="زوج قواعد – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="زوج قواعد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BA%B7p_base" title="Cặp base – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cặp base" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%B9%BC%E5%9F%BA%E5%B0%8D" title="鹼基對 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/DNA_base-pair_diagram.jpg/465px-DNA_base-pair_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/DNA_base-pair_diagram.jpg/620px-DNA_base-pair_diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>The chemical structure of DNA base-pairs </figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>base pair</b> (<b>bp</b>) is a fundamental unit of double-stranded <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleic acids">nucleic acids</a> consisting of two <a href="/wiki/Nucleobases" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobases">nucleobases</a> bound to each other by <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonds</a>. They form the building blocks of the <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> double helix and contribute to the folded structure of both DNA and <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>. Dictated by specific <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonding</a> patterns, "Watson–Crick" (or "Watson–Crick–Franklin") base pairs (<a href="/wiki/Guanine" title="Guanine">guanine</a>–<a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a>–<a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">thymine</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allow the DNA helix to maintain a regular helical structure that is subtly dependent on its <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleotide sequence">nucleotide sequence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Complementarity_(molecular_biology)" title="Complementarity (molecular biology)">complementary</a> nature of this based-paired structure provides a <a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(information_theory)" title="Redundancy (information theory)">redundant</a> copy of the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic information">genetic information</a> encoded within each strand of DNA. The regular structure and data redundancy provided by the DNA double helix make DNA well suited to the storage of genetic information, while base-pairing between DNA and incoming nucleotides provides the mechanism through which <a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase" title="DNA polymerase">DNA polymerase</a> replicates DNA and <a href="/wiki/RNA_polymerase" title="RNA polymerase">RNA polymerase</a> transcribes DNA into RNA. Many DNA-binding proteins can recognize specific base-pairing patterns that identify particular regulatory regions of genes. </p><p>Intramolecular base pairs can occur within single-stranded nucleic acids. This is particularly important in RNA molecules (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">transfer RNA</a>), where Watson–Crick base pairs (guanine–cytosine and adenine–<a href="/wiki/Uracil" title="Uracil">uracil</a>) permit the formation of short double-stranded helices, and a wide variety of non–Watson–Crick interactions (e.g., G–U or A–A) allow RNAs to fold into a vast range of specific three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/RNA_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA structure">structures</a>. In addition, base-pairing between <a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">transfer RNA</a> (tRNA) and <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">messenger RNA</a> (mRNA) forms the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_recognition" title="Molecular recognition">molecular recognition</a> events that result in the nucleotide sequence of mRNA becoming <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">translated</a> into the amino acid sequence of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a>. </p><p>The size of an individual <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> or an organism's entire <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> is often measured in base pairs because DNA is usually double-stranded. Hence, the number of total base pairs is equal to the number of nucleotides in one of the strands (with the exception of non-coding single-stranded regions of <a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">telomeres</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> (23 <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>) is estimated to be about 3.2 billion base pairs long and to contain 20,000–25,000 distinct protein-coding genes.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IHSGC2004_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IHSGC2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Kilobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilobase">kilobase</a> (kb) is a unit of measurement in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> equal to 1000 base pairs of DNA or RNA.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total number of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001370000000000000♠"></span>37</span></sup> with a weight of 50 billion <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20150718-rn_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150718-rn-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In comparison, the total <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">mass</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> has been estimated to be as much as 4 <a href="/wiki/Tonnes#Derived_units" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonnes">TtC</a> (trillion tons of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-AGCI-2015_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AGCI-2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrogen_bonding_and_stability">Hydrogen bonding and stability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Hydrogen bonding and stability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="background:#f9f9f9; border:1px solid #ccc; margin:0.5em;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width:230px; font-size:85%; border:1px solid #ccc; margin:0.3em;"> <tbody><tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Base_pair_GC.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Base_pair_GC.svg/282px-Base_pair_GC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="282" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Base_pair_GC.svg/423px-Base_pair_GC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Base_pair_GC.svg/564px-Base_pair_GC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="369" /></a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width:230px; font-size:85%; border:1px solid #ccc; margin:0.3em;"> <tbody><tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Base_pair_AT.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Base_pair_AT.svg/282px-Base_pair_AT.svg.png" decoding="async" width="282" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Base_pair_AT.svg/423px-Base_pair_AT.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Base_pair_AT.svg/564px-Base_pair_AT.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="352" /></a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="border: none; width:282px;"><div class="thumbcaption">Top, a <b>G.C</b> base pair with three <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonds</a>. Bottom, an <b>A.T</b> base pair with two hydrogen bonds. Non-covalent hydrogen bonds between the bases are shown as dashed lines. The wiggly lines stand for the connection to the pentose sugar and point in the direction of the minor groove. </div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">Hydrogen bonding</a> is the chemical interaction that underlies the base-pairing rules described above. Appropriate geometrical correspondence of hydrogen bond donors and acceptors allows only the "right" pairs to form stably. DNA with high <a href="/wiki/GC-content" title="GC-content">GC-content</a> is more stable than DNA with low GC-content. Crucially, however, <a href="/wiki/Stacking_(chemistry)" title="Stacking (chemistry)">stacking interactions</a> are primarily responsible for stabilising the double-helical structure; Watson-Crick base pairing's contribution to global structural stability is minimal, but its role in the specificity underlying complementarity is, by contrast, of maximal importance as this underlies the template-dependent processes of the <a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">central dogma</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Yakovchuk2006_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yakovchuk2006-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bigger <a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">nucleobases</a>, adenine and guanine, are members of a class of double-ringed chemical structures called <a href="/wiki/Purine" title="Purine">purines</a>; the smaller nucleobases, cytosine and thymine (and uracil), are members of a class of single-ringed chemical structures called <a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine" title="Pyrimidine">pyrimidines</a>. Purines are complementary only with pyrimidines: pyrimidine–pyrimidine pairings are energetically unfavorable because the molecules are too far apart for hydrogen bonding to be established; purine–purine pairings are energetically unfavorable because the molecules are too close, leading to overlap repulsion. Purine–pyrimidine base-pairing of AT or GC or UA (in RNA) results in proper duplex structure. The only other purine–pyrimidine pairings would be AC and GT and UG (in RNA); these pairings are mismatches because the patterns of hydrogen donors and acceptors do not correspond. The GU pairing, with two hydrogen bonds, does occur fairly often in <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Wobble_base_pair" title="Wobble base pair">wobble base pair</a>). </p><p>Paired DNA and RNA molecules are comparatively stable at room temperature, but the two nucleotide strands will separate above a <a href="/wiki/Dna_melting" class="mw-redirect" title="Dna melting">melting point</a> that is determined by the length of the molecules, the extent of mispairing (if any), and the GC content. Higher GC content results in higher melting temperatures; it is, therefore, unsurprising that the genomes of <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophile</a> organisms such as <i><a href="/wiki/Thermus_thermophilus" title="Thermus thermophilus">Thermus thermophilus</a></i> are particularly GC-rich. On the converse, regions of a genome that need to separate frequently — for example, the promoter regions for often-<a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcribed</a> genes — are comparatively GC-poor (for example, see <a href="/wiki/TATA_box" title="TATA box">TATA box</a>). GC content and melting temperature must also be taken into account when designing <a href="/wiki/Primer_(molecular_biology)" title="Primer (molecular biology)">primers</a> for <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">PCR</a> reactions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following DNA sequences illustrate pair double-stranded patterns. By convention, the top strand is written from the <a href="/wiki/5%E2%80%B2-end" class="mw-redirect" title="5′-end">5′-end</a> to the <a href="/wiki/3%E2%80%B2-end" class="mw-redirect" title="3′-end">3′-end</a>; thus, the bottom strand is written 3′ to 5′. </p> <dl><dd>A base-paired DNA sequence: <dl><dd><code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">ATCGATTGAGCTCTAGCG</code></dd> <dd><code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">TAGCTAACTCGAGATCGC</code></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>The corresponding RNA sequence, in which <a href="/wiki/Uracil" title="Uracil">uracil</a> is substituted for thymine in the RNA strand: <dl><dd><code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">AUCGAUUGAGCUCUAGCG</code></dd> <dd><code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">UAGCUAACUCGAGAUCGC</code></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Base_analogs_and_intercalators">Base analogs and intercalators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Base analogs and intercalators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_analogue" title="Nucleic acid analogue">Nucleic acid analogue</a></div> <p>Chemical analogs of nucleotides can take the place of proper nucleotides and establish non-canonical base-pairing, leading to errors (mostly <a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">point mutations</a>) in <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">DNA transcription</a>. This is due to their <a href="/wiki/Isosteric" class="mw-redirect" title="Isosteric">isosteric</a> chemistry. One common mutagenic base analog is <a href="/wiki/5-bromouracil" class="mw-redirect" title="5-bromouracil">5-bromouracil</a>, which resembles thymine but can base-pair to guanine in its <a href="/wiki/Enol" title="Enol">enol</a> form.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other chemicals, known as <a href="/wiki/DNA_intercalation" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA intercalation">DNA intercalators</a>, fit into the gap between adjacent bases on a single strand and induce <a href="/wiki/Frameshift_mutation" title="Frameshift mutation">frameshift mutations</a> by "masquerading" as a base, causing the DNA replication machinery to skip or insert additional nucleotides at the intercalated site. Most intercalators are large <a href="/wiki/Polyaromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyaromatic">polyaromatic</a> compounds and are known or suspected <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogens</a>. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Ethidium_bromide" title="Ethidium bromide">ethidium bromide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acridine" title="Acridine">acridine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mismatch_repair">Mismatch repair</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mismatch repair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mismatched base pairs can be generated by errors of <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> and as intermediates during <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a>. The process of mismatch repair ordinarily must recognize and correctly repair a small number of base mispairs within a long sequence of normal DNA base pairs. To repair mismatches formed during DNA replication, several distinctive repair processes have evolved to distinguish between the template strand and the newly formed strand so that only the newly inserted incorrect nucleotide is removed (in order to avoid generating a mutation).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proteins employed in mismatch repair during DNA replication, and the clinical significance of defects in this process are described in the article <a href="/wiki/DNA_mismatch_repair" title="DNA mismatch repair">DNA mismatch repair</a>. The process of mispair correction during recombination is described in the article <a href="/wiki/Gene_conversion" title="Gene conversion">gene conversion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Length_measurements">Length measurements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Length measurements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/220px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/330px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/440px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 2x" data-file-width="9684" data-file-height="16008" /></a><figcaption>Schematic <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyogram</a> of a human. The blue scale to the left of each nuclear chromosome pair (as well as the <a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics" title="Human mitochondrial genetics">mitochondrial genome</a> at bottom left) shows its length in terms of mega–base-pairs.<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>The following abbreviations are commonly used to describe the length of a D/R<a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">NA molecule</a>: </p> <ul><li>bp = base pair—one bp corresponds to approximately 3.4 <a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">Å</a> (340 <a href="/wiki/Picometre" title="Picometre">pm</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of length along the strand, and to roughly 618 or 643 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_units" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass units">daltons</a> for DNA and RNA respectively.</li> <li>kb (= kbp) = kilo–base-pair = 1,000 bp</li> <li>Mb (= Mbp) = mega–base-pair = 1,000,000 bp</li> <li>Gb (= Gbp) = giga–base-pair = 1,000,000,000 bp</li></ul> <p>For single-stranded DNA/RNA, units of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> are used—abbreviated nt (or knt, Mnt, Gnt)—as they are not paired. To distinguish between units of <a href="/wiki/Computer_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer storage">computer storage</a> and bases, kbp, Mbp, Gbp, etc. may be used for base pairs. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Centimorgan" title="Centimorgan">centimorgan</a> is also often used to imply distance along a chromosome, but the number of base pairs it corresponds to varies widely. In the human genome, the centimorgan is about 1 million base pairs.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unnatural_base_pair_(UBP)"><span id="Unnatural_base_pair_.28UBP.29"></span>Unnatural base pair (UBP)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Unnatural base pair (UBP)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Artificial_gene_synthesis" title="Artificial gene synthesis">Artificial gene synthesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Expanded_genetic_code" title="Expanded genetic code">Expanded genetic code</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_analogue" title="Nucleic acid analogue">Nucleic acid analogue</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_genomics" title="Synthetic genomics">Synthetic genomics</a></div> <p>An unnatural base pair (UBP) is a designed subunit (or <a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">nucleobase</a>) of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> which is created in a laboratory and does not occur in nature. DNA sequences have been described which use newly created nucleobases to form a third base pair, in addition to the two base pairs found in nature, A-T (<a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a> – <a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">thymine</a>) and G-C (<a href="/wiki/Guanine" title="Guanine">guanine</a> – <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a>). A few research groups have been searching for a third base pair for DNA, including teams led by <a href="/wiki/Steven_A._Benner" title="Steven A. Benner">Steven A. Benner</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philippe_Marliere&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philippe Marliere (page does not exist)">Philippe Marliere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Floyd_E._Romesberg" title="Floyd E. Romesberg">Floyd E. Romesberg</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ichiro_Hirao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ichiro Hirao (page does not exist)">Ichiro Hirao</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fikes_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fikes-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some new base pairs based on alternative hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions and metal coordination have been reported.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Malyshev_PNAS_20120724_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malyshev_PNAS_20120724-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1989 Steven Benner (then working at the <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich" title="ETH Zurich">Swiss Federal Institute of Technology</a> in Zurich) and his team led with modified forms of cytosine and guanine into DNA molecules <i>in vitro</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nucleotides, which encoded RNA and proteins, were successfully replicated <i>in vitro</i>. Since then, Benner's team has been trying to engineer cells that can make foreign bases from scratch, obviating the need for a feedstock.<sup id="cite_ref-Ewan_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ewan-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2002, Ichiro Hirao's group in Japan developed an unnatural base pair between 2-amino-8-(2-thienyl)purine (s) and pyridine-2-one (y) that functions in transcription and translation, for the site-specific incorporation of non-standard amino acids into proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, they created 7-(2-thienyl)imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (Ds) and pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde (Pa) as a third base pair for replication and transcription.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward, Ds and 4-[3-(6-aminohexanamido)-1-propynyl]-2-nitropyrrole (Px) was discovered as a high fidelity pair in PCR amplification.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013, they applied the Ds-Px pair to DNA aptamer generation by <i>in vitro</i> selection (SELEX) and demonstrated the genetic alphabet expansion significantly augment DNA aptamer affinities to target proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2012, a group of American scientists led by Floyd Romesberg, a chemical biologist at the <a href="/wiki/Scripps_Research_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripps Research Institute">Scripps Research Institute</a> in San Diego, California, published that his team designed an unnatural base pair (UBP).<sup id="cite_ref-Malyshev_PNAS_20120724_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malyshev_PNAS_20120724-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two new artificial nucleotides or <i>Unnatural Base Pair</i> (UBP) were named <a href="/wiki/D5SICS" title="D5SICS">d5SICS</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNaM" title="DNaM">dNaM</a>. More technically, these artificial <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> bearing hydrophobic <a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">nucleobases</a>, feature two fused <a href="/wiki/Aromatic_hydrocarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic hydrocarbon">aromatic rings</a> that form a (d5SICS–dNaM) complex or base pair in DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Ewan_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ewan-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NATJ-20140507_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NATJ-20140507-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His team designed a variety of <i>in vitro</i> or "test tube" templates containing the unnatural base pair and they confirmed that it was efficiently replicated with high fidelity in virtually all sequence contexts using the modern standard <i>in vitro</i> techniques, namely <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">PCR amplification of DNA</a> and PCR-based applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Malyshev_PNAS_20120724_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malyshev_PNAS_20120724-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their results show that for PCR and PCR-based applications, the d5SICS–dNaM unnatural base pair is functionally equivalent to a natural base pair, and when combined with the other two natural base pairs used by all organisms, A–T and G–C, they provide a fully functional and expanded six-letter "genetic alphabet".<sup id="cite_ref-NATJ-20140507_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NATJ-20140507-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2014 the same team from the Scripps Research Institute reported that they synthesized a stretch of circular DNA known as a <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> containing natural T-A and C-G base pairs along with the best-performing UBP Romesberg's laboratory had designed and inserted it into cells of the common bacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a></i> that successfully replicated the unnatural base pairs through multiple generations.<sup id="cite_ref-Fikes_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fikes-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Transfection" title="Transfection">transfection</a> did not hamper the growth of the <i>E. coli</i> cells and showed no sign of losing its unnatural base pairs to its natural <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> mechanisms. This is the first known example of a living organism passing along an expanded genetic code to subsequent generations.<sup id="cite_ref-NATJ-20140507_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NATJ-20140507-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sample_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sample-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Romesberg said he and his colleagues created 300 variants to refine the design of nucleotides that would be stable enough and would be replicated as easily as the natural ones when the cells divide. This was in part achieved by the addition of a supportive <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algal gene</a> that expresses a <a href="/wiki/Nucleoside_triphosphate" title="Nucleoside triphosphate">nucleotide triphosphate</a> transporter which efficiently imports the triphosphates of both d5SICSTP and dNaMTP into <i>E. coli</i> bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-NATJ-20140507_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NATJ-20140507-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then, the natural bacterial replication pathways use them to accurately replicate a <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> containing d5SICS–dNaM. Other researchers were surprised that the bacteria replicated these human-made DNA subunits.<sup id="cite_ref-fox_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fox-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The successful incorporation of a third base pair is a significant breakthrough toward the goal of greatly expanding the number of <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> which can be encoded by DNA, from the existing 20 amino acids to a theoretically possible 172, thereby expanding the potential for living organisms to produce novel <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fikes_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fikes-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The artificial strings of DNA do not encode for anything yet, but scientists speculate they could be designed to manufacture new proteins which could have industrial or pharmaceutical uses.<sup id="cite_ref-Pollack_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollack-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experts said the synthetic DNA incorporating the unnatural base pair raises the possibility of life forms based on a different DNA code.<sup id="cite_ref-fox_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fox-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pollack_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollack-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-canonical_base_pairing">Non-canonical base pairing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Non-canonical base pairing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-canonical_base_pairing" title="Non-canonical base pairing">Non-canonical base pairing</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:368px;max-width:368px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:77px;max-width:77px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wobble.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Wobble.svg/75px-Wobble.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Wobble.svg/113px-Wobble.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Wobble.svg/150px-Wobble.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="601" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Wobble base pairs</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:287px;max-width:287px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hoogsteen_Watson_Crick_pairing-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Hoogsteen_Watson_Crick_pairing-en.svg/285px-Hoogsteen_Watson_Crick_pairing-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="285" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Hoogsteen_Watson_Crick_pairing-en.svg/428px-Hoogsteen_Watson_Crick_pairing-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Hoogsteen_Watson_Crick_pairing-en.svg/570px-Hoogsteen_Watson_Crick_pairing-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="288" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Comparison of Hoogsteen to Watson–Crick base pairs.<sup id="cite_ref-Nikolova2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nikolova2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>In addition to the canonical pairing, some conditions can also favour base-pairing with alternative base orientation, and number and geometry of hydrogen bonds. These pairings are accompanied by alterations to the local backbone shape.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The most common of these is the <a href="/wiki/Wobble_base_pair" title="Wobble base pair">wobble base pairing</a> that occurs between <a href="/wiki/TRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="TRNA">tRNAs</a> and <a href="/wiki/MRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MRNA">mRNAs</a> at the third base position of many <a href="/wiki/Codon" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon">codons</a> during <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(biology)" title="Transcription (biology)">transcription</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and during the charging of tRNAs by some <a href="/wiki/Aminoacyl_tRNA_synthetase" title="Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase">tRNA synthetases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have also been observed in the secondary structures of some RNA sequences.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Hoogsteen_base_pair" title="Hoogsteen base pair">Hoogsteen base pairing</a> (typically written as A•U/T and G•C) can exist in some DNA sequences (e.g. CA and TA dinucleotides) in dynamic equilibrium with standard Watson–Crick pairing.<sup id="cite_ref-Nikolova2_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nikolova2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have also been observed in some protein–DNA complexes.<sup id="cite_ref-Aishima_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aishima-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to these alternative base pairings, a wide range of base-base hydrogen bonding is observed in RNA secondary and tertiary structure.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These bonds are often necessary for the precise, complex shape of an RNA, as well as its binding to interaction partners.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Y-DNA_single-nucleotide_polymorphisms" title="List of Y-DNA single-nucleotide polymorphisms">List of Y-DNA single-nucleotide polymorphisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-canonical_base_pairing" title="Non-canonical base pairing">Non-canonical base pairing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chargaff%27s_rules" title="Chargaff's rules">Chargaff's rules</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSpencer1959" class="citation journal cs1">Spencer M (10 January 1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external 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Sandwalk.blogspot.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-07-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+total+size+of+the+human+genome+is+very+likely+to+be+~3%2C200+Mb&rft.pub=Sandwalk.blogspot.com&rft.date=2011-03-24&rft.aulast=Moran&rft.aufirst=LA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsandwalk.blogspot.com%2F2011%2F03%2Fhow-big-is-human-genome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABase+pair" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.strategicgenomics.com/Genome/index.htm">"The finished length of the human genome is 2.86 Gb"</a>. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nucleic+Acids+Research&rft.atitle=A+Hoogsteen+base+pair+embedded+in+undistorted+B-DNA&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=5244-5252&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC137974%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12466549&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fnar%2Fgkf661&rft.aulast=Aishima&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Gitti%2C+RK&rft.au=Noah%2C+JE&rft.au=Gan%2C+HH&rft.au=Schlick%2C+T&rft.au=Wolberger%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC137974&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABase+pair" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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"Analysis of RNA motifs". <i>Current Opinion in Structural Biology</i>. <b>13</b> (3): 300–308. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0959-440X%2803%2900076-9">10.1016/S0959-440X(03)00076-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12831880">12831880</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Structural+Biology&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+RNA+motifs&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=300-308&rft.date=2003-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0959-440X%2803%2900076-9&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12831880&rft.aulast=Leontis&rft.aufirst=NB&rft.au=Westhof%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABase+pair" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatsonBakerBellGann2004" class="citation book cs1">Watson JD, Baker TA, Bell SP, Gann A, Levine M, Losick R (2004). <i>Molecular Biology of the Gene</i> (5th ed.). Pearson Benjamin Cummings: CSHL Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Biology+of+the+Gene&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Pearson+Benjamin+Cummings%3A+CSHL+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=JD&rft.au=Baker%2C+TA&rft.au=Bell%2C+SP&rft.au=Gann%2C+A&rft.au=Levine%2C+M&rft.au=Losick%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABase+pair" class="Z3988"></span> (See esp. ch. 6 and 9)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSigelSigelSigel2012" class="citation book cs1">Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel RK, eds. (2012). <i>Interplay between Metal Ions and Nucleic Acids</i>. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 10. Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-2172-2">10.1007/978-94-007-2172-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-4007-2171-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-4007-2171-5"><bdi>978-9-4007-2171-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:92951134">92951134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interplay+between+Metal+Ions+and+Nucleic+Acids&rft.series=Metal+Ions+in+Life+Sciences&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A92951134%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-007-2172-2&rft.isbn=978-9-4007-2171-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABase+pair" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleverShionoya2012" class="citation book cs1">Clever GH, Shionoya M (2012). "Alternative DNA Base Pairing through Metal Coordination". <i>Interplay between Metal Ions and Nucleic Acids</i>. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 10. pp. 269–294. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-2172-2_10">10.1007/978-94-007-2172-2_10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-2171-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-2171-5"><bdi>978-94-007-2171-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22210343">22210343</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alternative+DNA+Base+Pairing+through+Metal+Coordination&rft.btitle=Interplay+between+Metal+Ions+and+Nucleic+Acids&rft.series=Metal+Ions+in+Life+Sciences&rft.pages=269-294&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22210343&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-007-2172-2_10&rft.isbn=978-94-007-2171-5&rft.aulast=Clever&rft.aufirst=GH&rft.au=Shionoya%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABase+pair" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeggerMeggerMueller2012" class="citation book cs1">Megger DA, Megger N, Mueller J (2012). "Metal-Mediated Base Pairs in Nucleic Acids with Purine- and Pyrimidine-Derived Nucleosides". <i>Interplay between Metal Ions and Nucleic Acids</i>. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 10. pp. 295–317. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-2172-2_11">10.1007/978-94-007-2172-2_11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-2171-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-2171-5"><bdi>978-94-007-2171-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22210344">22210344</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Metal-Mediated+Base+Pairs+in+Nucleic+Acids+with+Purine-+and+Pyrimidine-Derived+Nucleosides&rft.btitle=Interplay+between+Metal+Ions+and+Nucleic+Acids&rft.series=Metal+Ions+in+Life+Sciences&rft.pages=295-317&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22210344&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-007-2172-2_11&rft.isbn=978-94-007-2171-5&rft.aulast=Megger&rft.aufirst=DA&rft.au=Megger%2C+N&rft.au=Mueller%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABase+pair" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Base_pair&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of genetics">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a> of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Africa" title="Genetic history of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_editing" title="Genome editing">Genome editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_monitoring" title="Genetic monitoring">Genetic monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Jiankui_affair" title="He Jiankui affair">He Jiankui affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetics" title="Plant genetics">Plant genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_genetics" title="Reverse genetics">Reverse genetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetic_codes" title="List of genetic codes">List of genetic codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetics_research_organizations" title="List of genetics research organizations">List of genetics research organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_nucleic_acids" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nucleic_acids" title="Template:Nucleic acids"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nucleic_acids" title="Template talk:Nucleic acids"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleic_acids" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleic acids"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_nucleic_acids" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Constituents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">Nucleobases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleoside" title="Nucleoside">Nucleosides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyribonucleotide" title="Deoxyribonucleotide">Deoxynucleotides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">Ribonucleic acids </a><br /><span class="nobold">(coding, <a href="/wiki/Non-coding_RNA" title="Non-coding RNA">non-coding</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/RNA#In_translation" title="RNA">Translational</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">Messenger </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_transcript" title="Primary transcript">precursor, heterogenous nuclear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleoside-modified_messenger_RNA" title="Nucleoside-modified messenger RNA">modified Messenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">Transfer </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA" title="Ribosomal RNA">Ribosomal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer-messenger_RNA" title="Transfer-messenger RNA">Transfer-messenger </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/RNA#Regulatory_RNAs" title="RNA">Regulatory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">Interferential </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">Micro </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_interfering_RNA" title="Small interfering RNA">Small interfering </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piwi-interacting_RNA" title="Piwi-interacting RNA">Piwi-interacting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisense_RNA" title="Antisense RNA">Antisense </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA#In_RNA_processing" title="RNA">Processual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_nuclear_RNA" title="Small nuclear RNA">Small nuclear </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_nucleolar_RNA" title="Small nucleolar RNA">Small nucleolar </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Cajal_body-specific_RNA" title="Small Cajal body-specific RNA">Small Cajal Body RNAs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_RNA" title="Y RNA">Y RNA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enhancer_RNA" title="Enhancer RNA">Enhancer RNAs </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guide_RNA" title="Guide RNA">Guide </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">Ribozyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_hairpin_RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Small hairpin RNA">Small hairpin </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_temporal_RNA" title="Small temporal RNA">Small temporal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-acting_siRNA" title="Trans-acting siRNA">Trans-acting small interfering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgenomic_mRNA" title="Subgenomic mRNA">Subgenomic messenger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">Deoxyribonucleic <br />acids </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organellar_DNA" title="Organellar DNA">Organellar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chloroplast_DNA" title="Chloroplast DNA">Chloroplast </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">Mitochondrial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_DNA" title="Complementary DNA">Complementary </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyribozyme" title="Deoxyribozyme">Deoxyribozyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomic_DNA" title="Genomic DNA">Genomic </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachimoji_DNA" title="Hachimoji DNA">Hachimoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicopy_single-stranded_DNA" title="Multicopy single-stranded DNA">Multicopy single-stranded </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_analogue" title="Nucleic acid analogue">Analogues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xeno_nucleic_acid" title="Xeno nucleic acid">Xeno </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycol_nucleic_acid" title="Glycol nucleic acid">Glycol </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threose_nucleic_acid" title="Threose nucleic acid">Threose </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexose" title="Hexose">Hexose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locked_nucleic_acid" title="Locked nucleic acid">Locked </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peptide_nucleic_acid" title="Peptide nucleic acid">Peptide </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morpholino" title="Morpholino">Morpholino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cloning_vector" title="Cloning vector">Cloning vectors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phagemid" title="Phagemid">Phagemid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">Lambda phage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmid" title="Cosmid">Cosmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosmid" title="Fosmid">Fosmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_artificial_chromosome" title="Human artificial chromosome">Artificial chromosomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P1-derived_artificial_chromosome" title="P1-derived artificial chromosome">P1-derived </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_artificial_chromosome" title="Bacterial artificial chromosome">Bacterial </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_artificial_chromosome" title="Yeast artificial chromosome">Yeast </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_artificial_chromosome" title="Human artificial chromosome">Human</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nucleic_acids" title="Category:Nucleic acids">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nucleic_acid_constituents" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nucleobases,_nucleosides,_and_nucleotides" title="Template:Nucleobases, nucleosides, and nucleotides"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nucleobases,_nucleosides,_and_nucleotides" title="Template talk:Nucleobases, nucleosides, and nucleotides"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleobases,_nucleosides,_and_nucleotides" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleobases, nucleosides, and nucleotides"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nucleic_acid_constituents" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acid</a> constituents</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">Nucleobase</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Purine" title="Purine">Purine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">Adenine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanine" title="Guanine">Guanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxanthine" title="Hypoxanthine">Hypoxanthine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthine" title="Xanthine">Xanthine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purine_analogue" title="Purine analogue">Purine analogue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine" title="Pyrimidine">Pyrimidine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uracil" title="Uracil">Uracil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">Thymine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">Cytosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine_analogue" title="Pyrimidine analogue">Pyrimidine analogue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Unnatural_base_pair_(UBP)">Unnatural base pair (UBP)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleoside" title="Nucleoside">Nucleoside</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ribonucleoside" title="Ribonucleoside">Ribonucleoside</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">Adenosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanosine" title="Guanosine">Guanosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-Methyluridine" title="5-Methyluridine">5-Methyluridine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uridine" title="Uridine">Uridine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-Methylcytidine" title="5-Methylcytidine">5-Methylcytidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytidine" title="Cytidine">Cytidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudouridine" title="Pseudouridine">Pseudouridine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inosine" title="Inosine">Inosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N6-Methyladenosine" title="N6-Methyladenosine"><i>N</i><sup>6</sup>-Methyladenosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthosine" title="Xanthosine">Xanthosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wybutosine" title="Wybutosine">Wybutosine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deoxyribonucleoside" class="mw-redirect" title="Deoxyribonucleoside">Deoxyribonucleoside</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyadenosine" title="Deoxyadenosine">Deoxyadenosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyguanosine" title="Deoxyguanosine">Deoxyguanosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymidine" title="Thymidine">Thymidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyuridine" title="Deoxyuridine">Deoxyuridine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxycytidine" title="Deoxycytidine">Deoxycytidine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deoxyinosine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deoxyinosine (page does not exist)">Deoxyinosine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deoxyxanthosine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deoxyxanthosine (page does not exist)">Deoxyxanthosine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a><br />(Nucleoside monophosphate)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ribonucleotide" title="Ribonucleotide">Ribonucleotide</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_monophosphate" title="Adenosine monophosphate">AMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanosine_monophosphate" title="Guanosine monophosphate">GMP</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=5-Methyluridine_monophosphate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5-Methyluridine monophosphate (page does not exist)">m<sup>5</sup>UMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uridine_monophosphate" title="Uridine monophosphate">UMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytidine_monophosphate" title="Cytidine monophosphate">CMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inosinic_acid" title="Inosinic acid">IMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthosine_monophosphate" title="Xanthosine monophosphate">XMP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deoxyribonucleotide" title="Deoxyribonucleotide">Deoxyribonucleotide</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyadenosine_monophosphate" title="Deoxyadenosine monophosphate">dAMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyguanosine_monophosphate" title="Deoxyguanosine monophosphate">dGMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymidine_monophosphate" title="Thymidine monophosphate">dTMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyuridine_monophosphate" title="Deoxyuridine monophosphate">dUMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxycytidine_monophosphate" title="Deoxycytidine monophosphate">dCMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyinosine_monophosphate" title="Deoxyinosine monophosphate">dIMP</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deoxyxanthosine_monophosphate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deoxyxanthosine monophosphate (page does not exist)">dXMP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_nucleotide" title="Cyclic nucleotide">Cyclic nucleotide</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic adenosine monophosphate">cAMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_guanosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic guanosine monophosphate">cGMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_di-GMP" title="Cyclic di-GMP">c-di-GMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_di-AMP" title="Cyclic di-AMP">c-di-AMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_ADP-ribose" title="Cyclic ADP-ribose">cADPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_guanosine_monophosphate%E2%80%93adenosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic guanosine monophosphate–adenosine monophosphate">cGAMP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nucleoside diphosphate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate" title="Adenosine diphosphate">ADP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanosine_diphosphate" title="Guanosine diphosphate">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=5-Methyluridine_diphosphate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5-Methyluridine diphosphate (page does not exist)">m<sup>5</sup>UDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uridine_diphosphate" title="Uridine diphosphate">UDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytidine_diphosphate" title="Cytidine diphosphate">CDP</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xanthosine_diphosphate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xanthosine diphosphate (page does not exist)">Xanthosine diphosphate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyadenosine_diphosphate" title="Deoxyadenosine diphosphate">dADP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyguanosine_diphosphate" title="Deoxyguanosine diphosphate">dGDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymidine_diphosphate" title="Thymidine diphosphate">dTDP</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deoxyuridine_diphosphate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deoxyuridine diphosphate (page does not exist)">dUDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxycytidine_diphosphate" title="Deoxycytidine diphosphate">dCDP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleoside_triphosphate" title="Nucleoside triphosphate">Nucleoside triphosphate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanosine_triphosphate" title="Guanosine triphosphate">GTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-Methyluridine_triphosphate" title="5-Methyluridine triphosphate">m<sup>5</sup>UTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uridine_triphosphate" title="Uridine triphosphate">UTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytidine_triphosphate" title="Cytidine triphosphate">CTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inosine_triphosphate" title="Inosine triphosphate">ITP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthosine_triphosphate" title="Xanthosine triphosphate">XTP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyadenosine_triphosphate" title="Deoxyadenosine triphosphate">dATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyguanosine_triphosphate" title="Deoxyguanosine triphosphate">dGTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymidine_triphosphate" title="Thymidine triphosphate">dTTP</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deoxyuridine_triphosphate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deoxyuridine triphosphate (page does not exist)">dUTP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxycytidine_triphosphate" title="Deoxycytidine triphosphate">dCTP</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deoxyinosine_triphosphate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deoxyinosine triphosphate (page does not exist)">dITP</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deoxyxanthosine_triphosphate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deoxyxanthosine triphosphate (page does not exist)">dXTP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 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