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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theory of operation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theory_of_operation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theory of operation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Creep" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creep"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Creep</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creep-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jet_engines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jet_engines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Jet engines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jet_engines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turboprop_engines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turboprop_engines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Turboprop engines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turboprop_engines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aeroderivative_gas_turbines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aeroderivative_gas_turbines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Aeroderivative gas turbines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aeroderivative_gas_turbines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amateur_gas_turbines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amateur_gas_turbines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Amateur gas turbines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amateur_gas_turbines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Auxiliary_power_units" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auxiliary_power_units"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Auxiliary power units</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auxiliary_power_units-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_gas_turbines_for_power_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_gas_turbines_for_power_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Industrial gas turbines for power generation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_gas_turbines_for_power_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_gas_turbines_for_mechanical_drive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_gas_turbines_for_mechanical_drive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Industrial gas turbines for mechanical drive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_gas_turbines_for_mechanical_drive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compressed_air_energy_storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compressed_air_energy_storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.1</span> <span>Compressed air energy storage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compressed_air_energy_storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turboshaft_engines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turboshaft_engines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Turboshaft engines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turboshaft_engines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radial_gas_turbines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radial_gas_turbines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Radial gas turbines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radial_gas_turbines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scale_jet_engines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scale_jet_engines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Scale jet engines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scale_jet_engines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microturbines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microturbines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Microturbines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microturbines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_combustion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_combustion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>External combustion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_combustion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_surface_vehicles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_surface_vehicles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In surface vehicles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_surface_vehicles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In surface vehicles subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_surface_vehicles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Passenger_road_vehicles_(cars,_bikes,_and_buses)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passenger_road_vehicles_(cars,_bikes,_and_buses)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes, and buses)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passenger_road_vehicles_(cars,_bikes,_and_buses)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concept_cars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concept_cars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Concept cars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concept_cars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racing_cars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racing_cars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Racing cars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racing_cars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Buses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motorcycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motorcycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>Motorcycles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motorcycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Trains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tanks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tanks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Tanks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tanks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Marine applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Marine_applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Marine applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Marine_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Naval" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naval"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Naval</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naval-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civilian_maritime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civilian_maritime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Civilian maritime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civilian_maritime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advances_in_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advances_in_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Advances in technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advances_in_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages_and_disadvantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages_and_disadvantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Advantages and disadvantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages_and_disadvantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_manufacturers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_manufacturers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Major manufacturers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_manufacturers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Testing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Gas turbine</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 55 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-55" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">55 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="عنفة غازية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عنفة غازية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9B_%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8" title="গেছ টাৰ্বাইন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="গেছ টাৰ্বাইন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbina_de_gas" title="Turbina de gas – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Turbina de gas" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbin_m%C3%BCh%C9%99rrik" title="Turbin mühərrik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Turbin mühərrik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Газавая турбіна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Газавая турбіна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Газова турбина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Газова турбина" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbina_de_gas" title="Turbina de gas – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Turbina de gas" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plynov%C3%A1_turb%C3%ADna" title="Plynová turbína – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Plynová turbína" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasturbine" title="Gasturbine – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gasturbine" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasturbine" title="Gasturbine – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gasturbine" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaasiturbiin" title="Gaasiturbiin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Gaasiturbiin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbina_de_gas" title="Turbina de gas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Turbina de gas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasturbino" title="Gasturbino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gasturbino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas-turbina" title="Gas-turbina – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gas-turbina" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="توربین گازی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="توربین گازی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine_%C3%A0_gaz" title="Turbine à gaz – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Turbine à gaz" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1stuirb%C3%ADn" title="Gástuirbín – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gástuirbín" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbina_a_gas" title="Turbina a gas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Turbina a gas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%80%EC%8A%A4_%ED%84%B0%EB%B9%88" title="가스 터빈 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="가스 터빈" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8" title="गैस टर्बाइन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गैस टर्बाइन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinska_turbina" title="Plinska turbina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Plinska turbina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbin_gas" title="Turbin gas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Turbin gas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbina_a_gas" title="Turbina a gas – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Turbina a gas" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%96" title="טורבינת גז – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טורבינת גז" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Газ турбинасы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Газ турбинасы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaasturbine" title="Gaasturbine – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Gaasturbine" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1zturbina" title="Gázturbina – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gázturbina" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbin_gas" title="Turbin gas – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Turbin gas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasturbine" title="Gasturbine – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gasturbine" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8" title="ग्याँस टर्बाइन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ग्याँस टर्बाइन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AC%E3%82%B9%E3%82%BF%E3%83%BC%E3%83%93%E3%83%B3%E3%82%A8%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%83%B3" title="ガスタービンエンジン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ガスタービンエンジン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gassturbin" title="Gassturbin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gassturbin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gassturbin" title="Gassturbin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gassturbin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz_turbinasi" title="Gaz turbinasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gaz turbinasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbina_gazowa" title="Turbina gazowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Turbina gazowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbina_a_g%C3%A1s" title="Turbina a gás – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Turbina a gás" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbin%C4%83_cu_gaze" title="Turbină cu gaze – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Turbină cu gaze" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Газовая турбина – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Газовая турбина" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Gas turbine" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%BD_%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA" title="වායු තල බමරය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වායු තල බමරය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gas turbine" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plynov%C3%A1_turb%C3%ADna" title="Plynová turbína – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Plynová turbína" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinska_turbina" title="Plinska turbina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Plinska turbina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86" title="گاز تۆرباین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گاز تۆرباین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гасна турбина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гасна турбина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinska_turbina" title="Plinska turbina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Plinska turbina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaasuturbiini" title="Kaasuturbiini – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kaasuturbiini" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasturbin" title="Gasturbin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gasturbin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbinang_gas" title="Turbinang gas – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Turbinang gas" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz_t%C3%BCrbini" title="Gaz türbini – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gaz türbini" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Газова турбіна – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Газова турбіна" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D9%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86" title="گیس ٹربائن – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گیس ٹربائن" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%99ng_c%C6%A1_tu%E1%BB%91c_bin_kh%C3%AD" title="Động cơ tuốc bin khí – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Động cơ tuốc bin khí" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%87%83%E6%B0%A3%E6%B8%A6%E8%BC%AA%E7%99%BC%E5%8B%95%E6%A9%9F" title="燃氣渦輪發動機 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="燃氣渦輪發動機" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%87%83%E6%B0%A3%E6%B8%A6%E8%BC%AA%E7%99%BC%E5%8B%95%E6%A9%9F" title="燃氣渦輪發動機 – Chinese" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of internal and continuous combustion engine</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_rewrite plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-lead_rewrite" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may need to be rewritten</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit">improve the lead</a> and read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead layout guide</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gas_turbine_applications_(numbered).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Gas_turbine_applications_%28numbered%29.svg/330px-Gas_turbine_applications_%28numbered%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="530" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Gas_turbine_applications_%28numbered%29.svg/495px-Gas_turbine_applications_%28numbered%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Gas_turbine_applications_%28numbered%29.svg/660px-Gas_turbine_applications_%28numbered%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1119" data-file-height="1798" /></a><figcaption>Examples of gas turbine configurations: (1) <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojet</a>, (2) <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a>, (3) <a href="/wiki/Turboshaft" title="Turboshaft">turboshaft</a> (shown as electric generator), (4) high-bypass <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a>, (5) low-bypass <a href="/wiki/Afterburning" class="mw-redirect" title="Afterburning">afterburning</a> turbofan</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>gas turbine</b> or <b>gas turbine engine</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine#Continuous_combustion" title="Internal combustion engine">continuous flow</a> <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main parts common to all gas turbine engines form the power-producing part (known as the gas generator or core) and are, in the direction of flow: </p> <ul><li>a rotating <a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">gas compressor</a></li> <li>a <a href="/wiki/Combustor" title="Combustor">combustor</a></li> <li>a compressor-driving <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a>.</li></ul> <p>Additional components have to be added to the gas generator to suit its application. Common to all is an air inlet but with different configurations to suit the requirements of marine use, land use or flight at speeds varying from stationary to supersonic. A propelling nozzle is added to produce thrust for flight. An extra turbine is added to drive a propeller (<a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a>) or ducted fan (<a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a>) to reduce fuel consumption (by increasing propulsive efficiency) at subsonic flight speeds. An extra turbine is also required to drive a helicopter rotor or land-vehicle transmission (<a href="/wiki/Turboshaft" title="Turboshaft">turboshaft</a>), marine propeller or electrical generator (power turbine). Greater <a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">thrust-to-weight ratio</a> for flight is achieved with the addition of an <a href="/wiki/Afterburner" title="Afterburner">afterburner</a>. </p><p>The basic operation of the gas turbine is a <a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">Brayton cycle</a> with air as the <a href="/wiki/Working_fluid" title="Working fluid">working fluid</a>: atmospheric air flows through the compressor that brings it to higher pressure; <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so that the combustion generates a high-temperature flow; this high-temperature pressurized gas enters a turbine, producing a shaft work output in the process, used to drive the compressor; the unused energy comes out in the exhaust gases that can be repurposed for external work, such as directly producing <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Turbojet_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbojet engine">turbojet engine</a>, or rotating a second, independent turbine (known as a <i>power turbine</i>) that can be connected to a fan, propeller, or electrical generator. The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable split of energy between the thrust and the shaft work is achieved. The fourth step of the Brayton cycle (cooling of the working fluid) is omitted, as gas turbines are <a href="/wiki/Open_system_(systems_theory)" title="Open system (systems theory)">open systems</a> that do not reuse the same air. </p><p>Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, pumps, gas compressors, and <a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">tanks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline_of_development">Timeline of development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Timeline of development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Barber%27s_gas_turbine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/John_Barber%27s_gas_turbine.jpg/150px-John_Barber%27s_gas_turbine.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/John_Barber%27s_gas_turbine.jpg/225px-John_Barber%27s_gas_turbine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/John_Barber%27s_gas_turbine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="332" /></a><figcaption>Sketch of John Barber's gas turbine, from his patent</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>50: Earliest records of <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero's</a> engine (<i><a href="/wiki/Aeolipile" title="Aeolipile">aeolipile</a></i>). It most likely served no practical purpose, and was rather more of a curiosity; nonetheless, it demonstrated an important principle of physics that all modern turbine engines rely on.<sup id="cite_ref-:SY1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SY1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1000: The "Trotting Horse Lamp" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">走马灯</span>, <i>zŏumădēng</i>) was used by the Chinese at lantern fairs as early as the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Song dynasty">Northern Song dynasty</a>. When the lamp is lit, the heated airflow rises and drives an impeller with horse-riding figures attached on it, whose shadows are then projected onto the outer screen of the lantern.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1500: The <i><a href="/wiki/Smoke_jack" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoke jack">Smoke jack</a></i> was drawn by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>: Hot air from a fire rises through a single-stage axial turbine rotor mounted in the exhaust duct of the fireplace and turns the roasting spit by gear-chain connection.</li> <li>1791: A patent was given to <a href="/wiki/John_Barber_(engineer)" title="John Barber (engineer)">John Barber</a>, an Englishman, for the first true gas turbine. His invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a <a href="/wiki/Horseless_carriage" title="Horseless carriage">horseless carriage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1894: Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_Algernon_Parsons" title="Charles Algernon Parsons">Charles Parsons</a> patented the idea of propelling a ship with a <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a>, and built a demonstration vessel, the <i><a href="/wiki/Turbinia" title="Turbinia">Turbinia</a></i>, easily the fastest vessel afloat at the time.</li> <li>1899: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gordon_Curtis" title="Charles Gordon Curtis">Charles Gordon Curtis</a> patented the first gas turbine engine in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1900: <a href="/wiki/Sanford_Alexander_Moss" title="Sanford Alexander Moss">Sanford Alexander Moss</a> submitted a thesis on gas turbines. In 1903, Moss became an engineer for <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>'s Steam Turbine Department in <a href="/wiki/Lynn,_Massachusetts" title="Lynn, Massachusetts">Lynn, Massachusetts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leyes_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leyes-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there, he applied some of his concepts in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Turbocharger" title="Turbocharger">turbocharger</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leyes_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leyes-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1903: A Norwegian, <a href="/wiki/%C3%86gidius_Elling" title="Ægidius Elling">Ægidius Elling</a>, built the first gas turbine that was able to produce more power than needed to run its own components, which was considered an achievement in a time when knowledge about aerodynamics was limited. Using rotary compressors and turbines it produced 8 kW (11 hp).<sup id="cite_ref-ASMEAElling_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASMEAElling-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1904: A gas turbine engine designed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Franz_Stolze&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Franz Stolze (page does not exist)">Franz Stolze</a>, based on his earlier 1873 patent application, is built and tested in Berlin. The Stolze gas turbine was too inefficient to sustain its own operation.<sup id="cite_ref-:SY1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SY1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1906: The <a href="/wiki/Armengaud-Lemale_gas_turbine" title="Armengaud-Lemale gas turbine">Armengaud-Lemale gas turbine</a> tested in France. This was a relatively large machine which included a 25-stage centrifugal compressor designed by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Rateau" title="Auguste Rateau">Auguste Rateau</a> and built by the <a href="/wiki/Brown_Boveri_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown Boveri Company">Brown Boveri Company</a>. The gas turbine could sustain its own air compression but was too inefficient to produce useful work.<sup id="cite_ref-:SY1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SY1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1910: The first operational <a href="/wiki/Holzwarth_gas_turbine" title="Holzwarth gas turbine">Holzwarth gas turbine</a> (pulse combustion) achieves an output of 150 kW (200 hp). Planned output of the machine was 750 kW (1,000 hp) and its efficiency is below that of contemporary reciprocating engines.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1920s The practical theory of gas flow through passages was developed into the more formal (and applicable to turbines) theory of gas flow past airfoils by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Arnold_Griffith" title="Alan Arnold Griffith">A. A. Griffith</a> resulting in the publishing in 1926 of <i>An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design</i>. Working testbed designs of axial turbines suitable for driving a propeller were <a href="/wiki/Turbojet_development_at_the_RAE" title="Turbojet development at the RAE">developed by the Royal Aeronautical Establishment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:SY2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SY2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1930: Having found no interest from the RAF for his idea, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Whittle" title="Frank Whittle">Frank Whittle</a> patented<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the design for a centrifugal gas turbine for <a href="/wiki/Jet_propulsion" title="Jet propulsion">jet propulsion</a>. The first successful test run of his engine occurred in England in April 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1932: The <a href="/wiki/Brown_Boveri_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown Boveri Company">Brown Boveri Company</a> of Switzerland starts selling <a href="/wiki/Axial_compressor" title="Axial compressor">axial compressor</a> and turbine turbosets as part of the turbocharged steam generating <a href="/wiki/Velox_boiler" title="Velox boiler">Velox boiler</a>. Following the gas turbine principle, the steam <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> tubes are arranged within the gas turbine combustion chamber; the first Velox plant is erected at a French <a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel mill</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mondeville,_Calvados" title="Mondeville, Calvados">Mondeville, Calvados</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1936: The first constant flow industrial gas turbine is commissioned by the Brown Boveri Company and goes into service at <a href="/wiki/Sunoco" title="Sunoco">Sun Oil</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Hook,_Pennsylvania" title="Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania">Marcus Hook</a> refinery in <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, US.<sup id="cite_ref-:SY4_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SY4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1937: Working proof-of-concept prototype turbojet engine runs in UK (Frank Whittle's) and Germany (<a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Ohain" title="Hans von Ohain">Hans von Ohain</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Heinkel_HeS_1" title="Heinkel HeS 1">Heinkel HeS 1</a>). <a href="/wiki/Henry_Tizard" title="Henry Tizard">Henry Tizard</a> secures UK government funding for further development of <i>Power Jets</i> engine.<sup id="cite_ref-JETbook_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JETbook-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1939: The First 4 MW utility power generation gas turbine is built by the Brown Boveri Company for an <a href="/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel_gas_turbine" title="Neuchâtel gas turbine">emergency power station in Neuchâtel, Switzerland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The turbojet powered <a href="/wiki/Heinkel_He_178" title="Heinkel He 178">Heinkel He 178</a>, the world's first jet aircraft, makes its first flight.</li> <li>1940: <a href="/wiki/Jendrassik_Cs-1" title="Jendrassik Cs-1">Jendrassik Cs-1</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a> engine, made its first bench run. The Cs-1 was designed by Hungarian engineer <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Jendrassik" title="György Jendrassik">György Jendrassik</a>, and was intended to power a Hungarian twin-engine heavy fighter, the RMI-1. Work on the Cs-1 stopped in 1941 without the type having powered any aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1944: The <a href="/wiki/Junkers_Jumo_004" title="Junkers Jumo 004">Junkers Jumo 004</a> engine enters full production, powering the first German military jets such as the <a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262" title="Messerschmitt Me 262">Messerschmitt Me 262</a>. This marks the beginning of the reign of gas turbines in the sky.</li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/National_Gas_Turbine_Establishment" title="National Gas Turbine Establishment">National Gas Turbine Establishment</a> formed from Power Jets and the RAE turbine division to bring together Whittle and <a href="/wiki/Hayne_Constant" title="Hayne Constant">Hayne Constant</a>'s work.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Beznau_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Beznau Nuclear Power Plant">Beznau</a>, Switzerland the first commercial reheated/recuperated unit generating 27 MW was commissioned.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1947: A <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-Vickers" title="Metropolitan-Vickers">Metropolitan Vickers</a> G1 (Gatric) becomes the first marine gas turbine when it completes sea trials on the <a href="/wiki/Motor_gunboat" title="Motor gunboat">Royal Navy's M.G.B 2009 vessel</a>. The Gatric was an aeroderivative gas turbine based on the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-Vickers_F.2" title="Metropolitan-Vickers F.2">Metropolitan Vickers F2</a> jet engine.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Siemens" title="Siemens">Siemens</a> becomes the first manufacturer of large electricity producing gas turbines to incorporate <a href="/wiki/Single_crystal" title="Single crystal">single crystal</a> <a href="/wiki/Turbine_blade" title="Turbine blade">turbine blade</a> technology into their production models, allowing higher operating temperatures and greater efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Heavy_Industries" title="Mitsubishi Heavy Industries">Mitsubishi Heavy Industries</a> tests the first >60% efficiency <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle">combined cycle</a> gas turbine (the M501J) at its Takasago, Hyōgo, works.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Doosan_Enerbility" title="Doosan Enerbility">Doosan Enerbility</a> began developing a large gas turbine for power generation in 2013 and completed development in 2019. A model was installed at a Gimpo Combined Heat and Power Plant in 2023 and began commercial operation.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory_of_operation">Theory of operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theory of operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brayton_cycle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Brayton_cycle.svg/250px-Brayton_cycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Brayton_cycle.svg/330px-Brayton_cycle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Brayton_cycle.svg/500px-Brayton_cycle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="293" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">Brayton cycle</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo four <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamic</a> processes: an <a href="/wiki/Isentropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Isentropic">isentropic</a> compression, an <a href="/wiki/Isobaric_process" title="Isobaric process">isobaric</a> (constant pressure) combustion, an isentropic expansion and isobaric heat rejection. Together, these make up the <a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">Brayton cycle</a>, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">"constant pressure cycle"</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Otto_cycle" title="Otto cycle">Otto cycle</a>, in that all the processes (compression, ignition combustion, exhaust), occur at the same time, continuously.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a real gas turbine, mechanical energy is changed irreversibly (due to internal friction and turbulence) into pressure and thermal energy when the gas is compressed (in either a centrifugal or axial <a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">compressor</a>). Heat is added in the <a href="/wiki/Combustor" title="Combustor">combustion chamber</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Specific_volume" title="Specific volume">specific volume</a> of the gas increases, accompanied by a slight loss in pressure. During expansion through the stator and rotor passages in the turbine, irreversible energy transformation once again occurs. Fresh air is taken in, in place of the heat rejection. </p><p>Air is taken in by a compressor, called a <a href="/wiki/Gas_generator" title="Gas generator">gas generator</a>, with either an <a href="/wiki/Axial_compressor" title="Axial compressor">axial</a> or <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_compressor" title="Centrifugal compressor">centrifugal</a> design, or a combination of the two.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This air is then ducted into the <a href="/wiki/Combustor" title="Combustor">combustor</a> section which can be of a <a href="/wiki/Annular_combustor" class="mw-redirect" title="Annular combustor">annular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Can_combustor" class="mw-redirect" title="Can combustor">can</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Can-annular" class="mw-redirect" title="Can-annular">can-annular</a> design.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the combustor section, roughly 70% of the air from the compressor is ducted around the combustor itself for cooling purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remaining roughly 30% the air is mixed with fuel and ignited by the already burning <a href="/wiki/Air-fuel_mixture" class="mw-redirect" title="Air-fuel mixture">air-fuel mixture</a>, which then expands producing power across the <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This expansion of the mixture then leaves the combustor section and has its velocity increased across the <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a> section to strike the turbine blades, spinning the disc they are attached to, thus creating useful power. Of the power produced, 60-70% is solely used to power the gas generator.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remaining power is used to power what the engine is being used for, typically an aviation application, being thrust in a <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojet</a>, driving the fan of a <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a>, rotor or accessory of a <a href="/wiki/Turboshaft" title="Turboshaft">turboshaft</a>, and gear reduction and propeller of a <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If the engine has a power turbine added to drive an industrial generator or a helicopter rotor, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible with only enough energy left to overcome the pressure losses in the exhaust ducting and expel the exhaust. For a <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a> engine there will be a particular balance between propeller power and jet thrust which gives the most economical operation. In a <a href="/wiki/Turbojet_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbojet engine">turbojet engine</a> only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the compressor and other components. The remaining high-pressure gases are accelerated through a nozzle to provide a jet to propel an aircraft. </p><p>The smaller the engine, the higher the rotation rate of the shaft must be to attain the required blade tip speed. Blade-tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This, in turn, limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the <a href="/wiki/Rotational_speed" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotational speed">rotational speed</a> must double. For example, large jet engines operate around 10,000–25,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mechanically, gas turbines <i>can</i> be considerably less complex than <a href="/wiki/Reciprocating_engine" title="Reciprocating engine">Reciprocating engines</a>. Simple turbines might have one main moving part, the compressor/shaft/turbine rotor assembly, with other moving parts in the fuel system. This, in turn, can translate into price. For instance, costing 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Reichsmark" title="Reichsmark">ℛℳ</a> for materials, the Jumo 004 proved cheaper than the <a href="/wiki/Junkers_Jumo_213" title="Junkers Jumo 213">Junkers 213</a> piston engine, which was 35,000 <a href="/wiki/Reichsmark" title="Reichsmark">ℛℳ</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and needed only 375 hours of lower-skill labor to complete (including manufacture, assembly, and shipping), compared to 1,400 for the <a href="/wiki/BMW_801" title="BMW 801">BMW 801</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This, however, also translated into poor efficiency and reliability. More advanced gas turbines (such as those found in modern <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">jet engines</a> or combined cycle power plants) may have 2 or 3 shafts (spools), hundreds of compressor and turbine blades, movable stator blades, and extensive external tubing for fuel, oil and air systems; they use temperature resistant alloys, and are made with tight specifications requiring precision manufacture. All this often makes the construction of a simple gas turbine more complicated than a piston engine. </p><p>Moreover, to reach optimum performance in modern gas turbine power plants the gas needs to be prepared to exact fuel specifications. Fuel gas conditioning systems treat the natural gas to reach the exact fuel specification prior to entering the turbine in terms of pressure, temperature, gas composition, and the related <a href="/wiki/Wobbe_index" title="Wobbe index">Wobbe index</a>. </p><p>The primary advantage of a gas turbine engine is its power to weight ratio.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Since significant useful work can be generated by a relatively lightweight engine, gas turbines are perfectly suited for aircraft propulsion. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thrust_bearing" title="Thrust bearing">Thrust bearings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Journal_bearings" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal bearings">journal bearings</a> are a critical part of a design. They are <a href="/wiki/Fluid_bearing" title="Fluid bearing">hydrodynamic oil bearings</a> or oil-cooled <a href="/wiki/Rolling-element_bearing" title="Rolling-element bearing">rolling-element bearings</a>. <a href="/wiki/Foil_bearing" title="Foil bearing">Foil bearings</a> are used in some small machines such as micro turbines<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also have strong potential for use in small gas turbines/<a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_power_unit" title="Auxiliary power unit">auxiliary power units</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creep">Creep</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Creep"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major challenge facing turbine design, especially <a href="/wiki/Turbine_blades" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbine blades">turbine blades</a>, is reducing the <a href="/wiki/Creep_(deformation)" title="Creep (deformation)">creep</a> that is induced by the high temperatures and stresses that are experienced during operation. Higher operating temperatures are continuously sought in order to increase efficiency, but come at the cost of higher creep rates. Several methods have therefore been employed in an attempt to achieve optimal performance while limiting creep, with the most successful ones being high performance coatings and single crystal <a href="/wiki/Superalloy" title="Superalloy">superalloys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These technologies work by limiting deformation that occurs by mechanisms that can be broadly classified as dislocation glide, dislocation climb and diffusional flow. </p><p>Protective coatings provide <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">thermal insulation</a> of the blade and offer <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> resistance. Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are often stabilized <a href="/wiki/Zirconium_dioxide" title="Zirconium dioxide">zirconium dioxide</a>-based ceramics and oxidation/corrosion resistant coatings (bond coats) typically consist of <a href="/wiki/Aluminide" title="Aluminide">aluminides</a> or MCrAlY (where M is typically Fe and/or Cr) alloys. Using TBCs limits the temperature exposure of the superalloy substrate, thereby decreasing the diffusivity of the active species (typically vacancies) within the alloy and reducing dislocation and vacancy creep. It has been found that a coating of 1–200 μm can decrease blade temperatures by up to 200 °C (392 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bond coats are directly applied onto the surface of the substrate using pack carburization and serve the dual purpose of providing improved adherence for the TBC and oxidation resistance for the substrate. The Al from the bond coats forms Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> on the TBC-bond coat interface which provides the oxidation resistance, but also results in the formation of an undesirable interdiffusion (ID) zone between itself and the substrate.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oxidation resistance outweighs the drawbacks associated with the ID zone as it increases the lifetime of the blade and limits the efficiency losses caused by a buildup on the outside of the blades.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nickel-based superalloys boast improved strength and creep resistance due to their composition and resultant <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructure</a>. The gamma (γ) FCC nickel is alloyed with aluminum and titanium in order to precipitate a uniform dispersion of the coherent <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">Ni<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>(Al,Ti)</span> gamma-prime (γ') phases. The finely dispersed γ' precipitates impede dislocation motion and introduce a threshold stress, increasing the stress required for the onset of creep. Furthermore, γ' is an ordered L1<sub>2</sub> phase that makes it harder for dislocations to shear past it.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further <a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">Refractory</a> elements such as <a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">rhenium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">ruthenium</a> can be added in solid solution to improve creep strength. The addition of these elements reduces the diffusion of the gamma prime phase, thus preserving the <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">fatigue</a> resistance, strength, and creep resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of single crystal superalloys has led to significant improvements in creep resistance as well. Due to the lack of grain boundaries, single crystals eliminate <a href="/wiki/Coble_creep" title="Coble creep">Coble creep</a> and consequently deform by fewer modes – decreasing the creep rate.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although single crystals have lower creep at high temperatures, they have significantly lower yield stresses at room temperature where strength is determined by the Hall-Petch relationship. Care needs to be taken in order to optimize the design parameters to limit high temperature creep while not decreasing low temperature yield strength. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jet_engines">Jet engines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Jet engines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J85_ge_17a_turbojet_engine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/J85_ge_17a_turbojet_engine.jpg/250px-J85_ge_17a_turbojet_engine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/J85_ge_17a_turbojet_engine.jpg/330px-J85_ge_17a_turbojet_engine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/J85_ge_17a_turbojet_engine.jpg/500px-J85_ge_17a_turbojet_engine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3340" data-file-height="2033" /></a><figcaption>typical axial-flow gas turbine turbojet, the <a href="/wiki/General_Electric_J85" title="General Electric J85">J85</a>, sectioned for display. Flow is left to right, multistage compressor on left, combustion chambers center, two-stage turbine on right</figcaption></figure> <p>Airbreathing <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engines</a> are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from the exhaust gases, or from <a href="/wiki/Ducted_fan" title="Ducted fan">ducted fans</a> connected to the gas turbines.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dk_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dk-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jet engines that produce thrust from the direct impulse of exhaust gases are often called <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojets</a>. While still in service with many militaries and civilian operators, turbojets have mostly been phased out in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a> engine due to the turbojet's low fuel efficiency, and high noise.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those that generate thrust with the addition of a ducted fan are called <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofans</a> or (rarely) fan-jets. These engines produce nearly 80% of their thrust by the ducted fan, which can be seen from the front of the engine. They come in two types, <a href="/wiki/Low-bypass_turbofan" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-bypass turbofan">low-bypass turbofan</a> and <a href="/wiki/High_bypass" class="mw-redirect" title="High bypass">high bypass</a>, the difference being the amount of air moved by the fan, called "bypass air". These engines offer the benefit of more thrust without extra fuel consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gas turbines are also used in many <a href="/wiki/Liquid-fuel_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid-fuel rocket">liquid-fuel rockets</a>, where gas turbines are used to power a <a href="/wiki/Turbopump" title="Turbopump">turbopump</a> to permit the use of lightweight, low-pressure tanks, reducing the empty weight of the rocket. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turboprop_engines">Turboprop engines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Turboprop engines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a> engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller using a reduction gear to translate high turbine section operating speed (often in the 10s of thousands) into low thousands necessary for efficient propeller operation. The benefit of using the turboprop engine is to take advantage of the turbine engines high <a href="/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio" title="Power-to-weight ratio">power-to-weight ratio</a> to drive a propeller, thus allowing a more powerful, but also smaller engine to be used.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turboprop engines are used on a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Business_aircraft" title="Business aircraft">business aircraft</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Pilatus_PC-12" title="Pilatus PC-12">Pilatus PC-12</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commuter_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Commuter aircraft">commuter aircraft</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Beechcraft_1900" title="Beechcraft 1900">Beechcraft 1900</a>, and small cargo aircraft such as the <a href="/wiki/Cessna_208_Caravan" title="Cessna 208 Caravan">Cessna 208 Caravan</a> or <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Canada_Dash_8" title="De Havilland Canada Dash 8">De Havilland Canada Dash 8</a>, and large aircraft (typically military) such as the <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A400M" class="mw-redirect" title="Airbus A400M">Airbus A400M</a> transport, <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_AC-130" title="Lockheed AC-130">Lockheed AC-130</a> and the 60-year-old <a href="/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-95" title="Tupolev Tu-95">Tupolev Tu-95</a> strategic bomber. While military turboprop engines can vary, in the civilian market there are two primary engines to be found: the <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada_PT6" title="Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6">Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Free-turbine_turboshaft" title="Free-turbine turboshaft">free-turbine turboshaft</a> engine, and the <a href="/wiki/Honeywell_TPE331" title="Honeywell TPE331">Honeywell TPE331</a>, a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fixed_turbine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fixed turbine (page does not exist)">fixed turbine</a> engine (formerly designated as the <a href="/wiki/Garrett_AiResearch" title="Garrett AiResearch">Garrett AiResearch</a> 331). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aeroderivative_gas_turbines">Aeroderivative gas turbines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Aeroderivative gas turbines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:General_Electric_LM6000.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/General_Electric_LM6000.jpg/220px-General_Electric_LM6000.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/General_Electric_LM6000.jpg/330px-General_Electric_LM6000.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/General_Electric_LM6000.jpg/440px-General_Electric_LM6000.jpg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption>An LM6000 in an electrical <a href="/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plant</a> application</figcaption></figure> <p>Aeroderivative gas turbines are generally based on existing aircraft gas turbine engines and are smaller and lighter than industrial gas turbines.<sup id="cite_ref-Robb_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robb-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aeroderivatives are used in electrical power generation due to their ability to be shut down and handle load changes more quickly than industrial machines.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are also used in the marine industry to reduce weight. Common types include the <a href="/wiki/General_Electric_LM2500" title="General Electric LM2500">General Electric LM2500</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Electric_LM6000" title="General Electric LM6000">General Electric LM6000</a>, and aeroderivative versions of the <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PW4000" title="Pratt & Whitney PW4000">Pratt & Whitney PW4000</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_FT4" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratt & Whitney FT4">Pratt & Whitney FT4</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_RB211" title="Rolls-Royce RB211">Rolls-Royce RB211</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robb_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robb-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amateur_gas_turbines">Amateur gas turbines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Amateur gas turbines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increasing numbers of gas turbines are being used or even constructed by amateurs. </p><p>In its most straightforward form, these are commercial turbines acquired through military surplus or scrapyard sales, then operated for display as part of the hobby of engine collecting.<sup id="cite_ref-latexiron_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-latexiron-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Internal_Fire,_Proteus_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Internal_Fire,_Proteus-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In its most extreme form, amateurs have even rebuilt engines beyond professional repair and then used them to compete for the land speed record. </p><p>The simplest form of self-constructed gas turbine employs an automotive <a href="/wiki/Turbocharger" title="Turbocharger">turbocharger</a> as the core component. A combustion chamber is fabricated and plumbed between the compressor and turbine sections.<sup id="cite_ref-Scrapheap_Challenge,_gas_turbine_go-cart_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scrapheap_Challenge,_gas_turbine_go-cart-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More sophisticated turbojets are also built, where their thrust and light weight are sufficient to power large model aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-Schreckling,_Gas_Turbines_for_Model_Aircraft_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schreckling,_Gas_Turbines_for_Model_Aircraft-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Schreckling" title="Kurt Schreckling">Schreckling</a> design<sup id="cite_ref-Schreckling,_Gas_Turbines_for_Model_Aircraft_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schreckling,_Gas_Turbines_for_Model_Aircraft-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> constructs the entire engine from raw materials, including the fabrication of a <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_compressor" title="Centrifugal compressor">centrifugal compressor</a> wheel from plywood, epoxy and wrapped carbon fibre strands. </p><p>Several small companies now manufacture small turbines and parts for the amateur. Most turbojet-powered model aircraft are now using these commercial and semi-commercial microturbines, rather than a Schreckling-like home-build.<sup id="cite_ref-Kamps_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kamps-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Auxiliary_power_units">Auxiliary power units</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Auxiliary power units"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Small gas turbines are used as <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_power_unit" title="Auxiliary power unit">auxiliary power units</a> (APUs) to supply auxiliary power to larger, mobile, machines such as an <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, and are a <a href="/wiki/Turboshaft" title="Turboshaft">turboshaft</a> design.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They supply: </p> <ul><li>compressed air for <a href="/wiki/Air_cycle_machine" title="Air cycle machine">air cycle machine</a> style air conditioning and ventilation,</li> <li>compressed air start-up power for larger <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engines</a>,</li> <li>mechanical (shaft) power to a gearbox to drive shafted accessories, and</li> <li>electrical, hydraulic and other power-transmission sources to consuming devices remote from the APU.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_gas_turbines_for_power_generation">Industrial gas turbines for power generation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Industrial gas turbines for power generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gateway_Generating_Station_rectified.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Gateway_Generating_Station_rectified.jpg/220px-Gateway_Generating_Station_rectified.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Gateway_Generating_Station_rectified.jpg/330px-Gateway_Generating_Station_rectified.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Gateway_Generating_Station_rectified.jpg/440px-Gateway_Generating_Station_rectified.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4743" data-file-height="1734" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gateway_Generating_Station" title="Gateway Generating Station">Gateway Generating Station</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle_power_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle power generation">combined-cycle</a> <a href="/wiki/Gas-fired_power_plant" title="Gas-fired power plant">gas-fired power station</a> in California, uses two GE 7F.04 combustion turbines to burn <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GE_H_series_Gas_Turbine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/GE_H_series_Gas_Turbine.jpg/250px-GE_H_series_Gas_Turbine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/GE_H_series_Gas_Turbine.jpg/330px-GE_H_series_Gas_Turbine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/GE_H_series_Gas_Turbine.jpg/500px-GE_H_series_Gas_Turbine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption>GE H series power generation gas turbine: in <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle">combined cycle</a> configuration, its highest <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic efficiency">thermodynamic efficiency</a> is 62.22%</figcaption></figure><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gas-fired_power_plant" title="Gas-fired power plant">Gas-fired power plant</a></div> <p>Industrial gas turbines differ from aeronautical designs in that the frames, bearings, and blading are of heavier construction. They are also much more closely integrated with the devices they power—often an <a href="/wiki/Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">electric generator</a>—and the secondary-energy equipment that is used to recover residual energy (largely heat). </p><p>They range in size from portable mobile plants to large, complex systems weighing more than a hundred tonnes housed in purpose-built buildings. When the gas turbine is used solely for shaft power, its thermal efficiency is about 30%. However, it may be cheaper to buy electricity than to generate it. Therefore, many engines are used in CHP (Combined Heat and Power) configurations that can be small enough to be integrated into portable <a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container" title="Intermodal container">container</a> configurations. </p><p>Gas turbines can be particularly efficient when <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> from the turbine is recovered by a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to power a conventional steam turbine in a <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle">combined cycle</a> configuration.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 605 MW <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> 9HA achieved a 62.22% efficiency rate with temperatures as high as 1,540 °C (2,800 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For 2018, GE offers its 826 MW HA at over 64% efficiency in combined cycle due to advances in <a href="/wiki/Additive_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Additive manufacturing">additive manufacturing</a> and combustion breakthroughs, up from 63.7% in 2017 orders and on track to achieve 65% by the early 2020s.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 2018, GE Power achieved a 63.08% gross efficiency for its 7HA turbine.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aeroderivative gas turbines can also be used in combined cycles, leading to a higher efficiency, but it will not be as high as a specifically designed industrial gas turbine. They can also be run in a <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">cogeneration</a> configuration: the exhaust is used for space or water heating, or drives an <a href="/wiki/Absorption_chiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption chiller">absorption chiller</a> for cooling the inlet air and increase the power output, technology known as <a href="/wiki/Turbine_inlet_air_cooling" title="Turbine inlet air cooling">turbine inlet air cooling</a>. </p><p>Another significant advantage is their ability to be turned on and off within minutes, supplying power during peak, or unscheduled, demand. Since single cycle (gas turbine only) power plants are less efficient than combined cycle plants, they are usually used as <a href="/wiki/Peaking_power_plant" title="Peaking power plant">peaking power plants</a>, which operate anywhere from several hours per day to a few dozen hours per year—depending on the electricity demand and the generating capacity of the region. In areas with a shortage of base-load and <a href="/wiki/Load_following_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Load following power plant">load following power plant</a> capacity or with low fuel costs, a gas turbine powerplant may regularly operate most hours of the day. A large single-cycle gas turbine typically produces 100 to 400 megawatts of electric power and has 35–40% <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic efficiency">thermodynamic efficiency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-siemens_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siemens-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_gas_turbines_for_mechanical_drive">Industrial gas turbines for mechanical drive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Industrial gas turbines for mechanical drive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Industrial gas turbines that are used solely for mechanical drive or used in collaboration with a recovery steam generator differ from power generating sets in that they are often smaller and feature a dual shaft design as opposed to a single shaft. The power range varies from 1 megawatt up to 50 megawatts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These engines are connected directly or via a gearbox to either a pump or compressor assembly. The majority of installations are used within the oil and gas industries. Mechanical drive applications increase efficiency by around 2%. </p><p>Oil and gas platforms require these engines to drive compressors to inject gas into the wells to force oil up via another bore, or to compress the gas for transportation. They are also often used to provide power for the platform. These platforms do not need to use the engine in collaboration with a CHP system due to getting the gas at an extremely reduced cost (often free from burn off gas). The same companies use pump sets to drive the fluids to land and across pipelines in various intervals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compressed_air_energy_storage">Compressed air energy storage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Compressed air energy storage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Compressed_air_energy_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Compressed air energy storage">Compressed air energy storage</a></div> <p>One modern development seeks to improve efficiency in another way, by separating the compressor and the turbine with a compressed air store. In a conventional turbine, up to half the generated power is used driving the compressor. In a compressed air energy storage configuration, power is used to drive the compressor, and the compressed air is released to operate the turbine when required. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turboshaft_engines">Turboshaft engines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Turboshaft engines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Turboshaft" title="Turboshaft">Turboshaft</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Turboshaft" title="Turboshaft">Turboshaft</a> engines are used to drive compressors in gas pumping stations and natural gas liquefaction plants. They are also used in aviation to power all but the smallest modern helicopters, and function as an <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_power_unit" title="Auxiliary power unit">auxiliary power unit</a> in large commercial aircraft. A primary shaft carries the compressor and its turbine which, together with a combustor, is called a <i>Gas Generator</i>. A separately spinning power-turbine is usually used to drive the rotor on helicopters. Allowing the gas generator and power turbine/rotor to spin at their own speeds allows more flexibility in their design. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radial_gas_turbines">Radial gas turbines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Radial gas turbines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radial_turbine" title="Radial turbine">Radial turbine</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scale_jet_engines">Scale jet engines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Scale jet engines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DH_Goblin_annotated_colour_cutaway.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/DH_Goblin_annotated_colour_cutaway.png/250px-DH_Goblin_annotated_colour_cutaway.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/DH_Goblin_annotated_colour_cutaway.png/330px-DH_Goblin_annotated_colour_cutaway.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/DH_Goblin_annotated_colour_cutaway.png/500px-DH_Goblin_annotated_colour_cutaway.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>Scale jet engines are scaled down versions of this early full scale engine</figcaption></figure> <p>Also known as miniature gas turbines or micro-jets. </p><p>With this in mind the pioneer of modern Micro-Jets, <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Schreckling" title="Kurt Schreckling">Kurt Schreckling</a>, produced one of the world's first Micro-Turbines, the FD3/67.<sup id="cite_ref-Schreckling,_Gas_Turbines_for_Model_Aircraft_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schreckling,_Gas_Turbines_for_Model_Aircraft-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This engine can produce up to 22 <a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newtons</a> of thrust, and can be built by most mechanically minded people with basic engineering tools, such as a <a href="/wiki/Metal_lathe" title="Metal lathe">metal lathe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schreckling,_Gas_Turbines_for_Model_Aircraft_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schreckling,_Gas_Turbines_for_Model_Aircraft-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microturbines">Microturbines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Microturbines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Microturbine" title="Microturbine">Microturbine</a></div> <p>Evolved from piston engine <a href="/wiki/Turbocharger" title="Turbocharger">turbochargers</a>, aircraft <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_power_unit" title="Auxiliary power unit">APUs</a> or small <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microturbine" title="Microturbine">microturbines</a> are 25 to 500 <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatt">kilowatt</a> turbines the size of a <a href="/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator">refrigerator</a>. Microturbines have around 15% <a href="/wiki/Engine_efficiency" title="Engine efficiency">efficiencies</a> without a <a href="/wiki/Recuperator" title="Recuperator">recuperator</a>, 20 to 30% with one and they can reach 85% combined thermal-electrical efficiency in <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">cogeneration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wbdg22dec2016_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wbdg22dec2016-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_combustion">External combustion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External combustion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most gas turbines are internal combustion engines but it is also possible to manufacture an external combustion gas turbine which is, effectively, a turbine version of a <a href="/wiki/Hot_air_engine" title="Hot air engine">hot air engine</a>. Those systems are usually indicated as EFGT (Externally Fired Gas Turbine) or IFGT (Indirectly Fired Gas Turbine). </p><p>External combustion has been used for the purpose of using <a href="/wiki/Pulverized_coal" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulverized coal">pulverized coal</a> or finely ground biomass (such as sawdust) as a fuel. In the indirect system, a <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat exchanger</a> is used and only clean air with no combustion products travels through the power turbine. The <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermal efficiency</a> is lower in the indirect type of external combustion; however, the turbine blades are not subjected to combustion products and much lower quality (and therefore cheaper) fuels are able to be used. </p><p>When external combustion is used, it is possible to use exhaust air from the turbine as the primary combustion air. This effectively reduces global heat losses, although heat losses associated with the combustion exhaust remain inevitable. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Closed-cycle_gas_turbine" title="Closed-cycle gas turbine">Closed-cycle gas turbines</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_carbon_dioxide" title="Supercritical carbon dioxide">supercritical carbon dioxide</a> also hold promise for use with future high temperature solar and nuclear power generation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_surface_vehicles">In surface vehicles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: In surface vehicles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MZKT_open_day_2019_p06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MZKT_open_day_2019_p06.jpg/220px-MZKT_open_day_2019_p06.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MZKT_open_day_2019_p06.jpg/330px-MZKT_open_day_2019_p06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MZKT_open_day_2019_p06.jpg/440px-MZKT_open_day_2019_p06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4042" data-file-height="2217" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/MAZ-7907" title="MAZ-7907">MAZ-7907</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Transporter_erector_launcher" title="Transporter erector launcher">transporter erector launcher</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Turbine%E2%80%93electric_powertrain" title="Turbine–electric powertrain">turbine–electric powertrain</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Gas turbines are often used on <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Locomotive" title="Locomotive">locomotives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">tanks</a>, and to a lesser extent, on cars, buses, and motorcycles. </p><p>A key advantage of jets and <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprops</a> for airplane propulsion – their superior performance at high altitude compared to piston engines, particularly <a href="/wiki/Naturally_aspirated_engine" title="Naturally aspirated engine">naturally aspirated</a> ones – is irrelevant in most automobile applications. Their power-to-weight advantage, though less critical than for aircraft, is still important. </p><p>Gas turbines offer a high-powered engine in a very small and light package. However, they are not as responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of RPMs and powers needed in vehicle applications. In <a href="/wiki/Series_hybrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Series hybrid">series hybrid</a> vehicles, as the driving electric motors are mechanically detached from the electricity generating engine, the responsiveness, poor performance at low speed and low efficiency at low output problems are much less important. The turbine can be run at optimum speed for its power output, and batteries and <a href="/wiki/Ultracapacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultracapacitor">ultracapacitors</a> can supply power as needed, with the engine cycled on and off to run it only at high efficiency. The emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Continuously_variable_transmission" title="Continuously variable transmission">continuously variable transmission</a> may also alleviate the responsiveness problem. </p><p>Turbines have historically been more expensive to produce than piston engines, though this is partly because piston engines have been mass-produced in huge quantities for decades, while small gas turbine engines are rarities; however, turbines are mass-produced in the closely related form of the <a href="/wiki/Turbocharger" title="Turbocharger">turbocharger</a>. </p><p>The turbocharger is basically a compact and simple free shaft radial gas turbine which is driven by the piston engine's <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gas</a>. The centripetal turbine wheel drives a centrifugal compressor wheel through a common rotating shaft. This wheel supercharges the engine air intake to a degree that can be controlled by means of a <a href="/wiki/Wastegate" title="Wastegate">wastegate</a> or by dynamically modifying the turbine housing's geometry (as in a <a href="/wiki/Variable_geometry_turbocharger" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable geometry turbocharger">variable geometry turbocharger</a>). It mainly serves as a power recovery device which converts a great deal of otherwise wasted thermal and kinetic energy into engine boost. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Turbo-compound_engine" title="Turbo-compound engine">Turbo-compound engines</a> (actually employed on some <a href="/wiki/Semi-trailer_truck" title="Semi-trailer truck">semi-trailer trucks</a>) are fitted with blow down turbines which are similar in design and appearance to a turbocharger except for the turbine shaft being mechanically or hydraulically connected to the engine's crankshaft instead of to a centrifugal compressor, thus providing additional power instead of boost. While the turbocharger is a pressure turbine, a power recovery turbine is a velocity one.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Passenger_road_vehicles_(cars,_bikes,_and_buses)"><span id="Passenger_road_vehicles_.28cars.2C_bikes.2C_and_buses.29"></span>Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes, and buses)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes, and buses)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of experiments have been conducted with gas turbine powered <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a>, the largest by <a href="/wiki/Chrysler" title="Chrysler">Chrysler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, there has been some interest in the use of turbine engines for hybrid electric cars. For instance, a consortium led by micro gas turbine company <a href="/wiki/Bladon_Jets" title="Bladon Jets">Bladon Jets</a> has secured investment from the Technology Strategy Board to develop an Ultra Lightweight Range Extender (ULRE) for next-generation electric vehicles. The objective of the consortium, which includes luxury car maker Jaguar Land Rover and leading electrical machine company SR Drives, is to produce the world's first commercially viable – and environmentally friendly – gas turbine generator designed specifically for automotive applications.<sup id="cite_ref-bladon_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bladon-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The common turbocharger for gasoline or diesel engines is also a turbine derivative. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Concept_cars">Concept cars</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Concept cars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rover.jet1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Rover.jet1.jpg/220px-Rover.jet1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Rover.jet1.jpg/330px-Rover.jet1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Rover.jet1.jpg/440px-Rover.jet1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1144" data-file-height="856" /></a><figcaption>The 1950 <a href="/wiki/Rover_Company" title="Rover Company">Rover</a> JET1</figcaption></figure> <p>The first serious investigation of using a gas turbine in cars was in 1946 when two engineers, Robert Kafka and Robert Engerstein of Carney Associates, a New York engineering firm, came up with the concept where a unique compact turbine engine design would provide power for a rear wheel drive car. After an article appeared in <i>Popular Science</i>, there was no further work, beyond the paper stage.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Early concepts (1950s/60s)</dt></dl> <p>In 1950, designer F.R. Bell and Chief Engineer <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilks" title="Maurice Wilks">Maurice Wilks</a> from British car manufacturers <a href="/wiki/Rover_Company" title="Rover Company">Rover</a> unveiled the first car powered with a gas turbine engine. The two-seater <a href="/wiki/Rover_JET1" title="Rover JET1">JET1</a> had the engine positioned behind the seats, air intake grilles on either side of the car, and exhaust outlets on the top of the tail. During tests, the car reached top speeds of 140 km/h (87 mph), at a turbine speed of 50,000 rpm. After being shown in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1950, JET1 was further developed, and was subjected to speed trials on the Jabbeke highway in Belgium in June 1952, where it exceeded 240 km/h (150 mph).<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The car ran on <a href="/wiki/Petrol" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrol">petrol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">paraffin (kerosene)</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel</a> oil, but fuel consumption problems proved insurmountable for a production car. JET1 is on display at the London <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum_(London)" class="mw-redirect" title="Science Museum (London)">Science Museum</a>. </p><p>A French turbine-powered car, the SOCEMA-Grégoire, was displayed at the October 1952 <a href="/wiki/Paris_Auto_Show" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Auto Show">Paris Auto Show</a>. It was designed by the French engineer <a href="/wiki/Jean-Albert_Gr%C3%A9goire" title="Jean-Albert Grégoire">Jean-Albert Grégoire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-retro05_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-retro05-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FirebirdI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/FirebirdI.jpg/220px-FirebirdI.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/FirebirdI.jpg/330px-FirebirdI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/FirebirdI.jpg/440px-FirebirdI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1888" data-file-height="942" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/General_Motors_Firebird" title="General Motors Firebird">GM Firebird I</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>The first turbine-powered car built in the US was the <a href="/wiki/General_Motors_Firebird" title="General Motors Firebird">GM Firebird I</a> which began evaluations in 1953. While photos of the Firebird I may suggest that the jet turbine's thrust propelled the car like an aircraft, the turbine actually drove the rear wheels. The Firebird I was never meant as a commercial passenger car and was built solely for testing & evaluation as well as public relation purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional Firebird concept cars, each powered by gas turbines, were developed for the 1953, 1956 and 1959 <a href="/wiki/General_Motors_Motorama" title="General Motors Motorama">Motorama</a> auto shows. The GM Research gas turbine engine also was fitted to a series of <a href="/wiki/Transit_bus" title="Transit bus">transit buses</a>, starting with the Turbo-Cruiser I of 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChryslerTurbineEngine01_crop1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/ChryslerTurbineEngine01_crop1.jpg/220px-ChryslerTurbineEngine01_crop1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/ChryslerTurbineEngine01_crop1.jpg/330px-ChryslerTurbineEngine01_crop1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/ChryslerTurbineEngine01_crop1.jpg/440px-ChryslerTurbineEngine01_crop1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2154" data-file-height="1509" /></a><figcaption>Engine compartment of a Chrysler 1963 Turbine car</figcaption></figure> <p>Starting in 1954 with a modified <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_(automobile)" title="Plymouth (automobile)">Plymouth</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-PS-turboPlymouth_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PS-turboPlymouth-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the American car manufacturer <a href="/wiki/Chrysler_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysler Corporation">Chrysler</a> demonstrated several <a href="/wiki/Chrysler_Turbine_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysler Turbine engines">prototype gas turbine</a>-powered cars from the early 1950s through the early 1980s. Chrysler built fifty <a href="/wiki/Chrysler_Turbine_Car" title="Chrysler Turbine Car">Chrysler Turbine Cars</a> in 1963 and conducted the only consumer trial of gas turbine-powered cars.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of their turbines employed a unique rotating <a href="/wiki/Recuperator" title="Recuperator">recuperator</a>, referred to as a regenerator that increased efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-PS-turboPlymouth_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PS-turboPlymouth-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1954, <a href="/wiki/Fiat" title="Fiat">Fiat</a> unveiled a <a href="/wiki/Concept_car" title="Concept car">concept car</a> with a turbine engine, called <a href="/wiki/Fiat_Turbina" title="Fiat Turbina">Fiat Turbina</a>. This vehicle, looking like an aircraft with wheels, used a unique combination of both jet thrust and the engine driving the wheels. Speeds of 282 km/h (175 mph) were claimed.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1960s, Ford and GM also were developing gas turbine semi-trucks. Ford displayed the Big Red at the <a href="/wiki/1964_World%27s_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="1964 World's Fair">1964 World's Fair</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bigred3_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigred3-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the trailer, it was 29 m (96 ft) long, 4.0 m (13 ft) high, and painted crimson red. It contained the Ford-developed gas turbine engine, with output power and torque of 450 kW (600 hp) and 1,160 N⋅m (855 lb⋅ft). The cab boasted a highway map of the continental U.S., a mini-kitchen, bathroom, and a TV for the co-driver. The fate of the truck was unknown for several decades, but it was rediscovered in early 2021 in private hands, having been restored to running order.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bigred2_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bigred2-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chevrolet division of GM built the <i>Turbo Titan</i> series of concept trucks with turbine motors as analogs of the Firebird concepts, including Turbo Titan I (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1959</span>, shares GT-304 engine with Firebird II), Turbo Titan II (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1962</span>, shares GT-305 engine with Firebird III), and <a href="/wiki/Chevrolet_Turbo_Titan_III" title="Chevrolet Turbo Titan III">Turbo Titan III</a> (1965, GT-309 engine); in addition, the GM Bison gas turbine truck was shown at the 1964 World's Fair.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Emissions and fuel economy (1970s/80s)</dt></dl> <p>As a result of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act</a> Amendments of 1970, research was funded into developing automotive gas turbine technology.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Design concepts and vehicles were conducted by <a href="/wiki/Chrysler" title="Chrysler">Chrysler</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a> (in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Garrett_AiResearch" title="Garrett AiResearch">AiResearch</a>), and <a href="/wiki/American_Motors" class="mw-redirect" title="American Motors">American Motors</a> (in conjunction with <a href="/wiki/Williams_International" title="Williams International">Williams Research</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long-term tests were conducted to evaluate comparable cost efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several <a href="/wiki/AMC_Hornet" title="AMC Hornet">AMC Hornets</a> were powered by a small Williams regenerative gas turbine weighing 250 lb (113 kg) and producing 80 hp (60 kW; 81 PS) at 4450 rpm.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1982, General Motors used an <a href="/wiki/Oldsmobile_Delta_88" class="mw-redirect" title="Oldsmobile Delta 88">Oldsmobile Delta 88</a> powered by a gas turbine using pulverised coal dust. This was considered for the United States and the western world to reduce dependence on <a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">middle east oil at the time</a><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Toyota" title="Toyota">Toyota</a> demonstrated several gas turbine powered concept cars, such as the <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Century_GT45" class="mw-redirect" title="Toyota Century GT45">Century gas turbine hybrid</a> in 1975, the <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Sports_800#Sports_800_Gas_Turbine_Hybrid" title="Toyota Sports 800">Sports 800 Gas Turbine Hybrid</a> in 1979 and the <a href="/wiki/Toyota_GTV" class="mw-redirect" title="Toyota GTV">GTV</a> in 1985. No production vehicles were made. The GT24 engine was exhibited in 1977 without a vehicle. </p> <dl><dt>Later development</dt></dl> <p>In the early 1990s, <a href="/wiki/Volvo" title="Volvo">Volvo</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Volvo_ECC" title="Volvo ECC">Volvo ECC</a> which was a gas turbine powered <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">hybrid electric vehicle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1993, <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> developed a gas turbine powered EV1 series <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle">hybrid</a>—as a prototype of the <a href="/wiki/General_Motors_EV1" title="General Motors EV1">General Motors EV1</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Williams_International" title="Williams International">Williams International</a> 40 kW turbine drove an alternator which powered the battery–electric <a href="/wiki/Powertrain" title="Powertrain">powertrain</a>. The turbine design included a recuperator. In 2006, GM went into the <a href="/wiki/EcoJet_concept_car" title="EcoJet concept car">EcoJet concept car</a> project with <a href="/wiki/Jay_Leno" title="Jay Leno">Jay Leno</a>. </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/2010_Paris_Motor_Show" title="2010 Paris Motor Show">2010 Paris Motor Show</a> <a href="/wiki/Jaguar_Cars" title="Jaguar Cars">Jaguar</a> demonstrated its <a href="/wiki/Jaguar_C-X75" title="Jaguar C-X75">Jaguar C-X75</a> concept car. This electrically powered <a href="/wiki/Supercar" title="Supercar">supercar</a> has a top speed of 204 mph (328 km/h) and can go from 0 to 62 mph (0 to 100 km/h) in 3.4 seconds. It uses lithium-ion batteries to power four electric motors which combine to produce 780 bhp. It will travel 68 miles (109 km) on a single charge of the batteries, and uses a pair of Bladon Micro Gas Turbines to re-charge the batteries extending the range to 560 miles (900 km).<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Racing_cars">Racing cars</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Racing cars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:STP_Turbine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/STP_Turbine.jpg/220px-STP_Turbine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/STP_Turbine.jpg/330px-STP_Turbine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/STP_Turbine.jpg/440px-STP_Turbine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="855" /></a><figcaption>The 1967 <i>STP Oil Treatment Special</i> on display at the <a href="/wiki/Indianapolis_Motor_Speedway" title="Indianapolis Motor Speedway">Indianapolis Motor Speedway</a> Hall of Fame Museum, with the <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney" title="Pratt & Whitney">Pratt & Whitney</a> gas turbine shown</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Howmet_TX_Daytona.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Howmet_TX_Daytona.jpg/220px-Howmet_TX_Daytona.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Howmet_TX_Daytona.jpg/330px-Howmet_TX_Daytona.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Howmet_TX_Daytona.jpg/440px-Howmet_TX_Daytona.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1563" data-file-height="858" /></a><figcaption>A 1968 <a href="/wiki/Howmet_TX" title="Howmet TX">Howmet TX</a>, the only turbine-powered race car to have won a race</figcaption></figure> <p>The first race car (in concept only) fitted with a turbine was in 1955 by a US Air Force group as a hobby project with a turbine loaned them by Boeing and a race car owned by Firestone Tire & Rubber company.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first race car fitted with a turbine for the goal of actual racing was by Rover and the <a href="/wiki/British_Racing_Motors" title="British Racing Motors">BRM</a> <a href="/wiki/Formula_One" title="Formula One">Formula One</a> team joined forces to produce the <a href="/wiki/Rover-BRM" title="Rover-BRM">Rover-BRM</a>, a gas turbine powered coupe, which entered the <a href="/wiki/1963_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans" title="1963 24 Hours of Le Mans">1963 24 Hours of Le Mans</a>, driven by <a href="/wiki/Graham_Hill" title="Graham Hill">Graham Hill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richie_Ginther" title="Richie Ginther">Richie Ginther</a>. It averaged 107.8 mph (173.5 km/h) and had a top speed of 142 mph (229 km/h). American Ray Heppenstall joined Howmet Corporation and McKee Engineering together to develop their own gas turbine sports car in 1968, the <a href="/wiki/Howmet_TX" title="Howmet TX">Howmet TX</a>, which ran several American and European events, including two wins, and also participated in the <a href="/wiki/1968_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans" title="1968 24 Hours of Le Mans">1968 24 Hours of Le Mans</a>. The cars used <a href="/wiki/Continental_Motors_Company" title="Continental Motors Company">Continental</a> gas turbines, which eventually set six <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_de_l%27Automobile" title="Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile">FIA</a> land speed records for turbine-powered cars.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Open_wheel_racing" class="mw-redirect" title="Open wheel racing">open wheel racing</a>, 1967's revolutionary <a href="/wiki/STP-Paxton_Turbocar" title="STP-Paxton Turbocar">STP-Paxton Turbocar</a> fielded by racing and entrepreneurial legend <a href="/wiki/Andy_Granatelli" title="Andy Granatelli">Andy Granatelli</a> and driven by <a href="/wiki/Parnelli_Jones" title="Parnelli Jones">Parnelli Jones</a> nearly won the <a href="/wiki/Indianapolis_500" title="Indianapolis 500">Indianapolis 500</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PT6" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratt & Whitney PT6">Pratt & Whitney ST6B-62</a> powered turbine car was almost a lap ahead of the second place car when a gearbox bearing failed just three laps from the finish line. The next year the STP <a href="/wiki/Lotus_56" title="Lotus 56">Lotus 56</a> turbine car won the Indianapolis 500 pole position even though new rules restricted the air intake dramatically. In 1971 <a href="/wiki/Team_Lotus" title="Team Lotus">Team Lotus</a> principal <a href="/wiki/Colin_Chapman" title="Colin Chapman">Colin Chapman</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_56" title="Lotus 56"> Lotus 56B</a> F1 car, powered by a <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PT6" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratt & Whitney PT6">Pratt & Whitney STN 6/76</a> gas turbine. Chapman had a reputation of building radical championship-winning cars, but had to abandon the project because there were too many problems with <a href="/wiki/Turbo_lag" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbo lag">turbo lag</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buses">Buses</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Buses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>General Motors fitted the <a href="/wiki/GM_Whirlfire_engine" title="GM Whirlfire engine">GT-30x series of gas turbines (branded "Whirlfire")</a> to several prototype buses in the 1950s and 1960s, including <a href="/wiki/GM_%22old-look%22_transit_bus#Turbo-Cruiser_I" title="GM "old-look" transit bus">Turbo-Cruiser I</a> (1953, GT-300); <a href="/wiki/GM_New_Look_bus#Variants_based_on_the_New_Look" title="GM New Look bus">Turbo-Cruiser II</a> (1964, GT-309); Turbo-Cruiser III (1968, GT-309); <a href="/wiki/Rapid_Transit_Series" title="Rapid Transit Series">RTX</a> (1968, GT-309); and <a href="/wiki/Transbus_Program" title="Transbus Program">RTS 3T</a> (1972).<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Capstone_Turbine" class="mw-redirect" title="Capstone Turbine">Capstone Turbine</a> has led to several hybrid bus designs, starting with HEV-1 by AVS of Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1999, and closely followed by Ebus and ISE Research in California, and <a href="/wiki/DesignLine_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="DesignLine Corporation">DesignLine Corporation</a> in New Zealand (and later the United States). AVS turbine hybrids were plagued with reliability and quality control problems, resulting in liquidation of AVS in 2003. The most successful design by Designline is now operated in 5 cities in 6 countries, with over 30 buses in operation worldwide, and order for several hundred being delivered to Baltimore, and New York City. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Brescia" title="Brescia">Brescia Italy</a> is using serial hybrid buses powered by microturbines on routes through the historical sections of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Source_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Source-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Motorcycles">Motorcycles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Motorcycles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/MTT_Turbine_Superbike" title="MTT Turbine Superbike">MTT Turbine Superbike</a> appeared in 2000 (hence the designation of Y2K Superbike by MTT) and is the first production motorcycle powered by a turbine engine – specifically, a Rolls-Royce Allison model 250 turboshaft engine, producing about 283 kW (380 bhp). Speed-tested to 365 km/h or 227 mph (according to some stories, the testing team ran out of road during the test), it holds the Guinness World Record for most powerful production motorcycle and most expensive production motorcycle, with a price tag of US$185,000. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trains">Trains</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Trains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_locomotive" title="Gas turbine locomotive">Gas turbine locomotive</a></div> <p>Several locomotive classes have been powered by gas turbines, the most recent incarnation being <a href="/wiki/Bombardier_Transportation" title="Bombardier Transportation">Bombardier</a>'s <a href="/wiki/JetTrain" title="JetTrain">JetTrain</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tanks">Tanks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Tanks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AGT1500_engine_and_M1_tank.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/AGT1500_engine_and_M1_tank.JPEG/220px-AGT1500_engine_and_M1_tank.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/AGT1500_engine_and_M1_tank.JPEG/330px-AGT1500_engine_and_M1_tank.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/AGT1500_engine_and_M1_tank.JPEG/440px-AGT1500_engine_and_M1_tank.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption>Marines from 1st Tank Battalion load a <a href="/wiki/Honeywell_AGT1500" class="mw-redirect" title="Honeywell AGT1500">Honeywell AGT1500</a> multi-fuel turbine back into an M1 Abrams tank at Camp Coyote, Kuwait, February 2003</figcaption></figure> <p>The Third Reich <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(Wehrmacht)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (Wehrmacht)"><i>Wehrmacht Heer</i></a>'s development division, the <a href="/wiki/Heereswaffenamt" class="mw-redirect" title="Heereswaffenamt">Heereswaffenamt</a> (Army Ordnance Board), studied a number of gas turbine engine designs for use in tanks starting in mid-1944. The first gas turbine engine design intended for use in armored fighting vehicle propulsion, the <a href="/wiki/BMW_003" title="BMW 003">BMW 003</a>-based <a href="/wiki/GT_101" class="mw-redirect" title="GT 101">GT 101</a>, was meant for installation in the <a href="/wiki/Panther_tank" title="Panther tank">Panther tank</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Towards the end of the war, a <a href="/wiki/Jagdtiger" title="Jagdtiger">Jagdtiger</a> was fitted with one of the aforementioned gas turbines.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second use of a gas turbine in an armored fighting vehicle was in 1954 when a unit, PU2979, specifically developed for tanks by <a href="/wiki/C._A._Parsons_and_Company" title="C. A. Parsons and Company">C. A. Parsons and Company</a>, was installed and trialed in a British <a href="/wiki/Conqueror_tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Conqueror tank">Conqueror tank</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Stridsvagn_103" title="Stridsvagn 103">Stridsvagn 103</a> was developed in the 1950s and was the first mass-produced main battle tank to use a turbine engine, the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_T50" title="Boeing T50">Boeing T50</a>. Since then, gas turbine engines have been used as <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_power_unit" title="Auxiliary power unit">auxiliary power units</a> in some tanks and as main powerplants in Soviet/Russian <a href="/wiki/T-80" title="T-80">T-80s</a> and U.S. <a href="/wiki/M1_Abrams" title="M1 Abrams">M1 Abrams</a> tanks, among others. They are lighter and smaller than <a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">diesel engines</a> at the same sustained power output but the models installed to date are less fuel efficient than the equivalent diesel, especially at idle, requiring more fuel to achieve the same combat range. Successive models of M1 have addressed this problem with battery packs or secondary generators to power the tank's systems while stationary, saving fuel by reducing the need to idle the main turbine. T-80s can mount three large external fuel drums to extend their range. Russia has stopped production of the T-80 in favor of the diesel-powered <a href="/wiki/T-90" title="T-90">T-90</a> (based on the <a href="/wiki/T-72" title="T-72">T-72</a>), while Ukraine has developed the diesel-powered T-80UD and T-84 with nearly the power of the gas-turbine tank. The French <a href="/wiki/Leclerc_tank" title="Leclerc tank">Leclerc tank</a>'s diesel powerplant features the "Hyperbar" hybrid supercharging system, where the engine's turbocharger is completely replaced with a small gas turbine which also works as an assisted diesel exhaust turbocharger, enabling engine RPM-independent boost level control and a higher peak boost pressure to be reached (than with ordinary turbochargers). This system allows a smaller displacement and lighter engine to be used as the tank's power plant and effectively removes <a href="/wiki/Turbo_lag" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbo lag">turbo lag</a>. This special gas turbine/turbocharger can also work independently from the main engine as an ordinary APU. </p><p>A turbine is theoretically more reliable and easier to maintain than a piston engine since it has a simpler construction with fewer moving parts, but in practice, turbine parts experience a higher wear rate due to their higher working speeds. The turbine blades are highly sensitive to dust and fine sand so that in desert operations air filters have to be fitted and changed several times daily. An improperly fitted filter, or a bullet or shell fragment that punctures the filter, can damage the engine. Piston engines (especially if turbocharged) also need well-maintained filters, but they are more resilient if the filter does fail. </p><p>Like most modern diesel engines used in tanks, gas turbines are usually multi-fuel engines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marine_applications">Marine applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Marine applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_propulsion" title="Marine propulsion">Marine propulsion</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naval">Naval</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Naval"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gas_turbine_from_MGB_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Gas_turbine_from_MGB_2009.jpg/220px-Gas_turbine_from_MGB_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Gas_turbine_from_MGB_2009.jpg/330px-Gas_turbine_from_MGB_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Gas_turbine_from_MGB_2009.jpg/440px-Gas_turbine_from_MGB_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3910" data-file-height="2689" /></a><figcaption>The Gas turbine from MGB 2009</figcaption></figure> <p>Gas turbines are used in many <a href="/wiki/Naval_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval vessel">naval vessels</a>, where they are valued for their high <a href="/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio" title="Power-to-weight ratio">power-to-weight ratio</a> and their ships' resulting acceleration and ability to get underway quickly. </p><p>The first gas-turbine-powered naval vessel was the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Motor_gunboat" title="Motor gunboat">motor gunboat</a> <i>MGB 2009</i> (formerly <i>MGB 509</i>) converted in 1947. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-Vickers" title="Metropolitan-Vickers">Metropolitan-Vickers</a> fitted their <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-Vickers_F.2" title="Metropolitan-Vickers F.2">F2/3</a> jet engine with a power turbine. The <a href="/wiki/Steam_Gun_Boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam Gun Boat">Steam Gun Boat</a> <i>Grey Goose</i> was converted to Rolls-Royce gas turbines in 1952 and operated as such from 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-Walsh_01_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walsh_01-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bold_class_patrol_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bold class patrol boat (page does not exist)">Bold class</a> <a href="/wiki/Fast_Patrol_Boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast Patrol Boat">Fast Patrol Boats</a> <i>Bold Pioneer</i> and <i>Bold Pathfinder</i> built in 1953 were the first ships created specifically for gas turbine propulsion.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first large-scale, partially gas-turbine powered ships were the Royal Navy's <a href="/wiki/Tribal-class_frigate" title="Tribal-class frigate">Type 81</a> (Tribal class) <a href="/wiki/Frigate" title="Frigate">frigates</a> with <a href="/wiki/Combined_steam_and_gas" title="Combined steam and gas">combined steam and gas</a> powerplants. The first, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Ashanti_(F117)" title="HMS Ashanti (F117)">HMS <i>Ashanti</i></a> was commissioned in 1961. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/German_Navy" title="German Navy">German Navy</a> launched the first <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ln-class_frigate" title="Köln-class frigate"><i>Köln</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Frigate" title="Frigate">frigate</a> in 1961 with 2 <a href="/wiki/Brown,_Boveri_%26_Cie" title="Brown, Boveri & Cie">Brown, Boveri & Cie</a> gas turbines in the world's first <a href="/wiki/Combined_diesel_and_gas" title="Combined diesel and gas">combined diesel and gas</a> propulsion system. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> commissioned in 1962 the first of 25 <a href="/wiki/Kashin-class_destroyer" title="Kashin-class destroyer"><i>Kashin</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyer</a> with 4 gas turbines in <a href="/wiki/Combined_gas_and_gas" title="Combined gas and gas">combined gas and gas</a> propulsion system. Those vessels used 4 M8E gas turbines, which generated 54,000–72,000 kW (72,000–96,000 hp). Those ships were the first large ships in the world to be powered solely by gas turbines. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smetlivyy2003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Smetlivyy2003.jpg/220px-Smetlivyy2003.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Smetlivyy2003.jpg/330px-Smetlivyy2003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Smetlivyy2003.jpg/440px-Smetlivyy2003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Project 61 large ASW ship, <a href="/wiki/Kashin-class_destroyer" title="Kashin-class destroyer"><i>Kashin</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Danish_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Danish Navy">Danish Navy</a> had 6 <i>Søløven</i>-class torpedo boats (the export version of the British <a href="/wiki/Brave_class_fast_patrol_boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Brave class fast patrol boat">Brave class fast patrol boat</a>) in service from 1965 to 1990, which had 3 <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Proteus" title="Bristol Proteus">Bristol Proteus</a> (later RR Proteus) Marine Gas Turbines rated at 9,510 kW (12,750 shp) combined, plus two <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> Diesel engines, rated at 340 kW (460 shp), for better fuel economy at slower speeds.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And they also produced 10 Willemoes Class Torpedo / Guided Missile boats (in service from 1974 to 2000) which had 3 <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_plc" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolls-Royce plc">Rolls-Royce</a> Marine Proteus Gas Turbines also rated at 9,510 kW (12,750 shp), same as the Søløven-class boats, and 2 General Motors Diesel Engines, rated at 600 kW (800 shp), also for improved fuel economy at slow speeds.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Navy" title="Swedish Navy">Swedish Navy</a> produced 6 Spica-class torpedo boats between 1966 and 1967 powered by 3 <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Siddeley" title="Bristol Siddeley">Bristol Siddeley</a> <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Proteus" title="Bristol Proteus">Proteus 1282 turbines</a>, each delivering 3,210 kW (4,300 shp). They were later joined by 12 upgraded Norrköping class ships, still with the same engines. With their aft torpedo tubes replaced by antishipping missiles they served as missile boats until the last was retired in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Finnish_Navy" title="Finnish Navy">Finnish Navy</a> commissioned two <a href="/wiki/Turunmaa-class_gunboat" title="Turunmaa-class gunboat"><i>Turunmaa</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Corvette" title="Corvette">corvettes</a>, <i>Turunmaa</i> and <i>Karjala</i>, in 1968. They were equipped with one 16,410 kW (22,000 shp) <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Olympus" title="Rolls-Royce Olympus">Rolls-Royce Olympus</a> TM1 gas turbine and three <a href="/wiki/W%C3%A4rtsil%C3%A4" title="Wärtsilä">Wärtsilä</a> marine diesels for slower speeds. They were the fastest vessels in the Finnish Navy; they regularly achieved speeds of 35 knots, and 37.3 knots during sea trials. The <i>Turunmaa</i>s were decommissioned in 2002. <i>Karjala</i> is today a <a href="/wiki/Museum_ship" title="Museum ship">museum ship</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turku" title="Turku">Turku</a>, and <i>Turunmaa</i> serves as a floating machine shop and training ship for Satakunta Polytechnical College. </p><p>The next series of major naval vessels were the four Canadian <a href="/wiki/Iroquois-class_destroyer" title="Iroquois-class destroyer"><i>Iroquois</i>-class</a> helicopter carrying destroyers first commissioned in 1972. They used 2 ft-4 main propulsion engines, 2 ft-12 cruise engines and 3 Solar Saturn 750 kW generators. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Ford_(FFG-54)_Gas_Turbine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/USS_Ford_%28FFG-54%29_Gas_Turbine.jpg/250px-USS_Ford_%28FFG-54%29_Gas_Turbine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/USS_Ford_%28FFG-54%29_Gas_Turbine.jpg/330px-USS_Ford_%28FFG-54%29_Gas_Turbine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/USS_Ford_%28FFG-54%29_Gas_Turbine.jpg/500px-USS_Ford_%28FFG-54%29_Gas_Turbine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2940" data-file-height="1940" /></a><figcaption>An LM2500 gas turbine on <a href="/wiki/USS_Ford_(FFG-54)" title="USS Ford (FFG-54)">USS <i>Ford</i></a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first U.S. gas-turbine powered ship was the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">U.S. Coast Guard's</a> <a href="/wiki/USCGC_Point_Thatcher" title="USCGC Point Thatcher"><i>Point Thatcher</i></a>, a cutter commissioned in 1961 that was powered by two 750 kW (1,000 shp) turbines utilizing controllable-pitch propellers.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larger <a href="/wiki/Hamilton-class_cutter" title="Hamilton-class cutter"><i>Hamilton</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/USCG_high_endurance_cutter" class="mw-redirect" title="USCG high endurance cutter">High Endurance Cutters</a>, was the first class of larger cutters to utilize gas turbines, the first of which (<a href="/wiki/USCGC_Hamilton_(WHEC-715)" title="USCGC Hamilton (WHEC-715)">USCGC <i>Hamilton</i></a>) was commissioned in 1967. Since then, they have powered the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">U.S. Navy's</a> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hazard_Perry-class_frigate" title="Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigate"><i>Oliver Hazard Perry</i>-class frigates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spruance-class_destroyer" title="Spruance-class destroyer"><i>Spruance</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Arleigh_Burke-class_destroyer" title="Arleigh Burke-class destroyer"><i>Arleigh Burke</i>-class</a> destroyers, and <a href="/wiki/Ticonderoga-class_cruiser" title="Ticonderoga-class cruiser"><i>Ticonderoga</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Guided_missile_cruisers" class="mw-redirect" title="Guided missile cruisers">guided missile cruisers</a>. <a href="/wiki/USS_Makin_Island_(LHD-8)" title="USS Makin Island (LHD-8)">USS <i>Makin Island</i></a>, a modified <a href="/wiki/Wasp-class_amphibious_assault_ship" title="Wasp-class amphibious assault ship"><i>Wasp</i>-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship" title="Amphibious assault ship">amphibious assault ship</a>, is to be the Navy's first amphibious assault ship powered by gas turbines. The marine gas turbine operates in a more corrosive atmosphere due to the presence of sea salt in air and fuel and use of cheaper fuels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civilian_maritime">Civilian maritime</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Civilian maritime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Up to the late 1940s, much of the progress on marine gas turbines all over the world took place in design offices and engine builder's workshops and development work was led by the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> and other Navies. While interest in the gas turbine for marine purposes, both naval and mercantile, continued to increase, the lack of availability of the results of operating experience on early gas turbine projects limited the number of new ventures on seagoing commercial vessels being embarked upon. </p><p>In 1951, the diesel–electric oil tanker <i>Auris</i>, 12,290 <a href="/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage" title="Deadweight tonnage">deadweight tonnage</a> (DWT) was used to obtain operating experience with a main propulsion gas turbine under service conditions at sea and so became the first ocean-going merchant ship to be powered by a gas turbine. Built by <a href="/wiki/Hawthorn_Leslie_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawthorn Leslie and Company">Hawthorn Leslie</a> at <a href="/wiki/Hebburn-on-Tyne" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebburn-on-Tyne">Hebburn-on-Tyne</a>, UK, in accordance with plans and specifications drawn up by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Petroleum_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company">Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company</a> and launched on the UK's <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Princess Elizabeth</a>'s 21st birthday in 1947, the ship was designed with an engine room layout that would allow for the experimental use of heavy fuel in one of its high-speed engines, as well as the future substitution of one of its diesel engines by a gas turbine.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Auris</i> operated commercially as a tanker for three-and-a-half years with a diesel–electric propulsion unit as originally commissioned, but in 1951 one of its four 824 kW (1,105 bhp) diesel engines – which were known as "Faith", "Hope", "Charity" and "Prudence" – was replaced by the world's first marine gas turbine engine, a 890 kW (1,200 bhp) open-cycle gas turbo-alternator built by <a href="/wiki/British_Thomson-Houston" title="British Thomson-Houston">British Thompson-Houston Company</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rugby,_Warwickshire" title="Rugby, Warwickshire">Rugby</a>. Following successful sea trials off the Northumbrian coast, the <i>Auris</i> set sail from Hebburn-on-Tyne in October 1951 bound for <a href="/wiki/Port_Arthur,_Texas" title="Port Arthur, Texas">Port Arthur</a> in the US and then <a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Curaçao">Curaçao</a> in the southern Caribbean returning to <a href="/wiki/Avonmouth" title="Avonmouth">Avonmouth</a> after 44 days at sea, successfully completing her historic trans-Atlantic crossing. During this time at sea the gas turbine burnt diesel fuel and operated without an involuntary stop or mechanical difficulty of any kind. She subsequently visited Swansea, Hull, <a href="/wiki/Rotterdam" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a> and Southampton covering a total of 13,211 nautical miles. The <i>Auris</i> then had all of its power plants replaced with a 3,910 kW (5,250 shp) directly coupled gas turbine to become the first civilian ship to operate solely on gas turbine power. </p><p>Despite the success of this early experimental voyage the gas turbine did not replace the diesel engine as the propulsion plant for large merchant ships. At constant cruising speeds the diesel engine simply had no peer in the vital area of fuel economy. The gas turbine did have more success in Royal Navy ships and the other naval fleets of the world where sudden and rapid changes of speed are required by warships in action.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Maritime_Commission" title="United States Maritime Commission">United States Maritime Commission</a> were looking for options to update WWII <a href="/wiki/Liberty_ships" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberty ships">Liberty ships</a>, and heavy-duty gas turbines were one of those selected. In 1956 the <i>John Sergeant</i> was lengthened and equipped with a <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> 4,900 kW (6,600 shp) HD gas turbine with exhaust-gas regeneration, reduction gearing and a <a href="/wiki/Variable-pitch_propeller_(marine)" title="Variable-pitch propeller (marine)">variable-pitch propeller</a>. It operated for 9,700 hours using residual fuel (<a href="/wiki/Bunker_C" class="mw-redirect" title="Bunker C">Bunker C</a>) for 7,000 hours. <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">Fuel efficiency</a> was on a par with steam propulsion at 0.318 kg/kW (0.523 lb/hp) per hour,<sup id="cite_ref-IMGT_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IMGT-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and power output was higher than expected at 5,603 kW (7,514 shp) due to the ambient temperature of the North Sea route being lower than the design temperature of the gas turbine. This gave the ship a speed capability of 18 knots, up from 11 knots with the original power plant, and well in excess of the 15 knot targeted. The ship made its first transatlantic crossing with an average speed of 16.8 knots, in spite of some rough weather along the way. Suitable Bunker C fuel was only available at limited ports because the quality of the fuel was of a critical nature. The fuel oil also had to be treated on board to reduce contaminants and this was a labor-intensive process that was not suitable for automation at the time. Ultimately, the variable-pitch propeller, which was of a new and untested design, ended the trial, as three consecutive annual inspections revealed stress-cracking. This did not reflect poorly on the marine-propulsion gas-turbine concept though, and the trial was a success overall. The success of this trial opened the way for more development by GE on the use of HD gas turbines for marine use with heavy fuels.<sup id="cite_ref-Innovation_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Innovation-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>John Sergeant</i> was scrapped in 1972 at Portsmouth PA. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20091105-TurboJET_Urzela.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/20091105-TurboJET_Urzela.jpg/220px-20091105-TurboJET_Urzela.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/20091105-TurboJET_Urzela.jpg/330px-20091105-TurboJET_Urzela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/20091105-TurboJET_Urzela.jpg/440px-20091105-TurboJET_Urzela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Boeing Jetfoil 929-100-007 <i>Urzela</i> of <a href="/wiki/TurboJET" title="TurboJET">TurboJET</a> </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a> launched its first passenger-carrying <a href="/wiki/Pump-jet" title="Pump-jet">waterjet</a>-propelled <a href="/wiki/Hydrofoil" title="Hydrofoil">hydrofoil</a> <a href="/wiki/Boeing_929" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing 929">Boeing 929</a>, in April 1974. Those ships were powered by two <a href="/wiki/Allison_501" class="mw-redirect" title="Allison 501">Allison 501</a>-KF gas turbines.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1971 and 1981, <a href="/wiki/Seatrain_Lines" title="Seatrain Lines">Seatrain Lines</a> operated a scheduled <a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container" title="Intermodal container">container</a> service between ports on the eastern seaboard of the United States and ports in northwest Europe across the North Atlantic with four container ships of 26,000 tonnes DWT. Those ships were powered by twin <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney" title="Pratt & Whitney">Pratt & Whitney</a> gas turbines of the FT 4 series. The four ships in the class were named <i>Euroliner</i>, <i>Eurofreighter</i>, <i>Asialiner</i> and <i>Asiafreighter</i>. Following the dramatic <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Petroleum_Exporting_Countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries">Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries</a> (OPEC) price increases of the mid-1970s, operations were constrained by rising fuel costs. Some modification of the engine systems on those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Marine_diesel_oil" title="Marine diesel oil">marine diesel</a>). Reduction of fuel costs was successful using a different untested fuel in a marine gas turbine but maintenance costs increased with the fuel change. After 1981 the ships were sold and refitted with, what at the time, was more economical diesel-fueled engines but the increased engine size reduced cargo space.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The first passenger ferry to use a gas turbine was the <a href="/wiki/GTS_Finnjet" title="GTS Finnjet">GTS <i>Finnjet</i></a>, built in 1977 and powered by two <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney" title="Pratt & Whitney">Pratt & Whitney</a> FT 4C-1 DLF turbines, generating 55,000 kW (74,000 shp) and propelling the ship to a speed of 31 knots. However, the Finnjet also illustrated the shortcomings of gas turbine propulsion in commercial craft, as high fuel prices made operating her unprofitable. After four years of service, additional diesel engines were installed on the ship to reduce running costs during the off-season. The Finnjet was also the first ship with a <a href="/wiki/Combined_diesel%E2%80%93electric_and_gas" title="Combined diesel–electric and gas">combined diesel–electric and gas</a> propulsion. Another example of commercial use of gas turbines in a passenger ship is <a href="/wiki/Stena_Line" title="Stena Line">Stena Line</a>'s <a href="/wiki/High-speed_Sea_Service" title="High-speed Sea Service">HSS class</a> fastcraft ferries. HSS 1500-class <i>Stena Explorer</i>, <i>Stena Voyager</i> and <i>Stena Discovery</i> vessels use <a href="/wiki/Combined_gas_and_gas" title="Combined gas and gas">combined gas and gas</a> setups of twin <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">GE</a> <a href="/wiki/General_Electric_LM2500" title="General Electric LM2500">LM2500</a> plus GE LM1600 power for a total of 68,000 kW (91,000 shp). The slightly smaller HSS 900-class <i>Stena Carisma</i>, uses twin <a href="/wiki/Asea_Brown_Boveri" class="mw-redirect" title="Asea Brown Boveri">ABB</a>–<a href="/wiki/STAL" title="STAL">STAL</a> GT35 turbines rated at 34,000 kW (46,000 shp) gross. The <i>Stena Discovery</i> was withdrawn from service in 2007, another victim of too high fuel costs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In July 2000, the <a href="/wiki/Millennium_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennium (ship)"><i>Millennium</i></a> became the first <a href="/wiki/Cruise_ship" title="Cruise ship">cruise ship</a> to be powered by both gas and steam turbines. The ship featured two General Electric LM2500 gas turbine generators whose exhaust heat was used to operate a steam turbine generator in a <a href="/wiki/COGES" class="mw-redirect" title="COGES">COGES</a> (combined gas electric and steam) configuration. Propulsion was provided by two electrically driven Rolls-Royce Mermaid azimuth pods. The liner <a href="/wiki/Queen_Mary_2" title="Queen Mary 2">RMS <i>Queen Mary 2</i></a> uses a combined diesel and gas configuration.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In marine racing applications the 2010 C5000 Mystic catamaran <a href="/wiki/Miss_GEICO" title="Miss GEICO">Miss GEICO</a> uses two Lycoming T-55 turbines for its power system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advances_in_technology">Advances in technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Advances in technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and continues to evolve. Development is actively producing both smaller gas turbines and more powerful and efficient engines. Aiding in these advances are computer-based design (specifically <a href="/wiki/Computational_fluid_dynamics" title="Computational fluid dynamics">computational fluid dynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finite_element_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite element analysis">finite element analysis</a>) and the development of advanced materials: Base materials with superior high-temperature strength (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Single-crystal" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-crystal">single-crystal</a> <a href="/wiki/Superalloy" title="Superalloy">superalloys</a> that exhibit <a href="/wiki/Yield_strength_anomaly" title="Yield strength anomaly">yield strength anomaly</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Thermal_barrier_coatings" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal barrier coatings">thermal barrier coatings</a> that protect the structural material from ever-higher temperatures. These advances allow higher <a href="/wiki/Compression_ratio" title="Compression ratio">compression ratios</a> and turbine inlet temperatures, more efficient combustion and better cooling of engine parts. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Computational_fluid_dynamics" title="Computational fluid dynamics">Computational fluid dynamics</a> (CFD) has contributed to substantial improvements in the performance and efficiency of gas turbine engine components through enhanced understanding of the complex viscous flow and heat transfer phenomena involved. For this reason, CFD is one of the key computational tools used in design and development of gas<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> turbine engines. </p><p>The simple-cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were practically doubled by incorporating inter-cooling, regeneration (or recuperation), and reheating. These improvements, of course, come at the expense of increased initial and operation costs, and they cannot be justified unless the decrease in fuel costs offsets the increase in other costs. The relatively low fuel prices, the general desire in the industry to minimize installation costs, and the tremendous increase in the simple-cycle efficiency to about 40 percent left little desire for opting for these modifications.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the emissions side, the challenge is to increase turbine inlet temperatures while at the same time reducing peak flame temperature in order to achieve lower NOx emissions and meet the latest emission regulations. In May 2011, <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Heavy_Industries" title="Mitsubishi Heavy Industries">Mitsubishi Heavy Industries</a> achieved a turbine inlet temperature of 1,600 °C (2,900 °F) on a 320 megawatt gas turbine, and 460 MW in gas turbine <a href="/wiki/Combined-cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined-cycle">combined-cycle</a> power generation applications in which gross <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermal efficiency</a> exceeds 60%.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Compliant <a href="/wiki/Foil_bearing" title="Foil bearing">foil bearings</a> were commercially introduced to gas turbines in the 1990s. These can withstand over a hundred thousand start/stop cycles and have eliminated the need for an oil system. The application of microelectronics and <a href="/wiki/Power_switching" class="mw-redirect" title="Power switching">power switching</a> technology have enabled the development of commercially viable electricity generation by microturbines for distribution and vehicle propulsion. </p><p>In 2013, General Electric started the development of the <a href="/wiki/GE9X" class="mw-redirect" title="GE9X">GE9X</a> with a compression ratio of 61:1.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages_and_disadvantages">Advantages and disadvantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Advantages and disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Pro_and_con_list plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>contains a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pro_and_con_lists" title="Wikipedia:Pro and con lists">pro and con list</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit">rewriting it</a> into consolidated sections based on topics.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following are advantages and disadvantages of gas-turbine engines:<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Advantages include: </p> <ul><li>Very high <a href="/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio" title="Power-to-weight ratio">power-to-weight ratio</a> compared to reciprocating engines.</li> <li>Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating.</li> <li>Smooth rotation of the main shaft produces far less vibration than a reciprocating engine.</li> <li>Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines results in lower maintenance cost and higher reliability/availability over its service life.</li> <li>Greater reliability, particularly in applications where sustained high power output is required.</li> <li>Waste heat is dissipated almost entirely in the exhaust. This results in a high-temperature exhaust stream that is very usable for boiling water in a <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle">combined cycle</a>, or for <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">cogeneration</a>.</li> <li>Lower peak combustion pressures than reciprocating engines in general.</li> <li>High shaft speeds in smaller "free turbine units", although larger gas turbines employed in power generation operate at synchronous speeds.</li> <li>Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.</li> <li>Can run on a wide variety of fuels.</li> <li>Very low toxic emissions of CO and HC due to excess air, complete combustion and no "quench" of the flame on cold surfaces.</li></ul> <p>Disadvantages include: </p> <ul><li>Core engine costs can be high due to the use of exotic materials, especially in applications where high reliability is required (e.g. aircraft propulsion)</li> <li>Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle speed.</li> <li>Longer startup than reciprocating engines.</li> <li>Less responsive to changes in power demand compared with reciprocating engines.</li> <li>Characteristic whine can be hard to suppress. The exhaust (particularly on turbojets) can also produce a distinctive roaring sound.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_manufacturers">Major manufacturers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Major manufacturers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siemens_Energy" title="Siemens Energy">Siemens Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ansaldo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ansaldo">Ansaldo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Heavy_Industries" title="Mitsubishi Heavy Industries">Mitsubishi Heavy Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Holdings" title="Rolls-Royce Holdings">Rolls-Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GE_Aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="GE Aviation">GE Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_Machines" title="Power Machines">Silmash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Engine_Corporation" title="United Engine Corporation">ODK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney" title="Pratt & Whitney">Pratt & Whitney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada" title="Pratt & Whitney Canada">P&W Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Turbines" title="Solar Turbines">Solar Turbines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alstom" title="Alstom">Alstom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zorya-Mashproekt" title="Zorya-Mashproekt">Zorya-Mashproekt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MTU_Aero_Engines" title="MTU Aero Engines">MTU Aero Engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAN_Turbo" title="MAN Turbo">MAN Turbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IHI_Corporation" title="IHI Corporation">IHI Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawasaki_Heavy_Industries" title="Kawasaki Heavy Industries">Kawasaki Heavy Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustan_Aeronautics_Limited" title="Hindustan Aeronautics Limited">HAL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharat_Heavy_Electricals_Limited" title="Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited">BHEL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAPNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MAPNA">MAPNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanwha_Techwin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanwha Techwin">Techwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doosan_Heavy_Industries_%26_Construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Doosan Heavy Industries & Construction">Doosan Heavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doosan_Enerbility" title="Doosan Enerbility">Doosan Enerbility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Electric" title="Shanghai Electric">Shanghai Electric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbin_Electric" title="Harbin Electric">Harbin Electric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aero_Engine_Corporation_of_China" title="Aero Engine Corporation of China">AECC</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Testing">Testing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>British, German, other national and international test codes are used to standardize the procedures and definitions used to test gas turbines. Selection of the test code to be used is an agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, and has some significance to the design of the turbine and associated systems. In the United States, <a href="/wiki/ASME" class="mw-redirect" title="ASME">ASME</a> has produced several performance test codes on gas turbines. This includes ASME PTC 22–2014. These ASME performance test codes have gained international recognition and acceptance for testing gas turbines. The single most important and differentiating characteristic of ASME performance test codes, including PTC 22, is that the test uncertainty of the measurement indicates the quality of the test and is not to be used as a commercial tolerance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aircraft_engines" title="List of aircraft engines">List of aircraft engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_compressor" title="Centrifugal compressor">Centrifugal compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">Gas turbine modular helium reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_detonation_engine" title="Rotating detonation engine">Rotating detonation engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_motor" title="Pneumatic motor">Pneumatic motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsejet" title="Pulsejet">Pulsejet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">Steam turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbine_engine_failure" title="Turbine engine failure">Turbine engine failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">Wind turbine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWragg1973" class="citation book cs1">Wragg, David W. (1973). <i>A Dictionary of Aviation</i> (first ed.). Osprey. p. 141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780850451634" title="Special:BookSources/9780850451634"><bdi>9780850451634</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Aviation&rft.pages=141&rft.edition=first&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=9780850451634&rft.aulast=Wragg&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas+turbine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSonntagBorgnakke2006" class="citation book cs1">Sonntag, Richard E.; Borgnakke, Claus (2006). <i>Introduction to engineering thermodynamics</i> (Second ed.). John Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471737599" title="Special:BookSources/9780471737599"><bdi>9780471737599</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+engineering+thermodynamics&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780471737599&rft.aulast=Sonntag&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rft.au=Borgnakke%2C+Claus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas+turbine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:SY1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:SY1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:SY1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:SY1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEckardt2014" class="citation book cs1">Eckardt, Dietrich (2014). "3.2 Early Attempts with the Gas Turbine Principle". <i>Gas Turbine Powerhouse</i>. Oldenbourg Verlag Munchen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783486735710" title="Special:BookSources/9783486735710"><bdi>9783486735710</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3.2+Early+Attempts+with+the+Gas+Turbine+Principle&rft.btitle=Gas+Turbine+Powerhouse&rft.pub=Oldenbourg+Verlag+Munchen&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9783486735710&rft.aulast=Eckardt&rft.aufirst=Dietrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas+turbine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhang2014" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, B. (14 December 2014). Lu, Yongxiang (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Js_lBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA310"><i>A History of Chinese Science and Technology: Volume 3</i></a>. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. <span class="nowrap">308–</span>310. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3662441626" title="Special:BookSources/978-3662441626"><bdi>978-3662441626</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Science+and+Technology%3A+Volume+3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E308-%3C%2Fspan%3E310&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2014-12-14&rft.isbn=978-3662441626&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJs_lBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas+turbine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/aeroastro/labs/gtl/early_GT_history.html">"Massachusetts Institute of Technology Gas Turbine Lab"</a>. 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ASME. 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEckardt2022" class="citation book cs1">Eckardt, Dietrich (2022). <i>Jet Web</i>. 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The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1115%2FGT2012-68574">10.1115/GT2012-68574</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Evolution+and+Future+Trend+of+Large+Frame+Gas+Turbines%3A+A+New+1600+Degree+C%2C+J+Class+Gas+Turbine&rft.pub=The+American+Society+of+Mechanical+Engineers&rft.date=2013-07-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1115%2FGT2012-68574&rft.aulast=Hada&rft.aufirst=Satoshi&rft.au=Yuri%2C+Masanori&rft.au=Masada%2C+Junichiro&rft.au=Ito%2C+Eisaku&rft.au=Tsukagoshi%2C+Keizo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasmedigitalcollection.asme.org%2FGT%2Fproceedings-abstract%2FGT2012%2F44694%2F599%2F289409%3FredirectedFrom%3DPDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas+turbine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTrimble2013-03-22T16:05:00+00:00" class="citation web cs1">Trimble2013-03-22T16:05:00+00:00, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flightglobal.com/analysis-ge-opens-five-year-development-effort-for-777x-engine/109167.article">"ANALYSIS: GE opens five-year development effort for 777X engine"</a>. <i>Flight Global</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Flight+Global&rft.atitle=ANALYSIS%3A+GE+opens+five-year+development+effort+for+777X+engine&rft.aulast=Trimble2013-03-22T16%3A05%3A00%2B00%3A00&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.flightglobal.com%2Fanalysis-ge-opens-five-year-development-effort-for-777x-engine%2F109167.article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas+turbine" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrain2000" class="citation web cs1">Brain, Marshall (1 April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.howstuffworks.com/turbine2.htm">"How Gas Turbine Engines Work"</a>. Science.howstuffworks.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Gas+Turbine+Engines+Work&rft.pub=Science.howstuffworks.com&rft.date=2000-04-01&rft.aulast=Brain&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.howstuffworks.com%2Fturbine2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas+turbine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110317172825/http://articles.compressionjobs.com/articles/oilfield-101/168-gas-turbines-principles-lube-control-systems-overspeed">Stationary Combustion Gas Turbines including Oil & Over-Speed Control System description</a></li> <li>"Aircraft Gas Turbine Technology" by Irwin E. Treager, McGraw-Hill, Glencoe Division, 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-065158-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-065158-2">0-07-065158-2</a>.</li> <li>"Gas Turbine Theory" by H.I.H. Saravanamuttoo, G.F.C. Rogers and H. Cohen, Pearson Education, 2001, 5th ed., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-015847-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-015847-X">0-13-015847-X</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeyes_IIFleming1999" class="citation book cs1">Leyes II, Richard A.; Fleming, William A. (1999). <i>The History of North American Small Gas Turbine Aircraft Engines</i>. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56347-332-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56347-332-6"><bdi>978-1-56347-332-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+North+American+Small+Gas+Turbine+Aircraft+Engines&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-56347-332-6&rft.aulast=Leyes+II&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft.au=Fleming%2C+William+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas+turbine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930201550/http://www.sae.org/technical/papers/2006-01-3055">R. M. "Fred" Klaass and Christopher DellaCorte, "The Quest for Oil-Free Gas Turbine Engines," SAE Technical Papers, No. 2006-01-3055, available at sae.org</a></li> <li>"Model Jet Engines" by Thomas Kamps <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9510589-9-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-9510589-9-1">0-9510589-9-1</a> Traplet Publications</li> <li><i>Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines</i>, Second Edition by Jack L. Kerrebrock, The MIT Press, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-11162-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-11162-4">0-262-11162-4</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110714104428/http://mmengineering.com/pdf%20files/Vol.%2008%2C%20No.3.pdf">"Forensic Investigation of a Gas Turbine Event"</a> by John Molloy, M&M Engineering</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-063206434X.html">Gas Turbine Performance, 2nd Edition" by Philip Walsh and Paul Fletcher, Wiley-Blackwell, 2004</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-632-06434-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-632-06434-2">978-0-632-06434-2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1">Advanced Technologies for Gas Turbines (Report). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 2020. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F25630">10.17226/25630</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-66422-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-66422-6"><bdi>978-0-309-66422-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Advanced+Technologies+for+Gas+Turbines&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F25630&rft.isbn=978-0-309-66422-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas+turbine" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_turbine&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Gas_turbines_(gas-based_turbomachinery)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Gas turbines (gas-based turbomachinery)">Gas turbines</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArmagnac1939" class="citation magazine cs1">Armagnac, Alden P. (December 1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA81">"New Era In Power To Turn Wheels"</a>. <i>Popular Science</i>. p. 81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science&rft.atitle=New+Era+In+Power+To+Turn+Wheels&rft.pages=81&rft.date=1939-12&rft.aulast=Armagnac&rft.aufirst=Alden+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWCwDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas+turbine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techzoom.net/papers/innovation_in_civil_jet_aviation_2006.pdf">Technology Speed of Civil Jet Engines</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/aeroastro/faculty/labs.html">MIT Gas Turbine Laboratory</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100721181002/http://web.mit.edu/aeroastro/faculty/labs.html">Archived</a> 21 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090411143933/http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/membersonly/october97/features/turbdime/turbdime.html">MIT Microturbine research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081225002742/http://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/microturbines/microturbines.html">California Distributed Energy Resource guide – Microturbine generators</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://travel.howstuffworks.com/turbine.htm">Introduction to how a gas turbine works from "how stuff works.com"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080616043527/http://travel.howstuffworks.com/turbine.htm">Archived</a> 16 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071016062506/http://www.soton.ac.uk/~ge102/Jet.html">Aircraft gas turbine simulator for interactive learning</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netl.doe.gov/research/coal/energy-systems/turbines/publications/handbook">An online handbook on stationary gas turbine technologies compiled by the US DOE.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170701205000/https://www.netl.doe.gov/research/coal/energy-systems/turbines/publications/handbook">Archived</a> 1 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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