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id="toc-Hypoeutectoid_alloys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypereutectoid_alloys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypereutectoid_alloys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Hypereutectoid alloys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypereutectoid_alloys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_time_and_temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_time_and_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Effects of time and temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_time_and_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_heat_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_heat_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Types of heat treatment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_heat_treatment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of heat treatment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_heat_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Annealing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Annealing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Annealing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Annealing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Normalizing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Normalizing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Normalizing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Normalizing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress_relieving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress_relieving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Stress relieving</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress_relieving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Aging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quenching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quenching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Quenching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quenching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tempering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tempering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Tempering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tempering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tempering_colors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tempering_colors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.1</span> <span>Tempering colors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tempering_colors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selective_heat_treating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selective_heat_treating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Selective heat treating</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selective_heat_treating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Differential_hardening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differential_hardening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.1</span> <span>Differential hardening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differential_hardening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flame_hardening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flame_hardening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.2</span> <span>Flame hardening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flame_hardening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Induction_hardening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Induction_hardening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.3</span> <span>Induction hardening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Induction_hardening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case_hardening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_hardening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.4</span> <span>Case hardening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_hardening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_and_cryogenic_treating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_and_cryogenic_treating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Cold and cryogenic treating</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_and_cryogenic_treating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decarburization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decarburization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Decarburization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decarburization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specification_of_heat_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specification_of_heat_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Specification of heat treatment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Specification_of_heat_treatment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Specification of heat treatment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Specification_of_heat_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Case_hardening_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_hardening_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Case hardening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_hardening_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Through_hardening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Through_hardening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Through hardening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Through_hardening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Annealing_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Annealing_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Annealing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Annealing_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_furnaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_furnaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Types of furnaces</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_furnaces-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of furnaces subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_furnaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Batch_furnaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Batch_furnaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Batch furnaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Batch_furnaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Box-type_furnace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Box-type_furnace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Box-type furnace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Box-type_furnace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Car-type_furnace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Car-type_furnace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Car-type furnace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Car-type_furnace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elevator-type_furnace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elevator-type_furnace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Elevator-type furnace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elevator-type_furnace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bell-type_furnace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bell-type_furnace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Bell-type furnace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bell-type_furnace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pit_furnaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pit_furnaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Pit furnaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pit_furnaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salt_bath_furnaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salt_bath_furnaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Salt bath furnaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salt_bath_furnaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluidised_bed_furnaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluidised_bed_furnaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Fluidised bed furnaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluidised_bed_furnaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="معالجة حرارية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معالجة حرارية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termiki_emal" title="Termiki emal – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Termiki emal" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE" title="তাপ চিকিৎসা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তাপ চিকিৎসা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Термична обработка на металите – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Термична обработка на металите" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractament_t%C3%A8rmic" title="Tractament tèrmic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tractament tèrmic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%A4rmebehandlung" title="Wärmebehandlung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wärmebehandlung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termot%C3%B6%C3%B6tlus" title="Termotöötlus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Termotöötlus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tratamiento_t%C3%A9rmico" title="Tratamiento térmico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tratamiento térmico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varmotraktado" title="Varmotraktado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Varmotraktado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="عملیات حرارتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عملیات حرارتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traitement_thermique_d%27un_m%C3%A9tal" title="Traitement thermique d'un métal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Traitement thermique d'un métal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3ir_teasa" title="Cóir teasa – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cóir teasa" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tratamento_t%C3%A9rmico" title="Tratamento térmico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tratamento térmico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B4%EC%B2%98%EB%A6%AC" title="열처리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="열처리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D6%84%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6-%D5%BB%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Մետաղների քիմիական-ջերմային մշակում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մետաղների քիմիական-ջերմային մշակում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="तापोपचार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तापोपचार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toplinska_obrada" title="Toplinska obrada – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Toplinska obrada" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlakuan_panas" title="Perlakuan panas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perlakuan panas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trattamento_termico" title="Trattamento termico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Trattamento termico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a 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data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obr%C3%B3bka_cieplna_metali" title="Obróbka cieplna metali – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Obróbka cieplna metali" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tratamento_t%C3%A9rmico" title="Tratamento térmico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tratamento térmico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tratament_termic" title="Tratament termic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tratament 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C" title="چارەسەری گەرمی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="چارەسەری گەرمی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Термичка обрада – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Термичка обрада" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a 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</div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg/300px-Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg/450px-Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg/600px-Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>Heat treating furnace at 1,800 °F (980 °C)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Heat treating</b> (or <b>heat treatment</b>) is a group of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial process">industrial</a>, thermal and <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalworking processes</a> used to alter the <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical</a>, and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Chemical_property" title="Chemical property">chemical</a>, properties of a material. The most common application is <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgical</a>. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a>. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve the desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(materials_science)" title="Annealing (materials science)">annealing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Case_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Case hardening">case hardening</a>, <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_strengthening" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation strengthening">precipitation strengthening</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">tempering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">carburizing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(materials_science)#Normalization" title="Annealing (materials science)">normalizing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quench" class="mw-redirect" title="Quench">quenching</a>. Although the term <i>heat treatment</i> applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_processes">Physical processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physical processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg/300px-IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg/450px-IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg/600px-IronAlfa%26IronGamma.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Allotropes of iron, showing the differences in lattice structures between alpha iron (low temperature) and gamma iron (high temperature). The alpha iron has no spaces for carbon atoms to reside, while the gamma iron is open to the free movement of small carbon atoms.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photomicrograph_of_annealed_and_quenched_steel,_from_1911_Britannica_plates_11_and_14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Photomicrograph_of_annealed_and_quenched_steel%2C_from_1911_Britannica_plates_11_and_14.jpg/220px-Photomicrograph_of_annealed_and_quenched_steel%2C_from_1911_Britannica_plates_11_and_14.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Photomicrograph_of_annealed_and_quenched_steel%2C_from_1911_Britannica_plates_11_and_14.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="284" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption>Photomicrographs of steel. <b>Top</b>: In <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">annealed</a> (slowly cooled) steel, the carbon precipitates forming layers of ferrite (iron) and cementite (carbide). <b>Bottom</b>: In <a href="/wiki/Quenched" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenched">quenched</a> (quickly cooled) steel, the carbon remains trapped in the iron, creating great internal stresses in the needle or plate-like grains.</figcaption></figure> <p>Metallic materials consist of a <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructure</a> of small <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a> called "grains" or <a href="/wiki/Crystallite" title="Crystallite">crystallites</a>. The nature of the grains (i.e. grain size and composition) is one of the most effective factors that can determine the overall mechanical behavior of the metal. Heat treatment provides an efficient way to manipulate the properties of the metal by controlling the rate of <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> and the rate of cooling within the microstructure. Heat treating is often used to alter the mechanical properties of a metallic <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a>, manipulating properties such as the <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">toughness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">elasticity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Abdul_Wasy_ZIA_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abdul_Wasy_ZIA-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two mechanisms that may change an alloy's properties during heat treatment: the formation of <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a> causes the crystals to <a href="/wiki/Deformation_(engineering)" title="Deformation (engineering)">deform</a> intrinsically, and the diffusion mechanism causes changes in the homogeneity of the alloy.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The crystal structure consists of atoms that are grouped in a very specific arrangement, called a lattice. In most elements, this order will rearrange itself, depending on conditions like temperature and pressure. This rearrangement called <a href="/wiki/Allotropy" title="Allotropy">allotropy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">polymorphism</a>, may occur several times, at many different temperatures for a particular metal. In alloys, this rearrangement may cause an element that will not normally <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">dissolve</a> into the base metal to suddenly become <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">soluble</a>, while a reversal of the allotropy will make the elements either partially or completely insoluble.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When in the soluble state, the process of diffusion causes the atoms of the dissolved element to spread out, attempting to form a homogenous distribution within the crystals of the base metal. If the alloy is cooled to an insoluble state, the atoms of the dissolved constituents (solutes) may migrate out of the solution. This type of diffusion, called <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitation</a>, leads to <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleation</a>, where the migrating atoms group together at the grain-boundaries. This forms a microstructure generally consisting of two or more distinct <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Alvarenga_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alvarenga-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, steel that has been heated above the <a href="/wiki/Austenizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Austenizing">austenizing</a> temperature (red to orange-hot, or around 1,500 °F (820 °C) to 1,600 °F (870 °C) depending on carbon content), and then cooled slowly, forms a laminated structure composed of alternating layers of <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a>, becoming soft <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After heating the steel to the <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a> phase and then quenching it in water, the microstructure will be in the martensitic phase. This is due to the fact that the steel will change from the austenite phase to the martensite phase after quenching. Some pearlite or ferrite may be present if the quench did not rapidly cool off all the steel.<sup id="cite_ref-Alvarenga_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alvarenga-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike iron-based alloys, most heat-treatable alloys do not experience a ferrite transformation. In these alloys, the nucleation at the grain-boundaries often reinforces the structure of the crystal matrix. These metals harden by precipitation. Typically a slow process, depending on temperature, this is often referred to as "age hardening".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many metals and non-metals exhibit a martensite transformation when cooled quickly (with external media like oil, polymer, water, etc.). When a metal is cooled very quickly, the insoluble atoms may not be able to migrate out of the solution in time. This is called a "<a href="/wiki/Diffusionless_transformation" title="Diffusionless transformation">diffusionless transformation</a>." When the crystal matrix changes to its low-temperature arrangement, the atoms of the solute become trapped within the lattice. The trapped atoms prevent the crystal matrix from completely changing into its low-temperature allotrope, creating shearing stresses within the lattice. When some alloys are cooled quickly, such as steel, the martensite transformation hardens the metal, while in others, like aluminum, the alloy becomes softer.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_composition">Effects of composition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Effects of composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron_carbon_phase_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Iron_carbon_phase_diagram.svg/400px-Iron_carbon_phase_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Iron_carbon_phase_diagram.svg/600px-Iron_carbon_phase_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Iron_carbon_phase_diagram.svg/800px-Iron_carbon_phase_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption>Phase diagram of an iron-carbon alloying system. Phase changes occur at different temperatures (vertical axis) for different compositions (horizontal axis). The dotted lines mark the eutectoid (A) and eutectic (B) compositions.</figcaption></figure><p>The specific composition of an alloy system will usually have a great effect on the results of heat treating. If the percentage of each constituent is just right, the alloy will form a single, continuous microstructure upon cooling. Such a mixture is said to be <a href="/wiki/Eutectic#Eutectoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic">eutectoid</a>. However, If the percentage of the solutes varies from the eutectoid mixture, two or more different microstructures will usually form simultaneously. A hypo eutectoid solution contains less of the solute than the eutectoid mix, while a hypereutectoid solution contains more.<sup id="cite_ref-Patra,_75-77_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patra,_75-77-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eutectoid_alloys">Eutectoid alloys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Eutectoid alloys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Eutectoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectoid">eutectoid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eutectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic">eutectic</a>-like) <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a> is similar in behavior to a <a href="/wiki/Eutectic_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic alloy">eutectic alloy</a>. A <i><a href="/wiki/Eutectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic">eutectic</a></i> alloy is characterized by having a single <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a>. This melting point is lower than that of any of the constituents, and no change in the mixture will lower the melting point any further. When a molten eutectic alloy is cooled, all of the constituents will crystallize into their respective phases at the same temperature. </p><p>A <b>eutectoid alloy</b> is similar, but the phase change occurs, not from a liquid, but from a <a href="/wiki/Solid_solution" title="Solid solution">solid solution</a>. Upon cooling a eutectoid alloy from the solution temperature, the constituents will separate into different <a href="/wiki/Crystal_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal phase">crystal phases</a>, forming a single <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructure</a>. A eutectoid steel, for example, contains 0.77% <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>. Upon cooling slowly, the solution of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and carbon (a single phase called <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a>) will separate into <a href="/wiki/Platelets" class="mw-redirect" title="Platelets">platelets</a> of the phases <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a>. This forms a layered microstructure called <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a>. </p><p>Since pearlite is harder than iron, the degree of softness achievable is typically limited to that produced by the pearlite. Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Hardenability" title="Hardenability">hardenability</a> is limited by the continuous martensitic microstructure formed when cooled very fast.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypoeutectoid_alloys">Hypoeutectoid alloys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hypoeutectoid alloys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A hypoeutectic alloy has two separate melting points. Both are above the eutectic melting point for the system but are below the melting points of any constituent forming the system. Between these two melting points, the alloy will exist as part solid and part liquid. The constituent with the higher melting point will solidify first. When completely solidified, a hypoeutectic alloy will often be in a solid solution. </p><p>Similarly, a <b>hypoeutectoid alloy</b> has two critical temperatures, called "arrests". Between these two temperatures, the alloy will exist partly as the solution and partly as a separate crystallizing phase, called the "pro eutectoid phase". These two temperatures are called the upper (A<sub>3</sub>) and lower (A<sub>1</sub>) transformation temperatures. As the solution cools from the upper transformation temperature toward an insoluble state, the excess base metal will often be forced to "crystallize-out", becoming the pro eutectoid. This will occur until the remaining concentration of solutes reaches the eutectoid level, which will then crystallize as a separate microstructure. </p><p>For example, a hypoeutectoid steel contains less than 0.77% carbon. Upon cooling a hypoeutectoid steel from the austenite transformation temperature, small islands of proeutectoid-ferrite will form. These will continue to grow and the carbon will recede until the eutectoid concentration in the rest of the steel is reached. This eutectoid mixture will then crystallize as a microstructure of pearlite. Since ferrite is softer than pearlite, the two microstructures combine to increase the <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a> of the alloy. Consequently, the hardenability of the alloy is lowered.<sup id="cite_ref-Dossett,_2006,_17-22_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dossett,_2006,_17-22-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypereutectoid_alloys">Hypereutectoid alloys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hypereutectoid alloys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%9Clieutektoidne_teras.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/%C3%9Clieutektoidne_teras.jpg/220px-%C3%9Clieutektoidne_teras.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/%C3%9Clieutektoidne_teras.jpg/330px-%C3%9Clieutektoidne_teras.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/%C3%9Clieutektoidne_teras.jpg/440px-%C3%9Clieutektoidne_teras.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7291" data-file-height="5465" /></a><figcaption>Hypereutectoid steel</figcaption></figure> <p>A hypereutectic alloy also has different melting points. However, between these points, it is the constituent with the higher melting point that will be solid. Similarly, a <b>hypereutectoid alloy</b> has two critical temperatures. When cooling a hypereutectoid alloy from the upper transformation temperature, it will usually be the excess solutes that crystallize-out first, forming the pro-eutectoid. This continues until the concentration in the remaining alloy becomes eutectoid, which then crystallizes into a separate microstructure. </p><p>A hypereutectoid steel contains more than 0.77% carbon. When slowly cooling hypereutectoid steel, the cementite will begin to crystallize first. When the remaining steel becomes eutectoid in composition, it will crystallize into pearlite. Since cementite is much harder than pearlite, the alloy has greater hardenability at a cost in ductility.<sup id="cite_ref-Patra,_75-77_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patra,_75-77-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dossett,_2006,_17-22_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dossett,_2006,_17-22-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_time_and_temperature">Effects of time and temperature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Effects of time and temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DiagrammeTTT.GIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/DiagrammeTTT.GIF/400px-DiagrammeTTT.GIF" decoding="async" width="400" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/DiagrammeTTT.GIF/600px-DiagrammeTTT.GIF 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/DiagrammeTTT.GIF 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>Time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagram for steel. The red curves represent different cooling rates (velocity) when cooled from the upper critical (A3) temperature. V1 (quenching) produces martensite. V2 (normalizing) produces both pearlite and martensite, V3 (annealing) produces bainite mixed with pearlite.</figcaption></figure> <p>Proper heat treating requires precise control over temperature, time held at a certain temperature and cooling rate.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the exception of stress-relieving, tempering, and aging, most heat treatments begin by heating an alloy beyond a certain transformation, or arrest (A), temperature. This temperature is referred to as an "arrest" because at the A temperature the metal experiences a period of <a href="/wiki/Hysteresis" title="Hysteresis">hysteresis</a>. At this point, all of the heat energy is used to cause the crystal change, so the temperature stops rising for a short time (arrests) and then continues climbing once the change is complete.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the alloy must be heated above the critical temperature for a transformation to occur. The alloy will usually be held at this temperature long enough for the heat to completely penetrate the alloy, thereby bringing it into a complete solid solution. Iron, for example, has four critical-temperatures, depending on carbon content. Pure iron in its alpha (room temperature) state changes to nonmagnetic gamma-iron at its A<sub>2</sub> temperature, and <a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">weldable</a> delta-iron at its A<sub>4</sub> temperature. However, as carbon is added, becoming steel, the A<sub>2</sub> temperature splits into the A<sub>3</sub> temperature, also called the <a href="/wiki/Austenizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Austenizing">austenizing</a> temperature (all phases become austenite, a solution of gamma iron and carbon) and its A<sub>1</sub> temperature (austenite changes into pearlite upon cooling). Between these upper and lower temperatures the pro eutectoid phase forms upon cooling. </p><p>Because a smaller grain size usually enhances mechanical properties, such as <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">toughness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shear_strength" title="Shear strength">shear strength</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>, these metals are often heated to a temperature that is just above the upper critical temperature, in order to prevent the grains of solution from growing too large. For instance, when steel is heated above the upper critical-temperature, small grains of austenite form. These grow larger as the temperature is increased. When cooled very quickly, during a martensite transformation, the austenite grain-size directly affects the martensitic grain-size. Larger grains have large grain-boundaries, which serve as weak spots in the structure. The grain size is usually controlled to reduce the probability of breakage.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The diffusion transformation is very time-dependent. Cooling a metal will usually suppress the precipitation to a much lower temperature. Austenite, for example, usually only exists above the upper critical temperature. However, if the austenite is cooled quickly enough, the transformation may be suppressed for hundreds of degrees below the lower critical temperature. Such austenite is highly unstable and, if given enough time, will precipitate into various microstructures of ferrite and cementite. The cooling rate can be used to control the rate of grain growth or can even be used to produce partially martensitic microstructures.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the martensite transformation is time-independent. If the alloy is cooled to the martensite transformation (M<sub>s</sub>) temperature before other microstructures can fully form, the transformation will usually occur at just under the speed of sound.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When austenite is cooled but kept above the martensite start temperature Ms so that a martensite transformation does not occur, the austenite grain size will have an effect on the rate of nucleation, but it is generally temperature and the rate of cooling that controls the grain size and microstructure. When austenite is cooled extremely slowly, it will form large ferrite crystals filled with spherical inclusions of cementite. This microstructure is referred to as "sphereoidite". If cooled a little faster, then coarse pearlite will form. Even faster, and fine pearlite will form. If cooled even faster, <a href="/wiki/Bainite" title="Bainite">bainite</a> will form, with more complete bainite transformation occurring depending on the time held above martensite start Ms. Similarly, these microstructures will also form, if cooled to a specific temperature and then held there for a certain time.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most non-ferrous alloys are also heated in order to form a solution. Most often, these are then cooled very quickly to produce a martensite transformation, putting the solution into a <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturated</a> state. The alloy, being in a much softer state, may then be <a href="/wiki/Cold_forming" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold forming">cold worked</a>. This causes <a href="/wiki/Work_hardening" title="Work hardening">work hardening</a> that increases the strength and hardness of the alloy. Moreover, the defects caused by <a href="/wiki/Plastic_deformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic deformation">plastic deformation</a> tend to speed up precipitation, increasing the hardness beyond what is normal for the alloy. Even if not cold worked, the solutes in these alloys will usually precipitate, although the process may take much longer. Sometimes these metals are then heated to a temperature that is below the lower critical (A<sub>1</sub>) temperature, preventing recrystallization, in order to speed-up the precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_heat_treatment">Types of heat treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Types of heat treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Castings_fresh_from_the_heat_treatment_furnace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Castings_fresh_from_the_heat_treatment_furnace.jpg/300px-Castings_fresh_from_the_heat_treatment_furnace.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Castings_fresh_from_the_heat_treatment_furnace.jpg/450px-Castings_fresh_from_the_heat_treatment_furnace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Castings_fresh_from_the_heat_treatment_furnace.jpg/600px-Castings_fresh_from_the_heat_treatment_furnace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4453" data-file-height="3214" /></a><figcaption>Steel castings after undergoing 12-hour 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) heat treatment.</figcaption></figure> <p>Complex heat treating schedules, or "cycles", are often devised by <a href="/wiki/Metallurgist" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallurgist">metallurgists</a> to optimize an alloy's mechanical properties. In the <a href="/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace">aerospace</a> industry, a <a href="/wiki/Superalloy" title="Superalloy">superalloy</a> may undergo five or more different heat treating operations to develop the desired properties. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Need a reference for writing (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This can lead to quality problems depending on the accuracy of the furnace's temperature controls and timer. These operations can usually be divided into several basic techniques. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Annealing">Annealing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Annealing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealing (metallurgy)</a></div> <p>Annealing consists of heating a metal to a specific temperature and then cooling at a rate that will produce a refined <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructure</a>, either fully or partially separating the constituents. The rate of cooling is generally slow. Annealing is most often used to soften a metal for cold working, to improve machinability, or to enhance properties like <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electrical conductivity</a>. </p><p>In ferrous alloys, annealing is usually accomplished by heating the metal beyond the upper critical temperature and then cooling very slowly, resulting in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a>. In both pure metals and many alloys that cannot be heat treated, annealing is used to remove the hardness caused by cold working. The metal is heated to a temperature where <a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(metallurgy)" title="Recrystallization (metallurgy)">recrystallization</a> can occur, thereby repairing the defects caused by plastic deformation. In these metals, the rate of cooling will usually have little effect. Most non-ferrous alloys that are heat-treatable are also annealed to relieve the hardness of cold working. These may be slowly cooled to allow full precipitation of the constituents and produce a refined microstructure. </p><p>Ferrous alloys are usually either "full annealed" or "process annealed". Full annealing requires very slow cooling rates, in order to form coarse pearlite. In process annealing, the cooling rate may be faster; up to, and including normalizing. The main goal of process annealing is to produce a uniform microstructure. Non-ferrous alloys are often subjected to a variety of annealing techniques, including "recrystallization annealing", "partial annealing", "full annealing", and "final annealing". Not all annealing techniques involve recrystallization, such as stress relieving.<sup id="cite_ref-Dossett,_2006,_2-6_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dossett,_2006,_2-6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Normalizing">Normalizing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Normalizing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Normalizing is a technique used to provide uniformity in grain size and composition (<a href="/wiki/Equiaxed_crystals" class="mw-redirect" title="Equiaxed crystals">equiaxed crystals</a>) throughout an alloy. The term is often used for ferrous alloys that have been <a href="/wiki/Austenite#Austenitization" title="Austenite">austenitized</a> and then cooled in the open air.<sup id="cite_ref-Dossett,_2006,_2-6_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dossett,_2006,_2-6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Normalizing not only produces pearlite but also <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a> and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Bainite" title="Bainite">bainite</a>, which gives harder and stronger steel but with less ductility for the same composition than full annealing. </p><p>In the normalizing process the steel is heated to about 40 degrees Celsius above its upper critical temperature limit, held at this temperature for some time, and then cooled in air. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stress_relieving">Stress relieving</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Stress relieving"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stress-relieving is a technique to remove or reduce the internal stresses created in metal. These stresses may be caused in a number of ways, ranging from cold working to non-uniform cooling. Stress-relieving is usually accomplished by heating a metal below the lower critical temperature and then cooling uniformly.<sup id="cite_ref-Dossett,_2006,_2-6_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dossett,_2006,_2-6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stress relieving is commonly used on items like air tanks, boilers and other <a href="/wiki/Pressure_vessel" title="Pressure vessel">pressure vessels</a>, to remove a portion of the stresses created during the welding process.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aging">Aging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Aging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">Precipitation hardening</a></div> <p>Some metals are classified as <i>precipitation hardening metals</i>. When a precipitation hardening alloy is quenched, its alloying elements will be trapped in solution, resulting in a soft metal. Aging a "solutionized" metal will allow the alloying elements to diffuse through the microstructure and form intermetallic particles. These intermetallic particles will nucleate and fall out of the solution and act as a reinforcing phase, thereby increasing the strength of the alloy. Alloys may age " naturally" meaning that the precipitates form at room temperature, or they may age "artificially" when precipitates only form at elevated temperatures. In some applications, naturally aging alloys may be stored in a freezer to prevent hardening until after further operations - assembly of rivets, for example, maybe easier with a softer part. </p><p>Examples of precipitation hardening alloys include 2000 series, 6000 series, and 7000 series <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_alloy" title="Aluminium alloy">aluminium alloy</a>, as well as some superalloys and some <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steels</a>. Steels that harden by aging are typically referred to as <a href="/wiki/Maraging_steel" title="Maraging steel">maraging steels</a>, from a combination of the term "martensite aging".<sup id="cite_ref-Dossett,_2006,_2-6_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dossett,_2006,_2-6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quenching">Quenching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Quenching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a></div> <p>Quenching is a process of cooling a metal at a rapid rate. This is most often done to produce a martensite transformation. In ferrous alloys, this will often produce a harder metal, while non-ferrous alloys will usually become softer than normal. </p><p>To harden by quenching, a metal (usually steel or cast iron) must be heated above the upper critical temperature (Steel: above 815~900 Degress Celsius<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and then quickly cooled. Depending on the alloy and other considerations (such as concern for maximum hardness vs. cracking and distortion), cooling may be done with forced <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">air</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a>, (such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>). <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquids</a> may be used, due to their better <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a>, water, a <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> dissolved in water, or a <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brine</a>. Upon being rapidly cooled, a portion of austenite (dependent on alloy composition) will transform to <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a>, a hard, brittle crystalline structure. The quenched hardness of a metal depends on its chemical composition and quenching method. Cooling speeds, from fastest to slowest, go from brine, polymer (i.e. mixtures of water + glycol polymers), freshwater, oil, and forced air. However, quenching certain steel too fast can result in cracking, which is why high-tensile steels such as AISI 4140 should be quenched in oil, <a href="/wiki/Tool_steel" title="Tool steel">tool steels</a> such as <a href="/wiki/ISO_1.2767" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 1.2767">ISO 1.2767</a> or H13 hot work tool steel should be quenched in forced air, and low alloy or medium-tensile steels such as XK1320 or AISI 1040 should be quenched in brine. </p><p>Some Beta titanium based alloys have also shown similar trends of increased strength through rapid cooling.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, most non-ferrous metals, like alloys of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum">aluminum</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, and some high alloy steels such as austenitic stainless steel (304, 316), produce an opposite effect when these are quenched: they soften. Austenitic stainless steels must be quenched to become fully corrosion resistant, as they work-harden significantly.<sup id="cite_ref-Dossett,_2006,_2-6_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dossett,_2006,_2-6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tempering">Tempering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tempering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering (metallurgy)</a></div> <p>Untempered martensitic steel, while very hard, is too brittle to be useful for most applications. A method for alleviating this problem is called tempering. Most applications require that quenched parts be tempered. Tempering consists of heating steel below the lower critical temperature, (often from 400˚F to 1105˚F or 205˚C to 595˚C, depending on the desired results), to impart some <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">toughness</a>. Higher tempering temperatures (maybe up to 1,300˚F or 700˚C, depending on the alloy and application) are sometimes used to impart further ductility, although some yield <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength</a> is lost. </p><p>Tempering may also be performed on normalized steels. Other methods of tempering consist of quenching to a specific temperature, which is above the martensite start temperature, and then holding it there until pure bainite can form or internal stresses can be relieved. These include <a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">austempering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">martempering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dossett,_2006,_2-6_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dossett,_2006,_2-6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tempering_colors">Tempering colors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tempering colors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tempering_standards_used_in_blacksmithing.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tempering_standards_used_in_blacksmithing.JPG/300px-Tempering_standards_used_in_blacksmithing.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tempering_standards_used_in_blacksmithing.JPG/450px-Tempering_standards_used_in_blacksmithing.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tempering_standards_used_in_blacksmithing.JPG/600px-Tempering_standards_used_in_blacksmithing.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1664" data-file-height="895" /></a><figcaption>Tempering colors of steel</figcaption></figure> <p>Steel that has been freshly ground or polished will form <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a> layers when heated. At a very specific temperature, the <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxide</a> will form a layer with a very specific thickness, causing <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_interference" title="Thin-film interference">thin-film interference</a>. This causes colors to appear on the surface of the steel. As the temperature is increased, the iron oxide layer grows in thickness, changing the color.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These colors, called tempering colors, have been used for centuries to gauge the temperature of the metal.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Edge_of_the_Anvil,98-99_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Edge_of_the_Anvil,98-99-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>350˚F (176˚C), light yellowish</li> <li>400˚F (204˚C), light-straw</li> <li>440˚F (226˚C), dark-straw</li> <li>500˚F (260˚C), brown</li> <li>540˚F (282˚C), purple</li> <li>590˚F (310˚C), deep blue</li> <li>640˚F (337˚C), light blue<sup id="cite_ref-New_Edge_of_the_Anvil,98-99_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Edge_of_the_Anvil,98-99-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The tempering colors can be used to judge the final properties of the tempered steel. Very hard tools are often tempered in the light to the dark straw range, whereas springs are often tempered to the blue. However, the final hardness of the tempered steel will vary, depending on the composition of the steel. Higher-carbon <a href="/wiki/Tool_steel" title="Tool steel">tool steel</a> will remain much harder after tempering than <a href="/wiki/Spring_steel" title="Spring steel">spring steel</a> (of slightly less carbon) when tempered at the same temperature. The oxide film will also increase in thickness over time. Therefore, steel that has been held at 400˚F for a very long time may turn brown or purple, even though the temperature never exceeded that needed to produce a light straw color. Other factors affecting the final outcome are oil films on the surface and the type of heat source used.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Edge_of_the_Anvil,98-99_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Edge_of_the_Anvil,98-99-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selective_heat_treating">Selective heat treating</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Selective heat treating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Differential_heat_treatment" title="Differential heat treatment">Differential heat treatment</a></div> <p>Many heat treating methods have been developed to alter the properties of only a portion of an object. These tend to consist of either cooling different areas of an alloy at different rates, by quickly heating in a localized area and then quenching, by thermochemical diffusion, or by tempering different areas of an object at different temperatures, such as in <a href="/wiki/Differential_tempering" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential tempering">differential tempering</a>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Need a reference for paragraph (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Differential_hardening">Differential hardening</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Differential hardening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Differential_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential hardening">Differential hardening</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Katana_hardened_edge_pic_with_inset_of_nioi.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Katana_hardened_edge_pic_with_inset_of_nioi.JPG/300px-Katana_hardened_edge_pic_with_inset_of_nioi.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Katana_hardened_edge_pic_with_inset_of_nioi.JPG/450px-Katana_hardened_edge_pic_with_inset_of_nioi.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Katana_hardened_edge_pic_with_inset_of_nioi.JPG/600px-Katana_hardened_edge_pic_with_inset_of_nioi.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2897" data-file-height="2464" /></a><figcaption>A differentially hardened katana. The bright, wavy line following the <a href="/wiki/Hamon_(swordsmithing)" title="Hamon (swordsmithing)">hamon</a>, called the nioi, separates the martensitic edge from the pearlitic back. The inset shows a close-up of the nioi, which is made up of individual martensite grains (niye) surrounded by pearlite. The wood-grain appearance comes from layers of different compositions.</figcaption></figure><p>Some techniques allow different areas of a single object to receive different heat treatments. This is called <a href="/wiki/Differential_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential hardening">differential hardening</a>. It is common in high quality <a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">knives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sword" title="Sword">swords</a>. The Chinese <a href="/wiki/Jian" title="Jian">jian</a> is one of the earliest known examples of this, and the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Katana" title="Katana">katana</a> may be the most widely known. The Nepalese <a href="/wiki/Khukuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Khukuri">Khukuri</a> is another example. This technique uses an insulating layer, like layers of clay, to cover the areas that are to remain soft. The areas to be hardened are left exposed, allowing only certain parts of the steel to fully harden when quenched. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Need a reference for paragraph (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flame_hardening">Flame hardening</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Flame hardening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Surface_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface hardening">Surface hardening</a></div> <p>Flame hardening is used to harden only a portion of the metal. Unlike differential hardening, where the entire piece is heated and then cooled at different rates, in flame hardening, only a portion of the metal is heated before quenching. This is usually easier than differential hardening, but often produces an extremely brittle zone between the heated metal and the unheated metal, as cooling at the edge of this <a href="/wiki/Heat-affected_zone" title="Heat-affected zone">heat-affected zone</a> is extremely rapid. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Need a reference for paragraph (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Induction_hardening">Induction hardening</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Induction hardening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Induction_hardening" title="Induction hardening">Induction hardening</a></div> <p>Induction hardening is a <a href="/wiki/Surface_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface hardening">surface hardening</a> technique in which the surface of the metal is heated very quickly, using a no-contact method of <a href="/wiki/Induction_heating" title="Induction heating">induction heating</a>. The alloy is then quenched, producing a martensite transformation at the surface while leaving the underlying metal unchanged. This creates a very hard, wear-resistant surface while maintaining the proper toughness in the majority of the object. <a href="/wiki/Crankshaft" title="Crankshaft">Crankshaft</a> journals are a good example of an induction hardened surface.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Case_hardening">Case hardening</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Case hardening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Case_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Case hardening">Case hardening</a></div> <p>Case hardening is a thermochemical diffusion process in which an alloying element, most commonly carbon or nitrogen, diffuses into the surface of a monolithic metal. The resulting interstitial solid solution is harder than the base material, which improves wear resistance without sacrificing toughness.<sup id="cite_ref-Dossett,_2006,_2-6_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dossett,_2006,_2-6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Laser surface engineering is a surface treatment with high versatility, selectivity and novel properties. Since the cooling rate is very high in laser treatment, metastable even metallic glass can be obtained by this method. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_and_cryogenic_treating">Cold and cryogenic treating</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cold and cryogenic treating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_treatment" title="Cryogenic treatment">Cryogenic treatment</a></div> <p>Although quenching steel causes the austenite to transform into martensite, all of the austenite usually does not transform. Some austenite crystals will remain unchanged even after quenching below the martensite finish (M<sub>f</sub>) temperature. Further transformation of the austenite into martensite can be induced by slowly cooling the metal to extremely low temperatures. Cold treating generally consists of cooling the steel to around -115˚F (-81˚C), but does not eliminate all of the austenite. Cryogenic treating usually consists of cooling to much lower temperatures, often in the range of -315˚F (-192˚C), to transform most of the austenite into martensite. </p><p>Cold and cryogenic treatments are typically done immediately after quenching, before any tempering, and will increase the hardness, wear resistance, and reduce the internal stresses in the metal but, because it is really an extension of the quenching process, it may increase the chances of cracking during the procedure. The process is often used for tools, bearings, or other items that require good wear resistance. However, it is usually only effective in high-carbon or high-alloy steels in which more than 10% austenite is retained after quenching.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decarburization">Decarburization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Decarburization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The heating of steel is sometimes used as a method to alter the carbon content. When steel is heated in an oxidizing environment, the oxygen combines with the iron to form an iron-oxide layer, which protects the steel from decarburization. When the steel turns to austenite, however, the oxygen combines with iron to form a slag, which provides no protection from decarburization. The formation of slag and scale actually increases decarburization, because the iron oxide keeps oxygen in contact with the decarburization zone even after the steel is moved into an oxygen-free environment, such as the coals of a forge. Thus, the carbon atoms begin combining with the surrounding scale and slag to form both <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, which is released into the air. </p><p>Steel contains a relatively small percentage of carbon, which can migrate freely within the gamma iron. When austenitized steel is exposed to air for long periods of time, the carbon content in the steel can be lowered. This is the opposite from what happens when steel is heated in a <a href="/wiki/Reducing_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing environment">reducing environment</a>, in which carbon slowly diffuses further into the metal. In an oxidizing environment, the carbon can readily diffuse outwardly, so austenitized steel is very susceptible to decarburization. This is often used for cast steel, where a high carbon-content is needed for casting, but a lower carbon-content is desired in the finished product. It is often used on cast-irons to produce <a href="/wiki/Malleable_cast_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Malleable cast iron">malleable cast iron</a>, in a process called "white tempering". This tendency to decarburize is often a problem in other operations, such as blacksmithing, where it becomes more desirable to austenize the steel for the shortest amount of time possible to prevent too much decarburization.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specification_of_heat_treatment">Specification of heat treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Specification of heat treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Usually the end condition is specified instead of the process used in heat treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-pmpa_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmpa-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_hardening_2">Case hardening</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Case hardening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg/400px-Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg/600px-Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg/800px-Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A modern, fully computerised case hardening furnace.</figcaption></figure> <p>Case hardening is specified by "hardness" and "case depth". The case depth can be specified in two ways: total case depth or effective case depth. The total case depth is the true depth of the case. For most alloys, the effective case depth is the depth of the case that has a hardness equivalent of HRC50; however, some alloys specify a different hardness (40-60 HRC) at effective case depth; this is checked on a Tukon microhardness tester. This value can be roughly approximated as 65% of the total case depth; however, the chemical composition and hardenability can affect this approximation. If neither type of case depth is specified the total case depth is assumed.<sup id="cite_ref-pmpa_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmpa-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For case hardened parts the specification should have a tolerance of at least ±0.005 in (0.13 mm). If the part is to be ground after heat treatment, the case depth is assumed to be after grinding.<sup id="cite_ref-pmpa_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmpa-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rockwell_hardness" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockwell hardness">Rockwell hardness</a> scale used for the specification depends on the depth of the total case depth, as shown in the table below. Usually, hardness is measured on the Rockwell "C" scale, but the load used on the scale will penetrate through the case if the case is less than 0.030 in (0.76 mm). Using Rockwell "C" for a thinner case will result in a false reading.<sup id="cite_ref-pmpa_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmpa-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Rockwell scale required for various case depths<sup id="cite_ref-pmpa_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmpa-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Total case depth, min. [in]</th> <th>Rockwell scale </th></tr> <tr> <td>0.030</td> <td>C </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.024</td> <td>A </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.021</td> <td>45 N </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.018</td> <td>30 N </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.015</td> <td>15 N </td></tr> <tr> <td>Less than 0.015</td> <td>"File hard" </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For cases that are less than 0.015 in (0.38 mm) thick a Rockwell scale cannot reliably be used, so <i><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="file_hard"></span><span class="vanchor-text">file hard</span></span></i> is specified instead.<sup id="cite_ref-pmpa_31-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmpa-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> File hard is approximately equivalent to 58 HRC.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When specifying the hardness either a range should be given or the minimum hardness specified. If a range is specified at least 5 points should be given.<sup id="cite_ref-pmpa_31-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmpa-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Through_hardening">Through hardening</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Through hardening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Only hardness is listed for through hardening. It is usually in the form of HRC with at least a five-point range.<sup id="cite_ref-pmpa_31-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmpa-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Annealing_2">Annealing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Annealing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hardness for an annealing process is usually listed on the HRB scale as a maximum value.<sup id="cite_ref-pmpa_31-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmpa-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a process to refine grain size, improve strength, remove residual stress, and affect the electromagnetic properties... </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_furnaces">Types of furnaces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Types of furnaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Furnaces used for heat treatment can be split into two broad categories: batch furnaces and continuous furnaces. Batch furnaces are usually manually loaded and unloaded, whereas continuous furnaces have an automatic conveying system to provide a constant load into the furnace chamber.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Batch_furnaces">Batch furnaces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Batch furnaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Batch systems usually consist of an insulated chamber with a steel shell, a <a href="/wiki/Heating_system" title="Heating system">heating system</a>, and an access door to the chamber.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Box-type_furnace">Box-type furnace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Box-type furnace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many basic box-type furnaces have been upgraded to a semi-continuous batch furnace with the addition of integrated quench tanks and slow-cool chambers. These upgraded furnaces are a very commonly used piece of equipment for heat-treating.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Car-type_furnace">Car-type furnace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Car-type furnace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Also known as a " bogie hearth", the car furnace is an extremely large batch furnace. The floor is constructed as an insulated movable car that is moved in and out of the furnace for loading and unloading. The car is usually sealed using sand seals or solid seals when in position. Due to the difficulty in getting a sufficient seal, car furnaces are usually used for non-atmosphere processes. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Need a reference for paragraph (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elevator-type_furnace">Elevator-type furnace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Elevator-type furnace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fluidised_Beds.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Fluidised_Beds.jpg/300px-Fluidised_Beds.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="542" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Fluidised_Beds.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>Fluidised bed heat treatment line</figcaption></figure> <p>Similar in type to the car furnace, except that the car and hearth are rolled into position beneath the furnace and raised by means of a motor-driven mechanism, elevator furnaces can handle large heavy loads and often eliminate the need for any external <a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">cranes</a> and transfer mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bell-type_furnace">Bell-type furnace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Bell-type furnace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bell furnaces have removable covers called <i>bells</i>, which are lowered over the load and hearth by crane. An inner bell is placed over the hearth and sealed to supply a protective atmosphere. An outer bell is lowered to provide the heat supply.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pit_furnaces">Pit furnaces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Pit furnaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Furnaces that are constructed in a pit and extend to floor level or slightly above are called pit furnaces. Workpieces can be suspended from fixtures, held in baskets, or placed on bases in the furnace. Pit furnaces are suited to heating long tubes, shafts, and rods by holding them in a vertical position. This manner of loading provides minimal distortion.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salt_bath_furnaces">Salt bath furnaces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Salt bath furnaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Salt baths are used in a wide variety of heat treatment processes including neutral hardening, liquid carburising, <a href="/wiki/Nitriding#Salt_bath_nitriding" title="Nitriding">liquid nitriding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">austempering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">martempering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">tempering</a>. </p><p>Parts are loaded into a pot of <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt" title="Molten salt">molten salt</a> where they are heated by <a href="/wiki/Conduction_(heat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction (heat)">conduction</a>, giving a very readily available source of heat. The core temperature of a part rises in temperature at approximately the same rate as its surface in a salt bath.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Salt baths utilize a variety of salts for heat treatment, with cyanide salts being the most extensively used. Concerns about associated occupation health and safety, and expensive waste management and disposal due to their environmental effects have made the use of salt baths less attractive in recent years. Consequently, many salt baths are being replaced by more environmentally friendly fluidized bed furnaces.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fluidised_bed_furnaces">Fluidised bed furnaces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Fluidised bed furnaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Fluidised_bed" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluidised bed">fluidised bed</a> consists of a cylindrical <a href="/wiki/Retort" title="Retort">retort</a> made from high-temperature alloy, filled with sand-like aluminum oxide particulate. Gas (air or nitrogen) is bubbled through the oxide and the sand moves in such a way that it exhibits fluid-like behavior, hence the term <i>fluidized</i>. The solid-solid contact of the oxide gives very high <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a> and excellent temperature uniformity throughout the furnace, comparable to those seen in a salt bath.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">Carbon steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonizing">Carbonizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_hardening" title="Diffusion hardening">Diffusion hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_hardening" title="Induction hardening">Induction hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrogression_heat_treatment" title="Retrogression heat treatment">Retrogression heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitriding" title="Nitriding">Nitriding</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Abdul_Wasy_ZIA-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Abdul_Wasy_ZIA_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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Davis - ASM International 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Heat treater's guide: practices and procedures for irons and steels</i> By ASM International - ASM International 2007 Page 12-13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Handbook of residual stress and deformation of steel</i> by George E. Totten, Maurice A. H. Howes, Tatsuo Inoue - ASM International 2002 Page 331-337</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies</i> By George E. Totten -- CRC press 2007 Page 306--308</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmpa-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmpa_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmpa_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmpa_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmpa_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmpa_31-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmpa_31-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmpa_31-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmpa_31-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmpa_31-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090714183935/http://pmpa.org/technology/design/heattreatment.htm">"PMPA's Designer's Guide: Heat treatment"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pmpa.org/technology/design/heattreatment.htm">the original</a> on 2009-07-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-06-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PMPA%27s+Designer%27s+Guide%3A+Heat+treatment&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pmpa.org%2Ftechnology%2Fdesign%2Fheattreatment.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+treating" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phone interview with the quality control inspector for FPM, Elk Grove Village, IL. 06-21-2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">ASM International Handbook Committee. (1991). <i>ASM Handbook</i>, Volume 04 - Heat Treating. ASM International.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://claytonholdings.madeinthemidlands.com/news/fluidised-beds-a-green-alternative-to-salt-baths/813">"Made in the Midlands | Fluidised beds: A Green Alternative to Salt Baths"</a>. <i>claytonholdings.madeinthemidlands.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160207021500/http://claytonholdings.madeinthemidlands.com/news/fluidised-beds-a-green-alternative-to-salt-baths/813">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-02-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-06-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=claytonholdings.madeinthemidlands.com&rft.atitle=Made+in+the+Midlands+%7C+Fluidised+beds%3A+A+Green+Alternative+to+Salt+Baths&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclaytonholdings.madeinthemidlands.com%2Fnews%2Ffluidised-beds-a-green-alternative-to-salt-baths%2F813&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+treating" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_treating&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>International Heat Treatment Magazine <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://metalspain.com/TEnglish.html">in English</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed-Hill1994" class="citation book cs1">Reed-Hill, Robert (1994). <i>Principles of Physical Metallurgy</i> (3rd ed.). 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