CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Pharmacokinetics - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"5ba1f8a2-f56a-4d3a-bce5-f748d88bc009","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Pharmacokinetics","wgTitle":"Pharmacokinetics","wgCurRevisionId":1259122086,"wgRevisionId":1259122086,"wgArticleId":9674107,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 German-language sources (de)","CS1: long volume value","CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018","Articles to be expanded from April 2019","All articles to be expanded","Wikipedia external links cleanup from May 2016", "Pages that use a deprecated format of the math tags","Pharmacokinetics","Pharmacy","Life sciences industry"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Pharmacokinetics","wgRelevantArticleId":9674107,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":50000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage", "wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q323936","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"}; RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Linear_PK_Example.png/1200px-Linear_PK_Example.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="839"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Linear_PK_Example.png/800px-Linear_PK_Example.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="559"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Linear_PK_Example.png/640px-Linear_PK_Example.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="447"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Pharmacokinetics - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacokinetics"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacokinetics"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Pharmacokinetics rootpage-Pharmacokinetics skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Pharmacokinetics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Pharmacokinetics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Pharmacokinetics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Pharmacokinetics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-ADME" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ADME"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>ADME</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ADME-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metrics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metrics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Metrics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metrics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modeling</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modeling-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modeling subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noncompartmental_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noncompartmental_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Noncompartmental analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noncompartmental_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compartmental_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compartmental_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Compartmental analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compartmental_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Single-compartment_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single-compartment_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Single-compartment model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single-compartment_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Two-compartment_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two-compartment_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Two-compartment model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two-compartment_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multi-compartment_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multi-compartment_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Multi-compartment models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multi-compartment_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioavailability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioavailability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Bioavailability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioavailability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Analysis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Analysis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bioanalytical_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioanalytical_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Bioanalytical methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioanalytical_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_spectrometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_spectrometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Mass spectrometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_spectrometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_pharmacokinetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_pharmacokinetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Population pharmacokinetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_pharmacokinetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_pharmacokinetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_pharmacokinetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Clinical pharmacokinetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_pharmacokinetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecotoxicology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecotoxicology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Ecotoxicology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecotoxicology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Software</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Educational_centres" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Educational_centres"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Educational centres</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Educational_centres-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pharmacokinetics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حركية دوائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حركية دوائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacocin%C3%A9tica" title="Farmacocinética – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Farmacocinética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%94%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ঔষধসঞ্চরণবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ঔষধসঞ্চরণবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фармакокинетика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Фармакокинетика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacocin%C3%A8tica" title="Farmacocinètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Farmacocinètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetika" title="Farmakokinetika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Farmakokinetika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetik" title="Farmakokinetik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Farmakokinetik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmakokinetik" title="Pharmakokinetik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pharmakokinetik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokineetika" title="Farmakokineetika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Farmakokineetika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Φαρμακοκινητική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φαρμακοκινητική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacocin%C3%A9tica" title="Farmacocinética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Farmacocinética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakozinetika" title="Farmakozinetika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Farmakozinetika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فارماکوکینتیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فارماکوکینتیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacocin%C3%A9tique" title="Pharmacocinétique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pharmacocinétique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacocin%C3%A9tica" title="Farmacocinética – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Farmacocinética" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%BD%EB%AC%BC%EB%8F%99%ED%83%9C%ED%95%99" title="약물동태학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="약물동태학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetika" title="Farmakokinetika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Farmakokinetika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetika" title="Farmakokinetika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Farmakokinetika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacocinetica" title="Farmacocinetica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Farmacocinetica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="פרמקוקינטיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרמקוקינטיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фармакокинетика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Фармакокинетика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacocinetica" title="Pharmacocinetica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Pharmacocinetica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokin%C4%93tika" title="Farmakokinētika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Farmakokinētika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetika" title="Farmakokinetika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Farmakokinetika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacoqinetega" title="Farmacoqinetega – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Farmacoqinetega" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фармакокинетика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Фармакокинетика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="फार्माकोकायनेटिक्स – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फार्माकोकायनेटिक्स" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetik" title="Farmakokinetik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Farmakokinetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacokinetiek" title="Farmacokinetiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Farmacokinetiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%96%AC%E7%89%A9%E5%8B%95%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="薬物動態学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="薬物動態学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetikk" title="Farmakokinetikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Farmakokinetikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetyka" title="Farmakokinetyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Farmakokinetyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacocin%C3%A9tica" title="Farmacocinética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Farmacocinética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmacocinetic%C4%83" title="Farmacocinetică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Farmacocinetică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фармакокинетика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фармакокинетика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pharmacokinetics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetika" title="Farmakokinetika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Farmakokinetika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetika" title="Farmakokinetika – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Farmakokinetika" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetika" title="Farmakokinetika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Farmakokinetika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetiikka" title="Farmakokinetiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Farmakokinetiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetik" title="Farmakokinetik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Farmakokinetik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="เภสัชจลนศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เภสัชจลนศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmakokinetik" title="Farmakokinetik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Farmakokinetik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фармакокінетика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фармакокінетика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c_%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Dược động học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dược động học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%97%A5%E7%89%A9%E4%BB%A3%E8%AC%9D%E5%8B%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="藥物代謝動力學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="藥物代謝動力學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8D%AF%E7%89%A9%E4%BB%A3%E8%B0%A2%E5%8A%A8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="药物代谢动力学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="药物代谢动力学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q323936#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Pharmacokinetics" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Pharmacokinetics" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Pharmacokinetics" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&oldid=1259122086" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Pharmacokinetics&id=1259122086&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPharmacokinetics"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPharmacokinetics"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Pharmacokinetics&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Pharmacokinetics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q323936" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of pharmacology</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linear_PK_Example.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Linear_PK_Example.png/400px-Linear_PK_Example.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Linear_PK_Example.png/600px-Linear_PK_Example.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Linear_PK_Example.png/800px-Linear_PK_Example.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1118" /></a><figcaption>A graph depicting a typical time course of drug plasma concentration over 96 hours, with oral administrations every 24 hours. The main pharmacokinetic metrics are annotated. Steady state is reached after about 5 × 12 = 60 hours.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Pharmacokinetics</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <i>pharmakon</i> "drug" and <i>kinetikos</i> "moving, putting in motion"; see <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">chemical kinetics</a>), sometimes abbreviated as <b>PK</b>, is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a> dedicated to describing how the body affects a specific substance after administration.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The substances of interest include any chemical <a href="/wiki/Xenobiotic" title="Xenobiotic">xenobiotic</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">pharmaceutical drugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">food additives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">cosmetics</a>, etc. It attempts to analyze chemical <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> and to discover the fate of a chemical from the moment that it is administered up to the point at which it is completely <a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">eliminated from the body</a>. Pharmacokinetics is based on mathematical modeling that places great emphasis on the relationship between drug plasma concentration and the time elapsed since the drug's administration. Pharmacokinetics is the study of how an organism affects the drug, whereas <a href="/wiki/Pharmacodynamics" title="Pharmacodynamics">pharmacodynamics</a> (PD) is the study of how the drug affects the organism. Both together influence <a href="/wiki/Dosing" title="Dosing">dosing</a>, benefit, and <a href="/wiki/Adverse_effect" title="Adverse effect">adverse effects</a>, as seen in <a href="/wiki/PK/PD_models" class="mw-redirect" title="PK/PD models">PK/PD models</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style=""><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> definition</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p><b>Pharmacokinetics</b>: </p> <ol><li>Process of the uptake of drugs by the body, the biotransformation they undergo, the distribution of the drugs and their <a href="/wiki/Metabolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolites">metabolites</a> in the tissues, and the elimination of the drugs and their metabolites from the body over a period of time.</li> <li>Study of more such related processes<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> </blockquote> </div> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ADME">ADME</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: ADME"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/ADME" title="ADME">ADME</a></div> <p>A number of phases occur once the drug enters into contact with the organism, these are described using the acronym ADME (or LADME if liberation is included as a separate step from absorption): </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_(pharmacology)" title="Liberation (pharmacology)"><b><u>L</u></b>iberation</a> – the process of the active ingredient separating from its <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_formulation" title="Pharmaceutical formulation">pharmaceutical formulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KochRitschel1986_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KochRitschel1986-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid17630642_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17630642-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also <a href="/wiki/IVIVC" title="IVIVC">IVIVC</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absorption_(pharmacology)" title="Absorption (pharmacology)"><b><u>A</u></b>bsorption</a> – the process of a drug entering into systemic circulation from the site of administration</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_(pharmacology)" title="Distribution (pharmacology)"><b><u>D</u></b>istribution</a> – the dispersion or dissemination of substances throughout the fluids and tissues of the body.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"><b><u>M</u></b>etabolism</a> (or biotransformation, or inactivation) – the chemical reactions of the drug and irreversible breakdown into <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> (e.g. by metabolic <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_P450" title="Cytochrome P450">cytochrome P450</a> or <a href="/wiki/Glucuronosyltransferase" title="Glucuronosyltransferase">glucuronosyltransferase</a> enzymes)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elimination_(pharmacology)" title="Elimination (pharmacology)"><b><u>E</u></b>xcretion</a> – the removal of the substance or metabolites from the body. In rare cases, some <a href="/wiki/Drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Drugs">drugs</a> irreversibly accumulate in <a href="/wiki/Body_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Body tissue">body tissue</a>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This is a strong claim and should be backed by literature reference(s) (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <p>Some textbooks combine the first two phases as the drug is often administered in an active form, which means that there is no liberation phase. Others include a phase that combines distribution, metabolism and excretion into a disposition phase. Other authors include the drug's toxicological aspect in what is known as <i>ADME-Tox</i> or <i>ADMET</i>. The two phases of metabolism and excretion can be grouped together under the title <a href="/wiki/Elimination_(pharmacology)" title="Elimination (pharmacology)">elimination</a>. </p><p>The study of these distinct phases involves the use and manipulation of basic concepts in order to understand the process dynamics. For this reason, in order to fully comprehend the <i>kinetics</i> of a drug it is necessary to have detailed knowledge of a number of factors such as: the properties of the substances that act as <a href="/wiki/Excipient" title="Excipient">excipients</a>, the characteristics of the appropriate <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">biological membranes</a> and the way that substances can cross them, or the characteristics of the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics" title="Enzyme kinetics">enzyme reactions</a> that inactivate the drug. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metrics">Metrics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Metrics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following are the most commonly measured pharmacokinetic metrics:<sup id="cite_ref-urlwww.agah.info_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlwww.agah.info-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The units of the dose in the table are expressed in <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">moles</a> (mol) and <a href="/wiki/Molar_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Molar (unit)">molar</a> (M). To express the metrics of the table in units of mass, instead of <a href="/wiki/Amount_of_substance" title="Amount of substance">Amount of substance</a>, simply replace 'mol' with 'g' and 'M' with 'g/L'. Similarly, other units in the table may be expressed in units of an equivalent <a href="/wiki/Dimension" title="Dimension">dimension</a> by scaling.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> <caption>Pharmacokinetic metrics </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:6.5em;">Characteristic </th> <th>Description </th> <th style="width:6em;">Symbol </th> <th>Unit </th> <th>Formula </th> <th>Worked example<br />value </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dose_(biochemistry)" title="Dose (biochemistry)">Dose</a></td> <td>Amount of drug administered.</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {mol} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {mol} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1ebbd484c293b9d1ee98a162deb0a1b384d192ac" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.745ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {mol} }"></span></td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">Design parameter </td> <td>500 mmol </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dosing_interval&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dosing interval (page does not exist)">Dosing interval</a></td> <td>Time interval between drug dose administrations.</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tau }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>τ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tau }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/38a7dcde9730ef0853809fefc18d88771f95206c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.202ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tau }"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dc5d0fcfde82060e098b9587662e9648edd1dfc1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.293ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }"></span></td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">Design parameter </td> <td>24 h </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cmax_(pharmacology)" title="Cmax (pharmacology)"><span class="nowrap">Maximum serum concentration</span></a></td> <td>The peak plasma concentration of a drug after administration.</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{\text{max}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>max</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{\text{max}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d64c20943fd7f2754b2497ead1d44fb8e8f154fe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.953ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{\text{max}}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {mmol/L} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {mmol/L} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7c9be4be0bb431cc08ad4b887304fcc8a0761630" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.296ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {mmol/L} }"></span></td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">Direct measurement </td> <td>60.9 mmol/L </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tmax_(pharmacology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tmax (pharmacology)"><span class="nowrap">Minimum time for Cmax</span></a></td> <td>Minimum time taken to reach C<sub>max</sub>.</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{\text{max}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>max</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{\text{max}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e4a6e1cee49621c7f43b3340b9b67a72a7260fba" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.131ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{\text{max}}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dc5d0fcfde82060e098b9587662e9648edd1dfc1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.293ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }"></span></td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">Direct measurement </td> <td>3.9 h </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cmin_(pharmacology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cmin (pharmacology)">Minimum plasma concentration</a></span></td> <td>The lowest (<a href="/wiki/Trough_level" title="Trough level">trough</a>) concentration that a drug reaches before the next dose is administered. </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{{\text{min}},{\text{ss}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>min</mtext> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{{\text{min}},{\text{ss}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dae768e23689187ed271a0187d1ae4412da37fea" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:6.387ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{{\text{min}},{\text{ss}}}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {mmol/L} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {mmol/L} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7c9be4be0bb431cc08ad4b887304fcc8a0761630" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.296ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {mmol/L} }"></span></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{min}={\frac {SFDk_{a}}{V_{d}(k_{a}-k)}}\times \{{\frac {e^{-k_{e}\tau }}{1-e^{-k_{e}\tau }}}-{\frac {e^{-k_{a}\tau }}{1-e^{-k_{a}\tau }}}\}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>F</mi> <mi>D</mi> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>τ</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>τ</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>τ</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>τ</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{min}={\frac {SFDk_{a}}{V_{d}(k_{a}-k)}}\times \{{\frac {e^{-k_{e}\tau }}{1-e^{-k_{e}\tau }}}-{\frac {e^{-k_{a}\tau }}{1-e^{-k_{a}\tau }}}\}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81d90e02d4e328a0a4aa2da10e376837bf1e5acd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:47.388ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{min}={\frac {SFDk_{a}}{V_{d}(k_{a}-k)}}\times \{{\frac {e^{-k_{e}\tau }}{1-e^{-k_{e}\tau }}}-{\frac {e^{-k_{a}\tau }}{1-e^{-k_{a}\tau }}}\}}"></span> </td> <td>27.7 mmol/L </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cavg" title="Cavg">Average plasma concentration</a></span></td> <td>The average plasma concentration of a drug over the dosing interval in <a href="/wiki/Steady_state#Pharmacokinetics" title="Steady state">steady state</a>. </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{{\text{av}},{\text{ss}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>av</mtext> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{{\text{av}},{\text{ss}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aa5d139d06e89227e11eded614c28d7ec17c8cdc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:5.337ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{{\text{av}},{\text{ss}}}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h\times mmol/L} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {h\times mmol/L} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8e2675d9541bdad226de8276a364764f51dc1baf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.429ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h\times mmol/L} }"></span></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {AUC_{\tau ,{\text{ss}}}}{\tau }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mi>U</mi> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>τ</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mi>τ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {AUC_{\tau ,{\text{ss}}}}{\tau }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/29bab5f84936b2288ae6c5d87769d6b871d3426f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:8.859ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {AUC_{\tau ,{\text{ss}}}}{\tau }}}"></span> </td> <td>55.0 h×mmol/L </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Volume_of_distribution" title="Volume of distribution">Volume of distribution</a></td> <td>The apparent volume in which a drug is distributed (i.e., the parameter relating drug concentration in plasma to drug amount in the body). </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{d}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>d</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{d}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/358460ed51833e61eceec57349f5a49cb9cbc1da" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.501ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{d}}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {L} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {L} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e7693963f7eb3050c4c00a3417c955a5e3630cab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.453ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {L} }"></span></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {D}{C_{0}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>D</mi> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {D}{C_{0}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a7bae477df5f2128940c2768ad8f88b418ac7e11" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:3.552ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {D}{C_{0}}}}"></span> </td> <td>6.0 L </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">Concentration</a></td> <td>Amount of drug in a given volume of <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">plasma</a>.</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{0},C_{\text{ss}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{0},C_{\text{ss}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/adc63aeb3470e9ae504f8c15f52bf9954d62bc32" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.94ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{0},C_{\text{ss}}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {mmol/L} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">L</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {mmol/L} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7c9be4be0bb431cc08ad4b887304fcc8a0761630" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.296ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {mmol/L} }"></span></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {D}{V_{\text{d}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>D</mi> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>d</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {D}{V_{\text{d}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/573278e0e9c601984d4d71c191007145df049267" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:3.338ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {D}{V_{\text{d}}}}}"></span> </td> <td>83.3 mmol/L </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Absorption_half-life" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption half-life">Absorption half-life</a></td> <td>The time required for 50% of a given dose of drug to be absorbed into the systemic circulation.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{{\frac {1}{2}}a}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{{\frac {1}{2}}a}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/83aa3f7d47292969cbacc98e800bfcdca518d9f8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:3.445ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{{\frac {1}{2}}a}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dc5d0fcfde82060e098b9587662e9648edd1dfc1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.293ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }"></span></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{k_{\text{a}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>a</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{k_{\text{a}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3317203a632301ebe6fd57c66461b5e240b6fcb2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:5.747ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{k_{\text{a}}}}}"></span> </td> <td>1.0 h </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Absorption_rate_constant" title="Absorption rate constant">Absorption rate constant</a></td> <td>The rate at which a drug enters into the body for oral and other extravascular routes. </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{\text{a}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>a</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{\text{a}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5b1ad66379119006e60b450ed99edfe955af0488" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.265ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k_{\text{a}}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} ^{-1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} ^{-1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/76f100aa0dd6db71c780451d5d5b24b20637f24f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.625ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} ^{-1}}"></span></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{t_{{\frac {1}{2}}a}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{t_{{\frac {1}{2}}a}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0fddcfdb9f6ef67db4cbe0a42357354910f6cffe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.671ex; width:5.747ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{t_{{\frac {1}{2}}a}}}}"></span> </td> <td>0.693 h<sup>−1</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life" title="Biological half-life">Elimination half-‍life</a></td> <td>The time required for the concentration of the drug to reach half of its original value. </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{{\frac {1}{2}}b}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{{\frac {1}{2}}b}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cd4338347fb2b6d4eabef86ebbb948bd3d13f1bb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:3.281ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{{\frac {1}{2}}b}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dc5d0fcfde82060e098b9587662e9648edd1dfc1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.293ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} }"></span></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{k_{\text{e}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>e</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{k_{\text{e}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/970fb183fe6e7139812fba92015a13385e521921" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:5.747ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{k_{\text{e}}}}}"></span> </td> <td>12 h </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Elimination_rate_constant" title="Elimination rate constant">Elimination rate constant</a></td> <td>The rate at which a drug is removed from the body.</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{\text{e}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>e</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{\text{e}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ace5e3d047252ae2f8bf6c6edc30b1219f43a229" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.173ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k_{\text{e}}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} ^{-1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} ^{-1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/76f100aa0dd6db71c780451d5d5b24b20637f24f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.625ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {h} ^{-1}}"></span></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{t_{{\frac {1}{2}}b}}}={\frac {CL}{V_{\text{d}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>C</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>d</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{t_{{\frac {1}{2}}b}}}={\frac {CL}{V_{\text{d}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06c8c603f4a743c6ffc5a9981afeb1f9ff01649f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.671ex; width:13.031ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\ln(2)}{t_{{\frac {1}{2}}b}}}={\frac {CL}{V_{\text{d}}}}}"></span> </td> <td>0.0578 h<sup>−1</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Infusion_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Infusion rate">Infusion rate</a></td> <td>Rate of infusion required to balance elimination.</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{\text{in}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>in</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{\text{in}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bf6d24f73b7bfacfbf145cbda755bebc5687db03" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.815ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k_{\text{in}}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {mol/h} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">l</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {mol/h} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1e9cb5c6167ad72355754114040b0c1798686b91" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.2ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {mol/h} }"></span></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{\text{ss}}\cdot CL}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>C</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{\text{ss}}\cdot CL}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a37ff6453071af0e52e2454d4e117e0f1b52eda4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.218ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{\text{ss}}\cdot CL}"></span> </td> <td>50 mmol/h </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Area_under_the_curve_(pharmacokinetics)" title="Area under the curve (pharmacokinetics)">Area under the curve</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">The <a href="/wiki/Integral" title="Integral">integral</a> of the concentration-time curve (after a single dose or in steady state). </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle AUC_{0-\infty }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mi>U</mi> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle AUC_{0-\infty }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/464088e9e2a5bd58d647d2e734e1408f0c784ff2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.163ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle AUC_{0-\infty }}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \cdot \mathrm {s} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">M</mi> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \cdot \mathrm {s} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/749d8913705ad5d1a4763b365fc3a16f2a57c93e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.726ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \cdot \mathrm {s} }"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }C\,\mathrm {d} t}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>C</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }C\,\mathrm {d} t}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c09c11f8471be534a7c31ec02a4eb259ff775a5e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:9.012ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }C\,\mathrm {d} t}"></span> </td> <td rowspan="2">1,320 h×mmol/L </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle AUC_{\tau ,{\text{ss}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mi>U</mi> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>τ</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle AUC_{\tau ,{\text{ss}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6af31a6679ef0f47d2bd50a14cbdf90c4a823879" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.023ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle AUC_{\tau ,{\text{ss}}}}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \cdot \mathrm {s} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">M</mi> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \cdot \mathrm {s} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/749d8913705ad5d1a4763b365fc3a16f2a57c93e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.726ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \cdot \mathrm {s} }"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \int _{t}^{t+\tau }C\,\mathrm {d} t}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>τ</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>C</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int _{t}^{t+\tau }C\,\mathrm {d} t}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/49b71e36a27991055e6fcb4e6f6eb37dd1bc61ae" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:10.091ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \int _{t}^{t+\tau }C\,\mathrm {d} t}"></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clearance_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clearance (medicine)">Clearance</a></td> <td>The volume of plasma cleared of the drug per unit time.</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle CL}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle CL}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/134e48c63b788be291ce05f72eca6057a0fb9f11" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.349ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle CL}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {m} ^{3}/\mathrm {s} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {m} ^{3}/\mathrm {s} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a847449e02830c3623519d6ac6fd35e9e5655363" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.069ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {m} ^{3}/\mathrm {s} }"></span></td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{d}}\cdot k_{\text{e}}={\frac {D}{AUC}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>d</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>e</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>D</mi> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mi>U</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{d}}\cdot k_{\text{e}}={\frac {D}{AUC}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1b8e6715cdf7fb712dcd3e19472904f88b34a343" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:15.581ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{d}}\cdot k_{\text{e}}={\frac {D}{AUC}}}"></span> </td> <td>0.38 L/h </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">Bioavailability</a></td> <td>The systemically available fraction of a drug.</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}"></span> </td> <td>Unitless</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {AUC_{\text{po}}\cdot D_{\text{iv}}}{AUC_{\text{iv}}\cdot D_{\text{po}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mi>U</mi> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>po</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>iv</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mi>U</mi> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>iv</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>po</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {AUC_{\text{po}}\cdot D_{\text{iv}}}{AUC_{\text{iv}}\cdot D_{\text{po}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/31f236b3bd13ec09bdd1c2806073c5d795c936e8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:13.153ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {AUC_{\text{po}}\cdot D_{\text{iv}}}{AUC_{\text{iv}}\cdot D_{\text{po}}}}}"></span> </td> <td>0.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Peak-to-trough_ratio" title="Peak-to-trough ratio">Fluctuation</a></td> <td>Peak–trough fluctuation within one dosing interval at steady state.</td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \%PTF}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">%</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mi>F</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \%PTF}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/96058b621b18a0d13c8416f448c2532d6f6e66e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.058ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \%PTF}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \%}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">%</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \%}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e5a85b333ac4e07604aff5d6d89bba8c2341802b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.936ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \%}"></span> </td> <td><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 100{\frac {C_{{\text{max}},{\text{ss}}}-C_{{\text{min}},{\text{ss}}}}{C_{{\text{av}},{\text{ss}}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>100</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>max</mtext> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>min</mtext> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>av</mtext> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 100{\frac {C_{{\text{max}},{\text{ss}}}-C_{{\text{min}},{\text{ss}}}}{C_{{\text{av}},{\text{ss}}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2aa44221fb219dd633c497c0b08bfb06c7e59607" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:20.257ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 100{\frac {C_{{\text{max}},{\text{ss}}}-C_{{\text{min}},{\text{ss}}}}{C_{{\text{av}},{\text{ss}}}}}}"></span> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{{\text{av}},{\text{ss}}}={\frac {AUC_{\tau ,{\text{ss}}}}{\tau }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>av</mtext> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mi>U</mi> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>τ</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ss</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mi>τ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{{\text{av}},{\text{ss}}}={\frac {AUC_{\tau ,{\text{ss}}}}{\tau }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8ed8acb0651c000c47b03c284dca52131ca1976b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:17.295ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{{\text{av}},{\text{ss}}}={\frac {AUC_{\tau ,{\text{ss}}}}{\tau }}}"></span> </p> </td> <td>41.8% </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span class="anchor" id="steady_state"></span> In pharmacokinetics, <i>steady state</i> refers to the situation where the overall intake of a drug is fairly in <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_equilibrium" title="Dynamic equilibrium">dynamic equilibrium</a> with its elimination. In practice, it is generally considered that once regular dosing of a drug is started, steady state is reached after 3 to 5 times its half-life. In steady state and in linear pharmacokinetics, AUC<sub>τ</sub>=AUC<sub>∞</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modeling">Modeling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Models have been developed to simplify conceptualization of the many processes that take place in the interaction between an organism and a chemical substance. Pharmacokinetic modelling may be performed either by noncompartmental or <a href="/wiki/Compartment_(pharmacokinetics)" title="Compartment (pharmacokinetics)">compartmental</a> methods. <a href="/wiki/Multi-compartment_model" title="Multi-compartment model">Multi-compartment models</a> provide the best approximations to reality; however, the complexity involved in adding parameters with that modelling approach means that <i>monocompartmental models</i> and above all <i>two compartmental models</i> are the most-frequently used. The model outputs for a drug can be used in industry (for example, in calculating <a href="/wiki/Bioequivalence" title="Bioequivalence">bioequivalence</a> when designing generic drugs) or in the clinical application of pharmacokinetic concepts. Clinical pharmacokinetics provides many performance guidelines for effective and efficient use of drugs for human-health professionals and in <a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">veterinary medicine</a>. </p><p>Models generally take the form of <a href="/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)" title="Expression (mathematics)">mathematical formulas</a> that have a corresponding <a href="/wiki/Graph_of_a_function" title="Graph of a function">graphical representation</a>. The use of these models allows an understanding of the characteristics of a <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a>, as well as how a particular drug will behave given information regarding some of its basic characteristics such as its <a href="/wiki/Acid_dissociation_constant" title="Acid dissociation constant">acid dissociation constant</a> (pKa), <a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">bioavailability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">solubility</a>, absorption capacity and distribution in the organism. A variety of analysis techniques may be used to develop models, such as <a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_regression" title="Nonlinear regression">nonlinear regression</a> or curve stripping. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noncompartmental_analysis">Noncompartmental analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Noncompartmental analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Noncompartmental methods estimate PK parameters directly from a table of concentration-time measurements. Noncompartmental methods are versatile in that they do not assume any specific model and generally produce accurate results acceptable for bioequivalence studies. Total drug exposure is most often estimated by area under the curve (AUC) methods, with the <a href="/wiki/Trapezoidal_rule" title="Trapezoidal rule">trapezoidal rule</a> (<a href="/wiki/Numerical_integration" title="Numerical integration">numerical integration</a>) the most common method. Due to the dependence on the length of <i>x</i> in the trapezoidal rule, the area estimation is highly dependent on the blood/plasma sampling schedule. That is, the closer time points are, the closer the trapezoids reflect the actual shape of the concentration-time curve. The number of time points available in order to perform a successful NCA analysis should be enough to cover the absorption, distribution and elimination phase to accurately characterize the drug. Beyond AUC exposure measures, parameters such as Cmax (maximum concentration), Tmax (time to maximum concentration), CL and Vd can also be reported using NCA methods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compartmental_analysis">Compartmental analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Compartmental analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Compartment models methods estimate the concentration-time graph by modeling it as a system of differential equations. These models are based on a consideration of an organism as a number of related <i>compartments</i>. Both single compartment and <a href="/wiki/Multi-compartment_model" title="Multi-compartment model">multi-compartment models</a> are in use. PK compartmental models are often similar to kinetic models used in other scientific disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">chemical kinetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>. The advantage of compartmental over noncompartmental analysis is the ability to modify parameters and to extrapolate to novel situations. The disadvantage is the difficulty in developing and validating the proper model. Although compartment models have the potential to realistically model the situation within an organism, models inevitably make simplifying assumptions and will not be applicable in all situations. However complicated and precise a model may be, it still does not truly represent reality despite the effort involved in obtaining various distribution values for a drug. This is because the concept of distribution volume is a relative concept that is not a true reflection of reality. The choice of model therefore comes down to deciding which one offers the lowest margin of error for the drug involved. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Single-compartment_model">Single-compartment model</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Single-compartment model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_lineal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_lineal.svg/250px-Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_lineal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_lineal.svg/375px-Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_lineal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_lineal.svg/500px-Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_lineal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>Graph representing the monocompartmental action model</figcaption></figure> <p>The simplest PK compartmental model is the one-compartmental PK model. This models an organism as one homogenous compartment. This <i>monocompartmental model</i> presupposes that <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">blood plasma</a> concentrations of the drug are the only information needed to determine the drug's concentration in other fluids and tissues. For example, the concentration in other areas may be approximately related by known, constant factors to the blood plasma concentration. </p><p>In this one-compartment model, the most common model of elimination is <a href="/wiki/First_order_kinetics" class="mw-redirect" title="First order kinetics">first order kinetics</a>, where the elimination of the drug is directly proportional to the drug's concentration in the organism. This is often called <i>linear pharmacokinetics</i>, as the change in concentration over time can be expressed as a linear differential equation <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle {\frac {dC}{dt}}=-k_{\text{el}}C}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>el</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mi>C</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle {\frac {dC}{dt}}=-k_{\text{el}}C}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/434a94b450e8b37f11f517103de94e3f36f6534f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:12.249ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle {\frac {dC}{dt}}=-k_{\text{el}}C}"></span>. Assuming a single IV bolus <a href="/wiki/Dose_(biochemistry)" title="Dose (biochemistry)">dose</a> resulting in a concentration <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{\text{initial}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>initial</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{\text{initial}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a504861ab8498d13dadf3eee9ae89cb8125080cc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.099ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{\text{initial}}}"></span> at time <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t=0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t=0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43469ec032d858feae5aa87029e22eaaf0109e9c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.101ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t=0}"></span>, the equation can be solved to give <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C=C_{\text{initial}}\times e^{-k_{\text{el}}\times t}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>initial</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>el</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>×</mo> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C=C_{\text{initial}}\times e^{-k_{\text{el}}\times t}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0a5360e33ff9606f6097d8af9f2dc85d69192276" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:20.256ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C=C_{\text{initial}}\times e^{-k_{\text{el}}\times t}}"></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Two-compartment_model">Two-compartment model</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Two-compartment model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Not all body tissues have the same <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood supply</a>, so the distribution of the drug will be slower in these tissues than in others with a better blood supply. In addition, there are some tissues (such as the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> tissue) that present a real barrier to the distribution of drugs, that can be breached with greater or lesser ease depending on the drug's characteristics. If these relative conditions for the different tissue types are considered along with the rate of elimination, the organism can be considered to be acting like two compartments: one that we can call the <i>central compartment</i> that has a more rapid distribution, comprising organs and systems with a well-developed blood supply; and a <i>peripheral compartment</i> made up of organs with a lower blood flow. Other tissues, such as the brain, can occupy a variable position depending on a drug's ability to cross the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">barrier</a> that separates the organ from the blood supply. </p><p>Two-compartment models vary depending on which compartment elimination occurs in. The most common situation is that elimination occurs in the central compartment as the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kidneys" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidneys">kidneys</a> are organs with a good blood supply. However, in some situations it may be that elimination occurs in the peripheral compartment or even in both. This can mean that there are three possible variations in the two compartment model, which still do not cover all possibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Reverte_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reverte-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Multi-compartment_models">Multi-compartment models</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Multi-compartment models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Multi-compartment_model" title="Multi-compartment model">Multi-compartment model</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_no_lineal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_no_lineal.svg/200px-Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_no_lineal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_no_lineal.svg/300px-Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_no_lineal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_no_lineal.svg/400px-Farmacocin%C3%A9tica_no_lineal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption> Graphs for absorption and elimination for a non-linear pharmacokinetic model</figcaption></figure> <p>In the real world, each tissue will have its own distribution characteristics and none of them will be strictly linear. The two-compartment model may not be applicable in situations where some of the enzymes responsible for metabolizing the drug become saturated, or where an active elimination mechanism is present that is independent of the drug's plasma concentration. If we label the drug's <a href="/wiki/Volume_of_distribution" title="Volume of distribution">volume of distribution</a> within the organism <b>Vd<sub>F</sub></b> and its volume of distribution in a tissue <b>Vd<sub>T</sub></b> the former will be described by an equation that takes into account all the tissues that act in different ways, that is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Vd_{F}=Vd_{T1}+Vd_{T2}+Vd_{T3}+\cdots +Vd_{Tn}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>F</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>V</mi> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>V</mi> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>V</mi> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>V</mi> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Vd_{F}=Vd_{T1}+Vd_{T2}+Vd_{T3}+\cdots +Vd_{Tn}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59f156586dce177f2b3c84cac758db3d321d66b0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:43.024ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Vd_{F}=Vd_{T1}+Vd_{T2}+Vd_{T3}+\cdots +Vd_{Tn}\,}"></span></dd></dl> <p>This represents the <i>multi-compartment model</i> with a number of curves that express complicated equations in order to obtain an overall curve. A number of <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer programs</a> have been developed to plot these equations.<sup id="cite_ref-Reverte_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reverte-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most complex PK models (called <a href="/wiki/PBPK" class="mw-redirect" title="PBPK">PBPK</a> models) rely on the use of physiological information to ease development and validation. </p><p>The graph for the non-linear relationship between the various factors is represented by a <a href="/wiki/Curve" title="Curve">curve</a>; the relationships between the factors can then be found by calculating the dimensions of different areas under the curve. The models used in <i>non-linear pharmacokinetics</i> are largely based on <a href="/wiki/Michaelis%E2%80%93Menten_kinetics" title="Michaelis–Menten kinetics">Michaelis–Menten kinetics</a>. A reaction's factors of non-linearity include the following: </p> <ul><li>Multiphasic absorption: Drugs injected <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy" title="Intravenous therapy">intravenously</a> are removed from the plasma through two primary mechanisms: (1) Distribution to body tissues and (2) metabolism + excretion of the drugs. The resulting decrease of the drug's plasma concentration follows a biphasic pattern (see figure).<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iv_time_conc_curve.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Iv_time_conc_curve.svg/220px-Iv_time_conc_curve.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Iv_time_conc_curve.svg/330px-Iv_time_conc_curve.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Iv_time_conc_curve.svg/440px-Iv_time_conc_curve.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="308" /></a><figcaption>Plasma drug concentration vs time after an IV dose</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Alpha phase: An initial phase of rapid decrease in plasma concentration. The decrease is primarily attributed to drug distribution from the central compartment (circulation) into the peripheral compartments (body tissues). This phase ends when a pseudo-equilibrium of drug concentration is established between the central and peripheral compartments.</li> <li>Beta phase: A phase of gradual decrease in plasma concentration after the alpha phase. The decrease is primarily attributed to drug elimination, that is, metabolism and excretion.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Additional phases (gamma, delta, etc.) are sometimes seen.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn91-86274-92-9_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn91-86274-92-9-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>A drug's characteristics make a clear distinction between tissues with high and low blood flow.</li> <li>Enzymatic <a href="/wiki/Binding_site" title="Binding site">saturation</a>: When the dose of a drug whose elimination depends on biotransformation is increased above a certain threshold the enzymes responsible for its metabolism become saturated. The drug's plasma concentration will then increase disproportionately and its elimination will no longer be constant.</li> <li>Induction or <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">enzymatic inhibition</a>: Some drugs have the capacity to inhibit or stimulate their own metabolism, in negative or <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback#In_biology" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> reactions. As occurs with <a href="/wiki/Fluvoxamine" title="Fluvoxamine">fluvoxamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluoxetine" title="Fluoxetine">fluoxetine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a>. As larger doses of these pharmaceuticals are administered the plasma concentrations of the unmetabolized drug increases and the <a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life" title="Biological half-life">elimination half-life</a> increases. It is therefore necessary to adjust the dose or other treatment parameters when a high dosage is required.</li> <li>The kidneys can also establish active elimination mechanisms for some drugs, independent of plasma concentrations.</li></ul> <p>It can therefore be seen that non-linearity can occur because of reasons that affect the entire pharmacokinetic sequence: absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bioavailability">Bioavailability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bioavailability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pill_box_with_pills.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pill_box_with_pills.JPG/300px-Pill_box_with_pills.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pill_box_with_pills.JPG/450px-Pill_box_with_pills.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pill_box_with_pills.JPG/600px-Pill_box_with_pills.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption> Different forms of tablets, which will have different pharmacokinetic behaviours after their administration.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">Bioavailability</a></div> <p>At a practical level, a drug's bioavailability can be defined as the proportion of the drug that reaches the systemic circulation. From this perspective the <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy" title="Intravenous therapy">intravenous</a> administration of a drug provides the greatest possible bioavailability, and this method is considered to yield a bioavailability of 1 (or 100%). Bioavailability of other delivery methods is compared with that of intravenous injection (absolute bioavailability) or to a standard value related to other delivery methods in a particular study (relative bioavailability). </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{A}={\frac {[ABC]_{P}\cdot D_{IV}}{[ABC]_{IV}\cdot D_{P}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>B</mi> <mi>C</mi> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>P</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>I</mi> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>B</mi> <mi>C</mi> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>I</mi> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>P</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{A}={\frac {[ABC]_{P}\cdot D_{IV}}{[ABC]_{IV}\cdot D_{P}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e0349b27d143a975c5e5c3eeaf83b49e8c7a3318" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:21.125ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{A}={\frac {[ABC]_{P}\cdot D_{IV}}{[ABC]_{IV}\cdot D_{P}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathit {B}}_{R}={\frac {[ABC]_{A}\cdot {\text{dose}}_{B}}{[ABC]_{B}\cdot {\text{dose}}_{A}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>R</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>B</mi> <mi>C</mi> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>dose</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>B</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>B</mi> <mi>C</mi> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>B</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>dose</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathit {B}}_{R}={\frac {[ABC]_{A}\cdot {\text{dose}}_{B}}{[ABC]_{B}\cdot {\text{dose}}_{A}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/634ea7e9316eeae72a9904dcaf1ccb2c43511aaf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:22.645ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathit {B}}_{R}={\frac {[ABC]_{A}\cdot {\text{dose}}_{B}}{[ABC]_{B}\cdot {\text{dose}}_{A}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Once a drug's bioavailability has been established it is possible to calculate the changes that need to be made to its dosage in order to reach the required blood plasma levels. Bioavailability is, therefore, a mathematical factor for each individual drug that influences the administered dose. It is possible to calculate the amount of a drug in the blood plasma that has a real potential to bring about its effect using the formula: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle De=B\cdot Da\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle De=B\cdot Da\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/75fb1f267250bafcb11565f8b490184a0cffdc35" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:13.09ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle De=B\cdot Da\,}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>De</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(pharmacology)" title="Effective dose (pharmacology)">effective dose</a>, <i>B</i> bioavailability and <i>Da</i> the administered dose. </p><p>Therefore, if a drug has a bioavailability of 0.8 (or 80%) and it is administered in a dose of 100 mg, the equation will demonstrate the following: </p> <dl><dd><i>De</i> = 0.8 × 100 mg = 80 mg</dd></dl> <p>That is the 100 mg administered represents a blood plasma concentration of 80 mg that has the capacity to have a pharmaceutical effect. </p><p>This concept depends on a series of factors inherent to each drug, such as:<sup id="cite_ref-Winter_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">Pharmaceutical form</a></li> <li>Chemical form</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Route_of_administration" title="Route of administration">Route of administration</a></li> <li>Stability</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li></ul> <p>These concepts, which are discussed in detail in their respective titled articles, can be mathematically quantified and integrated to obtain an overall mathematical equation: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle De=Q\cdot Da\cdot B\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle De=Q\cdot Da\cdot B\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d6bab78168ba9da2fe306aab722533d2be5b819" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:16.608ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle De=Q\cdot Da\cdot B\,}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <b>Q</b> is the drug's purity.<sup id="cite_ref-Winter_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winter-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Va={\frac {Da\cdot B\cdot Q}{\tau }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>D</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mi>Q</mi> </mrow> <mi>τ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Va={\frac {Da\cdot B\cdot Q}{\tau }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/56248b678d802ecbb09982cbdcd9b7289897d859" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:17.066ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Va={\frac {Da\cdot B\cdot Q}{\tau }}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Va}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Va}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ce69b0a1bb0d64b13b282dbc3d9f13e04b98256a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.017ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Va}"></span> is the drug's rate of administration and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tau }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>τ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tau }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/38a7dcde9730ef0853809fefc18d88771f95206c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.202ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tau }"></span> is the rate at which the absorbed drug reaches the circulatory system. </p><p>Finally, using the <a href="/wiki/Henderson-Hasselbalch_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Henderson-Hasselbalch equation">Henderson-Hasselbalch equation</a>, and knowing the drug's <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle pKa\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> <mi>K</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle pKa\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06741932e09b296fb932e5fc988d809bb5ddd272" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:4.942ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle pKa\,}"></span> (<a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> at which there is an equilibrium between its ionized and non-ionized molecules), it is possible to calculate the non-ionized concentration of the drug and therefore the concentration that will be subject to absorption: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {pH} =\mathrm {pKa} +\log {\frac {B}{A}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">K</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>B</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {pH} =\mathrm {pKa} +\log {\frac {B}{A}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/db1a6cb2ab3cbcf6ff9b70f1030561ee402399a8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:19.197ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {pH} =\mathrm {pKa} +\log {\frac {B}{A}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>When two drugs have the same bioavailability, they are said to be biological equivalents or bioequivalents. This concept of <a href="/wiki/Bioequivalence" title="Bioequivalence">bioequivalence</a> is important because it is currently used as a yardstick in the authorization of <a href="/wiki/Generic_drug" title="Generic drug">generic drugs</a> in many countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis">Analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioanalytical_methods">Bioanalytical methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bioanalytical methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bioanalysis" title="Bioanalysis">Bioanalytical methods</a> are necessary to construct a concentration-time profile. Chemical techniques are employed to measure the concentration of drugs in <a href="/wiki/Biological_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological matrix">biological matrix</a>, most often plasma. Proper bioanalytical methods should be selective and sensitive. For example, <a href="/wiki/Microscale_thermophoresis" title="Microscale thermophoresis">microscale thermophoresis</a> can be used to quantify how the biological matrix/liquid affects the affinity of a drug to its target.<sup id="cite_ref-Baaske_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baaske-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wienken_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wienken-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass_spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mass spectrometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pharmacokinetics is often studied using <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a> because of the complex nature of the matrix (often plasma or urine) and the need for high sensitivity to observe concentrations after a low dose and a long time period. The most common instrumentation used in this application is <a href="/wiki/Liquid_chromatography-mass_spectrometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry">LC-MS</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Quadrupole_mass_analyzer" title="Quadrupole mass analyzer">triple quadrupole mass spectrometer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tandem_mass_spectrometry" title="Tandem mass spectrometry">Tandem mass spectrometry</a> is usually employed for added specificity. Standard curves and internal standards are used for quantitation of usually a single pharmaceutical in the samples. The samples represent different time points as a pharmaceutical is administered and then metabolized or cleared from the body. Blank samples taken before administration are important in determining background and ensuring data integrity with such complex sample matrices. Much attention is paid to the linearity of the standard curve; however it is common to use <a href="/wiki/Curve_fitting" title="Curve fitting">curve fitting</a> with more complex functions such as <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_function" title="Quadratic function">quadratics</a> since the response of most mass spectrometers is not linear across large concentration ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is currently considerable interest in the use of very high sensitivity mass spectrometry for <a href="/wiki/Microdosing" title="Microdosing">microdosing</a> studies, which are seen as a promising alternative to <a href="/wiki/Animal_experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal experimentation">animal experimentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EMEA-MD_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EMEA-MD-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent studies show that <a href="/wiki/Secondary_electrospray_ionization" title="Secondary electrospray ionization">Secondary electrospray ionization</a> (SESI-MS) can be used in drug monitoring, presenting the advantage of avoiding animal sacrifice.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population_pharmacokinetics">Population pharmacokinetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Population pharmacokinetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Population pharmacokinetics</i> is the study of the sources and correlates of variability in drug concentrations among individuals who are the target patient population receiving clinically relevant doses of a drug of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid925881_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid925881-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid466923_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid466923-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid16353916_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16353916-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain patient demographic, pathophysiological, and therapeutical features, such as body weight, excretory and metabolic functions, and the presence of other therapies, can regularly alter dose-concentration relationships and can explain variability in exposures. For example, steady-state concentrations of drugs eliminated mostly by the kidney are usually greater in patients with <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a> than they are in patients with normal kidney function receiving the same drug dosage. Population pharmacokinetics seeks to identify the measurable pathophysiologic factors and explain sources of variability that cause changes in the dose-concentration relationship and the extent of these changes so that, if such changes are associated with clinically relevant and significant shifts in exposures that impact the therapeutic index, dosage can be appropriately modified. An advantage of population pharmacokinetic modelling is its ability to analyse sparse data sets (sometimes only one concentration measurement per patient is available). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_pharmacokinetics">Clinical pharmacokinetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Clinical pharmacokinetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption>Drugs where pharmacokinetic monitoring is recommended </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Antiepileptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiepileptic">Antiepileptic</a> <p>medication </p> </th> <th>Cardioactive <p>medication </p> </th> <th>Immunosuppressor <p>medication </p> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a> <p>medication </p> </th></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">Phenytoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">Carbamazepine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valproic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Valproic acid">Valproic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">Lamotrigine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethosuximide" title="Ethosuximide">Ethosuximide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">Phenobarbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primidone" title="Primidone">Primidone</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digoxin" title="Digoxin">Digoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lidocaine" title="Lidocaine">Lidocaine</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciclosporin" title="Ciclosporin">Ciclosporin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacrolimus" title="Tacrolimus">Tacrolimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirolimus" title="Sirolimus">Sirolimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everolimus" title="Everolimus">Everolimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycophenolate" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycophenolate">Mycophenolate</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gentamicin" title="Gentamicin">Gentamicin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobramycin" title="Tobramycin">Tobramycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amikacin" title="Amikacin">Amikacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancomycin" title="Vancomycin">Vancomycin</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Bronchodilator" title="Bronchodilator">Bronchodilator</a> <p>medication </p> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Cytostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytostatic">Cytostatic</a> <p>medication </p> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antiviral</a> <p>(HIV) medication </p> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Coagulation_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Coagulation factor">Coagulation factors</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theophylline" title="Theophylline">Theophylline</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Methotrexate" title="Methotrexate">Methotrexate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-Fluorouracil" class="mw-redirect" title="5-Fluorouracil">5-Fluorouracil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irinotecan" title="Irinotecan">Irinotecan</a></li></ul> </td> <td>+ <a href="/wiki/Efavirenz" title="Efavirenz">Efavirenz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tenofovir" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenofovir">Tenofovir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritonavir" title="Ritonavir">Ritonavir</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factor_VIII" title="Factor VIII">Factor VIII</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_IX" title="Factor IX">Factor IX</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_VII" title="Factor VII">Factor VIIa</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_XI" title="Factor XI">Factor XI</a></li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>Clinical pharmacokinetics (arising from the clinical use of population pharmacokinetics) is the direct application to a therapeutic situation of knowledge regarding a drug's pharmacokinetics and the characteristics of a population that a patient belongs to (or can be ascribed to). </p><p>An example is the relaunch of the use of <a href="/wiki/Ciclosporin" title="Ciclosporin">ciclosporin</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug" title="Immunosuppressive drug">immunosuppressor</a> to facilitate organ transplant. The drug's therapeutic properties were initially demonstrated, but it was almost never used after it was found to cause <a href="/wiki/Nephrotoxicity" title="Nephrotoxicity">nephrotoxicity</a> in a number of patients.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it was then realized that it was possible to individualize a patient's dose of ciclosporin by analysing the patients plasmatic concentrations (pharmacokinetic monitoring). This practice has allowed this drug to be used again and has facilitated a great number of organ transplants. </p><p>Clinical monitoring is usually carried out by determination of plasma concentrations as this data is usually the easiest to obtain and the most reliable. The main reasons for determining a drug's plasma concentration include:<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Narrow therapeutic range (difference between toxic and therapeutic concentrations)</li> <li>High toxicity</li> <li>High risk to life.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecotoxicology">Ecotoxicology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ecotoxicology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2019</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">Ecotoxicology</a> is the branch of science that deals with the nature, effects, and interactions of substances that are harmful to the environment such as <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> harmful substances.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21366215_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21366215-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-urlToxicokinetic-Toxicodynamic_Models_–_Ecotoxicology_and_Models_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlToxicokinetic-Toxicodynamic_Models_–_Ecotoxicology_and_Models-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ecotoxicology is studied in pharmacokinetics due to the substances responsible for harming the environment such as <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a> can get into the bodies of living organisms. The health effects of these chemicals is thus subject to research and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">safety trials</a> by government or international agencies such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a> or <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life" title="Biological half-life">How long these chemicals stay in the body</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lethal_dose" title="Lethal dose">lethal dose</a> and other factors are the main focus of Ecotoxicology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bateman_equation" title="Bateman equation">Bateman equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_alcohol_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood alcohol concentration">Blood alcohol concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life" title="Biological half-life">Biological half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">Bioavailability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperstown_cocktail" title="Cooperstown cocktail">Cooperstown cocktail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics" title="Enzyme kinetics">Enzyme kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacodynamics" title="Pharmacodynamics">Pharmacodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiosyncratic_drug_reaction" title="Idiosyncratic drug reaction">Idiosyncratic drug reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_interaction" title="Drug interaction">Drug interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patlak_plot" title="Patlak plot">Patlak plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacometrics" title="Pharmacometrics">Pharmacometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioequivalence" title="Bioequivalence">Bioequivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generic_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Generic drugs">Generic drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiologically_based_pharmacokinetic_modelling" title="Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling">Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau_principle" title="Plateau principle">Plateau principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicokinetics" title="Toxicokinetics">Toxicokinetics</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pharmacokinetics. (2006). In <i><a href="/wiki/Mosby%27s_Dictionary_of_Medicine,_Nursing_%26_Health_Professions" title="Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing & Health Professions">Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing & Health Professions</a></i>. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Health Sciences. Retrieved December 11, 2008, from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.credoreference.com/entry/6686418">http://www.credoreference.com/entry/6686418</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160411001253/http://search.credoreference.com/auth/index">Archived</a> 2016-04-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNordbergDuffusTempleton2004" class="citation journal cs1">Nordberg M, Duffus J, Templeton DM (1 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac200476051033">"Glossary of terms used in toxicokinetics (IUPAC Recommendations 2003)"</a>. <i>Pure and Applied Chemistry</i>. <b>76</b> (5): 1033–1082. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac200476051033">10.1351/pac200476051033</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:98275795">98275795</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pure+and+Applied+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Glossary+of+terms+used+in+toxicokinetics+%28IUPAC+Recommendations+2003%29&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1033-1082&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1351%2Fpac200476051033&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A98275795%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nordberg&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Duffus%2C+J&rft.au=Templeton%2C+DM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1351%252Fpac200476051033&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KochRitschel1986-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KochRitschel1986_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKochRitschel1986" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Koch HP, Ritschel WA (1986). "Liberation". <i>Synopsis der Biopharmazie und Pharmakokinetik</i> (in German). Landsberg, München: Ecomed. pp. 99–131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-609-64970-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-609-64970-4"><bdi>3-609-64970-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Liberation&rft.btitle=Synopsis+der+Biopharmazie+und+Pharmakokinetik&rft.place=Landsberg%2C+M%C3%BCnchen&rft.pages=99-131&rft.pub=Ecomed&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=3-609-64970-4&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=HP&rft.au=Ritschel%2C+WA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid17630642-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid17630642_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuiz-GarciaBermejoMossCasabo2008" class="citation journal cs1">Ruiz-Garcia A, Bermejo M, Moss A, Casabo VG (February 2008). "Pharmacokinetics in drug discovery". <i>Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences</i>. <b>97</b> (2): 654–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjps.21009">10.1002/jps.21009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17630642">17630642</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pharmaceutical+Sciences&rft.atitle=Pharmacokinetics+in+drug+discovery&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=654-90&rft.date=2008-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjps.21009&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17630642&rft.aulast=Ruiz-Garcia&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Bermejo%2C+M&rft.au=Moss%2C+A&rft.au=Casabo%2C+VG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlwww.agah.info-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlwww.agah.info_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAGAH_working_group_PHARMACOKINETICS2004" class="citation web cs1">AGAH working group PHARMACOKINETICS (2004-02-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160508185420/http://www.agah.eu/fileadmin/_migrated/content_uploads/PK-glossary_PK_working_group_2004.pdf">"Collection of terms, symbols, equations, and explanations of common pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters and some statistical functions"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Angewandte Humanpharmakologie (AGAH) (Association for Applied Human Pharmacology). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agah.eu/fileadmin/_migrated/content_uploads/PK-glossary_PK_working_group_2004.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-05-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-04-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Collection+of+terms%2C+symbols%2C+equations%2C+and+explanations+of+common+pharmacokinetic+and+pharmacodynamic+parameters+and+some+statistical+functions&rft.pub=Arbeitsgemeinschaft+f%C3%BCr+Angewandte+Humanpharmakologie+%28AGAH%29+%28Association+for+Applied+Human+Pharmacology%29&rft.date=2004-02-16&rft.au=AGAH+working+group+PHARMACOKINETICS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.agah.eu%2Ffileadmin%2F_migrated%2Fcontent_uploads%2FPK-glossary_PK_working_group_2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallareGerriets2021" class="citation cs2">Hallare, Jericho; Gerriets, Valerie (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554498/">"Half Life"</a>, <i>StatPearls</i>, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32119385">32119385</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230324172621/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554498/">archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-24<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-12-25</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=StatPearls&rft.atitle=Half+Life&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32119385&rft.aulast=Hallare&rft.aufirst=Jericho&rft.au=Gerriets%2C+Valerie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK554498%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallareGerriets2023" class="citation cs2">Hallare, Jericho; Gerriets, Valerie (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554498/">"Half Life"</a>, <i>StatPearls</i>, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32119385">32119385</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230324172621/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554498/">archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-24<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-23</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=StatPearls&rft.atitle=Half+Life&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32119385&rft.aulast=Hallare&rft.aufirst=Jericho&rft.au=Gerriets%2C+Valerie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK554498%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sepia2.unil.ch/pharmacology/">"Pharmacokinetics – Online content for student"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240923134233/https://sepia2.unil.ch/pharmacology/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-09-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-02-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pharmacokinetics+%E2%80%93+Online+content+for+student&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsepia2.unil.ch%2Fpharmacology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reverte-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reverte_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reverte_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Milo Gibaldi, Donald Perrier. <i>Farmacocinética</i>Reverté 1982 pages 1–10. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-291-5535-X" title="Special:BookSources/84-291-5535-X">84-291-5535-X</a>, 9788429155358</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillMoon-McdermottHuntDeresinski1999" class="citation journal cs1">Gill SC, Moon-Mcdermott L, Hunt TL, Deresinski S, Blaschke T, Sandhaus RA (Sep 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/ma?f=102244695.html">"Phase I Pharmacokinetics of Liposomal Amikacin (MiKasome) in Human Subjects: Dose Dependence and Urinary Clearance"</a>. <i>Abstr Intersci Conf Antimicrob Agents Chemother</i>. <b>39</b>: 33 (abstract no. 1195). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123224920/http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/ma?f=102244695.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-11-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-08-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Abstr+Intersci+Conf+Antimicrob+Agents+Chemother&rft.atitle=Phase+I+Pharmacokinetics+of+Liposomal+Amikacin+%28MiKasome%29+in+Human+Subjects%3A+Dose+Dependence+and+Urinary+Clearance&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=33+%28abstract+no.+1195%29&rft.date=1999-09&rft.aulast=Gill&rft.aufirst=SC&rft.au=Moon-Mcdermott%2C+L&rft.au=Hunt%2C+TL&rft.au=Deresinski%2C+S&rft.au=Blaschke%2C+T&rft.au=Sandhaus%2C+RA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgateway.nlm.nih.gov%2FMeetingAbstracts%2Fma%3Ff%3D102244695.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn91-86274-92-9-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn91-86274-92-9_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinerGabrielsson2000" class="citation book cs1">Weiner D, Gabrielsson J (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K-gT2_Ukk0QC&q=pharmacokinetic%20alpha%20beta%20gamma%20phase&pg=PA528">"PK24 – Non-linear kinetics – flow II"</a>. <i>Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic data analysis: concepts and applications</i>. Apotekarsocieteten. pp. 527–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/91-86274-92-9" title="Special:BookSources/91-86274-92-9"><bdi>91-86274-92-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230125142441/https://books.google.com/books?id=K-gT2_Ukk0QC&q=pharmacokinetic%20alpha%20beta%20gamma%20phase&pg=PA528">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=PK24+%E2%80%93+Non-linear+kinetics+%E2%80%93+flow+II&rft.btitle=Pharmacokinetic%2Fpharmacodynamic+data+analysis%3A+concepts+and+applications&rft.pages=527-36&rft.pub=Apotekarsocieteten&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=91-86274-92-9&rft.aulast=Weiner&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Gabrielsson%2C+Johan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK-gT2_Ukk0QC%26q%3Dpharmacokinetic%2520alpha%2520beta%2520gamma%2520phase%26pg%3DPA528&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Winter-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael E. Winter, Mary Anne Koda-Kimple, Lloyd Y. Young, Emilio Pol Yanguas <i>Farmacocinética clínica básica</i> Ediciones Díaz de Santos, 1994 pgs. 8–14 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-7978-147-5" title="Special:BookSources/84-7978-147-5">84-7978-147-5</a>, 9788479781477 (in Spanish)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baaske-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baaske_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaaskeWienkenReineckDuhr2010" class="citation journal cs1">Baaske P, Wienken CJ, Reineck P, Duhr S, Braun D (March 2010). "Optical thermophoresis for quantifying the buffer dependence of aptamer binding". <i>Angewandte Chemie</i>. <b>49</b> (12): 2238–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.200903998">10.1002/anie.200903998</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20186894">20186894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Angewandte+Chemie&rft.atitle=Optical+thermophoresis+for+quantifying+the+buffer+dependence+of+aptamer+binding&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2238-41&rft.date=2010-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fanie.200903998&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20186894&rft.aulast=Baaske&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Wienken%2C+CJ&rft.au=Reineck%2C+P&rft.au=Duhr%2C+S&rft.au=Braun%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/news186225693.html">"A hot road to new drugs"</a>. <i>Phys.org</i>. February 24, 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307054929/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20186894">Archived</a> from the original on March 7, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 10,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Phys.org&rft.atitle=A+hot+road+to+new+drugs&rft.date=2010-02-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physorg.com%2Fnews186225693.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Wienken-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wienken_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWienkenBaaskeRothbauerBraun2010" class="citation journal cs1">Wienken CJ, Baaske P, Rothbauer U, Braun D, Duhr S (October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms1093">"Protein-binding assays in biological liquids using microscale thermophoresis"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>1</b> (7): 100. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010NatCo...1..100W">2010NatCo...1..100W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms1093">10.1038/ncomms1093</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20981028">20981028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Protein-binding+assays+in+biological+liquids+using+microscale+thermophoresis&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=100&rft.date=2010-10&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20981028&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fncomms1093&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010NatCo...1..100W&rft.aulast=Wienken&rft.aufirst=CJ&rft.au=Baaske%2C+P&rft.au=Rothbauer%2C+U&rft.au=Braun%2C+D&rft.au=Duhr%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fncomms1093&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsiehKorfmacher2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hsieh Y, Korfmacher WA (June 2006). "Increasing speed and throughput when using HPLC-MS/MS systems for drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic screening". <i>Current Drug Metabolism</i>. <b>7</b> (5): 479–89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F138920006777697963">10.2174/138920006777697963</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16787157">16787157</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13612670">13612670</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Drug+Metabolism&rft.atitle=Increasing+speed+and+throughput+when+using+HPLC-MS%2FMS+systems+for+drug+metabolism+and+pharmacokinetic+screening&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=479-89&rft.date=2006-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13612670%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16787157&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F138920006777697963&rft.aulast=Hsieh&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Korfmacher%2C+WA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoveyLeeHenion1986" class="citation journal cs1">Covey TR, Lee ED, Henion JD (October 1986). "High-speed liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of drugs in biological samples". <i>Analytical Chemistry</i>. <b>58</b> (12): 2453–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fac00125a022">10.1021/ac00125a022</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3789400">3789400</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analytical+Chemistry&rft.atitle=High-speed+liquid+chromatography%2Ftandem+mass+spectrometry+for+the+determination+of+drugs+in+biological+samples&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2453-60&rft.date=1986-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fac00125a022&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3789400&rft.aulast=Covey&rft.aufirst=TR&rft.au=Lee%2C+ED&rft.au=Henion%2C+JD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoveyCrowtherDeweyHenion1985" class="citation journal cs1">Covey TR, Crowther JB, Dewey EA, Henion JD (February 1985). "Thermospray liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry determination of drugs and their metabolites in biological fluids". <i>Analytical Chemistry</i>. <b>57</b> (2): 474–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fac50001a036">10.1021/ac50001a036</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3977076">3977076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analytical+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Thermospray+liquid+chromatography%2Fmass+spectrometry+determination+of+drugs+and+their+metabolites+in+biological+fluids&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=474-81&rft.date=1985-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fac50001a036&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3977076&rft.aulast=Covey&rft.aufirst=TR&rft.au=Crowther%2C+JB&rft.au=Dewey%2C+EA&rft.au=Henion%2C+JD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EMEA-MD-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EMEA-MD_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommittee_for_Medicinal_Products_for_Human_Use_(CHMP)2009" class="citation web cs1">Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) (December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180615083052/http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Scientific_guideline/2009/09/WC500002720.pdf">"ICH guideline M3(R2) on non-clinical safety studies for the conduct of human clinical trials and marketing authorisation for pharmaceuticals"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency" title="European Medicines Agency">European Medicines Agency</a>, Evaluation of Medicines for Human Use. EMA/CPMP/ICH/286/1995. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Scientific_guideline/2009/09/WC500002720.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 15 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ICH+guideline+M3%28R2%29+on+non-clinical+safety+studies+for+the+conduct+of+human+clinical+trials+and+marketing+authorisation+for+pharmaceuticals&rft.pub=European+Medicines+Agency%2C+Evaluation+of+Medicines+for+Human+Use&rft.date=2009-12&rft.au=Committee+for+Medicinal+Products+for+Human+Use+%28CHMP%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ema.europa.eu%2Fdocs%2Fen_GB%2Fdocument_library%2FScientific_guideline%2F2009%2F09%2FWC500002720.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiMartinez-Lozano_SinuesDallmannBregy2015" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Xue; Martinez-Lozano Sinues, Pablo; Dallmann, Robert; Bregy, Lukas; Hollmén, Maija; Proulx, Steven; Brown, Steven A.; Detmar, Michael; Kohler, Malcolm; Zenobi, Renato (2015-06-26). "Drug Pharmacokinetics Determined by Real-Time Analysis of Mouse Breath". <i>Angewandte Chemie International Edition</i>. <b>54</b> (27): 7815–7818. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.201503312">10.1002/anie.201503312</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850%2F102558">20.500.11850/102558</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26015026">26015026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Angewandte+Chemie+International+Edition&rft.atitle=Drug+Pharmacokinetics+Determined+by+Real-Time+Analysis+of+Mouse+Breath&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=7815-7818&rft.date=2015-06-26&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11850%2F102558&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26015026&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fanie.201503312&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Xue&rft.au=Martinez-Lozano+Sinues%2C+Pablo&rft.au=Dallmann%2C+Robert&rft.au=Bregy%2C+Lukas&rft.au=Hollm%C3%A9n%2C+Maija&rft.au=Proulx%2C+Steven&rft.au=Brown%2C+Steven+A.&rft.au=Detmar%2C+Michael&rft.au=Kohler%2C+Malcolm&rft.au=Zenobi%2C+Renato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid925881-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid925881_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheinerRosenbergMarathe1977" class="citation journal cs1">Sheiner LB, Rosenberg B, Marathe VV (October 1977). "Estimation of population characteristics of pharmacokinetic parameters from routine clinical data". <i>Journal of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics</i>. <b>5</b> (5): 445–79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01061728">10.1007/BF01061728</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/925881">925881</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28622472">28622472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pharmacokinetics+and+Biopharmaceutics&rft.atitle=Estimation+of+population+characteristics+of+pharmacokinetic+parameters+from+routine+clinical+data&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=445-79&rft.date=1977-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28622472%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F925881&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01061728&rft.aulast=Sheiner&rft.aufirst=LB&rft.au=Rosenberg%2C+B&rft.au=Marathe%2C+VV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid466923-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid466923_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheinerBealRosenbergMarathe1979" class="citation journal cs1">Sheiner LB, Beal S, Rosenberg B, Marathe VV (September 1979). "Forecasting individual pharmacokinetics". <i>Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics</i>. <b>26</b> (3): 294–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcpt1979263294">10.1002/cpt1979263294</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/466923">466923</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41194071">41194071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Pharmacology+and+Therapeutics&rft.atitle=Forecasting+individual+pharmacokinetics&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=294-305&rft.date=1979-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A41194071%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F466923&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcpt1979263294&rft.aulast=Sheiner&rft.aufirst=LB&rft.au=Beal%2C+S&rft.au=Rosenberg%2C+B&rft.au=Marathe%2C+VV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid16353916-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid16353916_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonate2005" class="citation journal cs1">Bonate PL (October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2750974">"Recommended reading in population pharmacokinetic pharmacodynamics"</a>. <i>The AAPS Journal</i>. <b>7</b> (2): E363–73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1208%2Faapsj070237">10.1208/aapsj070237</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2750974">2750974</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16353916">16353916</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+AAPS+Journal&rft.atitle=Recommended+reading+in+population+pharmacokinetic+pharmacodynamics&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=E363-73&rft.date=2005-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2750974%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16353916&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1208%2Faapsj070237&rft.aulast=Bonate&rft.aufirst=PL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2750974&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ValleGarcía_del_MoralAndujar1995" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">O'Valle, F.; García del Moral, R.; Andujar, M. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revistanefrologia.com/es-publicacion-nefrologia-articulo-mecanismos-nefrotoxicidad-por-ciclosporina-a-nivel-celular-X0211699595022690">"Mecanismos de nefrotoxicidad por ciclosporina A a nivel celular"</a>. <i>Nefrologia</i> (in Spanish). 15 Supplement 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234303/http://www.revistanefrologia.com/es-publicacion-nefrologia-articulo-mecanismos-nefrotoxicidad-por-ciclosporina-a-nivel-celular-X0211699595022690">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nefrologia&rft.atitle=Mecanismos+de+nefrotoxicidad+por+ciclosporina+A+a+nivel+celular&rft.volume=15+Supplement+1&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=O%27Valle&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa+del+Moral%2C+R.&rft.au=Andujar%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revistanefrologia.com%2Fes-publicacion-nefrologia-articulo-mecanismos-nefrotoxicidad-por-ciclosporina-a-nivel-celular-X0211699595022690&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joaquín Herrera Carranza <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Vw7a4wBzRgC">Manual de farmacia clínica y Atención Farmacéutica</a> (in Spanish). Published by Elsevier España, 2003; page 159. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-8174-658-4" title="Special:BookSources/84-8174-658-4">84-8174-658-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid21366215-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid21366215_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJagerAlbertPreussAshauer2011" class="citation journal cs1">Jager T, Albert C, Preuss TG, Ashauer R (April 2011). "General unified threshold model of survival--a toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic framework for ecotoxicology". <i>Environmental Science & Technology</i>. <b>45</b> (7): 2529–40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EnST...45.2529J">2011EnST...45.2529J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes103092a">10.1021/es103092a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21366215">21366215</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=General+unified+threshold+model+of+survival--a+toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic+framework+for+ecotoxicology&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2529-40&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21366215&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fes103092a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011EnST...45.2529J&rft.aulast=Jager&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Albert%2C+C&rft.au=Preuss%2C+TG&rft.au=Ashauer%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlToxicokinetic-Toxicodynamic_Models_–_Ecotoxicology_and_Models-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlToxicokinetic-Toxicodynamic_Models_–_Ecotoxicology_and_Models_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshauer_R" class="citation web cs1">Ashauer R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120405200941/http://www.ecotoxmodels.org/research-publications-projects/toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic-models/">"Toxicokinetic-Toxicodynamic Models – Ecotoxicology and Models"</a>. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecotoxmodels.org/research-publications-projects/toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic-models/">the original</a> on 2012-04-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-12-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Toxicokinetic-Toxicodynamic+Models+%E2%80%93+Ecotoxicology+and+Models&rft.pub=Swiss+Federal+Institute+of+Aquatic+Science+and+Technology&rft.au=Ashauer+R&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecotoxmodels.org%2Fresearch-publications-projects%2Ftoxicokinetic-toxicodynamic-models%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_EPA2016" class="citation web cs1">US EPA, OMS (2016-11-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/environmental-topics/chemicals-and-toxics-topics">"Chemicals and Toxics Topics"</a>. <i>www.epa.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230922171251/https://www.epa.gov/environmental-topics/chemicals-and-toxics-topics">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-09-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.epa.gov&rft.atitle=Chemicals+and+Toxics+Topics&rft.date=2016-11-17&rft.aulast=US+EPA&rft.aufirst=OMS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fenvironmental-topics%2Fchemicals-and-toxics-topics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/chemical-safety">"Chemical safety"</a>. <i>www.who.int</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240121064001/https://www.who.int/health-topics/chemical-safety">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-01-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.who.int&rft.atitle=Chemical+safety&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fhealth-topics%2Fchemical-safety&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-External_links plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-external_links" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <b>use of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a> may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit">improve this article</a> by removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_mirror_or_a_repository_of_links,_images,_or_media_files" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">excessive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">inappropriate</a> external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">footnote references</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software">Software</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Noncompartmental</dt></dl> <ul><li>Freeware: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pkpd.kmu.edu.tw/bear/">bear</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cran.at.r-project.org/web/packages/PK/index.html">PK</a> for <a href="/wiki/R_(programming_language)" title="R (programming language)">R</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/PharmCat/MetidaNCA.jl">MetidaNCA</a> for <a href="/wiki/Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a></li> <li>Commercial: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pumas.ai/pumasCP">PumasCP</a>, <a href="/wiki/MLAB" title="MLAB">MLAB</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statistical-solutions-software.com/products-page/equivtest-for-equivalence-testing/">EquivTest</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thermoscientific.com/ecomm/servlet/productsdetail?productId=11962424">Kinetica</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathworks.com/products/simbiology/">MATLAB/SimBiology</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aplanalyst.com/">PKMP</a>,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.certara.com/software/phoenix-winnonlin/">Phoenix/WinNonlin</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719235952/http://www.summitpk.com/pksolutions/pksolutions.htm">PK Solutions</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150407143248/http://www.mango-solutions.com/wp/products-services/products/rapidnca/">RapidNCA</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Compartment based</dt></dl> <ul><li>Freeware: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bmsr.usc.edu/software/adapt/">ADAPT</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boomer.org/">Boomer</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pkpd.kmu.edu.tw/jguib/">GUI</a>), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sbpkpd.org/">SBPKPD.org (Systems Biology Driven Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110313141127/http://www.winsaam.com/">WinSAAM</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cran.csie.ntu.edu.tw/web/packages/PKfit/index.html">PKfit</a> for R, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biopharmacy.ethz.ch/">PharmaCalc and PharmaCalcCL</a>, Java applications.</li> <li>Commercial: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pumas.ai/pumas">Pumas</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://precisepk.com">PrecisePK</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imalytics.philips.com/products/pharmacokinetic-modeling/pharmacokinetic-modeling.page">Imalytics</a>, Kinetica, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathworks.com/products/simbiology/">MATLAB/SimBiology</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.certara.com/software/phoenix-winnonlin/">Phoenix/WinNonlin</a>, PK Solutions, <a href="/wiki/PottersWheel" title="PottersWheel">PottersWheel</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.integrativebioinformatics.com/processdb.html">ProcessDB</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/saam2/">SAAM II</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Physiologically based</dt></dl> <ul><li>Freeware: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/software/mcsim/">MCSim</a></li> <li>Commercial: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pumas.ai/">Pumas</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160109094324/http://acslx.com/">acslX</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cloegateway.com/">Cloe PK</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.simulations-plus.com/Products.aspx?grpID=3&cID=16&pID=11">GastroPlus</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathworks.com/products/simbiology/">MATLAB/SimBiology</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.systems-biology.com/products/pk-sim.html">PK-Sim</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.integrativebioinformatics.com/processdb.html">ProcessDB</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.simcyp.com/">Simcyp</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080704113719/http://entelos.com/">Entelos PhysioLab</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.certara.com/software/phoenix-winnonlin/">Phoenix/WinNonlin</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140221231528/http://www.admewb.com/">ADME Workbench</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Population PK</dt></dl> <ul><li>Freeware: <a href="/wiki/WinBUGS" title="WinBUGS">WinBUGS</a>, ADAPT, S-ADAPT / SADAPT-TRAN, Boomer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060716224622/http://www.winbugs-development.org.uk/pkbugs/home.html">PKBugs</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lapk.org/pmetrics.php">Pmetrics</a> for R.</li> <li>Commercial: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pumas.ai/pumas">Pumas</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://precisepk.com">PrecisePK</a>, Kinetica, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathworks.com/products/simbiology/">MATLAB/SimBiology</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lixoft.com/products/monolix/">Monolix</a>, <a href="/wiki/NONMEM" title="NONMEM">NONMEM</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.certara.com/software/phoenix-nlme/">Phoenix/NLME</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/saam2/popKinetics/index.html">PopKinetics</a> for SAAM II, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lapk.org/software.php">USC*PACK</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doseme-rx.com">DoseMe-Rx</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150408064739/http://www.mango-solutions.com/wp/products-services/products/navigator/">Navigator Workbench</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM)</dt></dl> <ul><li>Commercial: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34185914/">Lyv</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://precisepk.com">PrecisePK</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Simulation</dt></dl> <p>All model based software above. </p> <ul><li>Freeware: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pumas.ai/">Pumas</a>, <a href="/wiki/COPASI" title="COPASI">COPASI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Madonna" title="Berkeley Madonna">Berkeley Madonna</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xnet.hsl.gov.uk/megen/">MEGen</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Educational_centres">Educational centres</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Educational centres"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Global centres with the highest profiles for providing in-depth training include the Universities of <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Buffalo University">Buffalo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida University">Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Gothenburg" title="University of Gothenburg">Gothenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otago_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Otago University">Otago</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Francisco" title="University of California, San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Beijing</a>, Tokyo, <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_University" title="Uppsala University">Uppsala</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">Washington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester University">Manchester</a>, Monash University, and University of <a href="/wiki/Sheffield_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheffield University">Sheffield</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22360418_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22360418-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pharmacology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pharmacology" title="Template:Pharmacology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pharmacology" title="Template talk:Pharmacology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pharmacology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pharmacology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pharmacology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ligand_(biochemistry)" title="Ligand (biochemistry)">Ligand (biochemistry)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Excitatory" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Excitatory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">Agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_agonist" title="Endogenous agonist">Endogenous agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_agonist" title="Irreversible agonist">Irreversible agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_agonist" title="Partial agonist">Partial agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superagonist" title="Superagonist">Superagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism" title="Physiological agonism and antagonism">Physiological agonist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Inhibitory" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Inhibitory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">Antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Competitive antagonist">Competitive antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_antagonist" title="Irreversible antagonist">Irreversible antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism" title="Physiological agonism and antagonism">Physiological antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_agonist" title="Inverse agonist">Inverse agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">Enzyme inhibitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">Drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">Neurotransmitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agonist-antagonist" title="Agonist-antagonist">Agonist-antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacophore" title="Pharmacophore">Pharmacophore</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacodynamics" title="Pharmacodynamics">Pharmacodynamics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Activity_at_receptor" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Activity at receptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_of_action" title="Mechanism of action">Mechanism of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_of_action" title="Mode of action">Mode of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_binding" title="Molecular binding">Binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">Receptor (biochemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desensitization_(medicine)" title="Desensitization (medicine)">Desensitization (medicine)</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Other_effects_of_ligand" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other effects of ligand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Selectivity (<a href="/wiki/Binding_selectivity" title="Binding selectivity">Binding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functional_selectivity" title="Functional selectivity">Functional</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleiotropy_(drugs)" title="Pleiotropy (drugs)">Pleiotropy (drugs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-specific_effect_of_vaccines" title="Non-specific effect of vaccines">Non-specific effect of vaccines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_effect" title="Adverse effect">Adverse effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">Toxicity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">Neurotoxicity</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Analysis" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Analysis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dose%E2%80%93response_relationship" title="Dose–response relationship">Dose–response relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_equation_(biochemistry)" title="Hill equation (biochemistry)">Hill equation (biochemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schild_plot" class="mw-redirect" title="Schild plot">Schild plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Del_Castillo_Katz_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Del Castillo Katz model">Del Castillo Katz model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng-Prussoff_Equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheng-Prussoff Equation">Cheng-Prussoff Equation</a></li> <li>Methods (<a href="/wiki/Organ_bath" title="Organ bath">Organ bath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ligand_binding_assay" title="Ligand binding assay">Ligand binding assay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patch_clamp" title="Patch clamp">Patch clamp</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Metrics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Metrics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Efficacy#Pharmacology" title="Efficacy">Efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_activity" title="Intrinsic activity">Intrinsic activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potency_(pharmacology)" title="Potency (pharmacology)">Potency</a> (<a href="/wiki/EC50" title="EC50">EC50</a>, <a href="/wiki/IC50" title="IC50">IC50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(pharmacology)" title="Effective dose (pharmacology)">ED50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose">LD50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Median_toxic_dose" title="Median toxic dose">TD50</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_index" title="Therapeutic index">Therapeutic index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociation_constant#Protein-ligand_binding" title="Dissociation constant">Affinity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pharmacokinetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Metrics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Metrics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loading_dose" title="Loading dose">Loading dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_of_distribution" title="Volume of distribution">Volume of distribution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Initial_volume_of_distribution" title="Initial volume of distribution">Initial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rate_of_infusion" title="Rate of infusion">Rate of infusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onset_of_action" title="Onset of action">Onset of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life" title="Biological half-life">Biological half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_protein_binding" title="Plasma protein binding">Plasma protein binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">Bioavailability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="LADME" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">LADME</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADME" title="ADME">(L)ADME</a>: (<a href="/wiki/Liberation_(pharmacology)" title="Liberation (pharmacology)">Liberation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absorption_(pharmacology)" title="Absorption (pharmacology)">Absorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_(pharmacology)" title="Distribution (pharmacology)">Distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_metabolism" title="Drug metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">Excretion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Clearance_(pharmacology)" title="Clearance (pharmacology)">Clearance</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compartment_(pharmacokinetics)" title="Compartment (pharmacokinetics)">Compartment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioequivalence" title="Bioequivalence">Bioequivalence</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related<br /> fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Neuroscience_and_psychology" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychopharmacology" title="Neuropsychopharmacology">Neuropsychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopharmacology" title="Psychopharmacology">Psychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Medicine" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pharmacology" title="Clinical pharmacology">Clinical pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacoepidemiology" title="Pharmacoepidemiology">Pharmacoepidemiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Biochemistry_and_genetics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacoinformatics" title="Pharmacoinformatics">Pharmacoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacogenetics">Pharmacogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Toxicology" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacotoxicology" title="Pharmacotoxicology">Pharmacotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotoxicology">Neurotoxicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Drug_discovery" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">Drug discovery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_pharmacology" title="Classical pharmacology">Classical pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_pharmacology" title="Reverse pharmacology">Reverse pharmacology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photopharmacology" title="Photopharmacology">Photopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunopharmacology" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunopharmacology">Immunopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinduction_(anesthetics)" title="Coinduction (anesthetics)">Coinduction (anesthetics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_therapy" title="Combination therapy">Combination therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_analog_(chemistry)" title="Functional analog (chemistry)">Functional analog (chemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypharmacology" title="Polypharmacology">Polypharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">Chemotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_drugs" title="Lists of drugs">Lists of drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WHO_list_of_essential_medicines" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO list of essential medicines">WHO list of essential medicines</a></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Tolerance_and_resistance" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Tolerance and resistance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">Drug tolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachyphylaxis" title="Tachyphylaxis">Tachyphylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">Antibiotic resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_drug_resistance" title="Multiple drug resistance">Multiple drug resistance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Antimicrobial_pharmacology" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Antimicrobial pharmacology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_pharmacodynamics" title="Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics">Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_inhibitory_concentration" title="Minimum inhibitory concentration">Minimum inhibitory concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriostatic_agent" title="Bacteriostatic agent">Bacteriostatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_bactericidal_concentration" title="Minimum bactericidal concentration">Minimum bactericidal concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">Bactericide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pharmacy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pharmacy" title="Template:Pharmacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pharmacy" title="Template talk:Pharmacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pharmacy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pharmacy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pharmacy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compounding" title="Compounding">Compounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy" title="History of pharmacy">History of pharmacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug" title="Prescription drug">Prescription drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_activity" title="Biological activity">Pharmacological activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_prescribing_and_dispensing" title="Separation of prescribing and dispensing">Separation of prescribing and dispensing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pharmaceutical sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pharmacokinetics</a> & <a href="/wiki/Pharmacodynamics" title="Pharmacodynamics">Pharmacodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacometrics" title="Pharmacometrics">Pharmacometrics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical chemistry">Pharmaceutical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutics" title="Pharmaceutics">Pharmaceutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacognosy" title="Pharmacognosy">Pharmacognosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacoepidemiology" title="Pharmacoepidemiology">Pharmacoepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacocybernetics" title="Pharmacocybernetics">Pharmacocybernetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">Pharmacist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharmacists" title="List of pharmacists">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaconomist" title="Pharmaconomist">Pharmaconomist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_residency" title="Pharmacy residency">Pharmacy residency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_technician" title="Pharmacy technician">Pharmacy technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_school" title="Pharmacy school">Pharmacy school</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Practice areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pharmacy" title="Clinical pharmacy">Clinical pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_pharmacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Community pharmacy">Community pharmacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_(shop)" title="Pharmacy (shop)">shop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultant_pharmacist" title="Consultant pharmacist">Consultant pharmacist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_pharmacy" title="Hospital pharmacy">Hospital pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pharmacy" title="Nuclear pharmacy">Nuclear pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacist_prescriber" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacist prescriber">Pharmacist prescriber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacy informatics">Pharmacy informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialty_pharmacy" title="Specialty pharmacy">Specialty pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_pharmacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterinary pharmacy">Veterinary pharmacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">Pharmaceutical industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_development" title="Drug development">Drug development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">Drug discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigational_New_Drug" title="Investigational New Drug">Investigational New Drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_benefit_management" title="Pharmacy benefit management">Pharmacy benefit management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharmaceutical_companies" title="List of pharmaceutical companies">List of pharmaceutical companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medication_costs" title="Medication costs">Medication costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_in_China" title="Pharmacy in China">Pharmacy in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacies_of_Norway" title="Pharmacies of Norway">Pharmacies of Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacies_in_the_United_States" title="Pharmacies in the United States">Pharmacies in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy_in_the_United_States" title="History of pharmacy in the United States">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pharmacy" title="Category:Pharmacy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q323936#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4115557-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85100597">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01033752">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="farmakokinetika"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph137724&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007541288005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-pmid22360418-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid22360418_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2012" class="citation journal cs1">Tucker GT (June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3391520">"Research priorities in pharmacokinetics"</a>. <i>British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology</i>. <b>73</b> (6): 924–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2125.2012.04238.x">10.1111/j.1365-2125.2012.04238.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3391520">3391520</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22360418">22360418</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Clinical+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Research+priorities+in+pharmacokinetics&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=924-6&rft.date=2012-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3391520%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22360418&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2125.2012.04238.x&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=GT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3391520&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharmacokinetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&oldid=1259122086">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&oldid=1259122086</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pharmacokinetics" title="Category:Pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pharmacy" title="Category:Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Life_sciences_industry" title="Category:Life sciences industry">Life sciences industry</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Spanish-language_sources_(es)" title="Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)">CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_expanded_from_April_2019" title="Category:Articles to be expanded from April 2019">Articles to be expanded from April 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_expanded" title="Category:All articles to be expanded">All articles to be expanded</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_external_links_cleanup_from_May_2016" title="Category:Wikipedia external links cleanup from May 2016">Wikipedia external links cleanup from May 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_that_use_a_deprecated_format_of_the_math_tags" title="Category:Pages that use a deprecated format of the math tags">Pages that use a deprecated format of the math tags</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 November 2024, at 13:55<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharmacokinetics&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-jgsst","wgBackendResponseTime":149,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.771","walltime":"1.114","ppvisitednodes":{"value":3884,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":137605,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2747,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":8,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":138905,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 826.968 1 -total"," 35.53% 293.787 1 Template:Reflist"," 21.26% 175.805 15 Template:Cite_journal"," 16.10% 133.141 17 Template:Navbox"," 15.53% 128.467 1 Template:Pharmacology"," 14.93% 123.440 1 Template:Short_description"," 11.22% 92.792 2 Template:Pagetype"," 4.92% 40.699 1 Template:Citation_needed"," 4.60% 38.044 1 Template:Authority_control"," 4.41% 36.510 2 Template:Ambox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.413","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7108406,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.canary-77b4fd9bbf-n5725","timestamp":"20241123135545","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Pharmacokinetics","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pharmacokinetics","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q323936","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q323936","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-03-14T14:02:47Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T13:55:44Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/ee\/Linear_PK_Example.png","headline":"branch of pharmacology dedicated to determining the fate of substances administered to a living organism"}</script> </body> </html>