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href="#Bessemer's_patent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Bessemer's patent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bessemer's_patent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_revolution_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_revolution_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Industrial revolution in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_revolution_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technical_details" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical_details"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Technical details</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technical_details-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technical details subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technical_details-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oxidation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxidation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Oxidation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxidation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Managing_the_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Managing_the_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Managing the process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Managing_the_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predecessor_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predecessor_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Predecessor processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predecessor_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Basic"_vs._acidic_Bessemer_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Basic"_vs._acidic_Bessemer_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>"Basic" vs. acidic Bessemer process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Basic"_vs._acidic_Bessemer_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Importance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Importance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obsolescence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obsolescence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Obsolescence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obsolescence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bessemer process</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%B1" title="عملية بسمر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عملية بسمر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Бесемеров процес – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бесемеров процес" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proc%C3%A9s_Bessemer" title="Procés Bessemer – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Procés Bessemer" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer%C5%AFv_konvertor" title="Bessemerův konvertor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Bessemerův konvertor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemerprocessen" title="Bessemerprocessen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bessemerprocessen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer-Verfahren" title="Bessemer-Verfahren – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bessemer-Verfahren" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convertidor_Bessemer" title="Convertidor Bessemer – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Convertidor Bessemer" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer_prozedura" title="Bessemer prozedura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bessemer prozedura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%B1" title="فرایند بسمر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرایند بسمر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proc%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Bessemer" title="Procédé Bessemer – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Procédé Bessemer" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%B3iseas_Bessemer" title="Próiseas Bessemer – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Próiseas Bessemer" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceso_de_Bessemer" title="Proceso de Bessemer – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Proceso de Bessemer" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EC%84%9C%EB%A8%B8_%EB%B2%95" title="베서머 법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베서머 법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%A5%D5%BD" title="Բեսեմերյան պրոցես – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բեսեմերյան պրոցես" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="बेसेमर प्रक्रिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बेसेमर प्रक्रिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemerov_postupak" title="Bessemerov postupak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bessemerov postupak" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proses_Bessemer" title="Proses Bessemer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Proses Bessemer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convertitore_Bessemer" title="Convertitore Bessemer – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Convertitore Bessemer" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9A_%D7%91%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%A8" title="תהליך בסמר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תהליך בסמר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%95" title="ಬೆಸಿಮರ್ ಪರಿವರ್ತಕ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೆಸಿಮರ್ ಪರಿವರ್ತಕ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ბესემერის პროცესი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბესემერის პროცესი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%96" title="Бессемер процесі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бессемер процесі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer-Bier" title="Bessemer-Bier – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Bessemer-Bier" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer-ac%C3%A9lgy%C3%A1rt%C3%A1s" title="Bessemer-acélgyártás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bessemer-acélgyártás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemerproced%C3%A9" title="Bessemerprocedé – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bessemerprocedé" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%83%E3%82%BB%E3%83%9E%E3%83%BC%E6%B3%95" title="ベッセマー法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベッセマー法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemerprosess" title="Bessemerprosess – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bessemerprosess" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer_jarayoni" title="Bessemer jarayoni – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bessemer jarayoni" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konwertorowanie" title="Konwertorowanie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Konwertorowanie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processo_de_Bessemer" title="Processo de Bessemer – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Processo de Bessemer" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81" title="Бессемеровский процесс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бессемеровский процесс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bessemer process" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemerov_proces" title="Bessemerov proces – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Bessemerov proces" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemerov_postupak" title="Bessemerov postupak – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bessemerov postupak" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer-prosessi" title="Bessemer-prosessi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bessemer-prosessi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemermetoden" title="Bessemermetoden – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bessemermetoden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Steel production method</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bessemer_converter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Bessemer_converter.jpg/300px-Bessemer_converter.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Bessemer_converter.jpg/450px-Bessemer_converter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Bessemer_converter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Bessemer converter, schematic diagram</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Bessemer process</b> was the first inexpensive <a href="/wiki/Industrial_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial process">industrial process</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> of <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> from molten <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> before the development of the <a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">open hearth furnace</a>. The key principle is <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">removal of impurities</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> by <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> with air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. </p><p>The modern process is named after its inventor, the Englishman <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Henry Bessemer</a>, who took out a <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> on the process in 1856.<sup id="cite_ref-wag361_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wag361-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process was said to be independently discovered in 1851 by the American inventor <a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_(inventor)" title="William Kelly (inventor)">William Kelly</a><sup id="cite_ref-wag_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wag-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the claim is controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The process using a basic <a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">refractory</a> lining is known as the "basic Bessemer process" or <a href="/wiki/Gilchrist%E2%80%93Thomas_process" title="Gilchrist–Thomas process">Gilchrist–Thomas process</a> after the English discoverers <a href="/wiki/Percy_Gilchrist" title="Percy Gilchrist">Percy Gilchrist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Gilchrist_Thomas" title="Sidney Gilchrist Thomas">Sidney Gilchrist Thomas</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bessemer_5180.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bessemer_5180.JPG/220px-Bessemer_5180.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bessemer_5180.JPG/330px-Bessemer_5180.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bessemer_5180.JPG/440px-Bessemer_5180.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Bessemer converter, <a href="/wiki/Kelham_Island_Museum" title="Kelham Island Museum">Kelham Island Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sheffield,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheffield, England">Sheffield, England</a> (2010).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A system akin to the Bessemer process has existed since the 11th century in East Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-need_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-need-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tan_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tan-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic historian Robert Hartwell writes that the Chinese of the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279 CE) innovated a "partial decarbonization" method of repeated forging of <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> under a cold blast.<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell_54_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell_54-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">Sinologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> and historian of metallurgy Theodore A. Wertime have described the method as a predecessor to the Bessemer process of making steel.<sup id="cite_ref-need_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-need-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process was first described by the prolific scholar and polymath government official <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095) in 1075, when he visited Cizhou.<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell_54_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell_54-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hartwell states that perhaps the earliest center where this was practiced was the great iron-production district along the <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>–<a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a> border during the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-hartwell_54_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartwell_54-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 15th century, the <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery process</a>, another process which shares the air-blowing principle with the Bessemer process, was developed in Europe. In 1740, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Crucible_technique" class="mw-redirect" title="Crucible technique">crucible technique</a> for steel manufacture, at his workshop in the district of <a href="/wiki/Handsworth,_South_Yorkshire" title="Handsworth, South Yorkshire">Handsworth</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sheffield" title="Sheffield">Sheffield</a>. This process had an enormous impact on the quantity and quality of steel production, but it was unrelated to the Bessemer-type process employing decarburization. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MandelsloJAC1228.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/MandelsloJAC1228.JPG/170px-MandelsloJAC1228.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/MandelsloJAC1228.JPG/255px-MandelsloJAC1228.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/MandelsloJAC1228.JPG/340px-MandelsloJAC1228.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="812" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Johan_Albrecht_de_Mandelslo" title="Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo">Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo</a> described the Japanese use of the Bessemer process.<sup id="cite_ref-wag_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wag-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Japanese may have made use of a Bessemer-type process, which was observed by European travellers in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-wag_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wag-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adventurer <a href="/wiki/Johan_Albrecht_de_Mandelslo" title="Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo">Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo</a> describes the process in a book published in English in 1669. He writes, "They have, among others, particular invention for the melting of iron, without the using of fire, casting it into a tun done about on the inside without about half a foot of earth, where they keep it with continual blowing, take it out by ladles full, to give it what form they please." According to historian Donald Wagner, Mandelslo did not personally visit Japan, so his description of the process is likely derived from accounts of other Europeans who had traveled to Japan. Wagner believes that the Japanese process may have been similar to the Bessemer process, but cautions that alternative explanations are also plausible.<sup id="cite_ref-wag_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wag-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bessemer's_patent"><span id="Bessemer.27s_patent"></span>Bessemer's patent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Bessemer's patent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Kelly_(inventor).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/William_Kelly_%28inventor%29.jpg/170px-William_Kelly_%28inventor%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/William_Kelly_%28inventor%29.jpg/255px-William_Kelly_%28inventor%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/William_Kelly_%28inventor%29.jpg/340px-William_Kelly_%28inventor%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="1161" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_(inventor)" title="William Kelly (inventor)">William Kelly</a> is credited with experimenting with a similar process before Bessemer's patent.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early to mid-1850s, the American inventor <a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_(inventor)" title="William Kelly (inventor)">William Kelly</a> experimented with a method similar to the Bessemer process. Wagner writes that Kelly may have been inspired by techniques introduced by Chinese ironworkers hired by Kelly in 1854.<sup id="cite_ref-wag_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wag-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The claim that both Kelly and Bessemer invented the same process remains controversial. When Bessemer's patent for the process was reported by <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, Kelly responded by writing a letter to the magazine. In the letter, Kelly states that he had previously experimented with the process and claimed that Bessemer knew of Kelly's discovery. He wrote that "I have reason to believe my discovery was known in England three or four years ago, as a number of English puddlers visited this place to see my new process. Several of them have since returned to England and may have spoken of my invention there."<sup id="cite_ref-wag_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wag-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is suggested Kelly's process was less developed and less successful than Bessemer's process.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:Sch%C3%A9ma_Bessemer_m%C3%A9tallurgie.svg&lang=en" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Sch%C3%A9ma_Bessemer_m%C3%A9tallurgie.svg/170px-Sch%C3%A9ma_Bessemer_m%C3%A9tallurgie.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Sch%C3%A9ma_Bessemer_m%C3%A9tallurgie.svg/255px-Sch%C3%A9ma_Bessemer_m%C3%A9tallurgie.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Sch%C3%A9ma_Bessemer_m%C3%A9tallurgie.svg/340px-Sch%C3%A9ma_Bessemer_m%C3%A9tallurgie.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="419" /></a><figcaption>Principle of Bessemer process.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sir_Henry_Bessemer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Henry Bessemer">Sir Henry Bessemer</a> described the origin of his invention in his <a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">autobiography</a> written in 1890. During the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, many English industrialists and inventors became interested in military technology. According to Bessemer, his invention was inspired by a conversation with <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> in 1854 pertaining to the steel required for better artillery. Bessemer claimed that it "was the spark which kindled one of the greatest revolutions that the present century had to record, for during my solitary ride in a cab that night from Vincennes to Paris, I made up my mind to try what I could to improve the quality of iron in the manufacture of guns."<sup id="cite_ref-wag361_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wag361-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, steel was used to make only small items like cutlery and tools, but was too expensive for cannons. Starting in January 1855, he began working on a way to produce steel in the massive quantities required for <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> and by October he filed his first patent related to the Bessemer process. He patented the method a year later in 1856.<sup id="cite_ref-wag361_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wag361-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> William Kelley was awarded priority patent in 1857.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_Bessemer_(1813-1898).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Henry_Bessemer_%281813-1898%29.jpg/170px-Henry_Bessemer_%281813-1898%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Henry_Bessemer_%281813-1898%29.jpg/255px-Henry_Bessemer_%281813-1898%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Henry_Bessemer_%281813-1898%29.jpg/340px-Henry_Bessemer_%281813-1898%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="997" data-file-height="1359" /></a><figcaption>Henry Bessemer</figcaption></figure> <p>Bessemer licensed the patent for his process to four <a href="/wiki/Ironmaster" title="Ironmaster">ironmasters</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (June 2021)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> for a total of £27,000, but the licensees failed to produce the quality of steel he had promised—it was "rotten hot and rotten cold", according to his friend, <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Clay_(industrialist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Clay (industrialist) (page does not exist)">William Clay</a><sup id="cite_ref-Ericksonp141-142_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ericksonp141-142-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—and he later bought them back for £32,500.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His plan had been to offer the licenses to one company in each of several geographic areas, at a royalty price per ton that included a lower rate on a proportion of their output in order to encourage production, but not so large a proportion that they might decide to reduce their selling prices. By this method he hoped to cause the new process to gain in standing and market share.<sup id="cite_ref-Ericksonp141-142_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ericksonp141-142-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He realised that the technical problem was due to impurities in the iron and concluded that the solution lay in knowing when to turn off the flow of air in his process so that the impurities were burned off but just the right amount of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> remained. However, despite spending tens of thousands of pounds on experiments, he could not find the answer.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain grades of steel are sensitive to the 78% <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> which was part of the air blast passing through the steel. </p><p>The solution was first discovered by English metallurgist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Forester_Mushet" title="Robert Forester Mushet">Robert Forester Mushet</a>, who had carried out thousands of experiments in the <a href="/wiki/Forest_of_Dean" title="Forest of Dean">Forest of Dean</a>. His method was to first burn off, as far as possible, <i>all</i> the impurities and carbon, then reintroduce carbon and <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> by adding an exact amount of <a href="/wiki/Spiegeleisen" title="Spiegeleisen">spiegeleisen</a>, an alloy of iron and manganese with trace amounts of carbon and <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>. This had the effect of improving the quality of the finished product, increasing its <a href="/wiki/Malleability" class="mw-redirect" title="Malleability">malleability</a>—its ability to withstand rolling and forging at high temperatures and making it more suitable for a vast array of uses.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mushet's patent ultimately lapsed due to Mushet's inability to pay the patent fees and was acquired by Bessemer. Bessemer earned over 5 million dollars<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in royalties from the patents.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first company to license the process was the Manchester firm of <a href="/wiki/W_%26_J_Galloway_%26_Sons" title="W & J Galloway & Sons">W & J Galloway</a>, and they did so before Bessemer announced it at Cheltenham in 1856. They are not included in his list of the four to whom he refunded the license fees. However, they subsequently rescinded their license in 1858 in return for the opportunity to invest in a partnership with Bessemer and others. This partnership began to manufacture steel in Sheffield from 1858, initially using imported charcoal pig iron from <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. This was the first commercial production.<sup id="cite_ref-Ericksonp141-142_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ericksonp141-142-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 20% share in the Bessemer patent was also purchased for use in Sweden and Norway by Swedish trader and Consul <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ran_Fredrik_G%C3%B6ransson" title="Göran Fredrik Göransson">Göran Fredrik Göransson</a> during a visit to London in 1857. During the first half of 1858, Göransson, together with a small group of engineers, experimented with the Bessemer process at Edsken near <a href="/wiki/Hofors" title="Hofors">Hofors</a>, Sweden before he finally succeeded. Later in 1858 he again met with Henry Bessemer in London, managed to convince him of his success with the process, and negotiated the right to sell his steel in England. Production continued in Edsken, but it was far too small for the industrial-scale production needed. In 1862 Göransson built a new factory for his Högbo Iron and Steel Works company on the shore of Lake Storsjön, where the town of <a href="/wiki/Sandviken" title="Sandviken">Sandviken</a> was founded. The company was renamed Sandviken's Ironworks, continued to grow and eventually became <a href="/wiki/Sandvik" title="Sandvik">Sandvik</a> in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_revolution_in_the_United_States">Industrial revolution in the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Industrial revolution in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lyman_Holley" title="Alexander Lyman Holley">Alexander Lyman Holley</a> contributed significantly to the success of Bessemer steel in the United States. His <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_Treatise_on_Ordnance_and_Armor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A Treatise on Ordnance and Armor (page does not exist)">A Treatise on Ordnance and Armor</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Holley_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holley-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an important work on contemporary weapons manufacturing and steel-making practices. In 1862, he visited Bessemer's Sheffield works, and became interested in licensing the process for use in the US. Upon returning to the US, Holley met with two iron producers from <a href="/wiki/Troy,_New_York" title="Troy, New York">Troy, New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_F._Winslow" title="John F. Winslow">John F. Winslow</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Augustus_Griswold" title="John Augustus Griswold">John Augustus Griswold</a>, who asked him to return to the United Kingdom and negotiate with the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a> on their behalf. Holley secured a license for Griswold and Winslow to use Bessemer's patented processes and returned to the United States in late 1863.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The trio began setting up a mill in <a href="/wiki/Troy,_New_York" title="Troy, New York">Troy, New York</a> in 1865. The factory contained a number of Holley's innovations that greatly improved productivity over Bessemer's factory in Sheffield, and the owners gave a successful public exhibition in 1867. The Troy factory attracted the attention of the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a>, which wanted to use the new process to manufacture steel rail. It funded Holley's second mill as part of its Pennsylvania Steel subsidiary. Between 1866 and 1877, the partners were able to license a total of 11 Bessemer steel mills. </p><p>One of the investors they attracted was <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a>, who saw great promise in the new steel technology after a visit to Bessemer in 1872, and saw it as a useful adjunct to his existing businesses, the <a href="/wiki/Keystone_Bridge_Company" title="Keystone Bridge Company">Keystone Bridge Company</a> and the Union Iron Works. Holley built the new steel mill for Carnegie, and continued to improve and refine the process. The new mill, known as the <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Thomson_Steel_Works" title="Edgar Thomson Steel Works">Edgar Thomson Steel Works</a>, opened in 1875, and started the growth of the United States as a major world steel producer.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using the Bessemer process, <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnegie Steel">Carnegie Steel</a> was able to reduce the costs of steel <a href="/wiki/Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad">railroad</a> rails from $100 per ton to $50 per ton between 1873 and 1875. The price of steel continued to fall until Carnegie was selling rails for $18 per ton by the 1890s. Prior to the opening of Carnegie's Thomson Works, steel output in the United States totaled around 157,000 tons per year. By 1910, American companies were producing 26 million tons of steel annually.<sup id="cite_ref-Harcourt_Brace_Jovanovich_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harcourt_Brace_Jovanovich-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Walker_Scranton" title="William Walker Scranton">William Walker Scranton</a>, manager and owner of the <a href="/wiki/Lackawanna_Steel_Company" title="Lackawanna Steel Company">Lackawanna Iron & Coal Company</a> in <a href="/wiki/Scranton,_Pennsylvania" title="Scranton, Pennsylvania">Scranton, Pennsylvania</a>, had also investigated the process in Europe. He built a mill in 1876 using the Bessemer process for steel rails and quadrupled his production.<sup id="cite_ref-kashuba.ww_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kashuba.ww-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bessemer steel was used in the United States primarily for railroad rails. During the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, a major dispute arose over whether <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a> should be used instead of the cheaper Bessemer steel. In 1877, <a href="/wiki/Abram_Hewitt" title="Abram Hewitt">Abram Hewitt</a> wrote a letter urging against the use of Bessemer steel in the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge" title="Brooklyn Bridge">Brooklyn Bridge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bids had been submitted for both <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a> and Bessemer steel; <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_A._Roebling%27s_Sons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John A. Roebling's Sons (page does not exist)">John A. Roebling's Sons</a> submitted the lowest bid for Bessemer steel,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but at Hewitt's direction, the contract was awarded to <a href="/w/index.php?title=J._Lloyd_Haigh_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. Lloyd Haigh Co. (page does not exist)">J. Lloyd Haigh Co.</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technical_details">Technical details</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Technical details"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bessemer_Converter_(PSF).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bessemer_Converter_%28PSF%29.jpg/250px-Bessemer_Converter_%28PSF%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bessemer_Converter_%28PSF%29.jpg/375px-Bessemer_Converter_%28PSF%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bessemer_Converter_%28PSF%29.jpg/500px-Bessemer_Converter_%28PSF%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="828" data-file-height="722" /></a><figcaption>Bessemer converter components.</figcaption></figure> <p>Using the Bessemer process, it took between 10 and 20 minutes to convert three to five tons of iron into steel – it would previously take at least a full day of heating, stirring and reheating to achieve this.<sup id="cite_ref-Harcourt_Brace_Jovanovich_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harcourt_Brace_Jovanovich-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxidation">Oxidation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Oxidation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The blowing of air through the molten pig iron introduces oxygen into the melt which results in <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation process">oxidation</a>, removing impurities found in the pig iron, such as <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a>. These oxides either escape as gas or form a solid <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a>. The refractory lining of the converter also plays a role in the conversion — <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> linings may be used when there is little <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> in the raw material, and Bessemer himself used <a href="/wiki/Ganister" title="Ganister">ganister</a> sandstone – this is known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a> Bessemer</i> process. When the phosphorus content is high, <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">dolomite</a>, or sometimes <a href="/wiki/Magnesite" title="Magnesite">magnesite</a>, linings are required in the <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">basic</a> Bessemer <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> process, see <a href="#"Basic"_vs._acidic_Bessemer_process">below</a>. In order to produce steel with desired properties, additives such as <a href="/wiki/Spiegeleisen" title="Spiegeleisen">spiegeleisen</a> (a ferromanganese alloy), can be added to the molten steel once the impurities have been removed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Managing_the_process">Managing the process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Managing the process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the required steel had been formed, it was poured into ladles and then transferred into moulds while the lighter slag was left behind. The conversion process, called the "blow", was completed in approximately 20 minutes. During this period, the progress of the oxidation of the impurities was judged by the appearance of the flame issuing from the mouth of the converter. The modern use of photoelectric methods of recording the characteristics of the flame greatly aided the blower in controlling final product quality. After the blow, the liquid metal was recarburized to the desired point and other alloying materials were added, depending on the desired product. </p><p>A Bessemer converter could treat a "heat" (batch of hot metal) of 5 to 30 tons at a time.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were usually operated in pairs, one being blown while another was being filled or tapped. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predecessor_processes">Predecessor processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Predecessor processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:H%C3%B6gbo_bruk_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/H%C3%B6gbo_bruk_07.jpg/220px-H%C3%B6gbo_bruk_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/H%C3%B6gbo_bruk_07.jpg/330px-H%C3%B6gbo_bruk_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/H%C3%B6gbo_bruk_07.jpg/440px-H%C3%B6gbo_bruk_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Bessemer converter at <i>Högbo Bruk</i>, <a href="/wiki/Sandviken" title="Sandviken">Sandviken</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>By the early 19th century the puddling process was widespread. Until technological advances made it possible to work at higher heats, <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> impurities could not be removed entirely, but the <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnace</a> made it possible to heat iron without placing it directly in the fire, offering some degree of protection from the impurity of the fuel source. Thus, with the advent of this technology, <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> began to replace <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> fuel. The Bessemer process allowed steel to be produced without fuel, using the impurities of the iron to create the necessary heat. This drastically reduced the costs of steel production, but <a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">raw materials</a> with the required characteristics could be difficult to find.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>High-quality steel was made by the reverse process of adding carbon to carbon-free <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>, usually imported from <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. The manufacturing process, called the <a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">cementation process</a>, consisted of heating bars of wrought iron together with <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> for periods of up to a week in a long stone box. This produced <a href="/wiki/Blister_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Blister steel">blister steel</a>. The blister steel was put in a crucible with wrought iron and melted, producing <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a>. Up to 3 tons of expensive <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> was burnt for each ton of steel produced. Such steel when rolled into bars was sold at £50 to £60 (approximately £3,390 to £4,070 in 2008)<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/Long_ton" title="Long ton">long ton</a>. The most difficult and work-intensive part of the process, however, was the production of wrought iron done in <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery forges</a> in Sweden. </p><p>This process was refined in the 18th century with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a>-making techniques, which added an additional three hours firing time and required additional large quantities of coke. In making crucible steel, the blister steel bars were broken into pieces and melted in small crucibles, each containing 20 kg or so. This produced higher quality crucible steel but increased the cost. The Bessemer process reduced the time needed to make lower-grade steel to about half an hour while requiring only the coke needed initially to melt the pig iron. The earliest Bessemer converters produced steel for £7 a <a href="/wiki/Long_ton" title="Long ton">long ton</a>, although it initially sold for around £40 a ton. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Basic"_vs._acidic_Bessemer_process"><span id=".22Basic.22_vs._acidic_Bessemer_process"></span>"Basic" vs. acidic Bessemer process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: "Basic" vs. acidic Bessemer process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gilchrist%E2%80%93Thomas_process" title="Gilchrist–Thomas process">Gilchrist–Thomas process</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Gilchrist_Thomas" title="Sidney Gilchrist Thomas">Sidney Gilchrist Thomas</a>, a Londoner with a Welsh father, was an industrial chemist who decided to tackle the problem of phosphorus in iron, which resulted in the production of low grade steel. Believing that he had discovered a solution, he contacted his cousin, <a href="/wiki/Percy_Gilchrist" title="Percy Gilchrist">Percy Gilchrist</a>, who was a chemist at the <a href="/wiki/Blaenavon_Ironworks" title="Blaenavon Ironworks">Blaenavon Ironworks</a>. The manager at the time, Edward Martin, offered Sidney equipment for large-scale testing and helped him draw up a patent that was taken out in May 1878. Sidney Gilchrist Thomas's invention consisted of using dolomite or sometimes limestone linings for the Bessemer converter rather than clay, and it became known as the 'basic' Bessemer rather than the 'acid' Bessemer process. An additional advantage was that the processes formed more slag in the converter, and this could be recovered and used very profitably as a phosphate fertilizer.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Importance">Importance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Importance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg&lang=en" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg/350px-Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg/525px-Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg/700px-Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1225" data-file-height="788" /></a><figcaption>Evolution of the production of wrought (puddled) iron, pig iron and steel in Great-Britain and France. The transition between each metal can be noticed on these graphics, for both countries.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_scene_in_a_steel_mill,_Republic_Steel,_Youngstown,_Ohio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/A_scene_in_a_steel_mill%2C_Republic_Steel%2C_Youngstown%2C_Ohio.jpg/170px-A_scene_in_a_steel_mill%2C_Republic_Steel%2C_Youngstown%2C_Ohio.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/A_scene_in_a_steel_mill%2C_Republic_Steel%2C_Youngstown%2C_Ohio.jpg/255px-A_scene_in_a_steel_mill%2C_Republic_Steel%2C_Youngstown%2C_Ohio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/A_scene_in_a_steel_mill%2C_Republic_Steel%2C_Youngstown%2C_Ohio.jpg/340px-A_scene_in_a_steel_mill%2C_Republic_Steel%2C_Youngstown%2C_Ohio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6379" data-file-height="8154" /></a><figcaption>Bessemer furnace in operation in <a href="/wiki/Youngstown,_Ohio" title="Youngstown, Ohio">Youngstown, Ohio</a>, 1941.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1898, <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i> published an article called <i>Bessemer Steel and its Effect on the World</i> explaining the significant economic effects of the increased <a href="/wiki/Supply_(economics)" title="Supply (economics)">supply</a> in cheap steel. They noted that the expansion of railroads into previously sparsely inhabited regions of the country had led to settlement in those regions, and had made the trade of certain goods profitable, which had previously been too costly to transport.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Bessemer process revolutionized steel manufacture by decreasing its cost, from £40 per long ton to £6–7 per long ton, along with greatly increasing the scale and speed of production of this vital raw material. The process also decreased the labor requirements for steel-making. Before it was introduced, steel was far too expensive to make bridges or the framework for buildings and thus wrought iron had been used throughout the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. After the introduction of the Bessemer process, steel and wrought iron became similarly priced, and some users, primarily railroads, turned to steel. Quality problems, such as brittleness caused by nitrogen in the blowing air,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> prevented Bessemer steel from being used for many structural applications.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">Open-hearth steel</a> was suitable for structural applications. </p><p>Steel greatly improved the productivity of railroads. Steel rails lasted ten times longer than iron rails. Steel rails, which became heavier as prices fell, could carry heavier locomotives, which could pull longer trains.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Steel rail cars were longer and were able to increase the freight to car weight from 1:1 to 2:1. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Obsolescence">Obsolescence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Obsolescence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As early as 1895 in the UK it was being noted that the heyday of the Bessemer process was over and that the <a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">open hearth</a> method predominated. The <i>Iron and Coal Trades Review</i> said that it was "in a semi-moribund condition. Year after year, it has not only ceased to make progress, but it has absolutely declined." It has been suggested, both at that time and more recently, that the cause of this was the lack of trained personnel and investment in technology rather than anything intrinsic to the process itself.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, one of the major causes of the decline of the giant ironmaking company <a href="/wiki/Bolckow_Vaughan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolckow Vaughan">Bolckow Vaughan</a> of Middlesbrough was its failure to upgrade its technology.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic process, the Thomas-Gilchrist process, remained in use longer, especially in Continental Europe, where iron ores were of high phosphorus content<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the open-hearth process was not able to remove all phosphorus; almost all inexpensive construction steel in Germany was produced with this method in the 1950s and 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was eventually superseded by <a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">basic oxygen steelmaking</a>. </p><p>In the U.S., commercial steel production using this method stopped in 1968. It was replaced by processes such as the <a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">basic oxygen (Linz–Donawitz) process</a>, which offered better control of final chemistry. The Bessemer process was so fast (10–20 minutes for a heat) that it allowed little time for chemical analysis or adjustment of the alloying elements in the steel. Bessemer converters did not remove phosphorus efficiently from the molten steel; as low-phosphorus ores became more expensive, conversion costs increased. The process permitted only limited amount of <a href="/wiki/Scrap" title="Scrap">scrap</a> steel to be charged, further increasing costs, especially when scrap was inexpensive. Use of <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnace</a> technology competed favourably with the Bessemer process resulting in its obsolescence. </p><p>Basic oxygen steelmaking is essentially an improved version of the Bessemer process (decarburization by blowing oxygen as gas into the heat rather than burning the excess carbon away by adding oxygen carrying substances into the heat). The advantages of pure oxygen blast over air blast were known to Henry Bessemer,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but 19th-century technology was not advanced enough to allow for the production of the large quantities of pure oxygen necessary to make it economical. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Engineering portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_(metallurgy)" title="Cementation (metallurgy)">Cementation (metallurgy) process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel#Methods_of_crucible_steel_production" title="Crucible steel">Methods of crucible steel production</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-wag361-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wag361_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wag361_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wag361_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWagner2008" class="citation book cs1">Wagner, Donald (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FAud8CE5stsC&pg=PA361"><i>Science and Civilisation in China: Vol. 5, Part 11: Ferrous Metallurgy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 361. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87566-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87566-0"><bdi>978-0-521-87566-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Vol.+5%2C+Part+11%3A+Ferrous+Metallurgy&rft.pages=361&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87566-0&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFAud8CE5stsC%26pg%3DPA361&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wag-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wag_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wag_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wag_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wag_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wag_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wag_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner2008" class="citation book cs1">Wagner, Donald (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FAud8CE5stsC&pg=PA363"><i>Science and Civilisation in China: Vol. 5, Part 11: Ferrous Metallurgy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 363–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87566-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87566-0"><bdi>978-0-521-87566-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Vol.+5%2C+Part+11%3A+Ferrous+Metallurgy&rft.pages=363-5&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87566-0&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFAud8CE5stsC%26pg%3DPA363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Bessemer process". <i>Britannica</i>. Vol. 2. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2005. p. 168.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bessemer+process&rft.btitle=Britannica&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2001" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Robert B. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=osSG7ceTGekC&pg=PA221"><i>American Iron, 1607–1900</i></a>. JHU Press. pp. 221–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6816-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6816-0"><bdi>978-0-8018-6816-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Iron%2C+1607%E2%80%931900&rft.pages=221-&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6816-0&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DosSG7ceTGekC%26pg%3DPA221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/29633?msg=welcome_stranger"><i>The Beginnings of Cheap Steel by Philip W. Bishop</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2018</span> – via www.gutenberg.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Cheap+Steel+by+Philip+W.+Bishop&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F29633%3Fmsg%3Dwelcome_stranger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi762.htm">"No. 762: Kelly's Converter"</a>. <i>www.uh.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.uh.edu&rft.atitle=No.+762%3A+Kelly%27s+Converter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uh.edu%2Fengines%2Fepi762.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7i1hO90ZDHUC&pg=PA112"><i>Shaping Technology/building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change</i></a>. MIT Press. 29 September 1994. pp. 112–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-26043-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-26043-5"><bdi>978-0-262-26043-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaping+Technology%2Fbuilding+Society%3A+Studies+in+Sociotechnical+Change&rft.pages=112-&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1994-09-29&rft.isbn=978-0-262-26043-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7i1hO90ZDHUC%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-need-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-need_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-need_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham2008" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FAud8CE5stsC"><i>Science and civilisation in China, Volume 5, Part 7</i></a> (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 261–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521875660" title="Special:BookSources/9780521875660"><bdi>9780521875660</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+civilisation+in+China%2C+Volume+5%2C+Part+7&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=261-5&rft.edition=1.+publ.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780521875660&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFAud8CE5stsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tan-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tan_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanner2009" class="citation book cs1">Tanner, Harold (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA218"><i>China: A History</i></a>. Hackett Publishing. p. 218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-915-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-915-2"><bdi>978-0-87220-915-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+History&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-915-2&rft.aulast=Tanner&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVIWC9wCX2c8C%26pg%3DPA218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hartwell_54-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell_54_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell_54_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hartwell_54_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwell1966" class="citation journal cs1">Hartwell, Robert (March 1966). 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(1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusofchina00robe_0"><i>The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention</i></a></span>. London: Prion. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusofchina00robe_0/page/49">49</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781853752926" title="Special:BookSources/9781853752926"><bdi>9781853752926</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China%3A+3000+years+of+science%2C+discovery+and+invention&rft.place=London&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Prion&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781853752926&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert+K.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeniusofchina00robe_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uh.edu/engines/epi762.htm">"No. 762: Kelly's Converter"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=No.+762%3A+Kelly%27s+Converter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuh.edu%2Fengines%2Fepi762.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/kelly-iron.html">"Kelly Pneumatic Iron Process"</a>. <i>American Chemical Society</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mushet%2C+Robert+Forester&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1885%2F1900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnstis1997">Anstis 1997</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompany1908" class="citation book cs1">Company, Lewis Publishing (1908). <i>A century and a half of Pittsburg and her people</i>. Lewis Pub. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.adlibris.com&rft.atitle=The+Sandvik+Journey+%3A+de+f%C3%B6rsta+150+%C3%A5ren+-+Ronald+Fagerfj%C3%A4ll+-+inbunden+%289789171261984%29+%7C+Adlibris+Bokhandel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.adlibris.com%2Fse%2Fbok%2Fthe-sandvik-journey-de-forsta-150-aren-9789171261984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holley-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Holley_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolley1865" class="citation book cs1">Holley, Alexander Lyman (1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/treatiseonordnan00hollrich"><i>A Treatise on Ordnance and Armor</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Trübner & company</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_Treatise_on_Ordnance_and_Armor/DBY5opvFChQC">the original</a> on 27 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Treatise+on+Ordnance+and+Armor&rft.pub=Tr%C3%BCbner+%26+company&rft.date=1865&rft.aulast=Holley&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Lyman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FA_Treatise_on_Ordnance_and_Armor%2FDBY5opvFChQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutliffe1999" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cutliffe, Stephen H. (1999). "Holley, Alexander Lyman". <i><a href="/wiki/American_National_Biography" title="American National Biography">American National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fanb%2F9780198606697.article.1300778">10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1300778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Holley%2C+Alexander+Lyman&rft.btitle=American+National+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fanb%2F9780198606697.article.1300778&rft.aulast=Cutliffe&rft.aufirst=Stephen+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas J. Misa, <i>A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America, 1865–1925</i> (1995): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tc.umn.edu/~tmisa//NOS/1.3_develop.html">chapter on Holley and Bessemer process online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100115060526/http://www.tc.umn.edu/~tmisa/NOS/1.3_develop.html">Archived</a> 15 January 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harcourt_Brace_Jovanovich-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harcourt_Brace_Jovanovich_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harcourt_Brace_Jovanovich_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbronerSinger1977" class="citation book cs1">Heilbroner, Robert L.; Singer, Aaron (1977). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economictransfor0000heil"><i>The economic transformation of America</i></a></span>. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-518800-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-518800-6"><bdi>978-0-15-518800-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+economic+transformation+of+America&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-15-518800-6&rft.aulast=Heilbroner&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rft.au=Singer%2C+Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomictransfor0000heil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kashuba.ww-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kashuba.ww_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thetimes-tribune.com/news/william-walker-led-industry-in-the-city-1.885217">Cheryl A. Kashuba, "William Walker led industry in the city"</a>, <i>The Times-Tribune,</i> 11 July 2010, accessed 23 May 2016</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/43118341/">"The Brooklyn Bridge"</a>. <i>New York Daily Herald</i>. 14 January 1877. p. 14<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Dover Publications. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-13705-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-13705-6"><bdi>978-0-486-13705-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/868273040">868273040</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bridges+of+New+York&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F868273040&rft.isbn=978-0-486-13705-6&rft.aulast=Reier&rft.aufirst=Sharon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080117065932/http://www.steeltalk.com/bessemer_convertor.php">"Bessemer Converter"</a>. <i>www.steeltalk.com</i>. 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"The Composition of Iron and Steel Products, 1869–1909". <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>23</b> (4): 447–471. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700109179">10.1017/S0022050700109179</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2116209">2116209</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154397900">154397900</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Composition+of+Iron+and+Steel+Products%2C+1869%E2%80%931909&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=447-471&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154397900%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2116209%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700109179&rft.au=Peter+Temin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.measuringworth.com/ppoweruk/">"Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1264 to Present"</a>. 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Purchasing+Power+of+British+Pounds+from+1264+to+Present&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.measuringworth.com%2Fppoweruk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.visitblaenavon.co.uk/en/WorldHeritageSite/TheBlaenavonStory/BlaenavonandtheGilchrist-ThomasProcess.aspx">Blaenavon World Heritage Site: Blaenavon and the 'Gilchrist-Thomas' Process</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131212031458/http://www.visitblaenavon.co.uk/en/WorldHeritageSite/TheBlaenavonStory/BlaenavonandtheGilchrist-ThomasProcess.aspx">Archived</a> 12 December 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Bessemer Steel and its Effect on the World". <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>78</b> (13): 198. 1898. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26116729">26116729</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Bessemer+Steel+and+its+Effect+on+the+World&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=198&rft.date=1898&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26116729%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg1982" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/90"><i>Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics</i></a>. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/90">90</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-27367-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-27367-6"><bdi>0-521-27367-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Black+Box%3A+Technology+and+Economics&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-521-27367-6&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finsideblackboxte00rose%2Fpage%2F90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMisa1999" class="citation book cs1">Misa, Thomas J. (1999) [1995]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PClGkh3qicgC"><i>A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America, 1865–1925</i></a>. Johns Hopkins studies in the history of technology. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-6052-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-6052-0"><bdi>0-8018-6052-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/540692649">540692649</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Nation+of+Steel%3A+The+Making+of+Modern+America%2C+1865%E2%80%931925&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Md.&rft.series=Johns+Hopkins+studies+in+the+history+of+technology&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F540692649&rft.isbn=0-8018-6052-0&rft.aulast=Misa&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPClGkh3qicgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120805234054/http://www.umn.edu/~tmisa/NOS/1.1_intro.html">Chapter 1 online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg1982" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/60"><i>Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics</i></a>. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/60">60, 69</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-27367-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-27367-6"><bdi>0-521-27367-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Black+Box%3A+Technology+and+Economics&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York&rft.pages=60%2C+69&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-521-27367-6&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finsideblackboxte00rose%2Fpage%2F60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne,_P._L.1968" class="citation book cs1">Payne, P. L. (1968). "Iron and steel manufactures". In Aldcroft, Derek H. (ed.). <i>The development of British industry and foreign competition, 1875–1914; studies in industrial enterprise</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin. pp. 92–94, 97. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/224674">224674</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iron+and+steel+manufactures&rft.btitle=The+development+of+British+industry+and+foreign+competition%2C+1875%E2%80%931914%3B+studies+in+industrial+enterprise&rft.place=London&rft.pages=92-94%2C+97&rft.pub=George+Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F224674&rft.au=Payne%2C+P.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abe, E. The Technological Strategy of a Leading Iron and Steel Firm: Bolckow Vaughan Co. Ltd: Late Victorian Industrialists Did Fail. Business History, 1996, Vol. 38, No. 1, pages 45–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171122084235/http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0307/Dean-0307.html">"Rail that Survived Demolition by "Lawrence of Arabia": An Analysis"</a>. <i>www.tms.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0307/Dean-0307.html">the original</a> on 22 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.tms.org&rft.atitle=Rail+that+Survived+Demolition+by+%22Lawrence+of+Arabia%22%3A+An+Analysis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tms.org%2Fpubs%2Fjournals%2FJOM%2F0307%2FDean-0307.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130203062841/http://economypoint.org/t/thomas-process.html">"Thomas process / Metallurgy - Economy-point.org"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economypoint.org/t/thomas-process.html">the original</a> on 3 February 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thomas+process+%2F+Metallurgy+-+Economy-point.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economypoint.org%2Ft%2Fthomas-process.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnstis1997" class="citation cs2">Anstis, Ralph (1997), <i>Man of Iron, Man of Steel: Lives of David and Robert Mushet</i>, Albion House, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9511371-4-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-9511371-4-X"><bdi>0-9511371-4-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man+of+Iron%2C+Man+of+Steel%3A+Lives+of+David+and+Robert+Mushet&rft.pub=Albion+House&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-9511371-4-X&rft.aulast=Anstis&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1964" class="citation cs2">Jackson, Albert (1964), <i>Oxygen Steelmaking for Steelmakers</i>, George Newnes Ltd., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0408073523" title="Special:BookSources/978-0408073523"><bdi>978-0408073523</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxygen+Steelmaking+for+Steelmakers&rft.pub=George+Newnes+Ltd.&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-0408073523&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaggleySanderson2002" class="citation cs2">Baggley, P.; Sanderson, N. (2002), <i>A Pictorial archive of Steelmaking at Workington</i>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9538447-1-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-9538447-1-4"><bdi>0-9538447-1-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Pictorial+archive+of+Steelmaking+at+Workington&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-9538447-1-4&rft.aulast=Baggley&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Sanderson%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessemer_process&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bessemer_converter" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bessemer converter">Bessemer converter</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_19/October_1881/Progress_in_the_Manufacture_of_Steel" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 19/October 1881/Progress in the Manufacture of Steel">Progress in the Manufacture of Steel</a>" in <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Science Monthly">Popular Science Monthly</a></i> Volume 19, October 1881</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141028184009/http://www.theengineer.co.uk/in-depth/classic-archive/august-1856-bessemer%E2%80%99s-steel-process/294341.article">"Bessemer's explanation of his process"</a>. <i>The Engineer</i>. 15 August 1856. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theengineer.co.uk/in-depth/classic-archive/august-1856-bessemer%E2%80%99s-steel-process/294341.article">the original</a> on 28 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Engineer&rft.atitle=Bessemer%27s+explanation+of+his+process&rft.date=1856-08-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theengineer.co.uk%2Fin-depth%2Fclassic-archive%2Faugust-1856-bessemer%25E2%2580%2599s-steel-process%2F294341.article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7igDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA30">"How the Modern Steel Furnace Does Its Work"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science" title="Popular Science">Popular Science</a></i>: 30–31. February 1919.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science&rft.atitle=How+the+Modern+Steel+Furnace+Does+Its+Work&rft.pages=30-31&rft.date=1919-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7igDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABessemer+process" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">sponge iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_blast" title="Cold blast">Cold blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite_iron" title="Anthracite iron">Anthracite iron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">Direct reduced iron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">Finery forge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">Puddling</a> <a href="/wiki/Industrial_furnace" title="Industrial furnace">Furnace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">Cupola furnace</a> or <a href="/wiki/Induction_furnace" title="Induction furnace">Induction furnace</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/120px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/180px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/240px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="778" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel mill</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Pre-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">Pattern welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatara_(furnace)" title="Tatara (furnace)">Tatara furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">Cementation process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Post-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bessemer process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">Open hearth furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">Electric arc furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">Basic oxygen process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-slag_remelting" title="Electro-slag remelting">Electro-slag remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_arc_remelting" title="Vacuum arc remelting">Vacuum arc remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argon_oxygen_decarburization" title="Argon oxygen decarburization">Argon oxygen decarburization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">Heat treatment</a> methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_hydrogen_annealing" title="Low hydrogen annealing">Low hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_by_short_circuit" title="Annealing by short circuit">Short circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">Hardening</a> / <br /><a href="/wiki/Case-hardening" title="Case-hardening">Case-hardening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausforming" title="Ausforming">Ausforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boriding" title="Boriding">Boriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">Carbonitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">Carburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Cryogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferritic_nitrocarburizing" title="Ferritic nitrocarburizing">Ferritic nitrocarburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_hardening" title="Induction hardening">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitriding" title="Nitriding">Nitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quench_polish_quench" title="Quench polish quench">Quench polish quench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">Austempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">Martempering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_treatment" title="Cryogenic treatment">Cryogenic treatment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deburring" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic deburring">Deburring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deflashing" title="Cryogenic deflashing">Deflashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Hardening</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_heat_treatment" title="Differential heat treatment">Differential heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">Decarburization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_gas" title="Forming gas">Forming gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_weld_heat_treatment" title="Post weld heat treatment">Post weld heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superplastic_forming" title="Superplastic forming">Superplastic forming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production" title="List of countries by steel production">Production by country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Bangladesh" title="Steel industry in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Italy" title="Steel industry in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Luxembourg" title="Steel industry in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Nigeria" title="Steel industry in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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