CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of the United States Space Force - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"d8d330d9-e0a4-4d9c-9207-8dac08bedad4","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force","wgTitle":"History of the United States Space Force","wgCurRevisionId":1256269699,"wgRevisionId":1256269699,"wgArticleId":66185637,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["All articles with bare URLs for citations","Articles with bare URLs for citations from March 2022","Articles with PDF format bare URLs for citations","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from November 2024","Articles with permanently dead external links","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata", "Articles needing cleanup from June 2022","Articles with bare URLs for citations from June 2022","Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from June 2022","All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify","Use dmy dates from January 2021","Pages using sidebar with the child parameter","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2022","History of the United States Armed Forces by service branch","United States Space Force","History of the United States by topic","History of spaceflight"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force","wgRelevantArticleId":66185637,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0, "wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q105062999","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options": "loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022", "ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg/1200px-General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1534"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg/800px-General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1023"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg/640px-General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="818"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of the United States Space Force - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force rootpage-History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Early_military_space_development_(1945–1957)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_military_space_development_(1945–1957)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Early military space development (1945–1957)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_military_space_development_(1945–1957)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post–Sputnik_crisis_and_organizational_reforms_(1957–1961)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post–Sputnik_crisis_and_organizational_reforms_(1957–1961)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Post–Sputnik crisis and organizational reforms (1957–1961)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post–Sputnik_crisis_and_organizational_reforms_(1957–1961)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post–Sputnik crisis and organizational reforms (1957–1961) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post–Sputnik_crisis_and_organizational_reforms_(1957–1961)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_the_Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Establishment of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gaining_the_military_space_mission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaining_the_military_space_mission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Gaining the military space mission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaining_the_military_space_mission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kennedy_Administration_and_establishment_of_Air_Force_Systems_Command" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kennedy_Administration_and_establishment_of_Air_Force_Systems_Command"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Kennedy Administration and establishment of Air Force Systems Command</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kennedy_Administration_and_establishment_of_Air_Force_Systems_Command-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_forces_in_the_Cold_War_(1961–1982)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_forces_in_the_Cold_War_(1961–1982)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Space forces in the Cold War (1961–1982)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Space_forces_in_the_Cold_War_(1961–1982)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Space forces in the Cold War (1961–1982) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Space_forces_in_the_Cold_War_(1961–1982)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crewed_military_spaceflight_programs_and_military_support_to_NASA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crewed_military_spaceflight_programs_and_military_support_to_NASA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Crewed military spaceflight programs and military support to NASA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crewed_military_spaceflight_programs_and_military_support_to_NASA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deployment_of_military_satellite_communications_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deployment_of_military_satellite_communications_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Deployment of military satellite communications systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deployment_of_military_satellite_communications_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deployment_of_military_weather_observation_satellite_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deployment_of_military_weather_observation_satellite_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Deployment of military weather observation satellite systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deployment_of_military_weather_observation_satellite_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_the_Global_Positioning_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_the_Global_Positioning_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Development of the Global Positioning System</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_the_Global_Positioning_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deployment_of_space-based_missile_warning_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deployment_of_space-based_missile_warning_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Deployment of space-based missile warning systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deployment_of_space-based_missile_warning_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_defense_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_defense_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Space defense operations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_defense_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_launch_fleet_and_ground_support_infrastructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_launch_fleet_and_ground_support_infrastructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Space launch fleet and ground support infrastructure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_launch_fleet_and_ground_support_infrastructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_forces_in_the_Vietnam_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_forces_in_the_Vietnam_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Space forces in the Vietnam War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_forces_in_the_Vietnam_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_Force_Space_Command_(1982–2019)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_Force_Space_Command_(1982–2019)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Air Force Space Command (1982–2019)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Air_Force_Space_Command_(1982–2019)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Air Force Space Command (1982–2019) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Air_Force_Space_Command_(1982–2019)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inactivation_of_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inactivation_of_Aerospace_Defense_Command"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Inactivation of Aerospace Defense Command</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inactivation_of_Aerospace_Defense_Command-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_Air_Force_Space_Command" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_Air_Force_Space_Command"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Establishment of Air Force Space Command</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_Air_Force_Space_Command-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_forces_in_the_Gulf_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_forces_in_the_Gulf_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Space forces in the Gulf War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_forces_in_the_Gulf_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Space_Commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Space_Commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>The Space Commission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Space_Commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_forces_in_the_Global_War_on_Terrorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_forces_in_the_Global_War_on_Terrorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Space forces in the Global War on Terrorism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_forces_in_the_Global_War_on_Terrorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independent_Space_Force_(2019–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_Space_Force_(2019–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Independent Space Force (2019–present)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Independent_Space_Force_(2019–present)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Independent Space Force (2019–present) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Independent_Space_Force_(2019–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proposals_of_service_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposals_of_service_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Proposals of service independence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposals_of_service_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Raymond_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Raymond_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Raymond era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Raymond_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the United States Space Force</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 1 language" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-1" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">1 language</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ قوة الفضاء الأمريكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ قوة الفضاء الأمريكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q105062999#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&oldid=1256269699" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&id=1256269699&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_the_United_States_Space_Force"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_the_United_States_Space_Force"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q105062999" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup_bare_URLs plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-cleanup-link_rot" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>uses <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs">bare URLs</a>, which are uninformative and vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">link rot</a>.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please consider converting them to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Citation_styles" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citations</a> to ensure the article remains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifiable</a> and maintains a consistent citation style. <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Template_index/Sources_of_articles#Examples" title="Wikipedia:Template index/Sources of articles">Several templates</a> and tools are available to assist in formatting, such as <span class="nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://refill.toolforge.org/ng/result.php?page=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&defaults=y">reFill</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ReFill" title="Wikipedia:ReFill">documentation</a>)</span> and <span class="nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://citations.toolforge.org/process_page.php?edit=automated_tools&slow=1&page=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force">Citation bot</a> (<a href="/wiki/User:Citation_bot" title="User:Citation bot">documentation</a>)</span>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg/220px-General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg/330px-General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg/440px-General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>General <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Schriever" title="Bernard Schriever">Bernard Schriever</a>, father of the United States Space Force and military space.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1234909266">.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar{width:22.0em;border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:#002868;color:#FFFFFF;background-clip:padding-box}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a,.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-list-title a,.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .mw-collapsible-text{color:#FFFFFF}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-caption{padding-bottom:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-list-content{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-list-title{text-align:center;background:#bf0a30;color:#FFFFFF}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks US-history-sidebar vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b>This article is part of a series on the</b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States"><small>History of the </small><br />United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Timeline and periods</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b> and <b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">until 1607</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial Era</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1607–1765</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1765–1783</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1783–1788</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1788–1801</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1801–1817</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1817–1825</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1825–1849</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1849–1865</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1865–1877</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1877–1896</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1896–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1929–1941</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Post-World War II Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–1964</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1954–1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1954–1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1964–1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Era">Reagan Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1981–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post-Cold War Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991–2008</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    Modern Era</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">2008–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">Civil unrest</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Racial violence</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_flags_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime history of the United States">Maritime</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">Social class</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African_American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Indian Americans">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans#History" title="German Americans">German American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transgender_people_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of transgender people in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Places</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_regions_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Historic regions of the United States">Historic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Regions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">AL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">AK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">AZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">AR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">CA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">CO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">CT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">DE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">FL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">GA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">HI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">ID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">IL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">IN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">IA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">KS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">KY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">LA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">ME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">MD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">MA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">MI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">MN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">MS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">MO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">MT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">NE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">NV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">NH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">NJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">NM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">NY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">NC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">ND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">OH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">OK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">OR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">PA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">RI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">SC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">SD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">TN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">TX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">UT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">VT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">VA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">WA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">WV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">WI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">WY</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Territories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">DC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">AS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">GU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">MP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">PR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">VI</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Space_program_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Space program of the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding: 0 0.2em; font-size: 120%"><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">United States space program</a></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:NASA_logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NASA_logo.svg/90px-NASA_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NASA_logo.svg/135px-NASA_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NASA_logo.svg/180px-NASA_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="92" /></a></span><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_Space_Force_logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/United_States_Space_Force_logo.svg/90px-United_States_Space_Force_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/United_States_Space_Force_logo.svg/135px-United_States_Space_Force_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/United_States_Space_Force_logo.svg/180px-United_States_Space_Force_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; background: transparent; padding-left: 5px; padding-top: 3px; font-size: 95%"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">U.S. Space Force</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; background: transparent; text-align: left; padding-left: 5px; padding-top: 3px;color: var(--color-base)">Human spaceflight programs</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle-Mir_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuttle-Mir Program">Shuttle–<i>Mir</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station_program" class="mw-redirect" title="International Space Station program">International Space Station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Program" title="Commercial Crew Program">Commercial Crew</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constellation_program" title="Constellation program">Constellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Gateway" title="Lunar Gateway">Lunar Gateway</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; background: transparent; text-align: left; padding-left: 5px; padding-top: 3px;color: var(--color-base)">Robotic spaceflight programs</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Resupply_Services" title="Commercial Resupply Services">CRS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explorers_Program" title="Explorers Program">Explorers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gateway_Logistics_Services" title="Gateway Logistics Services">GLS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Strategic_Science_Missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Large Strategic Science Missions">Large Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Orbiter_program" title="Lunar Orbiter program">Lunar Orbiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Precursor_Robotic_Program" title="Lunar Precursor Robotic Program">Lunar Precursor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariner_program" title="Mariner program">Mariner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Program" title="Mars Exploration Program">Mars Exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Millennium_program" class="mw-redirect" title="New Millennium program">New Millennium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_program" title="Pioneer program">Pioneer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_Missions_Program_Office" title="Planetary Missions Program Office">Planetary Missions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovery program">Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Frontiers_program" title="New Frontiers program">New Frontiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_Missions_Program_Office#Solar_System_Exploration" title="Planetary Missions Program Office">Solar System Exploration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_Observer_program" title="Planetary Observer program">Planetary Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranger_program" title="Ranger program">Ranger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveyor_program" title="Surveyor program">Surveyor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Vanguard" title="Project Vanguard">Vanguard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_program" title="Viking program">Viking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyager_program" title="Voyager program">Voyager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-37" title="Boeing X-37">X-37</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; background: transparent; text-align: left; padding-left: 5px; padding-top: 3px;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Corps" title="NASA Astronaut Corps">NASA Astronaut Corps</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_Seven" title="Mercury Seven">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gemini_astronauts" title="List of Gemini astronauts">Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Apollo_astronauts" title="List of Apollo astronauts">Apollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_crews" title="List of Space Shuttle crews">Space Shuttle</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; background: transparent; text-align: left; padding-left: 5px; padding-top: 3px;color: var(--color-base)">Spaceports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Range" title="Eastern Range">Eastern Range</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral Space Force Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallops_Flight_Facility" title="Wallops Flight Facility">Wallops Flight Facility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Regional_Spaceport" title="Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport">Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Spaceport_Complex_%E2%80%93_Alaska" title="Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska">Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Range_(USSF)" title="Western Range (USSF)">Western Range</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Space_Force_Base" title="Vandenberg Space Force Base">Vandenberg Space Force Base</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; background: transparent; text-align: left; padding-left: 5px; padding-top: 3px;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_orbital_launch_systems#United_States" title="List of orbital launch systems">Space launch vehicles</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firefly_Alpha" title="Firefly Alpha"><i>Alpha</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antares_(rocket)" title="Antares (rocket)">Antares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_V" title="Atlas V">Atlas V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_Lab_Electron" title="Rocket Lab Electron">Electron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falcon_9" title="Falcon 9">Falcon 9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falcon_Heavy" title="Falcon Heavy">Falcon Heavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LauncherOne" title="LauncherOne">LauncherOne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minotaur_(rocket_family)" title="Minotaur (rocket family)">Minotaur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minotaur_I" title="Minotaur I">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minotaur_III" title="Minotaur III"><i>III</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minotaur_IV" title="Minotaur IV">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minotaur_V" title="Minotaur V">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minotaur-C" title="Minotaur-C">C</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Glenn" title="New Glenn">New Glenn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_Pegasus" title="Northrop Grumman Pegasus">Pegasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Launch_System" title="Space Launch System">Space Launch System</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship" title="SpaceX Starship">Starship</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcan_Centaur" title="Vulcan Centaur">Vulcan Centaur</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; background: transparent; text-align: left; padding-left: 5px; padding-top: 3px;color: var(--color-base)">National security space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">United States Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; background: transparent; text-align: left; padding-left: 5px; padding-top: 3px;color: var(--color-base)">Civil space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy_national_laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Department of Energy national laboratories">Department of Energy national laboratories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Commercial_Space_Transportation" title="Office of Commercial Space Transportation">Office of Commercial Space Transportation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Environmental_Satellite,_Data,_and_Information_Service" title="National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service">National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Space_Commerce" title="Office of Space Commerce">Office of Space Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Weather_Prediction_Center" title="Space Weather Prediction Center">Space Weather Prediction Center</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_State_for_Economic_Growth,_Energy,_and_the_Environment" title="Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment">Department of State Office of Space Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Science_and_Technology_Policy" title="Office of Science and Technology Policy">Office of Science and Technology Policy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; background: transparent; text-align: left; padding-left: 5px; padding-top: 3px;color: var(--color-base)">Commercial space industry</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astra_(American_spaceflight_company)" title="Astra (American spaceflight company)">Astra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ball_Aerospace_%26_Technologies" title="Ball Aerospace & Technologies">Ball Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigelow_Aerospace" title="Bigelow Aerospace">Bigelow Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Origin" title="Blue Origin">Blue Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_Defense,_Space_%26_Security" title="Boeing Defense, Space & Security">Boeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefly_Aerospace" title="Firefly Aerospace">Firefly Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_Space" title="Lockheed Martin Space">Lockheed Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raytheon_Intelligence_%26_Space" title="Raytheon Intelligence & Space">Raytheon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_Lab" title="Rocket Lab">Rocket Lab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_Innovation_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems">Northrop Grumman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_Corporation" title="Sierra Nevada Corporation">Sierra Nevada Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SSL_(company)" title="SSL (company)">SSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Launch_Alliance" title="United Launch Alliance">United Launch Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Galactic" title="Virgin Galactic">Virgin Galactic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Orbit" title="Virgin Orbit">Virgin Orbit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_space_program_sidebar" title="Template:United States space program sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_space_program_sidebar" title="Template talk:United States space program sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_space_program_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States space program sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>While the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">United States Space Force</a> gained its independence on 20 December 2019, the <b>history of the United States Space Force</b> can be traced back to the beginnings of the military space program following the conclusion of the Second World War in 1945. Early military space development was begun within the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a> by General <a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Arnold" title="Henry H. Arnold">Henry H. Arnold</a>, who identified space as a crucial military arena decades before the first spaceflight. Gaining its independence from the Army on 18 September 1947, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> began development of military space and ballistic missile programs, while also competing with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> for the space mission. </p><p>In 1954, the Air Force created its first space organization, the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Western Development Division</a>, under the leadership of General <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Schriever" title="Bernard Schriever">Bernard Schriever</a>. The Western Development Division and its successor organization, the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, were instrumental in developing the first United States military launch vehicles and spacecraft, competing predominantly with the <a href="/wiki/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency" title="Army Ballistic Missile Agency">Army Ballistic Missile Agency</a> under the leadership of General <a href="/wiki/John_Bruce_Medaris" title="John Bruce Medaris">John Bruce Medaris</a> and former German scientist <a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a>. The launch of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> spurred a massive reorganization of military space and the 1958 establishment of the <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> was a short-lived effort to centralized management of military space, with some fearing it would become a military service for space, with authorities being returned to the services in 1959. The establishment of <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> in 1958, however, completely decimated the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, resulting in the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division serving as the primary military space organization. In 1961, the Air Force was designated as the Department of Defense's executive agent for space and Air Research and Development Command was reorganized into Air Force Systems Command, with the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division being replaced by the Space Systems Division - the first Air Force division solely focused on space. In the 1960s, military space activities began to be operationalized, with <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Aerospace Defense Command</a> taking control of missile warning and space surveillance on behalf of <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">NORAD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a> assuming the weather reconnaissance mission, and <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command" title="Air Force Systems Command">Air Force Systems Command</a> operating the first generations of communications satellites on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency" title="Defense Information Systems Agency">Defense Communications Agency</a>. In 1967, the Space Systems Division and Ballistic Missiles Division were merged to form the Space and Missile Systems Organization, which began to develop the next generation of satellite communications, space-based missile warning, space launch vehicles and infrastructure, and the predecessor to the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a>. Space forces also saw their first employment in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, providing weather and communications support to ground and air forces. </p><p>The disjointed nature of military space forces across three military commands resulted in a reevaluation of space force organization within the Air Force. In 1979, the Space and Missile Systems Organization was split, forming the Space Division, and in 1980, Aerospace Defense Command was inactivated and its space forces transferred to Strategic Air Command. Resulting from internal and external pressures, including an effort by a congressman to rename the Air Force into the Aerospace Force and the possibility that President Reagan would direct the creation of a space force as a separate military branch, the Air Force directed the formation of <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Space Command">Air Force Space Command</a> in 1982. During the 1980s, Air Force Space Command absorbed the space missions of Strategic Air Command and the launch mission from Air Force Systems Command. Space forces provided space support during the <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1986_United_States_bombing_of_Libya" title="1986 United States bombing of Libya">1986 United States bombing of Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Earnest_Will" title="Operation Earnest Will">Operation Earnest Will</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a>. The first major employment of space forces culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a>, where space forces proved so critical to the U.S.-led coalition, that it is sometimes referred to as the first space war. </p><p>Following the end of the Gulf War, the Air Force came under intense congressional scrutiny by seeking to artificially merge its air and space operations into a seamless aerospace continuum, without regard for the differences between space and air. The 2001 Space Commission criticized the Air Force for institutionalizing the primacy of aviation pilots over space officers in Air Force Space Command, for stifling the development of an independent space culture, and not paying sufficient budgetary attention to space. The Space Commission recommended the formation of a Space Corps within the Air Force between 2007 and 2011, with an independent Space Force to be created at a later date. The <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a> derailed most progress in space development, resulting in the inactivation of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a> and beginning a period of atrophy in military space. The only major change to occur was the transfer of the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Space and Missile Systems Center</a> from Air Force Materiel Command to Air Force Space Command. Following the inactivation of U.S. Space Command in 2002, Russia and China began developing sophisticated on-orbit capabilities and an array of counter-space weapons, with the <a href="/wiki/2007_Chinese_anti-satellite_missile_test" title="2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test">2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test</a> of particular concern as it created 2,841 high-velocity debris items, a larger amount of dangerous space junk than any other space event in history. On 29 August 2019, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a> was reestablished as a geographic combatant command. </p><p>In response to advances by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Forces" title="Russian Space Forces">Russian Space Forces</a> and Chinese <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force</a> and frustrated by the Air Force's focus on fighters at the expense of space, Democratic Representative <a href="/wiki/Jim_Cooper" title="Jim Cooper">Jim Cooper</a> and Republican Representative <a href="/wiki/Mike_Rogers_(Alabama_politician)" title="Mike Rogers (Alabama politician)">Mike Rogers</a> introduced a bipartisan proposal to establish the United States Space Corps in 2017. While the Space Corps proposal failed in the senate, in 2019, the United States Space Force was signed into law, with Air Force Space Command becoming the United States Space Force and elevated to become the sixth military service in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">United States Armed Forces</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_military_space_development_(1945–1957)"><span id="Early_military_space_development_.281945.E2.80.931957.29"></span>Early military space development (1945–1957)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early military space development (1945–1957)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early American military space activities began immediately after the conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>. On 20 June 1944, <a href="/wiki/MW_18014" title="MW 18014">MW 18014</a>, a German <i><a href="/wiki/German_Army_(1935%E2%80%931945)" title="German Army (1935–1945)">Heer</a></i> <a href="/wiki/V-2_rocket" title="V-2 rocket">A-4</a> <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_missile" title="Ballistic missile">ballistic missile</a> launched from the <a href="/wiki/Peenem%C3%BCnde_Army_Research_Center" title="Peenemünde Army Research Center">Peenemünde Army Research Center</a> became the first artificial object to cross the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line" title="Kármán line">Kármán line</a>, the boundary between air and space. The A-4 ballistic missile, more commonly known as the V-2, was used by the German <i><a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></i> to launch long ranged attacks on <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied Forces</a> cities on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a>, however its designer, <a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a>, had aspirations to use it as a space launch vehicle, defecting to the United States at the end of the war. A number of former German scientists, along with significant amounts of research material, were covertly moved to the United States as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Operation Paperclip</a>, jumpstarting the space program.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg/220px-Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg/330px-Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg/440px-Atlas-B_ICBM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="482" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Test launch of a <a href="/wiki/SM-65B_Atlas" title="SM-65B Atlas">SM-65B Atlas</a> intercontinental ballistic missile from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Launch_Complex_14" title="Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 14">Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 14</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 12 November 1945, <a href="/wiki/General_of_the_Army_(United_States)" title="General of the Army (United States)">General of the Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Arnold" title="Henry H. Arnold">Henry H. Arnold</a>, the commanding general of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a>, sent a report to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Patterson" title="Robert P. Patterson">Robert P. Patterson</a> emphasizing that the future <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> would need to invest heavily in space and ballistic missile capabilities, rather than just focus on current aircraft. General Arnold received strong backing from <a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a>, the head of the Army Air Forces <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Advisory_Group" title="Scientific Advisory Group">Scientific Advisory Group</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Scientific_Advisory_Board" title="United States Air Force Scientific Advisory Board">United States Air Force Scientific Advisory Board</a>. A 1946 study by <a href="/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">Project RAND</a>, directed by General Arnold and conducted by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Ridenour" title="Louis Ridenour">Louis Ridenour</a> to determine the feasibility of a <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">strategic reconnaissance satellite</a>, identified nearly all future space mission areas, including intelligence, <a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">weather forecasting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">satellite communications</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">satellite navigation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first instance of <a href="/wiki/Interservice_rivalry" title="Interservice rivalry">interservice rivalries</a> in military space development occurred in 1946, when the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Aeronautics" title="Bureau of Aeronautics">Bureau of Aeronautics</a> Electronics Division proposed testing the feasibility of an artificial satellite, however it was unable to get Navy funding to attempt a launch, instead requesting a joint program with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a> Aeronautical Board. General <a href="/wiki/Carl_Spaatz" title="Carl Spaatz">Carl Spaatz</a>, commanding general of the Army Air Forces and later the first <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force">chief of staff of the Air Force</a> and Major General <a href="/wiki/Curtis_LeMay" title="Curtis LeMay">Curtis LeMay</a>, then Deputy Chief of Staff for Research and Development, denied the Navy's request, as their position was that military space was an extension of <a href="/wiki/Airpower" title="Airpower">strategic air power</a> and thus an Air Force mission. By 1948, the Navy had suspended its satellite program, focusing instead on rocketry. On 18 September 1947, the Army Air Forces gained their independence as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a>. While the Air Force still held claim that military space was its domain, the new service prioritized conventional <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bomber" title="Strategic bomber">strategic bombers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">fighter aircraft</a> over long-term <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_missile" title="Ballistic missile">ballistic missile</a> and space development. <sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Titan_1_ICBM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Titan_1_ICBM.jpg/220px-Titan_1_ICBM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Titan_1_ICBM.jpg/330px-Titan_1_ICBM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Titan_1_ICBM.jpg/440px-Titan_1_ICBM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1958" data-file-height="2937" /></a><figcaption>Test launch of a <a href="/wiki/HGM-25A_Titan_I" title="HGM-25A Titan I">HGM-25A Titan I</a> intercontinental ballistic missile from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Launch_Complex_19" title="Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 19">Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 19</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Each of the three services continued to have independent ballistic missile and space development programs, with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Ordnance_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Army Ordnance Department">United States Army Ordnance Department</a> running <a href="/wiki/Hermes_program" title="Hermes program">Project Hermes</a> out of <a href="/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range" title="White Sands Missile Range">White Sands</a>, albeit with representatives from the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Research_Laboratory" title="Air Force Research Laboratory">Air Force Cambridge Research Center</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory" title="United States Naval Research Laboratory">Naval Research Laboratory</a>. The Army saw rocketry and missiles as an extension of <a href="/wiki/Field_Artillery_Branch_(United_States)" title="Field Artillery Branch (United States)">Artillery</a> and on 24 February 1949 launched a <a href="/wiki/RTV-G-4_Bumper" title="RTV-G-4 Bumper">RTV-G-4 Bumper</a> rocket to an altitude of 393 kilometers. This set the stage for future Army space and missile developments under <a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a> initially at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Bliss" title="Fort Bliss">Fort Bliss</a> and after 1950 at <a href="/wiki/Redstone_Arsenal" title="Redstone Arsenal">Redstone Arsenal</a>, who would later go on to develop the <a href="/wiki/PGM-11_Redstone" title="PGM-11 Redstone">PGM-11 Redstone</a> <a href="/wiki/Short-range_ballistic_missile" title="Short-range ballistic missile">short-range ballistic missile</a>, <a href="/wiki/PGM-19_Jupiter" title="PGM-19 Jupiter">PGM-19 Jupiter</a> <a href="/wiki/Medium-range_ballistic_missile" title="Medium-range ballistic missile">medium-range ballistic missile</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Juno_I" title="Juno I">Juno I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Juno_II" title="Juno II">Juno II</a> launch vehicles. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> space research was run primarily through the civilian-led <a href="/wiki/Applied_Physics_Laboratory" title="Applied Physics Laboratory">Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory" title="United States Naval Research Laboratory">Naval Research Laboratory</a>, while the Army and Air Force organized their military space development under military programs. The Navy developed the <a href="/wiki/Aerobee" title="Aerobee">Aerobee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viking_(rocket)" title="Viking (rocket)">Viking</a> rockets. The United States Air Force centralized its missile program under <a href="/wiki/Air_Materiel_Command" title="Air Materiel Command">Air Materiel Command</a>, cutting its programs significantly due to the <a href="/wiki/Demobilization_of_United_States_armed_forces_after_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Demobilization of United States armed forces after World War II">Truman drawdown</a> after the Second World War. This eliminated the <a href="/wiki/RTV-A-2_Hiroc" title="RTV-A-2 Hiroc">RTV-A-2 Hiroc</a>, which was the Air Force's only long-range missile program.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the Air Force's sweeping cuts to research and development, in 1949, General <a href="/wiki/Hoyt_Vandenberg" title="Hoyt Vandenberg">Hoyt Vandenberg</a>, the second chief of staff of the Air Force, commissioned two reports on which came to the conclusion that abdicating its missile and space activities could result in the Army and Navy taking over those responsibilities. In response, on 23 January 1950, the Air Force established a deputy chief of staff of the Air Force for research and on 1 February 1950 activated <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command" title="Air Force Systems Command">Air Research and Development Command</a> (ARDC). Air Research and Development Command absorbed Air Materiel Command's engineering division and became responsible for Air Force missile and space programs. The outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> led to the Air Force regaining a significant amount of funding, and in January 1951, ARDC began development on the <a href="/wiki/Convair" title="Convair">Convair</a> <a href="/wiki/SM-65_Atlas" title="SM-65 Atlas">SM-65 Atlas</a> <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missile</a>, however ballistic missiles had a number of skeptics on the <a href="/wiki/Air_Staff_(United_States)" title="Air Staff (United States)">Air Staff</a>, which led to reduced funding and slowed development. In April 1951, Project RAND released two studies on military satellite development, with one titled "Utility of a Satellite Vehicle for Reconnaissance" and the other "Inquiring into the Feasibility of Weather Reconnaissance from a Satellite Vehicle." The reports were enthusiastically received at Air Research and Development Command, which started a number of satellite design programs. In late 1953, ARDC assigned the satellite program the designation of Weapons Systems 117L (WS-117L), also known as the Advanced Reconnaissance System (ARS), beginning development at the <a href="/wiki/Aeronautical_Systems_Center" title="Aeronautical Systems Center">Wright Air Development Center</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to the cautious approach of Air Research and Development Command and delaying tactics by the Air Staff, assistant secretary of the Air Force for research and development <a href="/wiki/Trevor_Gardner" title="Trevor Gardner">Trevor Gardner</a> convened the <a href="/wiki/Teapot_Committee" title="Teapot Committee">Strategic Missiles Evaluation Committee</a> led by <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> to accelerate ballistic missile development. The findings of the von Neumann Committee and a parallel RAND study resulted in the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Western Development Division</a> (WDD) under Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Schriever" title="Bernard Schriever">Bernard Schriever</a>, a protégé of General of the Air Force Hap Arnold, on 1 July 1954. The Western Development Division, organized under Air Research and Development Command, was given total responsibility for all ballistic missile development.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Western Development Division pioneered the use of parallel development, increasing the cost of the program, but ensuring redundancies to speed development times. Its primary program was the <a href="/wiki/Convair" title="Convair">Convair</a> <a href="/wiki/SM-65_Atlas" title="SM-65 Atlas">SM-65 Atlas</a> ICBM, developing the <a href="/wiki/Martin_Marietta" title="Martin Marietta">Martin Marietta</a> <a href="/wiki/HGM-25A_Titan_I" title="HGM-25A Titan I">HGM-25A Titan I</a> ICBM as a backup, in case of the failure of the Atlas. Ultimately both missiles were put into service. On 10 October 1955, responsibility for the development of military satellites, to include the Advanced Reconnaissance System, was transferred from the <a href="/wiki/Aeronautical_Systems_Center" title="Aeronautical Systems Center">Wright Air Development Center</a> to the Western Development Division.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1954, Congress authorized the government to begin development of a satellite to be launched for the <a href="/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">International Geophysical Year</a>. Each of the military services sought to compete to launch a satellite from their service for the competition, however the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a> directed that it not detract from the Air Force Western Development Division's ballistic missile development program. The initially IGY scientific satellite was intended to establish the legal doctrine of "freedom of space," enabling spacecraft to fly over any country. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Ordnance_Corps" title="United States Army Ordnance Corps">Army Ordnance Corps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Research" title="Office of Naval Research">Office of Naval Research</a> jointly proposed <a href="/wiki/Project_Orbiter" title="Project Orbiter">Project Orbiter</a>, which was led by Army Major General <a href="/wiki/John_Bruce_Medaris" title="John Bruce Medaris">John Bruce Medaris</a> and Army scientist <a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a>. The Army was responsible for developing the booster, based on the <a href="/wiki/PGM-19_Jupiter" title="PGM-19 Jupiter">PGM-19 Jupiter</a>, while the Navy was responsible for the satellite, tracking facilities, and data analysis. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory" title="United States Naval Research Laboratory">Naval Research Laboratory</a>, however, proposed the single-service <a href="/wiki/Project_Vanguard" title="Project Vanguard">Project Vanguard</a>, developing the <a href="/wiki/Vanguard_(rocket)" title="Vanguard (rocket)">Vanguard</a> rocket and <a href="/wiki/Vanguard_1" title="Vanguard 1">satellite</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Minitrack" title="Minitrack">Minitrack</a> satellite tracking network. The Air Force Western Development Division initially declined to participate, focusing on military space programs rather than scientific endeavors, but was directed by the Department of Defense to put forward a proposal — an <a href="/wiki/SM-65C_Atlas" title="SM-65C Atlas">SM-65C Atlas</a> booster with an <a href="/wiki/Aerobee" title="Aerobee">Aerobee-Hi</a> space probe. Ultimately, the Defense Department selected the Navy's Project Vanguard, and although it thought that the Western Development Divisions's proposal showed great promise, it did not want to interfere with the development of the Atlas ICBM.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 1 August 1957, the Western Development Division was redesignated as the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division (AFBMD). Two months later, on 4 October 1957, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> beat the United States into space, launching <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a>. The launch of Sputnik greatly embarrassed the United States, which had the year prior prohibited any government officials to speak publicly about spaceflight. In February 1957, General Schriever, the senior space officer in the Air Force, was directed by the secretary of defense to not mention "space" in any of his speeches, after publicly discussing the importance of studying military offensive functions in space and declaring that the time is ripe for the Air Force to move into space. Immediately after Sputnik 1's launch, the gag order was rescinded.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post–Sputnik_crisis_and_organizational_reforms_(1957–1961)"><span id="Post.E2.80.93Sputnik_crisis_and_organizational_reforms_.281957.E2.80.931961.29"></span>Post–Sputnik crisis and organizational reforms (1957–1961)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Post–Sputnik crisis and organizational reforms (1957–1961)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Launch_of_Jupiter_C_with_Explorer_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Launch_of_Jupiter_C_with_Explorer_1.jpg/220px-Launch_of_Jupiter_C_with_Explorer_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Launch_of_Jupiter_C_with_Explorer_1.jpg/330px-Launch_of_Jupiter_C_with_Explorer_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Launch_of_Jupiter_C_with_Explorer_1.jpg/440px-Launch_of_Jupiter_C_with_Explorer_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2183" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Launch of <a href="/wiki/Explorer_1" title="Explorer 1">Explorer 1</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Juno_I" title="Juno I">Juno I</a> rocket from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Launch_Complex_26" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 26">Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 26</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">aftermath</a> of the launch of Sputnik 1, President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> implemented massive reforms in the civil and military space programs. The Soviet Union launched <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_2" title="Sputnik 2">Sputnik 2</a> shortly after on 3 November 1957, with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs" title="Soviet space dogs">Soviet space dog</a> <a href="/wiki/Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a> on board.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 8 November 1957, the Department of Defense authorized the <a href="/wiki/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency" title="Army Ballistic Missile Agency">Army Ballistic Missile Agency</a> to begin preparations to launch <a href="/wiki/Project_Orbiter" title="Project Orbiter">Project Orbiter</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Explorer_1" title="Explorer 1">Explorer 1</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Juno_I" title="Juno I">Juno I</a> rocket in case that the Navy's <a href="/wiki/Project_Vanguard" title="Project Vanguard">Project Vanguard</a> were to fail. On 31 January 1958, the Army launched Explorer 1, the first American satellite and the third satellite to orbit the Earth, from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Launch_Complex_26" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 26">Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 26</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_of_the_Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency">Establishment of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Establishment of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Air Force used the launch of Sputnik 1 to argue that the entire national space program, both civil and military, should be organized under it. This was, in part, spurred by concern that congressional representatives were favoring the Army's space program, led by von Braun. In response, the Air Force led a public campaign to emphasize that space was a natural extension of its mission, coining the term "<a href="/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace">aerospace</a>" to describe a single continuous sphere of operations from the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Earth's atmosphere</a> to <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. The Air Force attempted to establish the Department of Astronautics on the Air Staff, announcing the decision on 10 December 1957, however Secretary of Defense <a href="/wiki/Neil_H._McElroy" title="Neil H. McElroy">Neil H. McElroy</a> prohibited its creation, instead announcing on 20 December that the Defense Department would establish the <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (DARPA) to unify the space programs of the Army, Navy and Air Force. Organizationally, the Air Force would represent space on the Air Staff through the assistant chief of staff of the Air Force for guided missiles, finally being permitted to create the Directorate of Advanced Technology to handle space responsibilities after the <a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act" title="National Aeronautics and Space Act">National Aeronautics and Space Act</a> was passed by congress on 29 July 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 24 January 1958, the Air Force Astronautics Development Program was submitted to the Defense Department, articulating the five major systems that the Air Force wanted to pursue in space: ballistic test and related systems, manned hypersonic research (to include the <a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">North American X-15</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-20_Dyna-Soar" title="Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar">Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar</a> orbital glider (to include reconnaissance, interceptor, and bomber variants), the WS-117L Advanced Reconnaissance System (to include a crewed military strategic space station), and the <a href="/wiki/Moonbase" title="Moonbase">Lunex Project</a> to put an Air Force base on the Moon. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_Research_and_Development_Command_-_emblem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Air_Research_and_Development_Command_-_emblem.png/220px-Air_Research_and_Development_Command_-_emblem.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Air_Research_and_Development_Command_-_emblem.png/330px-Air_Research_and_Development_Command_-_emblem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Air_Research_and_Development_Command_-_emblem.png 2x" data-file-width="353" data-file-height="304" /></a><figcaption>Shield of <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command" title="Air Force Systems Command">Air Research and Development Command</a>, the major command responsible for Air Force space programs.</figcaption></figure> <p>DARPA was officially established on 7 February 1958, taking over service-control of space programs, with the intent to reduce <a href="/wiki/Interservice_rivalry" title="Interservice rivalry">interservice rivalry</a>, raise the profile of space, and reduce unneeded redundancy. DARPA did not operate its own laboratories or personnel, but rather directed programs, assigning them to the different service components to perform the actual development. Projects transferred from the services to DARPA included <a href="/wiki/Operation_Argus" title="Operation Argus">Operation Argus</a>, a Navy exoatmospheric nuclear detonation testing program, the Navy's <a href="/wiki/Project_Vanguard" title="Project Vanguard">Project Vanguard</a> and other satellite and outer space programs, the High Performance Solid Propellants program, the Navy's <a href="/wiki/Minitrack" title="Minitrack">Minitrack</a> doppler fence, Army and Air Force ballistic missile defense projects, studies of the effects of space weapons employment on military electronic systems, <a href="/wiki/Project_Orion_(nuclear_propulsion)" title="Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)">Project Orion</a>, an Air Force program on nuclear bomb-propelled space vehicles, and the WS-117L Advanced Reconnaissance System, which it split into three different programs: the <a href="/wiki/Samos_(satellite)" title="Samos (satellite)">Sentry</a> reconnaissance component, the <a href="/wiki/Missile_Defense_Alarm_System" title="Missile Defense Alarm System">Missile Defense Alarm System</a> (MIDAS) infrared sensor component, and the Discoverer program, which was a cover for the joint Air Force-Central Intelligence Agency <a href="/wiki/Corona_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corona (satellite)">Corona</a> reconnaissance satellite. DARPA redistributed the sounding rockets and ground instrumentation for Project Argus to <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Nuclear_Weapons_Center" title="Air Force Nuclear Weapons Center">Air Force Special Weapons Command</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Research_Laboratory" title="Air Force Research Laboratory">Air Force Cambridge Research Center</a>, weapons systems to control hostile satellites, Project Orion, studies of the effects of space weapons employment on military electronic systems, the WS-117L programs, high energy and liquid hydrogen-liquid oxygen propellent, reentry studies, and <a href="/wiki/SCORE_(satellite)" title="SCORE (satellite)">Project SCORE</a> (previously an Army satellite communications program) to <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command" title="Air Force Systems Command">Air Research and Development Command</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_program" title="Pioneer program">Pioneer lunar probe program</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Air Force Ballistic Missile Division</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_I" title="Saturn I">Saturn I</a>, meteorological satellite, and inflatable sphere program to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Aviation_and_Missile_Command" title="United States Army Aviation and Missile Command">Army Ordnance Missile Command</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>DARPA's techniques were highly unsettling to leaders across all of the military services, as they directly dealt with subordinated service commands, bypassing the traditional chain of command. The agency had a complicated relationship with the Air Force, which sought to be the sole service for military space, however, DARPA consistently awarded it 80% of all military space programs and championed its program of putting a military man in space, awarding it development responsibility for crewed military spaceflight in February 1958. The <a href="/wiki/Man_in_Space_Soonest" title="Man in Space Soonest">Man in Space Soonest</a> program was ultimately geared towards putting military astronauts on the Moon and returning them to Earth. The Army and Navy, without the sponsorship of DARPA, still held ambitions for crewed military spaceflight, with the <a href="/wiki/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency" title="Army Ballistic Missile Agency">Army Ballistic Missile Agency</a> proposing Project Adam where an astronaut would be launched on a sub-orbital trajectory on a <a href="/wiki/Juno_II" title="Juno II">Juno II</a> rocket, however it received no support, being liked to "about the same technical value as the circus stunt of shooting a young lady from a cannon" by NACA director <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Latimer_Dryden" title="Hugh Latimer Dryden">Hugh Latimer Dryden</a> and was outright rejected by the Defense Department. The Navy proposed Manned Earth Reconnaissance I, however it was considered technically infeasible. The Air Force decided to cooperate with DARPA in order to gain development responsibility, and ultimately operational responsibility for all military space programs. DARPA was the sole national space agency for much of 1958, and carried out presidentially directed civil space mission, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_program" title="Pioneer program">Pioneer program</a> of lunar probes, with military resources such as Air Force <a href="/wiki/Thor-Able" title="Thor-Able">Thor-Able</a> and Army <a href="/wiki/Juno_II" title="Juno II">Juno II</a> rockets.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NASA_logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NASA_logo.svg/220px-NASA_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NASA_logo.svg/330px-NASA_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NASA_logo.svg/440px-NASA_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="92" /></a><figcaption>The establishment of <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> in 1958 decimated the Army and Navy space programs, cementing the Air Force's place as the lead military space service.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a> (NASA) was established on 29 July 1958, and was directed by President Eisenhower to become the United States' civil space agency. Eisenhower always intended to have parallel civil and military space programs, only temporarily putting civil space programs under DARPA. NASA was primarily formed from the <a href="/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics" title="National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics">National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics</a> (NACA) and began operations on 1 October 1958. Its 7,000 NACA personnel and the <a href="/wiki/Langley_Research_Center" title="Langley Research Center">Langley Research Center</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ames_Research_Center" title="Ames Research Center">Ames Research Center</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Research_Center" title="Glenn Research Center">Lewis Research Center</a> (now John H. Glenn Research Center), the <a href="/wiki/Armstrong_Flight_Research_Center" title="Armstrong Flight Research Center">High-Speed Flight Station</a> (now Armstrong Flight Research Center), and the <a href="/wiki/Wallops_Flight_Facility" title="Wallops Flight Facility">Wallops Flight Facility</a> from the aeronautical research agency. The bulk of NASA's space program, however, was absorbed from the Defense Department, specifically DARPA and the military services. The Navy' space program, mostly run for civil research, was given up willingly, with NASA absorbing <a href="/wiki/Project_Vanguard" title="Project Vanguard">Project Vanguard</a>, including 400 Naval Research Laboratory personnel and its <a href="/wiki/Minitrack" title="Minitrack">Minitrack</a> space tracking network. The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division transferred its <a href="/wiki/Man_in_Space_Soonest" title="Man in Space Soonest">Man in Space Soonest</a> program, becoming the core of <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_program" title="Pioneer program">Pioneer program</a> lunar probe missions. DARPA also transferred over responsibility for special engines, special components for space systems, Project Argus, satellite tracking and monitoring systems, satellite communication relay, metrological reporting, navigation aid systems, and the NOTS Program to get images of the far side of the Moon. The Army's space program, however, was considered by NASA Administrator <a href="/wiki/T._Keith_Glennan" title="T. Keith Glennan">T. Keith Glennan</a>, to be the most valuable source of space resources and was decimated by the transfer. Major General Medaris, commander of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Aviation_and_Missile_Command" title="United States Army Aviation and Missile Command">Army Ordnance Missile Command</a>, very publicly fought the transfer, but nearly the entirety of the <a href="/wiki/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency" title="Army Ballistic Missile Agency">Army Ballistic Missile Agency</a>, to include von Braun's <a href="/wiki/Saturn_I" title="Saturn I">Saturn I</a> team at <a href="/wiki/Redstone_Arsenal" title="Redstone Arsenal">Redstone Arsenal</a> (which would become the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Space_Flight_Center" title="Marshall Space Flight Center">Marshall Space Flight Center</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> were transferred to NASA, completely crushing any hope of an independent Army space program.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aside from NASA, the biggest winner of the transfer was the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Air Force Ballistic Missile Division</a>, having seen its rivals in the Army and Navy completely decimated by it and only having to give up an independent Air Force crewed military program and scientific lunar probes. AFBMD leadership quickly perceived that the best way to enhance their dominance in military space was to cooperate with NASA and make themselves invaluable partners to the new organization, specifically in providing space launch, facilities, and space launch vehicles. DARPA's power as an independent agency took a significant hit when Congress passed the Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, creating the <a href="/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Research_and_Engineering" title="Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering">Director of Defense Research and Engineering</a> (DDR&E), which would grant the services more authority in space than DARPA did.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gaining_the_military_space_mission">Gaining the military space mission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Gaining the military space mission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NASA_Color_Dyna_Soar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/NASA_Color_Dyna_Soar.jpg/220px-NASA_Color_Dyna_Soar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/NASA_Color_Dyna_Soar.jpg/330px-NASA_Color_Dyna_Soar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/NASA_Color_Dyna_Soar.jpg/440px-NASA_Color_Dyna_Soar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="409" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-20_Dyna-Soar" title="Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar">Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar</a> was intended to be the world's first <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplane</a>, serving as an interceptor, bomber, and reconnaissance craft.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thor_Able_Star_with_Transit_VBN-2_Dec_5_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Thor_Able_Star_with_Transit_VBN-2_Dec_5_1963.jpg/220px-Thor_Able_Star_with_Transit_VBN-2_Dec_5_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="499" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Thor_Able_Star_with_Transit_VBN-2_Dec_5_1963.jpg/330px-Thor_Able_Star_with_Transit_VBN-2_Dec_5_1963.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Thor_Able_Star_with_Transit_VBN-2_Dec_5_1963.jpg 2x" data-file-width="357" data-file-height="809" /></a><figcaption>Launch of a <a href="/wiki/Transit_(satellite)" title="Transit (satellite)">Transit</a> navigation satellite on a <a href="/wiki/Thor-Ablestar" title="Thor-Ablestar">Thor-Ablestar</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In February 1959, the deputy chief of staff of the Air Force for plans performed an analysis that suggested that its weakness in space organization, operations, and research and development all stemmed from its early failure to develop a coordinated space program and that to become the dominant service in space it should demonstrate successful stewardship and push forward to create its own space program, rather than just request missions and roles from DARPA, while at the same time improving service relationships with DARPA and NASA. The Air Force executed an intensive lobbying campaign within Congress, the Defense Department, and NASA, relying heavily on its rationale that it was an Aerospace service and that the missions it intended to perform in space were a logical extension of its atmospheric responsibilities. In Spring 1959, the Air Force released twelve major military uses of space: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Military reconnaissance satellites</a> utilizing, optical, infrared, and electromagnetic instrumentation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">Satellites for weather observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Military communications satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_warfare" title="Electronic warfare">Satellites for electronic countermeasures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite aids for navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo spacecraft">Manned maintenance and resupply outer space vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-20_Dyna-Soar" title="Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar">Manned defensive outer space vehicles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">bombardment satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunex_Project" title="Lunex Project">Manned lunar station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Satellite defense system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Manned detection, warning, and reconnaissance space vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">Manned bombardment space vehicle or space base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Target drone satellite</a></li></ol> <p>Five of these missions (photographic reconnaissance, electronic reconnaissance, infrared reconnaissance, mapping and charting, and space environmental forecasting and observing) had received approval as Air Force General Operational Requirements and represented missions previously identified and analyzed by RAND. The Air Staff released an analysis on constraints that prohibited the Air Force from implementing its aerospace force policy, identifying NASA's responsibility for the scientific space area and DARPA's responsibility for the military space area as key issues. Specifically the Air Staff faulted DARPA for assigning system development to a service on the basis of existing capability, but without regard for existing or likely space mission and support roles. Rather, the Air Staff felt that DARPA should focus on policy decisions and leave project engineering to the lowest level at the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division. It also argued that the Air Force should be responsible for providing common interests items, such as space launch boosters and satellites, to NASA, enabling the civil agency to focus its budget and efforts entirely on scientific endeavors. This analysis was supported by General Schriever and the AFBMD, who found his command becoming overburdened with DARPA programs and NASA requirements. In April 1959, General Schriever testified before congress that that Air Force's responsibilities for strategic offensive and defensive missions would be, in part, conducted by ballistic missiles, satellites, and spacecraft. Furthermore, he testified that the Advanced Research Projects Agency should be dissolved, that the Director of Defense Research and Engineering should assume the role of providing policy guidance and service responsibility, and that space research and development control be returned to the military services.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Air Force's arguments for autonomy from DARPA were bolstered by the success of major Air Force Ballistic Missile Division programs, including the former elements of the WS-117L Advanced Reconnaissance System. The <a href="/wiki/Samos_(satellite)" title="Samos (satellite)">Samos</a> <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">reconnaissance satellite</a>, formerly known as Sentry, was to be launched using an <a href="/wiki/Atlas-Agena" title="Atlas-Agena">Atlas-Agena</a> and would be operated by <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a> to collect photographic and electromagnetic reconnaissance data. The <a href="/wiki/Missile_Defense_Alarm_System" title="Missile Defense Alarm System">Missile Defense Alarm System</a> (MIDAS), also launched by <a href="/wiki/Atlas-Agena" title="Atlas-Agena">Atlas-Agena</a> and using infrared sensors, was intended be under the operational command of the United States—Canadian <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">North American Air Defense Command</a> (NORAD) and the U.S.—only <a href="/wiki/Continental_Air_Defense_Command" title="Continental Air Defense Command">Continental Air Defense Command</a>, operated by the Air Force's <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Air Defense Command</a> to provide early warning of a Soviet nuclear attack. The Air Force also continued development of the joint Air Force-Central Intelligence Agency <a href="/wiki/Corona_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corona (satellite)">Corona</a> program, under the public name of Project Discoverer, which used <a href="/wiki/Thor-Agena" title="Thor-Agena">Thor-Agena</a> boosters launched from <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg Air Force Base">Vandenberg Air Force Base</a>. The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division also provided launch support to the other services, launching the Navy's <a href="/wiki/Transit_(satellite)" title="Transit (satellite)">Transit</a> <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">navigation satellites</a>, designed to support its <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine" title="Ballistic missile submarine">fleet ballistic missile submarines</a>, and the Army's Notus communications satellite.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> AFBMD continued its development of boosters, including the <a href="/wiki/Thor_(rocket_family)" title="Thor (rocket family)">Thor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlas_(rocket_family)" title="Atlas (rocket family)">Atlas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Titan_(rocket_family)" title="Titan (rocket family)">Titan</a> space launch vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of DARPA's most consequential programs was the <a href="/wiki/Space_Detection_and_Tracking_System" title="Space Detection and Tracking System">Space Detection and Tracking System</a> (SPADATS), initially started under the name Project Sheppard, to integrate the <a href="/wiki/Space_domain_awareness" title="Space domain awareness">space surveillance</a> systems of the various services. Hurried due to the launch of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>, the Air Force contributed <a href="/wiki/Project_Space_Track" title="Project Space Track">Spacetrack</a> (initially Project Harvest Moon), which provided the Interim National Space Surveillance Control Center at <a href="/wiki/Hanscom_Field" title="Hanscom Field">Hanscom Field</a>, bringing together <a href="/wiki/MIT_Lincoln_Laboratory" title="MIT Lincoln Laboratory">Lincoln Laboratory</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Haystack_Observatory" title="Haystack Observatory">Millstone Hill Radar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">Stanford Research Institute</a>, and an <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command" title="Air Force Systems Command">Air Research and Development Command</a> test radar at <a href="/wiki/Laredo_Air_Force_Station" title="Laredo Air Force Station">Laredo Air Force Station</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Astrophysical_Observatory" title="Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory">Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Schmidt_camera" title="Schmidt camera">Baker-Nunn camera</a>, with the Air Force responsible for devising the development plan for future operational space surveillance systems. The Navy was responsible for operating the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Surveillance_System" title="Air Force Space Surveillance System">Navy Space Surveillance System</a> (NAVSPASUR) from <a href="/wiki/Naval_Surface_Warfare_Center_Dahlgren_Division" title="Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division">Naval Support Activity Dahlgren</a>, and the Army was assigned to develop Doploc, a doppler radar network, however the Army dropped out of the project. There was strong disagreement between the Air Force and Navy over who would operate the system, with the Navy preferring to operate it as a separate system, while the Air Force wanted to have it under the operational command of <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">NORAD</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_Air_Defense_Command" title="Continental Air Defense Command">Continental Air Defense Command</a>, with day to day operations handled by <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Air Defense Command</a>. By mid-1959, the topic became so contentious that the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a> had to decide the issue, when it became part of a larger discussion on service roles and missions.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division continued to provide significant support for NASA, constructing infrastructure for the space agency at <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Space_Force_Base" title="Patrick Space Force Base">Patrick Air Force Base</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral Air Force Station</a>, as well as providing <a href="/wiki/Thor-Able" title="Thor-Able">Thor-Able</a> boosters and launch support to the <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_program" title="Pioneer program">Pioneer program</a> of lunar probes and Thor-Able and <a href="/wiki/Thor-Delta" title="Thor-Delta">Thor-Delta</a> boosters and launch support to the <a href="/wiki/Television_Infrared_Observation_Satellite" title="Television Infrared Observation Satellite">Television Infrared Observation Satellite</a> (Tiros) weather observation satellites. The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division also supported the development of the <a href="/wiki/Centaur_(rocket_stage)" title="Centaur (rocket stage)">Centaur</a> high-energy stage, which it intended to use to support the cancelled Advent communications satellite project. Among the most important support the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division provided NASA was for <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a>, its first <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human spaceflight</a> program. AFBMD provided <a href="/wiki/Atlas_LV-3B" title="Atlas LV-3B">Atlas LV-3B</a> launch vehicles for orbital flights, launch support, and <a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">aerospace medical</a> officers. Much of its aerospace medical knowledge was gained from medical personnel who had served with the German <i><a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a></i> during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a> and had defected to the United States. The world's first Department of Space Medicine was established at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_School_of_Aerospace_Medicine" title="United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine">United States Air Force School of Aviation Medicine</a> (later renamed to School of Aerospace Medicine) in February 1949 by <a href="/wiki/Hubertus_Strughold" title="Hubertus Strughold">Hubertus Strughold</a>, who coined the term <a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">space medicine</a>. Air Force medical personnel would go on to conduct a variety of experiments on <a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">weightlessness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency_Logo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency_Logo.png/220px-Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency_Logo.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency_Logo.png/330px-Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency_Logo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency_Logo.png/440px-Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency_Logo.png 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>For much of the 1950s, the <a href="/wiki/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency" title="Army Ballistic Missile Agency">Army Ballistic Missile Agency</a> and General Medaris were in direct competition with the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Air Force Ballistic Missile Division</a> and General Schriever.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although NASA was responsible for most crewed spaceflight, the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division continued with the development of the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-20_Dyna-Soar" title="Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar">Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar</a> orbital glider. The X-20 evolved from the rocket plane tests of the 1950s, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bell_X-1" title="Bell X-1">Bell X-1</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">North American X-15</a>. It was created by merging together the Rocket Bomber, Brass Bell high altitude reconnaissance system, and Hywards <a href="/wiki/Boost-glide" class="mw-redirect" title="Boost-glide">boost-glide</a> vehicle on 30 April 1957. It was intended to be the first true <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplane</a>, replacing atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">bombers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">reconnaissance aircraft</a>. It was considered using the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_I" title="Saturn I">Saturn I</a> booster with the X-20, as was proposed by von Braun a number of times, but this was rejected due to concerns that that project would be transferred to NASA, as was the Man in Space Soonest program.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Interservice rivalries over space persisted in 1959, with Army Major General Medaris testifying before Congress that the Air Force Ballistic Missile Agency and General Schriever had a long history of noncooperation with the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, to which General Schriever submitted a long rebuttal, but the charge was not withdrawn by the Army. In April 1959, Admiral <a href="/wiki/Arleigh_Burke" title="Arleigh Burke">Arleigh Burke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations" title="Chief of Naval Operations">chief of naval operations</a>, made a bold bid for a major share of the space enterprise for the Navy, proposing the establishment of a joint Defense Astronautical Agency to the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>. This was supported by <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Army">chief of staff of the Army</a> General <a href="/wiki/Maxwell_D._Taylor" title="Maxwell D. Taylor">Maxwell D. Taylor</a>, under the premise that space transcended the interests of any one service, however it was opposed by chief of staff of the Air Force General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_D._White" title="Thomas D. White">Thomas D. White</a>, who been stating that space was the domain of the Air Force under the idea of aerospace. This Army-Navy effort for a Defense Astronautical Agency compelled General Schriever to push for the Air Force to acquire as much of the military space mission as it could, stating to the secretary of defense that the Air Force had been operating in aerospace since its beginning in mission areas of <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing" title="Strategic bombing">strategic attack</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">defense against attack</a>, and supporting systems that enhanced both and that the best way to organize these forces would be to unify them under the Air Force. Schriever went on to state that Army and Navy requirements would be satisfied by the Air Force as the prime operating agency of the military satellite force, much as it was in the air. Service tensions were further strained by DARPA director Roy Johnson's proposal to establish a tri-service Mercury Task Force to support NASA, rather than have the Air Force be the sole supporting service. The Army and Navy supported a Defense Astronautical Agency and joint Mercury Task Force, while the Air Force argued they should be integrated into its already preexisting command structure. Ultimately the secretary of defense decided that a Defense Astronautical Agency was not needed at this time to provide operational control of all space forces, denied the request for the Mercury Task Force, instead appointing Air Force Major General <a href="/wiki/Donald_Norton_Yates" title="Donald Norton Yates">Donald Norton Yates</a>, commander of the <a href="/wiki/45th_Space_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="45th Space Wing">Air Force Missile Test Center</a>, to direct military support for NASA crewed missions, and assigned the Air Force responsibility for the development, production, and launching of space boosters. Satellite operations responsibilities would be assigned to services on a case-by-case basis, however, the Air Force received the majority of these responsibilities. The concept behind the Defense Astronautical Agency as a joint space command would be realized 25 years later as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a>. </p><p>On 30 December 1959, the Advance Research Projects Agency's status as the sole controlling entity of military space programs was brought to a close as it was retasked as an operating research and development agency under the Director of Defense Research and Development. Responsibilities for military space programs were returned to the individual services, with DARPA only tasked with a few advanced programs.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vela_5A_and_5B_Separation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Vela_5A_and_5B_Separation.gif/220px-Vela_5A_and_5B_Separation.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Vela_5A_and_5B_Separation.gif/330px-Vela_5A_and_5B_Separation.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Vela_5A_and_5B_Separation.gif/440px-Vela_5A_and_5B_Separation.gif 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption>Separation of the <a href="/wiki/Vela_5A" title="Vela 5A">Vela 5A</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vela_(satellite)" title="Vela (satellite)">Vela 5B</a> nuclear detonation detection satellites.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 1 May 1960, a <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_U-2" title="Lockheed U-2">Lockheed U-2</a> was <a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">shot down</a> over the Soviet Union, limiting reconnaissance flights to the edges of the Soviet Union and sparking Congress to increase funding for space based reconnaissance such as Samos and MIDAS. On 10 June 1960, President Eisenhower directed secretary of defense <a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Gates_Jr." title="Thomas S. Gates Jr.">Thomas S. Gates Jr.</a> to reassess space-based intelligence requirements, concluding that Samos, the Corona program, and U-2 all represented national assets and that they should be organized under a civilian agency in the Defense Department, not a single military service. On 31 August 1960, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Secretary of the Air Force">secretary of the Air Force</a> <a href="/wiki/Dudley_C._Sharp" title="Dudley C. Sharp">Dudley C. Sharp</a> created the Office of Missile and Satellite Systems under the <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="Assistant Secretary of the Air Force">assistant secretary of the Air Force</a> to coordinate Air Force, Central Intelligence Agency, Navy, and <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a> intelligence reconnaissance activities. On 6 September 1961, the Office of Missile and Satellite Systems became the <a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a>, absorbing all military space reconnaissance programs, such as Samos and Corona. Only MIDAS and the <a href="/wiki/Vela_(satellite)" title="Vela (satellite)">Vela</a> nuclear detonation detection satellites remained in the Air Force's satellite inventory.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 3 June 1960, the Air Force created <a href="/wiki/The_Aerospace_Corporation" title="The Aerospace Corporation">the Aerospace Corporation</a> to provide it with technical space competency as a <a href="/wiki/Federally_funded_research_and_development_centers" title="Federally funded research and development centers">federally funded research and development center</a>, adjacent to the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Inglewood,_California" title="Inglewood, California">Inglewood, California</a>. By the end of its first year, the Aerospace Corporation had 1,700 employees and was responsible for 12 space programs. Aerospace would grow to provide general systems engineering and technical direction for every Air Force and Space Force missile and space program.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kennedy_Administration_and_establishment_of_Air_Force_Systems_Command">Kennedy Administration and establishment of Air Force Systems Command</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Kennedy Administration and establishment of Air Force Systems Command"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The election of <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> to <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president of the United States</a> put a renewed focus on the space program, both military and civil. President Kennedy appointed <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Wiesner" title="Jerome Wiesner">Jerome Wiesner</a> to chair a committee to review the organization of military and civil space. The Wiesner Report criticize the fractionalized military space program, recommending that one agency or military service be made responsible for all military space, and stated that the Air Force was the logical choice, as it was already responsible for 90% of the support and resources for other space agencies and that the Air Force was the "principal resource for the development and operation of future space systems, except those of a purely scientific nature assigned by law to NASA." Shortly after taking office, secretary of defense <a href="/wiki/Robert_McNamara" title="Robert McNamara">Robert McNamara</a> designated the Air Force as the executive agent for military space, assigning it responsibility for "research, development, test, and engineering of Department of Defense space development programs or projects," while still permitting each service to conduct preliminary research and asserted that operational assignment of each space system to a service would be done on a case-by-case basis.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USAF_-_Systems_Command.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/USAF_-_Systems_Command.png/220px-USAF_-_Systems_Command.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/USAF_-_Systems_Command.png/330px-USAF_-_Systems_Command.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/USAF_-_Systems_Command.png/440px-USAF_-_Systems_Command.png 2x" data-file-width="2065" data-file-height="2030" /></a><figcaption>The creation of <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command" title="Air Force Systems Command">Air Force Systems Command</a> under General Schriever reorganized space research, development, and acquisitions under a single Space Systems Division.</figcaption></figure> <p>In early 1961, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Deputy Secretary of Defense">deputy secretary of defense</a> <a href="/wiki/Roswell_Gilpatric" title="Roswell Gilpatric">Roswell Gilpatric</a> contacted chief of staff of the Air Force General White and promised the Air Force major responsibility for the space mission if he "put his house in order." Specifically, he was referring to the split responsibility for research and development under <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command" title="Air Force Systems Command">Air Research and Development Command</a> and procurement under <a href="/wiki/Air_Materiel_Command" title="Air Materiel Command">Air Materiel Command</a>. Secretary Gilpatric's views were informed by General Schriever, now commander of Air Research and Development Command, who had told him that the Air Force could not handle the military space mission unless one command held responsibility for research and development, system testing, and acquisition of space systems. General Schreiver held these views for a number of years, however the issue gained a pressing urgency by 1960, as Air Research and Development Command's Air Force Ballistic Missile Division and Air Materiel Command's Ballistic Missiles Center competed for resources and management focus as the demand for both space and missile systems became more pressing. In September 1960, General White authorized General Schriever to begin reorganization, keeping his space programs in Los Angeles, while moving ballistic missile functions to <a href="/wiki/Norton_Air_Force_Base" title="Norton Air Force Base">Norton Air Force Base</a>, however General Schriever felt it was insufficient and he was authorized to form a planning task force. Colonel <a href="/wiki/Otto_Glasser" title="Otto Glasser">Otto Glasser</a>, later a lieutenant general, developed the reorganization plan resulting in the reorganization of Air Research and Development Command as <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command" title="Air Force Systems Command">Air Force Systems Command</a> (AFSC) on 1 April 1961, giving the organization responsibility for all research, development and acquisition of aerospace and missile systems. On the same day Air Materiel Command was reorganized as <a href="/wiki/Air_Materiel_Command" title="Air Materiel Command">Air Force Logistics Command</a>, removing its production functions and responsible for maintenance and supply only. Lieutenant General Schriever, commander of Air Research and Development Command, was promoted to general and made the first commander of Air Force Systems Command.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Air Force Systems Command was organized into four subordinate divisions: the <a href="/wiki/Aeronautical_Systems_Center" title="Aeronautical Systems Center">Aeronautical Systems Division</a> (ASD), the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Ballistic Missiles Division</a> (BMD), the <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Systems_Center" title="Electronic Systems Center">Electronics Systems Division</a> (ESD), and the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Space Systems Division</a> (SSD). The Space Systems Division was established in Los Angeles, absorbing the space elements of the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division and Air Force Ballistic Missiles Center. The Ballistic Missile Division was established at <a href="/wiki/Norton_Air_Force_Base" title="Norton Air Force Base">Norton Air Force Base</a> and absorbed the ballistic missile elements of the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division and Air Force Ballistic Missiles Center, as well as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">Army Corps of Engineers</a> Ballistic Missile Construction Office. In addition the Office of Aerospace Research was established on the Air Staff at <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">the Pentagon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Space Systems Division quickly established itself, and on 20 March 1961 the Gardner Report was submitted to General Schreiver. In it, <a href="/wiki/Trevor_Gardner" title="Trevor Gardner">Trevor Gardner</a> stated that the United States could not overtake the Soviet Union in space for three to five years without a significant increase in space investment by the Defense Department. As well, he stated that the line between military and civil space would need to be crossed in a comprehensive, lunar landing program that would land astronauts on the Moon between 1967 and 1970 and that such an effort would produce important technologies, industries, and lessons learned for both military and civil space programs.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 12 April 1961, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a> cosmonaut <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> became the first human to enter space, launching on the spacecraft <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a>. This sparked Secretary MacNamara to direct <a href="/wiki/Herbert_York" title="Herbert York">Herbert York</a>, director of defense research and development, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Secretary of the Air Force">secretary of the Air Force</a> <a href="/wiki/Eugene_M._Zuckert" title="Eugene M. Zuckert">Eugene M. Zuckert</a> to assess the national space programs in terms of defense interests, specifically considering the findings of the Gardner Report. The task force study took place at the Space Systems Division and was led by Major General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_R._Holzapple" title="Joseph R. Holzapple">Joseph R. Holzapple</a>, Air Force Systems Command assistant deputy commander for aerospace systems. The Holzapple Report, submitted to the secretary of defense on 1 May 1961, called for a NASA-led lunar landing initiative, with significant Air Force support.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Space_forces_in_the_Cold_War_(1961–1982)"><span id="Space_forces_in_the_Cold_War_.281961.E2.80.931982.29"></span>Space forces in the Cold War (1961–1982)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Space forces in the Cold War (1961–1982)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Air Force being designated the Defense Department executive agent for space and the creation of the Space Systems Division in 1961 solidified the service's status as the dominant military space power. In May 1961, acting in part on the Holzapple Report, the Kennedy Administration assigned NASA the responsibility for the lunar landing mission, however the Space Systems Division was expected to continue to provide personnel, launch vehicles, and ground support to the civil space agency.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1961, major space programs such as Samos and Spacetrack were achieving operational capability, while developmental programs such as MIDAS and the <a href="/wiki/Project_SAINT" title="Project SAINT">Project SAINT</a> satellite inspector received additional funding. This was in large part due to President Kennedy's push for an integrated national space program, rather than creating strict silos between military space and NASA, and in Spring 1961, the Air Force was responsible for 90% of military space efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crewed_military_spaceflight_programs_and_military_support_to_NASA">Crewed military spaceflight programs and military support to NASA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Crewed military spaceflight programs and military support to NASA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Air_Force_050811-F-1234P-004_Mercury_Atlas_6_Liftoff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/US_Air_Force_050811-F-1234P-004_Mercury_Atlas_6_Liftoff.jpg/220px-US_Air_Force_050811-F-1234P-004_Mercury_Atlas_6_Liftoff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/US_Air_Force_050811-F-1234P-004_Mercury_Atlas_6_Liftoff.jpg/330px-US_Air_Force_050811-F-1234P-004_Mercury_Atlas_6_Liftoff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/US_Air_Force_050811-F-1234P-004_Mercury_Atlas_6_Liftoff.jpg/440px-US_Air_Force_050811-F-1234P-004_Mercury_Atlas_6_Liftoff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Launch of <a href="/wiki/Mercury-Atlas_6" title="Mercury-Atlas 6">Mercury-Atlas 6</a> with <a href="/wiki/John_Glenn" title="John Glenn">John Glenn</a>, becoming the first American to orbit the Earth.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MOL_USAF.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MOL_USAF.png/220px-MOL_USAF.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MOL_USAF.png/330px-MOL_USAF.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MOL_USAF.png/440px-MOL_USAF.png 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>The launched of the <a href="/wiki/Manned_Orbiting_Laboratory" title="Manned Orbiting Laboratory">Manned Orbiting Laboratory</a> would have resulted in a crewed military space mission.</figcaption></figure> <p>Alarmed by the orbital flights of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a> cosmonauts <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gherman_Titov" title="Gherman Titov">Gherman Titov</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vostok_2" title="Vostok 2">Vostok 2</a>, Air Force Systems Command redoubled its push for a crewed military space program, with chief of Staff of the Air Force General <a href="/wiki/Curtis_LeMay" title="Curtis LeMay">Curtis E. LeMay</a> drawing parallels between airpower during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a> and spacepower in the early-1960s. General LeMay remarked how the initial use of airplanes in the First World War moved from peaceful, chivalric, unarmed reconnaissance flights to combat efforts designed to deny the enemy air superiority, and that it would be naïve to believe that the same trends were not expected to be seen and prepared for in space. This view soon became prevailing within the defense establishment, and the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-20_Dyna-Soar" title="Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar">Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar</a>'s orbital flight program was accelerated, using the <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIC" title="Titan IIIC">Titan IIIC</a> launch vehicle rather than the <a href="/wiki/Titan_II_GLV" title="Titan II GLV">Titan II GLV</a><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 21 September 1961, the Air Force's first formal space plan was completed, calling for an aggressive military space program. Specifically, it recommended continuing the Discoverer/Corona program, MIDAS, Samos, and <a href="/wiki/Scout_(rocket_family)" title="Scout (rocket family)">Blue Scout</a> research vehicle at their present pace, while accelerating efforts to develop orbital weapons, and an anti-satellite and anti-missile defense system. NASA and the Space Systems Division continued to closely cooperate on space launch, with the Space Systems Division developing the <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIC" title="Titan IIIC">Titan IIIC</a> space launch vehicle, which was capable of launching payloads up to 25,000 pounds into orbit. The Space Systems Division and NASA also closely cooperated on the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo Program</a>, jointly selecting the launch location at <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Cape Canaveral</a>. An agreement between NASA Administrator <a href="/wiki/James_E._Webb" title="James E. Webb">James E. Webb</a> and Deputy Defense Secretary Roswell Gilpatric made NASA responsible for the costs of the lunar program, while the Space Systems Division would serve as the range manager. On 24 February 1962, the Department of Defense designated the Air Force as the executive agent for NASA support.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Space Systems Division provided close support to NASA's <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a>, providing three of the <a href="/wiki/Mercury_Seven" title="Mercury Seven">Mercury Seven</a> astronauts, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral Air Force Station</a> <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Launch_Complex_5" title="Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 5">Launch Complex 5</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Launch_Complex_14" title="Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 14">Launch Complex 14</a>, <a href="/wiki/RM-90_Blue_Scout_II" title="RM-90 Blue Scout II">RM-90 Blue Scout II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atlas_LV-3B" title="Atlas LV-3B">Atlas LV-3B</a> launch vehicles, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Pararescue" title="United States Air Force Pararescue">United States Air Force Pararescue</a> recovery forces. The Space Systems Division was planning to provide similar support to <a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a> and was supporting 14 NASA programs with 96 research and development officers attached. In April 1962, the position of deputy to the commander of Air Force Systems Command for Manned Space Flight was established at <a href="/wiki/NASA_Headquarters" title="NASA Headquarters">NASA Headquarters</a>, consisting of personnel from the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 11 June 1962, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> broke the story about the SAINT program, creating a political firestorm by claiming that the Air Force was intent on weaponizing space. The public blowback was tremendous, resulting in greater scrutiny from the Defense Department and the White House on military space programs. In the 1962 Air Force Space Plan request, the only programs that received significant funding were the <a href="/wiki/Military_Orbital_Development_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Orbital Development System">Military Orbital Development System</a> (MODS) space station, <a href="/wiki/Blue_Gemini" title="Blue Gemini">Blue Gemini</a> experimentation program, MIDAS, SAINT, the X-20 Dyna-Soar, and Titan III launch vehicle. The MODS experimental space station was to be launched on a <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIC" title="Titan IIIC">Titan IIIC</a> booster and the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Gemini" title="Blue Gemini">Blue Gemini</a> program focused specifically on testing rendezvous, docking, and personnel transfer functions, however there were concerns that Blue Gemini could endanger the X-20 Dyna-Soar. Both MODS and Blue Gemini were cancelled by Defense Secretary McNamara, instead requiring the Space Systems Division to work through NASA's <a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a> was managed by NASA, but had a joint Gemini Program Planning Board co-chaired by NASA's associate administrator and the assistant secretary of the Air Force for research and development. Like in Project Mercury, the Space Systems Division provided significant support, including nine of the sixteen Gemini astronauts, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral Air Force Station</a> <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Launch_Complex_19" title="Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 19">Launch Complex 19</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlas-Agena" title="Atlas-Agena">Atlas-Agena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Titan_II_GLV" title="Titan II GLV">Titan II GLV</a> launch vehicles, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Pararescue" title="United States Air Force Pararescue">United States Air Force Pararescue</a> recovery forces.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even before the Apollo Program started, in 1963 both NASA and the Space Systems Division were contemplating future space programs, with NASA focusing on the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Applications_Program" title="Apollo Applications Program">Apollo Applications Program</a> to create a space station. Secretary McNamara continued to cut Space Systems Division programs, reducing funding for MIDAS and reducing SAINT to a definitions study, reorienting anti-satellite and missile defense systems on ground-based radars and missiles. In on 10 December 1963, Secretary McNamara authorized the Space Systems Division to begin development on the <a href="/wiki/Manned_Orbiting_Laboratory" title="Manned Orbiting Laboratory">Manned Orbiting Laboratory</a> (MOL), an orbital military reconnaissance space station launched on a <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIM" title="Titan IIIM">Titan IIIM</a> from <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg Air Force Base">Vandenberg Air Force Base</a> <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Space_Launch_Complex_6" title="Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 6">Space Launch Complex 6</a>, however at the cost of canceling the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-20_Dyna-Soar" title="Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar">Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar</a> orbital fighter. In addition to scientific experimentations, MOL was to provide surveillance of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, naval reconnaissance while over water, and satellite inspection of non-U.S. spacecraft. It was approved for full scale development on 25 August 1965 by President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>. On 10 June 1969, the Manned Orbiting Laboratory program was cancelled, due to the reliability of uncrewed space systems and its high cost. </p><p>General Schriever's retirement in 1966 also marked a change in Air Force space organization. His successor, General <a href="/wiki/James_Ferguson_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Ferguson (general)">James Ferguson</a>, reorganized Air Force Systems Command, reconsolidating the Ballistic Missile Division and Space Systems Division, in large part due to the BMD's lessened responsibilities, into the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Space and Missile Systems Organization</a> (SAMSO) on 1 July 1967. SAMSO, like the SSD before it, continued to provide support to the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo Program">Apollo Program</a>, providing seventeen of the thirty-two astronauts, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral Air Force Station</a> <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Launch_Complex_34" title="Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 34">Launch Complex 34</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Pararescue" title="United States Air Force Pararescue">United States Air Force Pararescue</a> recovery forces.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deployment_of_military_satellite_communications_systems">Deployment of military satellite communications systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Deployment of military satellite communications systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IDCSP_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/IDCSP_2.jpg/220px-IDCSP_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/IDCSP_2.jpg/330px-IDCSP_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/IDCSP_2.jpg/440px-IDCSP_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="621" data-file-height="831" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program</a> spacecraft in a payload stack</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a> made apparent the need for <a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">military communications</a> over longer range, with greater security, higher capacity, and improved reliability. The first <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">satellite communications</a> concept was offered by science fiction author <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a> in 1945, and immediately after the conclusion of the war the <a href="/wiki/Signal_Corps_(United_States_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal Corps (United States Army)">Army Signal Corps</a> experimented with <a href="/wiki/Earth%E2%80%93Moon%E2%80%93Earth_communication" title="Earth–Moon–Earth communication">Earth–Moon–Earth communication</a> through <a href="/wiki/Project_Diana" title="Project Diana">Project Diana</a>, using the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> as signal reflectors. The Navy also experimented with this method through the <a href="/wiki/Communication_Moon_Relay" title="Communication Moon Relay">Communication Moon Relay</a>, creating two-way voice communications between San Diego, Hawaii, and Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 1958, the Advanced Research Projects Agency assigned the Army Signal Corps <a href="/wiki/SCORE_(satellite)" title="SCORE (satellite)">Project SCORE</a>, the world's first communications satellite. On 18 December 1958, it was launched by an <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Air Force Ballistic Missile Division</a> <a href="/wiki/SM-65B_Atlas" title="SM-65B Atlas">SM-65B Atlas</a>, broadcasting a Christmas greeting from President Eisenhower in the <a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">very high frequency</a> (VHF) band. In October 1960, the Army Signal Corps launched <a href="/wiki/Courier_1B" title="Courier 1B">Courier 1B</a> on an Air Force Ballistic Missile Division <a href="/wiki/Thor-Ablestar" title="Thor-Ablestar">Thor-Ablestar</a> and operated in the <a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">ultra high frequency</a> (UHF) band. The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division attempted to produce an artificial ionosphere to bounce communications signals off of through <a href="/wiki/Project_West_Ford" title="Project West Ford">Project West Ford</a>, however it was rendered obsolete by advances in communications satellites. DARPA began planning for a truly strategic geosynchronous communication system in 1958, assigning the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division responsibility for the booster and spacecraft and the Army Signal Corps the communications element. Initially consisting of three repeater satellite programs, in September 1959 the secretary of defense transferred responsibility for communications satellite management from DARPA to the Army. In February 1960, the three programs were combined into Project Advent and assigned to the Army in September. However, the Army would not have operational responsibility for military satellite communications, as the Defense Department was unifying the strategic communications systems of the Army, Navy, and Air Force as part of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency" title="Defense Information Systems Agency">Defense Communications System</a>, operated by the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency" title="Defense Information Systems Agency">Defense Communications Agency</a>, which was established on 12 May 1960. Project Advent was considered to be a very ambitious program, with the first tranche of satellites launched into 5,600 mile inclined orbits by AFBMD <a href="/wiki/Atlas-Agena" title="Atlas-Agena">Atlas-Agena</a> launch vehicles, with the second tranche launched into geostationary orbits by AFBMD <a href="/wiki/Atlas-Centaur" title="Atlas-Centaur">Atlas-Centaurs</a>. Given cost overruns and technological breakthroughs in smaller satellites, Project Advent was cancelled on 23 May 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With Project Advent's failure, the Defense Department turned to the Air Force-aligned <a href="/wiki/The_Aerospace_Corporation" title="The Aerospace Corporation">the Aerospace Corporation</a>, which had been developing two alternatives. In Summer 1962, the Space Systems Division got authorization to proceed with the development of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program</a> (IDCSP) to provided communications in the <a href="/wiki/Super_high_frequency" title="Super high frequency">super high frequency</a> (SHF) bandwidth. Unlike in Project Advent, the Space Systems Division would have complete control over the spacecraft and booster, with the Army Satellite Communications Agency only had authority over the ground segment, with the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency" title="Defense Information Systems Agency">Defense Communications Agency</a> responsible for unify the Army and Air Force Space Systems Division efforts. The Space Systems Division also received authorization to develop a second system, the Advanced Defense Communications Satellite Program (ADCSP), at the same time. IDCSP development proved difficult, intended to be launched on <a href="/wiki/Atlas-Agena" title="Atlas-Agena">Atlas-Agena</a> boosters, due to intensive studies by the Defense Department and Secretary McNamara question if the military needed to operate its own communications satellites, rather than lease bandwidth from the <a href="/wiki/COMSAT" title="COMSAT">COMSAT</a> corporation. On 15 July 1964, after failed negotiations with COMSAT and concerns about hosting military payloads on civil satellites that could be used by foreign countries, Secretary McNamara opted to push forward with the more secure and reliable military satellite communications system. The development of the <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIC" title="Titan IIIC">Titan IIIC</a> prompted a change from medium earth orbits to near-synchronous orbits for the IDCSP.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DSCS-2_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/DSCS-2_2.jpg/220px-DSCS-2_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/DSCS-2_2.jpg/330px-DSCS-2_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/DSCS-2_2.jpg/440px-DSCS-2_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="327" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System Phase II</a> satellite in orbit</figcaption></figure> <p>The IDSCP was originally intended to just be an experimentation program, but was so successful that it became an operational satellite constellation. The first seven satellites were launched on 16 June 1966 by the Space Systems Division <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIC" title="Titan IIIC">Titan IIIC</a>. The second launch, of eight IDSCP satellites, were launched on 26 August 1966, however a critical failure resulted in the loss of the launch vehicle and payloads. The third launch occurred on 18 January 1967, placing eight satellites into orbit, with a 1 July 1967 launch, the first by SAMSO, placing three more satellites into orbit. This launch also placed into orbit a number of test satellites, including the Navy's <a href="/wiki/DODGE" title="DODGE">DODGE</a> gravity gradient experiment, the DATS satellite, and <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Experimental_Satellite" title="Lincoln Experimental Satellite">Lincoln Experimental Satellite-5</a>. The final eight satellites were launched into orbit on 13 June 1968, creating a constellation of 26 satellite when the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency" title="Defense Information Systems Agency">Defense Communications Agency</a> declared the IDCSP system operation al changed its name to the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Initial Defense Satellite Communications System</a> (IDSCS).<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By mid-1968, 36 fixed and mobile ground terminals, the responsibility of the Army, completed the satellite communications system. Originally used for the Army Signal Corps' Project Advent and later co-opted for NASA's <a href="/wiki/Syncom" title="Syncom">Syncom</a> satellite program, two fixed AN/FSC-9 ground terminals, one located at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Roberts,_California" title="Camp Roberts, California">Camp Roberts, California</a> and the other at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Dix" title="Fort Dix">Fort Dix</a> began relaying IDSCS satellite data. Mobile terminals consisted of seven AN/TSC-54 terminals, thirteen AN/MSC-46 terminals, and six ship-based terminals. Ground terminal locations included Colorado, <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, Hawaii, Guam, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Prefecture" title="Okinawa Prefecture">Okinawa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>. In 1967 the Air Force Space and Missile Systems Organization demonstrated the capability of the IDSCP at the 21st <a href="/wiki/AFCEA" title="AFCEA">Armed Forces Communications and Electronics Association</a> convention in Washington D.C., connecting Secretary of the Air Force <a href="/wiki/Harold_Brown_(Secretary_of_Defense)" title="Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)">Harold Brown</a> directly with the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Air_Force" title="Seventh Air Force">Seventh Air Force</a> commander in South Vietnam, General <a href="/wiki/William_W._Momyer" title="William W. Momyer">William W. Momyer</a>. The Initial Defense Communications System later became known as the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System Phase I</a> (DSCS I). DSCS I became known for its reliability, and by 1971, fifteen of the twenty-six initial satellites, intended purely as an experiment, remained operational. By mid-1976, three continued to function, several years after their intended shutoff date. the DSCS I constellation provided the Defense Communications Agency service for nearly 10 years and served as the basic design for the <a href="/wiki/British_Armed_Forces" title="British Armed Forces">British Armed Forces</a>' <a href="/wiki/Skynet_(satellite)" title="Skynet (satellite)">Skynet 1</a> satellites, launched by SAMSO <a href="/wiki/Thor-Delta" title="Thor-Delta">Thor-Delta</a> rockets in 1969, and <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>'s satellite communications, also launched by a SAMSO <a href="/wiki/Thor-Delta" title="Thor-Delta">Thor-Delta</a> rocket in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although DSCS I was superior to radio or cable communications, it remained limited in terms of channel capacity, user access, and overall coverage. Work began on the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System Phase II</a> (DSCS II) to satisfy the original intent of Project Advent and overcome these difficulties. Preliminary work began at the Space Systems Division in 1964 as the Advanced Defense Communications Satellite Program, with the Defense Communications Agency awarding six concept study contracts in 1965, with procurement authorized in June 1968. The Space and Missile Systems Organization planned for a constellation of four satellites in geosynchronous orbit (one over the Indian Ocean, one over the Eastern Pacific Ocean, one over the Western Pacific Ocean, and one over the Atlantic Ocean), with two spare spacecraft. The Defense Communications Agency maintained overall control of the program, with the Air Force Space and Missile Systems Organization responsible for the spacecraft, <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIC" title="Titan IIIC">Titan IIIC</a> boosters, and operations from the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility" title="Air Force Satellite Control Facility">Air Force Satellite Control Facility</a>, while the Army Signal Corps was responsible for the ground-segment.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>DSCS II was a major step forward in communications satellite design, with both broad area and narrow beam coverage. The first two satellites were launched from a Titan IIIC on 2 November 1971, placing one over the Atlantic Ocean and one over the Pacific Ocean. After redesigning due to failures in the initial tranche, the second set of satellites was launched on 13 December 1973 and the constellation was declared operational by the Defense Communications Agency in February 1974 with only two satellites on orbit. The third launch on 20 May 1975 had an anomaly in the Titan IIIC's guidance system which resulted in the spacecraft reentering the atmosphere and the DSCS II satellites were lost. The constellation was later completed, and by the 1980s DSCS II provided strategic communications through 46 ground terminals, the <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Telecommunications_Service" title="Diplomatic Telecommunications Service">Diplomatic Telecommunications Service</a>' 52 terminals, and the <a href="/wiki/Ground_Mobile_Forces" title="Ground Mobile Forces">Ground Mobile Forces</a> 31 tactical terminals. The last DSCS II satellite was decommissioned on 13 December 1993, however design of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System Phase III</a> (DSCS III) began in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Space Systems Division, and later Space and Missile Systems Organization, also provided support to a number of experimental satellites, predominantly the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Experimental_Satellite" title="Lincoln Experimental Satellite">Lincoln Experimental Satellite</a> series, which would often piggyback on military launch missions. SAMSO also contracted <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Aircraft_Company" title="Hughes Aircraft Company">Hughes Aircraft Company</a> for the TACSAT communications satellite, which provided both UHF and SHF communications. However, due to funding restrictions it was limited to a single spacecraft and launched on a Titan IIIC from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Kennedy Air Force Station</a> on 9 February 1969. TACSAT supported the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_9" title="Apollo 9">Apollo 9</a> recovery efforts, directly linking the <a href="/wiki/USS_Guadalcanal_(LPH-7)" title="USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7)">USS <i>Guadalcanal</i></a> with the White House. The Navy, impressed by the success of TACSAT, began development with SAMSO on the <a href="/wiki/Fleet_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Fleet Satellite Communications System">Fleet Satellite Communications System</a> (FLTSATCOM). While the Navy provided funding and ground terminals, SAMSO served as the Navy's agent in spacecraft areas and received a portion of the spacecraft's capabilities, forming the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Communications" title="Air Force Satellite Communications">Air Force Satellite Communications</a> System (AFSATCOM), which was used to provide global communications for <a href="/wiki/Single_Integrated_Operational_Plan" title="Single Integrated Operational Plan">Single Integrated Operations Plan</a> nuclear forces.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deployment_of_military_weather_observation_satellite_systems">Deployment of military weather observation satellite systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Deployment of military weather observation satellite systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DMSP_Block-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/DMSP_Block-1.jpg/220px-DMSP_Block-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/DMSP_Block-1.jpg/330px-DMSP_Block-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/DMSP_Block-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="406" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program" title="Defense Meteorological Satellite Program">Defense Meteorological Satellite Program</a> Block I satellite in orbit</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DMSP_Block-5D2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/DMSP_Block-5D2.jpg/220px-DMSP_Block-5D2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/DMSP_Block-5D2.jpg/330px-DMSP_Block-5D2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/DMSP_Block-5D2.jpg/440px-DMSP_Block-5D2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="957" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program" title="Defense Meteorological Satellite Program">Defense Meteorological Satellite Program</a> Block 5 satellite in orbit</figcaption></figure> <p>The idea of <a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">weather satellites</a> had, much like communications satellites, been conceptualized of by early science fiction authors like <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a>. <a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">Weather forecasting</a> had been a crucial military capability since ancient times, however rarely were <a href="/wiki/Meteorologist" title="Meteorologist">meteorologists</a> able to gather observations over land controlled by a hostile adversary and there was almost always a lack of coverage over the open ocean. Following the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, the 1946 RAND report predicated that weather observations over enemy territories would be the most valuable capability provided by satellites. By 1961, the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Space Systems Division</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Aerospace_Corporation" title="The Aerospace Corporation">the Aerospace Corporation</a> began studying requirements for military weather satellites, however NASA had received authority to develop weather satellites for all governmental users, including the military.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>NASA's <a href="/wiki/Television_Infrared_Observation_Satellite" title="Television Infrared Observation Satellite">Television Infrared Observation Satellite</a> (TIROS) was designed to provide weather observation data to the <a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">United States Weather Bureau</a>, launching <a href="/wiki/TIROS-1" title="TIROS-1">TIROS-1</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral Air Force Station</a> <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Launch_Complex_17" title="Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 17">Launch Complex 17</a> on a Air Force Ballistic Missile Division <a href="/wiki/Thor-Able" title="Thor-Able">Thor-Able</a> booster on 1 April 1960. With the success of TIROS, the Department of Defense, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce" title="United States Department of Commerce">Department of Commerce</a>, and NASA convened to develop a single weather system that would satisfy the needs of both civilian and military users, agreeing to the National Operational Meteorological Satellite System in April 1961. NASA and the <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> jointly developed the <a href="/wiki/Nimbus_program" title="Nimbus program">Nimbus program</a> second-generation weather satellites for meteorological research and science.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ultimately, in 1963 the Aerospace Corporation recommended that the military develop its own weather satellite system. The Space Systems Division began development of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program" title="Defense Meteorological Satellite Program">Defense Satellite Applications Program</a> (DSAP), however because DSAP was intended to provide direct support to <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a>, its existence remained classified until 17 April 1973 when it was decided by secretary of the Air Force <a href="/wiki/John_L._McLucas" title="John L. McLucas">John L. McLucas</a> to use its weather data to support the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (November 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and prove declassified data to the Department of Commerce and scientific community. In December 1973, it was renamed the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program" title="Defense Meteorological Satellite Program">Defense Meteorological Satellite Program</a> (DMSP).<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initial DMSP satellites transmitted data to <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Air_Force_Base" title="Fairchild Air Force Base">Fairchild Air Force Base</a>, Washington and <a href="/wiki/Loring_Air_Force_Base" title="Loring Air Force Base">Loring Air Force Base</a>, Maine, from there sent to the <a href="/wiki/557th_Weather_Wing" title="557th Weather Wing">Air Force Global Weather Center</a> at <a href="/wiki/Offutt_Air_Force_Base" title="Offutt Air Force Base">Offutt Air Force Base</a>. Tactical data was passed to mission planner in Vietnam, while auroral data was given to the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Research_Laboratory" title="Air Force Research Laboratory">Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> for scientific research. The fifth block of DMSP satellites were launched on <a href="/wiki/Thor-Burner" title="Thor-Burner">Thor-Burner</a> rockets into polar orbits and in 1973 it became a tri-service program, adding Army and Navy participation.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The DMSP was operated by <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a>'s <a href="/wiki/6th_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="6th Space Operations Squadron">4000th Support Group</a> beginning on 1 February 1963. The 4000th Support Group was reassigned to SAC's <a href="/wiki/1st_Strategic_Aerospace_Division" title="1st Strategic Aerospace Division">1st Strategic Aerospace Division</a> on 1 January 1966, being renamed the <a href="/wiki/6th_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="6th Space Operations Squadron">4000th Aerospace Application Group</a> on 1 January 1973 and then the <a href="/wiki/6th_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="6th Space Operations Squadron">4000th Satellite Operations Group</a> on 3 April 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_the_Global_Positioning_System">Development of the Global Positioning System</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Development of the Global Positioning System"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a> systems were based upon <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">radio navigation</a> systems such as <a href="/wiki/LORAN" title="LORAN">LORAN</a>, however terrestrial systems could only provide positioning in two-dimensions at limited ranges, while space-based systems could provide up to three-dimesons, plus velocity, anywhere on the Earth. On 13 April 1960, and Air Force Ballistic Missile Division <a href="/wiki/Thor-Ablestar" title="Thor-Ablestar">Thor-Ablestar</a> launched the Navy's first <a href="/wiki/Transit_(satellite)" title="Transit (satellite)">Transit</a> navigation satellite into orbit. Transit was designed to provide 600 feet accuracy for naval ships and ballistic missile submarines, however it was too slow and intermittent to provide the precise requirements needed for high-speed aircraft and ground launched missiles.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1963, the Aerospace Corporation prompted the Space Systems Division to begin work on <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Project 621B</a> (Satellite System for Precise Navigation), which was intended to provide accurate, all-weather positioning data anywhere on Earth. At the same time, the Navy began work on <a href="/wiki/Timation" title="Timation">Timation</a> as a follow-on to Transit. The first Timation satellites were launched by the Space and Missile Systems Organization in 1967 and 1969. The Army also developed <a href="/wiki/SECOR" title="SECOR">SECOR</a> satellite system. In 1968, the Defense Department organized the Navigation Satellite Executive Committee as a tri-service committee to coordinate the various programs. In 1972, Air Force Colonel <a href="/wiki/Bradford_Parkinson" title="Bradford Parkinson">Bradford W. Parkinson</a> worked to combine SAMSO's Project 621B and the Navy's Timation program and on 17 April 1973, Deputy Secretary of Defense <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clements" title="Bill Clements">Bill Clements</a> unified them under the SAMSO-led <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Defense Navigation Satellite Development Program</a>. The program adopted the Air Force's signal structure and frequencies and the Navy's orbital deployment plan and usage of atomic clocks. On 2 May 1974, the program was renamed the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Navstar Global Positioning System</a> (GPS).<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deployment_of_space-based_missile_warning_systems">Deployment of space-based missile warning systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Deployment of space-based missile warning systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DSP_Phase3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/DSP_Phase3.jpg/220px-DSP_Phase3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/DSP_Phase3.jpg/330px-DSP_Phase3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/DSP_Phase3.jpg/440px-DSP_Phase3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Defense_Support_Program" title="Defense Support Program">Defense Support Program</a> satellite in orbit.</figcaption></figure> <p>Generally considered to be the most important military space program, national reconnaissance programs were assigned to the <a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a> since 1961, however strategic missile warning programs remained within the military services, specifically the Air Force. The Space Systems Division managed two of these programs: the <a href="/wiki/Missile_Defense_Alarm_System" title="Missile Defense Alarm System">Missile Defense Alarm System</a> (MIDAS) satellites, which used infrared sensors to detect missile or rocket launches, and <a href="/wiki/Vela_(satellite)" title="Vela (satellite)">Vela Hotel</a> satellites, which detected atmospheric and outer space nuclear detonations to monitor compliance with the <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a>. Both of these mission sets were predicted in the 1946 Project RAND report.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Project_Vela" title="Project Vela">Project Vela</a> development was started by DARPA in response to international conferences and congressional hearings. A joint Defense Department-<a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a> program, Project Vela consisted of three segments: <a href="/wiki/Vela_Uniform" title="Vela Uniform">Vela Uniform</a>, which detected underground or surface detonations using seismic monitors, <a href="/wiki/Project_Vela" title="Project Vela">Vela Sierra</a>, which used ground-based sensors to detect above-surface detonations, and <a href="/wiki/Vela_Hotel" class="mw-redirect" title="Vela Hotel">Vela Hotel</a>, which consisted of a constellation of space-based sensors for atmospheric and exoatmospheric nuclear detonations. DARPA assigned the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division responsibility for the spacecraft and boosters, while Atomic Energy Commission laboratories provided instrumentation and the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">Lawrence Radiation Laboratory</a> provided the sensors. The first test launches were authorized on 22 June 1961 by DARPA, launching on <a href="/wiki/Atlas-Agena" title="Atlas-Agena">Atlas-Agena</a> boosters. On 16 October 1963, the first operational Vela Hotel satellites were launched, with a second pair following on 17 July 1964. In the 1970s, dedicated Vela Hotel satellites were phased out and were replaced with the Integrated Operational Nuclear Detonation Detection System (IONDS), which were placed on <a href="/wiki/Defense_Support_Program" title="Defense Support Program">Defense Support Program</a> and <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Navstar Global Positioning System</a> satellites as secondary payloads.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike Vela Hotel, MIDAS experienced a number of problems due to its complexities. In Fall 1960, General <a href="/wiki/Laurence_S._Kuter" title="Laurence S. Kuter">Laurence S. Kuter</a>, commander-in-chief of <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">North American Air Defense Command</a> and Lieutenant General Joseph H. Atkinson, commander of <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Air Defense Command</a>, urged chief of staff of the Air Force General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_D._White" title="Thomas D. White">Thomas D. White</a> to accelerate and expand the troubled MIDAS program. This led to tension between the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, under Air Research and Development Command, which sought to continue its research and development, while <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Air Defense Command</a> wanted to operationally employ it as early as possible. The final MIDAS development plan put forward by AFBMD on 31 March 1961, scheduled twenty-seven development launches and <a href="/wiki/Initial_operating_capability" title="Initial operating capability">initial operating capability</a> in January 1964. On 16 January, the Joint Chiefs of Staff approved NORAD as the operational command with Air Defense Command as service command. Air Defense Command called for eight satellites in two orbital rings, ensuring constant coverage of the Soviet Union, with sensor data transmitted to the <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_Missile_Early_Warning_System" title="Ballistic Missile Early Warning System">Ballistic Missile Early Warning System</a> (BMEWS) radar sites, then relayed to the NORAD command post in the <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_Mountain_Complex" title="Cheyenne Mountain Complex">Cheyenne Mountain Complex</a>. In summer 1961, director of defense research and development <a href="/wiki/Harold_Brown_(Secretary_of_Defense)" title="Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)">Harold Brown</a> conducted a review of the MIDAS program, expressing concern that it could detect light ballistic missiles and submarine launched ballistic missiles. After several test flights, the MIDAS program was reduced to a research and development program, however progress was made in 1963 when MIDAS satellites successfully detected nine launches of <a href="/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman" title="LGM-30 Minuteman">LGM-30A Minuteman</a> and <a href="/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris" title="UGM-27 Polaris">UGM-27 Polaris</a> solid-fuel missiles and <a href="/wiki/SM-65_Atlas" title="SM-65 Atlas">SM-65 Atlas</a> and <a href="/wiki/HGM-25A_Titan_I" title="HGM-25A Titan I">HGM-25A Titan I</a> liquid-fuel missiles. Due to defense budget cuts and technological obsolescence, the MIDAS program was ended in 1966 without becoming an operational system.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>MIDAS was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Support_Program" title="Defense Support Program">Defense Support Program</a> (DSP) in August 1966. DSP was originally intended to monitor the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Missile_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic Missile Forces">Soviet Strategic Missile Forces</a> <a href="/wiki/Fractional_Orbital_Bombardment_System" title="Fractional Orbital Bombardment System">Fractional Orbital Bombardment System</a> nuclear weapons system, however it was also developed as a replacement for the ground-based <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_Missile_Early_Warning_System" title="Ballistic Missile Early Warning System">Ballistic Missile Early Warning System</a>. In November 1970 the first DSP satellite was launched on a <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIC" title="Titan IIIC">Titan IIIC</a>. The primary ground station was at the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility" title="Air Force Satellite Control Facility">Air Force Satellite Control Facility</a>, with a secondary ground station constructed in April 1971 at <a href="/wiki/RAAF_Woomera_Range_Complex" title="RAAF Woomera Range Complex">RAAF Woomera Range Complex</a> in Australia, with an additional ground station constructed at <a href="/wiki/Buckley_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckley Air Force Base">Buckley Air National Guard Base</a> in Colorado. Operational control of the Defense Support Program was conducted by the North American Air Defense Command, with the newly christened <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Aerospace Defense Command</a> conducting day to day operations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_defense_operations">Space defense operations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Space defense operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_clear_AFS_site,_Official_photograph_BMEWS_Project_by_C._Henry,_5_July_1962,_Photographic_Services,_Riverton,_NJ,_BMEWS,_clear_as_negative_no._A-3945._-_Clear_Air_Force_HAER_AK-30-A-96.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Aerial_view_of_clear_AFS_site%2C_Official_photograph_BMEWS_Project_by_C._Henry%2C_5_July_1962%2C_Photographic_Services%2C_Riverton%2C_NJ%2C_BMEWS%2C_clear_as_negative_no._A-3945._-_Clear_Air_Force_HAER_AK-30-A-96.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Aerial_view_of_clear_AFS_site%2C_Official_photograph_BMEWS_Project_by_C._Henry%2C_5_July_1962%2C_Photographic_Services%2C_Riverton%2C_NJ%2C_BMEWS%2C_clear_as_negative_no._A-3945._-_Clear_Air_Force_HAER_AK-30-A-96.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Aerial_view_of_clear_AFS_site%2C_Official_photograph_BMEWS_Project_by_C._Henry%2C_5_July_1962%2C_Photographic_Services%2C_Riverton%2C_NJ%2C_BMEWS%2C_clear_as_negative_no._A-3945._-_Clear_Air_Force_HAER_AK-30-A-96.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4782" data-file-height="3688" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ballistic_Missile_Early_Warning_System" title="Ballistic Missile Early Warning System">Ballistic Missile Early Warning System</a> radars at <a href="/wiki/Clear_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Clear Air Force Station">Clear Air Force Station</a>, Alaska.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_Defense_Command.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Air_Defense_Command.svg/220px-Air_Defense_Command.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Air_Defense_Command.svg/330px-Air_Defense_Command.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Air_Defense_Command.svg/440px-Air_Defense_Command.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="597" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>Shield of Air Defense Command, which was responsible for most operational space forces.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the debate between the Air Force and Navy over operational control of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Detection_and_Tracking_System" title="Space Detection and Tracking System">Space Detection and Tracking System</a> (SPADATS), on 7 November 1960, the Joint Chiefs of Staff operational command of SPADATS to <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">North American Air Defense Command</a> (NORAD) and <a href="/wiki/Continental_Air_Defense_Command" title="Continental Air Defense Command">Continental Air Defense Command</a> (CONAD). The Air Force component, <a href="/wiki/Project_Space_Track" title="Project Space Track">Spacetrack</a>, was operationally assigned to <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Air Defense Command</a>. On 14 February 1961, the <a href="/wiki/1st_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="1st Space Operations Squadron">1st Aerospace Surveillance and Control Squadron</a> (assigned to the <a href="/wiki/9th_Space_Division" title="9th Space Division">9th Aerospace Defense Division</a> on 1 October 1961 and renamed the <a href="/wiki/1st_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="1st Space Operations Squadron">1st Aerospace Control Squadron</a> on 1 July 1962) was activated to operate the SPADATS data collection and catalog center as part of <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">NORAD</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Space_Defense_Center" title="Space Defense Center">Space Defense Center</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ent_Air_Force_Base" title="Ent Air Force Base">Ent Air Force Base</a>, assuming the responsibilities of the Interim National Space Surveillance and Control Center. On 1 February 1961, NORAD assumed operational command of the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Surveillance_System" title="Air Force Space Surveillance System">Navy Space Surveillance System</a> (NAVSPASUR) system and its data tracking facility at <a href="/wiki/Naval_Surface_Warfare_Center_Dahlgren_Division" title="Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division">Naval Support Activity Dahlgren</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/9th_Space_Division" title="9th Space Division">9th Aerospace Defense Division</a> had responsibility for all Air Defense Command space forces, including the <a href="/wiki/Missile_Defense_Alarm_System" title="Missile Defense Alarm System">Missile Defense Alarm System</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_Missile_Early_Warning_System" title="Ballistic Missile Early Warning System">Ballistic Missile Early Warning System</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_Detection_and_Tracking_System" title="Space Detection and Tracking System">Space Detection and Tracking System</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">NORAD</a> Combat Operations Center, the <a href="/wiki/Bomb_Alarm_System" title="Bomb Alarm System">Bomb Alarm System</a>, and the Nuclear Detonation System.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Space surveillance operations were conducted by the <a href="/wiki/73rd_Space_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="73rd Space Group">73rd Aerospace Surveillance Wing</a> starting on 1 January 1967. Prior to the standup of the 73rd Aerospace Surveillance Wing, squadrons reported directly to the 9th Aerospace Defense Division. The initial Spacetrack sensors included the <a href="/wiki/Haystack_Observatory" title="Haystack Observatory">Millstone Hill Radar</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schmidt_camera" title="Schmidt camera">Baker-Nunn cameras</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Astrophysical_Observatory" title="Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory">Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edwards_Air_Force_Base" title="Edwards Air Force Base">Edwards Air Force Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johnston_Atoll" title="Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo, Norway</a>. By 1965 the system would grow to include Air Defense Command's <a href="/wiki/AN/FPS-17" title="AN/FPS-17">AN/FPS-17</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Surveillance_Network" title="United States Space Surveillance Network">AN/FPS-80</a> radars operated by the <a href="/wiki/16th_Space_Control_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="16th Space Control Squadron">16th Surveillance Squadron</a> at <a href="/wiki/Eareckson_Air_Station" title="Eareckson Air Station">Shemya Air Force Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/AN/FPS-17" title="AN/FPS-17">AN/FPS-17</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pirin%C3%A7lik_Air_Base" title="Pirinçlik Air Base">AN/FPS-79</a> radars operated by the <a href="/wiki/19th_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="19th Space Operations Squadron">19th Surveillance Squadron</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pirin%C3%A7lik_Air_Base" title="Pirinçlik Air Base">Pirinçlik Air Base</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_Missile_Early_Warning_System" title="Ballistic Missile Early Warning System">AN/FPS-49</a> Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) prototype operated by the <a href="/wiki/17th_Expeditionary_Space_Control_Squadron" title="17th Expeditionary Space Control Squadron">17th Surveillance Squadron</a> at <a href="/wiki/USS_Rancocas" title="USS Rancocas">Moorestown, New Jersey</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_Missile_Early_Warning_System" title="Ballistic Missile Early Warning System">AN/FPS-50</a> BMEWS prototype at <a href="/wiki/Chaguaramas,_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Chaguaramas, Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad Air Base</a>. The FSR-2 electo-optical system at <a href="/wiki/Cloudcroft_Observatory" title="Cloudcroft Observatory">Cloudcroft Observatory</a>, New Mexico and the <a href="/wiki/Eglin_AFB_Site_C-6" title="Eglin AFB Site C-6">AN/FPS-85</a> radar at operated by the <a href="/wiki/20th_Space_Control_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="20th Space Control Squadron">20th Space Surveillance Squadron</a> at <a href="/wiki/Eglin_Air_Force_Base" title="Eglin Air Force Base">Eglin Air Force Base</a> joined the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Surveillance_Network" title="United States Space Surveillance Network">United States Space Surveillance Network</a> in 1967. In the 1970s, the Baker-Nunn network was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Surveillance_Network" title="United States Space Surveillance Network">Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance</a> (GEODSS) network, with locations at <a href="/wiki/Socorro,_New_Mexico" title="Socorro, New Mexico">Socorro, New Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diego_Garcia" title="Diego Garcia">Diego Garcia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Maui_Optical_and_Supercomputing_observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory">Maui Space Surveillance Complex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mor%C3%B3n_Air_Base" title="Morón Air Base">Morón Air Base</a>. The Baker-Nunn network and GEODSS system was operated by the <a href="/wiki/18th_Space_Control_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="18th Space Control Squadron">18th Space Surveillance Squadron</a>. Other space surveillance squadrons included the <a href="/wiki/2d_Space_Operations_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="2d Space Operations Squadron">2nd Surveillance Squadron (Sensor)</a><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Air Defense Command's <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_Missile_Early_Warning_System" title="Ballistic Missile Early Warning System">Ballistic Missile Early Warning System</a>, operated by the <a href="/wiki/71st_Flying_Training_Wing" title="71st Flying Training Wing">71st Surveillance Wing</a>, also provided supplemental space surveillance. These included the radars operated by the <a href="/wiki/12th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="12th Space Warning Squadron">12th Missile Warning Squadron</a> at <a href="/wiki/Thule_Air_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Thule Air Base">Thule Air Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/213th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="213th Space Warning Squadron">13th Missile Warning Squadron</a> at <a href="/wiki/Clear_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Clear Air Force Station">Clear Air Force Station</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> at <a href="/wiki/RAF_Fylingdales" title="RAF Fylingdales">RAF Fylingdales</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/10th_Aerospace_Defense_Group" title="10th Aerospace Defense Group">10th Aerospace Defense Group</a> operated <a href="/wiki/Program_437" title="Program 437">Weapon System 437</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear</a> <a href="/wiki/Anti-satellite_weapon" title="Anti-satellite weapon">anti-satellite</a> <a href="/wiki/Thor_DSV-2" title="Thor DSV-2">Thor DSV-2</a> missile system.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recognition of the importance of space defense, Air Defense Command was redesignated as <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Aerospace Defense Command</a> on 15 January 1968 and the <a href="/wiki/9th_Space_Division" title="9th Space Division">9th Aerospace Defense Division</a> was inactivated and replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Air_Force" title="Fourteenth Air Force">Fourteenth Aerospace Force</a> on 1 July 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_launch_fleet_and_ground_support_infrastructure">Space launch fleet and ground support infrastructure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Space launch fleet and ground support infrastructure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DF-SC-84-05192_cropped.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/DF-SC-84-05192_cropped.jpeg/220px-DF-SC-84-05192_cropped.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/DF-SC-84-05192_cropped.jpeg/330px-DF-SC-84-05192_cropped.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/DF-SC-84-05192_cropped.jpeg/440px-DF-SC-84-05192_cropped.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1364" data-file-height="2018" /></a><figcaption>Launch of a <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIC" title="Titan IIIC">Titan IIIC</a>, sometimes referred to as the DC-3 of space because of how it increased ease of access to space.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Space Systems Division's monopoly in space launch vehicles was, in large part, the prime reason for its primacy in the space domain. Early ballistic missiles, such as the <a href="/wiki/PGM-17_Thor" title="PGM-17 Thor">PGM-17 Thor</a> and <a href="/wiki/SM-65_Atlas" title="SM-65 Atlas">SM-65 Atlas</a> (which included the <a href="/wiki/SM-65A_Atlas" title="SM-65A Atlas">SM-65A</a>, <a href="/wiki/SM-65B_Atlas" title="SM-65B Atlas">SM-65B</a>, and <a href="/wiki/SM-65C_Atlas" title="SM-65C Atlas">SM-65C</a> prototypes and the <a href="/wiki/SM-65D_Atlas" title="SM-65D Atlas">SM-65D</a>, <a href="/wiki/SM-65E_Atlas" title="SM-65E Atlas">SM-65E</a>, and <a href="/wiki/SM-65F_Atlas" title="SM-65F Atlas">SM-65F</a> operational missiles) did perform adequately compared to Soviet <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Missile_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic Missile Forces">Strategic Missile Forces</a> ICBMs, and were rapidly phased out in favor of the solid-fueled <a href="/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman" title="LGM-30 Minuteman">LGM-30 Minuteman</a> and <a href="/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris" title="UGM-27 Polaris">UGM-27 Polaris</a> missiles. However, the Atlas and Thor missiles gained new life as the backbone of the Space Systems Division's launch fleet.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Aircraft_Company" title="Douglas Aircraft Company">Douglas Aircraft Company</a> <a href="/wiki/Thor_(rocket_family)" title="Thor (rocket family)">Thor</a> space launch vehicle performed its first space launch in December 1959, primarily performing space launches from <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg Air Force Base">Vandenberg Air Force Base</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Western_Range_(USSF)" title="Western Range (USSF)">Western Test Range</a>. Specific variants of the Thor space launch vehicle included the <a href="/wiki/Thor-Able" title="Thor-Able">Thor-Able</a>, which included an <a href="/wiki/Able_(rocket_stage)" title="Able (rocket stage)">Able</a> second stage, <a href="/wiki/Thor-Ablestar" title="Thor-Ablestar">Thor-Ablestar</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Thor-Delta" title="Thor-Delta">Thor-Delta</a>, which is considered the first member of the <a href="/wiki/Delta_(rocket_family)" title="Delta (rocket family)">Delta</a> space launch vehicle family, the <a href="/wiki/Thor-Burner" title="Thor-Burner">Thor-Burner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thor_DSV-2U" title="Thor DSV-2U">Thor DSV-2U</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thorad-Agena" title="Thorad-Agena">Thorad-Agena</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics" title="General Dynamics">General Dynamics Astronautics</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlas_(rocket_family)" title="Atlas (rocket family)">Atlas</a> space launch vehicle was more powerful than the Thor and primarily launched heavier payloads from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral Air Force Station</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Range" title="Eastern Range">Eastern Test Range</a>. The <a href="/wiki/SM-65B_Atlas" title="SM-65B Atlas">SM-65B Atlas</a>, which was also a prototype for the operational missile, performed its first space launch. A number of space launch vehicles were based on the <a href="/wiki/SM-65D_Atlas" title="SM-65D Atlas">SM-65D Atlas</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_SLV-3" title="Atlas SLV-3">Atlas SLV-3</a>, which had the <a href="/wiki/RM-81_Agena" title="RM-81 Agena">RM-81 Agena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Centaur_(rocket_stage)" title="Centaur (rocket stage)">Centaur</a> upper stages, the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_LV-3B" title="Atlas LV-3B">Atlas LV-3B</a>, which launched the final four <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a> spaceflights, <a href="/wiki/Atlas-Agena" title="Atlas-Agena">Atlas-Agena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlas-Able" title="Atlas-Able">Atlas-Able</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atlas-Centaur" title="Atlas-Centaur">Atlas-Centaur</a>. Decommissioned <a href="/wiki/SM-65E_Atlas" title="SM-65E Atlas">SM-65E Atlas</a> and <a href="/wiki/SM-65F_Atlas" title="SM-65F Atlas">SM-65F Atlas</a> missiles were converted to the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_E/F" title="Atlas E/F">Atlas E/F</a> launch vehicle. Other launch vehicles derived from the original SM-65 missile included the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_G" title="Atlas G">Atlas G</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlas_H" title="Atlas H">Atlas H</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlas_I" title="Atlas I">Atlas I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlas_II" title="Atlas II">Atlas II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlas_III" title="Atlas III">Atlas III</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atlas_V" title="Atlas V">Atlas V</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the Thor and Atlas were considered medium boosters, the <a href="/wiki/Glenn_L._Martin_Company" title="Glenn L. Martin Company">Martin</a> <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIC" title="Titan IIIC">Titan IIIC</a> was considered a heavy booster and was the first rocket with the power to launch payloads into geosynchronous orbit. Its first launch was on 18 June 1965. The Titan IIIC had two other variants, including the <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIB" title="Titan IIIB">Titan IIIB</a>, which was originally designed to support the <a href="/wiki/Manned_Orbiting_Laboratory" title="Manned Orbiting Laboratory">Manned Orbiting Laboratory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIID" title="Titan IIID">Titan IIID</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIE" title="Titan IIIE">Titan IIIE</a> was used by NASA for interplanetary missions and the <a href="/wiki/Titan_IIIA" title="Titan IIIA">Titan IIIA</a> was an early rocket in the family. The success of the Titan IIIC prompted some to call it the "<a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-3" title="Douglas DC-3">DC-3</a> of the Space Age"<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Space Systems Division's primary launch sites were <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral Air Force Station</a> (briefly known as Cape Kennedy Air Force Station) in Florida, which managed the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Range" title="Eastern Range">Eastern Test Range</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg Air Force Base">Vandenberg Air Force Base</a> in California, which managed the <a href="/wiki/Western_Range_(USSF)" title="Western Range (USSF)">Western Test Range</a>. Cape Canaveral was selected after the end of the Second World War to be the western end of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Long Range Proving Ground</a> and the Air Force absorbed <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Space_Force_Base" title="Patrick Space Force Base">Banana River Naval Air Station</a>, renaming it <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Space_Force_Base" title="Patrick Space Force Base">Patrick Air Force Base</a>, to support the missile tests there. In the 1960s, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station underwent major expansion to support <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> crewed spaceflights. Vandenberg Air Force Base was formed from the Army's Camp Cooke and briefly known as Cooke Air Force Base. Management of the Eastern Range at Cape Canaveral was initially the responsibility of the <a href="/wiki/45th_Space_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="45th Space Wing">Air Force Eastern Test Range</a> while launches were performed by the <a href="/wiki/6555th_Aerospace_Test_Group" title="6555th Aerospace Test Group">6555th Aerospace Test Wing</a>. Vandenberg AFB was used for testing ICBMs and IRBMs, forming part of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Range_(USSF)" title="Western Range (USSF)">Pacific Missile Range</a>, and was selected for polar launches. In 1971, Vandenberg was selected to perform near-polar <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> launches. Management of the Western Range at Vandenberg was initially the responsibility of the <a href="/wiki/30th_Space_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="30th Space Wing">Air Force Western Test Range</a> while launches were performed by the <a href="/wiki/6595th_Aerospace_Test_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="6595th Aerospace Test Wing">6595th Aerospace Test Wing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility.PNG/220px-Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility.PNG/330px-Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility.PNG/440px-Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility.PNG 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption>Shield of the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility" title="Air Force Satellite Control Facility">Air Force Satellite Control Facility</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The second effort, the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility" title="Air Force Satellite Control Facility">Air Force Satellite Control Facility</a>, consisted of a global system of tracking, telemetry, and control stations, with its central control facility located in California. The first Air Force Ballistic Missile Division tracking stations were set up in 1958 at the <a href="/wiki/Kaena_Point_Satellite_Tracking_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaena Point Satellite Tracking Station">Kaena Point Satellite Tracking Station</a>, in 1959 at <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg Air Force Base">Vandenberg Air Force Base</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Boston_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="New Boston Air Force Station">New Boston Air Force Station</a>, in 1961, at <a href="/wiki/Thule_Air_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Thule Air Base">Thule Air Base</a>, Greenland, in 1963 at <a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%A9,_Seychelles" title="Mahé, Seychelles">Mahé, Seychelles</a>, and in 1965 at <a href="/wiki/Andersen_Air_Force_Base" title="Andersen Air Force Base">Andersen Air Force Base</a>, Guam. The control center in California was first referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Onizuka_Air_Force_Station" title="Onizuka Air Force Station">Air Force Satellite Test Center</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility" title="Air Force Satellite Control Facility">6594th Test Wing</a> (later redesignated as the 6594th Aerospace Test Wing) operated the facility at <a href="/wiki/Onizuka_Air_Force_Station" title="Onizuka Air Force Station">Onizuka Air Force Station</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This enhanced focus on space resulted in a number of organizational changes, including the consolidation of the Eastern and Western Test Ranges under Air Force Systems Command's National Range Division in January 1964, the transfer of the Pacific Missile Range from the Navy to the Air Force and the Air Force's assumption of responsibility for the satellite tracking network in 1963. The National Range Division, headquartered at <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Space_Force_Base" title="Patrick Space Force Base">Patrick Air Force Base</a>, established the Air Force Space Test Center at <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg Air Force Base">Vandenberg Air Force Base</a> to manage all Pacific range activities. In January 1964, the National Range Division also gained responsibility for the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility" title="Air Force Satellite Control Facility">Air Force Satellite Control Facility</a>. This change was reversed in July 1965, with the Space Systems Division regaining responsibility for the Satellite Control Facility. The establishment of the Space and Missile Systems Organization in 1967 resulted in the formation of the Space and Missile Test Center on 1 April 1970 at Vandenberg Air Force Base, consolidating all Western Range activities under SAMSO. This consolidation was completed in 1977, when the Eastern Test Range was assigned to SAMSO.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_forces_in_the_Vietnam_War">Space forces in the Vietnam War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Space forces in the Vietnam War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first combat employment of space forces occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. In particular, weather and communications satellite support was considered critical by ground and air commanders.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program" title="Defense Meteorological Satellite Program">Defense Meteorological Support Program</a>, in particular, proved absolutely critical to the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Air_Force" title="Seventh Air Force">Seventh Air Force</a>, which relied upon cloud-free environments to provide low-level fighter, tanker, and gunship operations. Starting in 1965, Strategic Air Command began providing DMSP information to Air Force planners, with NASA providing information from their <a href="/wiki/Nimbus_program" title="Nimbus program">Nimbus</a> satellites. The Navy was unable to receive DMSP data until 1970, when the <a href="/wiki/USS_Constellation_(CV-64)" title="USS Constellation (CV-64)">USS <i>Constellation</i></a> gained the proper readout equipment. Specific operations that were supported by space forces through DMSP support included the Navy's destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Thanh_H%C3%B3a_Bridge" title="Thanh Hóa Bridge">Thanh Hóa Bridge</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ivory_Coast" title="Operation Ivory Coast">Operation Ivory Coast</a> by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Special_Forces" title="United States Army Special Forces">Army Special Forces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Special_Operations_Command" title="Air Force Special Operations Command">Air Commandos</a> to rescue American <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners of war</a> in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Satellite communications support began in June 1966, with a terminal being activated at <a href="/wiki/Tan_Son_Nhut_Air_Base" title="Tan Son Nhut Air Base">Tan Son Nhut Air Base</a> using <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s Synchronous Communications Satellite to communicate with Hawaii. <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program</a> terminals were installed in <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City" title="Ho Chi Minh City">Saigon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nha_Trang" title="Nha Trang">Nha Trang</a> in July 1967, enabling the transmission of high-resolution photography between Saigon and Washington D.C., enabling intelligence analysts and national leadership to assess near-real-time battlefield intelligence. Commercial satellite communications support was also provided by <a href="/wiki/COMSAT" title="COMSAT">COMSAT</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Air_Force_Space_Command_(1982–2019)"><span id="Air_Force_Space_Command_.281982.E2.80.932019.29"></span>Air Force Space Command (1982–2019)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Air Force Space Command (1982–2019)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inactivation_of_Aerospace_Defense_Command">Inactivation of Aerospace Defense Command</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Inactivation of Aerospace Defense Command"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USAF_-_Aerospace_Defense_Command.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/USAF_-_Aerospace_Defense_Command.png/220px-USAF_-_Aerospace_Defense_Command.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/USAF_-_Aerospace_Defense_Command.png/330px-USAF_-_Aerospace_Defense_Command.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/USAF_-_Aerospace_Defense_Command.png/440px-USAF_-_Aerospace_Defense_Command.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Shield of <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Aerospace Defense Command</a>, which sought to be the central space command prior to its inactivation. When it was redesignated in 1967, it added orbits over the Earth to emphasize its space forces.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command_logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command_logo.svg/220px-North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command_logo.svg/330px-North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command_logo.svg/440px-North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption>Shield of the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">North American Aerospace Defense Command</a>, which was operationally responsible for space defense.</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the rapid development in military space forces within the Air Force, there was no centralized command for them. Air Force Systems Command was responsible for research, development, and procurement, flying the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System</a> satellites for the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency" title="Defense Information Systems Agency">Defense Communications Agency</a> and other pre-operational constellations, as well as executing space launch and managing the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility" title="Air Force Satellite Control Facility">Air Force Satellite Control Facility</a>; <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Aerospace Defense Command</a> (ADCOM) was responsible for space surveillance and missile defense for <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">North American Air Defense Command</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a> was responsible for flying the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program" title="Defense Meteorological Satellite Program">Defense Meteorological Support Program</a>. Following a change in nuclear posture, NORAD's primary mission shifted from active defense against a nuclear attack to surveillance and warning of an impending attack, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Aerospace Defense Command</a> a major reorganization. ADCOM's atmospheric interceptors were cut, replaced with space-based warning systems, increasing their profile within NORAD.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The development of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> began as a joint Defense Department-NASA program, with the Space and Missile Systems Organization serving as the Defense Department's executive agent on the program. The Space Shuttle promised a reusable spacecraft and an end to costly expendable launch vehicles, as well as a way to reinvigorate the Air Force's place within space. Military requirements were taken into account while designing the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" title="Space Shuttle orbiter">Space Shuttle orbiter</a>, dictating the size of the payload bay. Ultimately, the Space Shuttle was intended to replace all but the smallest and largest expendable space launch vehicles. The Defense Department and NASA jointly chose <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg Air Force Base">Vandenberg Air Force Base</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Space_Launch_Complex_6" title="Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 6">Space Launch Complex 6</a> as shuttle launch locations. To centralize U.S. military requirements for the shuttle the Defense Department Space Shuttle User Committee was established in November 1973 and chaired by the <a href="/wiki/Air_Staff_(United_States)" title="Air Staff (United States)">Air Staff</a>'s director of space.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The military application of the shuttle, and the increased space mission for Aerospace Defense Command prompted an internal competition among the Air Force's major commands for the space mission starting in 1974. <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command" title="Air Force Systems Command">Air Force Systems Command</a>, through the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Space and Missile Systems Organization</a>, was the lead for space research, development, launch, and procurement. This resulted in SAMSO having development responsibilities for the Space Shuttle, however due to poorly defined lines separating experimental from operational space, SAMSO also had an operational space role. Aerospace Defense Command sought operational responsibility for the Space Shuttle due to its experience as the Air Force's primary operational space command and control of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Surveillance_Network" title="United States Space Surveillance Network">United States Space Surveillance Network</a>. <a href="/wiki/Military_Airlift_Command" title="Military Airlift Command">Military Airlift Command</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a> also attempted to claim operational responsibility for the shuttle. This debate over the shuttle, and later the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a>, prompted the Defense Department and Air Force to begin to reevaluate if space systems should be assigned to commands on an individual basis, as was current practice, or if they should be centralized in a single command.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite this fragmentation, operational space systems were being developed and deployed at an ever expansive rate. In February 1977, the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency" title="Defense Information Systems Agency">Defense Communications System</a> authorized the Space and Missile Systems Organization to begin development on the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System Phase III</a> (DSCS III), with an expected operational date of 1981 to 1984. The <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Navstar Global Positioning System</a> (GPS) development also was accelerating, and by 1981 five test satellites were on-orbit and supporting Navy requirements. Aerospace Defense Command's Defense Support Program was providing constant surveillance of Soviet <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Missile_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic Missile Forces">Strategic Missile Forces</a> and Chinese <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Rocket Force">People's Liberation Second Artillery Corps</a> rocket launches. The Aerospace Defense Command's <a href="/wiki/Space_Detection_and_Tracking_System" title="Space Detection and Tracking System">Space Detection and Tracking System</a> (SPADATS) continued to expand, adding the <a href="/wiki/Cobra_Dane" title="Cobra Dane">AN/FPS-108 Cobra Dane</a> radar at <a href="/wiki/Eareckson_Air_Station" title="Eareckson Air Station">Shemya Air Force Base</a> in 1977 and in 1982 incorporating the <a href="/wiki/PAVE_PAWS" title="PAVE PAWS">AN/FPS-115 PAVE PAWS</a> radars operated by the <a href="/wiki/7th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="7th Space Warning Squadron">7th Missile Warning Squadron</a> at <a href="/wiki/Beale_Air_Force_Base" title="Beale Air Force Base">Beale Air Force Base</a> and the <a href="/wiki/6th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="6th Space Warning Squadron">6th Missile Warning Squadron</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Cod_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Cod Air Force Station">Cape Cod Air Force Station</a> into SPADATS. In the early 1980s, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Surveillance_Network" title="United States Space Surveillance Network">Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance</a> System began to fully replace the Baker-Nunn telescopes. The space surveillance system highlighted the divide between the space communities, with Aerospace Defense Command's Space Detection and Tracking System focused almost entirely on fulfilling NORAD requirements, while Air Force Systems Command's satellite infrastructure focused on research and development.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Renewed Soviet anti-satellite missile tests and co-orbital in 1976 by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Defence_Forces" title="Soviet Air Defence Forces">Soviet Air Defense Forces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Missile_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic Missile Forces">Strategic Missile Forces</a> added to the heightened sense of urgency regarding space. The United States had no anti-satellite capability, having decommissioned Aerospace Defense Command's <a href="/wiki/Program_437" title="Program 437">Program 437</a> in 1975, which had been put into standby status in 1970. In Fall 1976, Present Ford authorized development on what would become the <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15_Eagle" title="McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle">McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle</a>-launched <a href="/wiki/ASM-135_ASAT" title="ASM-135 ASAT">ASM-135 ASAT</a> and Aerospace Defense Command began a reevaluation of its space defense capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1977, the Air Staff released the <i>Proposal for a Reorganization of USAF Air Defense and Space Surveillance/Warning Resources</i>, known informally as the Green Book Study. It marked the beginning of the end for Aerospace Defense Command, calling for its inactivation and the transition of its air defense mission to <a href="/wiki/Tactical_Air_Command" title="Tactical Air Command">Tactical Air Command</a>, its communications assets (not satellite communications, which were operated by Air Force Systems Command) to <a href="/wiki/Cyberspace_Capabilities_Center" title="Cyberspace Capabilities Center">Air Force Communications Command</a>, and its space assets to <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a>. General <a href="/wiki/James_E._Hill" title="James E. Hill">James E. Hill</a> attempted to fight its inactivation, highlight its bi-national nature and advocating for Aerospace Defense Command to become a Space Defense Command. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Under_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Under Secretary of the Air Force">United States Under Secretary of the Air Force</a> <a href="/wiki/Hans_Mark" title="Hans Mark">Hans Mark</a> also was concerned with inactivating Aerospace Defense Command, objecting to merging Aerospace Defense Command's defensive systems with the offensive systems of Strategic Air Command, which the Canadians were opposed to. Moreover, he expressed concern that space systems modernization would not receive sufficient attention with <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a>, whose primary focus was offensive nuclear bombers and missiles. Under secretary Mark lobbied, ultimately unsuccessfully, to have Aerospace Defense Command become the primary space command within the Air Force. General Hill also argued to his fellow generals that the Air Force required a space operations command – and that Aerospace Defense Command fit that role perfectly. Ultimately, Air Force leadership did not seem to understand the importance of space, instead forming an Air Staff group to examine the feasibility of a future space command. The Space Mission Organization Planning Executive Committee was appointed by Air Force chief of staff General <a href="/wiki/Lew_Allen" title="Lew Allen">Lew Allen</a> in November 1978 to examine all aspects of the space mission. Among the analysts was then Lieutenant Colonel <a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Moorman_Jr." title="Thomas S. Moorman Jr.">Thomas S. Moorman Jr.</a>, future commander of <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Space Command">Air Force Space Command</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vice_Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff">vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>. The study proposed a central space command, however General Allen did not favor centralization. On 31 March 1980, <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="Aerospace Defense Command">Aerospace Defense Command</a> was inactivated as an Air Force major command (although left existent as a specified combatant command until 16 December 1986). In 1980, its space activates were transferred to Strategic Air Command.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_of_Air_Force_Space_Command">Establishment of Air Force Space Command</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Establishment of Air Force Space Command"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SAC_Shield.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/SAC_Shield.svg/220px-SAC_Shield.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/SAC_Shield.svg/330px-SAC_Shield.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/SAC_Shield.svg/440px-SAC_Shield.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>Shield of <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a>, which was briefly responsible for space forces following the inactivation of Aerospace Defense Command.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 1 October 1979, the Space and Missiles Systems Organization was split, establishing the Space Division and Ballistic Missile Office. This change was in part due to the strain put on SAMSO for developing the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/LGM-118_Peacekeeper" title="LGM-118 Peacekeeper">LGM-118 Peacekeeper</a> concurrently. The reorganization also resulted in the subordination of the Eastern Range and Patrick Air Force Base to the <a href="/wiki/45th_Space_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="45th Space Wing">Eastern Space and Missile Center</a> and the Western Range and Vandenberg Air Force Base to the <a href="/wiki/30th_Space_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="30th Space Wing">Western Space and Missile Center</a>, both of which were subordinated under the Space and Missile Test Organization. Air Force Systems Command also established a deputy commander for space operations, who was made responsible for all non-acquisitions space functions, including liaising with NASA and the integration and operational support of military shuttle payloads. In preparation for classified shuttle operations, Air Force Systems Command activated the Manned Spaceflight Support Group at <a href="/wiki/Johnson_Space_Center" title="Johnson Space Center">Johnson Space Center</a>. Ultimately, the Manned Spaceflight Support Group was intended to transition into the Air Force's own Shuttle Operations and Planning Complex at the <a href="/wiki/Schriever_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Schriever Air Force Base">Consolidated Space Operations Center</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility" title="Air Force Satellite Control Facility">Air Force Satellite Control Facility</a> was transitioned from the Space Division to report directly to the Systems Command deputy commander for space operations. In 1979, Air Force doctrine recognized space as a mission area for the first time, and in 1981 the <a href="/wiki/Air_Staff_(United_States)" title="Air Staff (United States)">Air Staff</a> Directorate for Space Operations was created within the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations, Plans, and Readiness.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1981, Representative <a href="/wiki/Ken_Kramer" title="Ken Kramer">Ken Kramer</a> introduced a resolution in the House of Representatives that would have renamed the Department of the Air Force and the United States Air Force into the Department of the Aerospace Force and United States Aerospace Force, respectively. This proposal made Air Force leadership extremely uncomfortable, changing the Air Force's legislative mandate to: "be trained and equipped for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive operations in air and space, including coordination with ground and naval forces and the preservation of free access to space for U.S . spacecraft" and called upon the Air Force to create a space command. Under the pressure and passivity that President Reagan would propose an intendent space force be created, the Air Force relented, committing to the establishment of a major command for space, briefly considering a organizational relationship where the commander of the Space Division would also be duel-hatted as the Aerospace Defense Command deputy commander for space.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 1 September 1982, <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Space Command">Space Command</a> was established at <a href="/wiki/Peterson_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Peterson Air Force Base">Peterson Air Force Base</a>, with General <a href="/wiki/James_V._Hartinger" title="James V. Hartinger">James V. Hartinger</a> triple hatted at the commander of Space Command, NORAD, and Aerospace Defense Command. The commander of Air Force Systems Command's Space Division would serve as Space Command's vice commander. At the same time, the Space Technology Center was established at <a href="/wiki/Kirtland_Air_Force_Base" title="Kirtland Air Force Base">Kirtland Air Force Base</a> to consolidate the three Air Force Systems Command laboratories working on space-related research on geophysics, rocket propulsion, and weapons. It was the intent of the Air Force that Space Command would grow to become a unified combatant command, which was necessary to gain the support of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_Force_Space_Command.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Air_Force_Space_Command.png/220px-Air_Force_Space_Command.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Air_Force_Space_Command.png/330px-Air_Force_Space_Command.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Air_Force_Space_Command.png/440px-Air_Force_Space_Command.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="965" /></a><figcaption>Shield of <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Space Command">Air Force Space Command</a>, which commanded all Air Force space forces and was the direct predecessor of the U.S. Space Force.</figcaption></figure> <p>The creation of <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Space Command">Space Command</a> on 1 September 1982 marked the beginning of the centralization of space into a single organization, which would culminate under its direct successor, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">United States Space Force</a>. In late 1982 and early 1983, <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a> began to transfer its 50 space activities to Space Command, including Space Command's headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Peterson_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Peterson Air Force Base">Peterson Air Force Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thule_Air_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Thule Air Base">Thule Air Base</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sondrestrom_Air_Base" title="Sondrestrom Air Base">Sondrestrom Air Base</a> in Greenland, <a href="/wiki/Clear_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Clear Air Force Station">Clear Air Force Station</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program" title="Defense Meteorological Satellite Program">Defense Meteorological Support Program</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defense_Support_Program" title="Defense Support Program">Defense Support Program</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Milstar" title="Milstar">Military Strategic and Tactical Relay</a> (Milstar) and the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a>, which were in development and acquisitions phase.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Milstar was intended to provide communication for the <a href="/wiki/National_Command_Authority_(United_States)" title="National Command Authority (United States)">National Command Authority</a>, and to ultimately replace the Navy's <a href="/wiki/Fleet_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Fleet Satellite Communications System">Fleet Satellite Communications System</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Communications" title="Air Force Satellite Communications">Air Force Satellite Communications</a>. The first <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System Phase III</a> began to launch in 1982, beginning their replacement of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System Phase II</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Navstar Global Positioning System</a> was nearing the end of its prototyping and validation phase when turned over to Space Command in 1984, with 7 Block I satellites on orbit. While Strategic Air Command willingly turned over its space systems, it attempted to maintain a voice in their administration, ultimately failing. <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command" title="Air Force Systems Command">Air Force Systems Command</a> also attempted to maintain much of its space role through the Space Division, despite being a research and development command. It took until 1987 for Air Force Systems Command to transition the <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Satellite Control Network">Air Force Satellite Control Network</a> to Air Force Space Command (renamed from Space Command on 15 September 1985 to distinguish itself from United States Space Command) and the Consolidated Space Operations Center only became operational in March 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 23 September 1985, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a> (USSPACECOM) was established as a functional <a href="/wiki/Unified_combatant_command" title="Unified combatant command">unified combatant command</a> for military space operations. From a bureaucratic perspective, the creation of U.S. Space Command was perquisite in gaining Army and Navy support for Air Force Space Command. The creation of U.S. Space Command also received significant support from President Reagan, who was pursuing the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a> ballistic missile defense system, which was dependent on space-based sensors and interceptors. The primary service component of U.S. Space Command was <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Space Command">Air Force Space Command</a> (AFSPC or AFSPACECOM), while the Navy established <a href="/wiki/Naval_Space_Command" title="Naval Space Command">Naval Space Command</a> (NAVSPACECOM) shortly after on 1 October 1983. The Army's component was smaller, first consisting of the Army Space Planning Group from 1985 to 1986, before being upgraded to the Army Space Agency in 1986, and finally establishing <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Space_and_Missile_Defense_Command" title="United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command">Army Space Command</a> in 1988.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the activation ceremony was retired <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations" title="Chief of Naval Operations">chief of naval operations</a> Admiral <a href="/wiki/Arleigh_Burke" title="Arleigh Burke">Arleigh Burke</a>, who had unsuccessfully lobbied for a unified space command twenty-five years prior. The commander of U.S. Space Command was triple-hatted as the commander of Air Force Space Command and of the bi-national North American Aerospace Defense Command. USSPACECOM assumed from NORAD the missile warning and space surveillance missions, as well as <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_Mountain_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station">Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Missile_Warning_Center" title="Missile Warning Center">Missile Warning Center</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_Defense_Center" title="Space Defense Center">Space Defense Operations Center</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i> disaster</a> caused significant concern within Air Force Space Command, as the Space Shuttle, which Air Force Space Command was operationally responsible for during military launch missions, was intended to be its primary space launch vehicle. Programs such as the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Navstar Global Positioning System</a> and <a href="/wiki/Defense_Support_Program" title="Defense Support Program">Defense Support Program</a> improvements suffered significant setbacks, and Air Force Systems Command's Space Division's expendable boosters were the only means of accessing space. <a href="/wiki/Titan_34D" title="Titan 34D">Titan 34D</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titan_IV" title="Titan IV">Titan IV</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Delta_II" title="Delta II">Delta II</a> space launch vehicles became the workhouse of the Space Division's launch fleet. In 1987, General <a href="/wiki/John_L._Piotrowski" title="John L. Piotrowski">John L. Piotrowski</a>, SPACECOM commander, began to argue that the space launch mission needed to be transferred from the Space Division to Air Force Space Command, enabling U.S. Space Command to directly request launch operations during wartime. In December 1988, the Air Force announced that it would intend to consolidate space launch operations from Air Force Systems Command to Air Force Space Command. On 1 October 1990, Air Force Systems Command transferred <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral Air Force Station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Space_Force_Base" title="Patrick Space Force Base">Patrick Air Force Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg Air Force Base">Vandenberg Air Force Base</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Range_(USSF)" title="Western Range (USSF)">Western Range</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Range" title="Eastern Range">Eastern Range</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Delta_II" title="Delta II">Delta II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atlas_E/F" title="Atlas E/F">Atlas E/F</a> launch missions. The remaining <a href="/wiki/Atlas_II" title="Atlas II">Atlas II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titan_23G" title="Titan 23G">Titan 23G</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Titan_IV" title="Titan IV">Titan IV</a> missions were transferred over the following months. The Space Division also reassumed its former name of the Space Systems Division. <sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_forces_in_the_Gulf_War">Space forces in the Gulf War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Space forces in the Gulf War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DSCS-3_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/DSCS-3_1.jpg/220px-DSCS-3_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/DSCS-3_1.jpg/330px-DSCS-3_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/DSCS-3_1.jpg/440px-DSCS-3_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3300" data-file-height="2550" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System Phase III</a> satellite on orbit.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> was the first war which space forces supported, the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> has sometimes been referred to as the first space war because of the crucial role that space forces played in supporting land, air, and maritime forces.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the Gulf War, most space forces were focused on strategic nuclear deterrence, not on support to tactical forces. Space forces, specifically satellite communications forces, had been providing support to tactical forces during the 1982 <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a>, the 1983 <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a>, and provided real time mission planning data to strike aircraft in the <a href="/wiki/1986_United_States_bombing_of_Libya" title="1986 United States bombing of Libya">1986 United States bombing of Libya</a>. The first use of the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Navstar Global Positioning System</a> occurred in the 1988 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Earnest_Will" title="Operation Earnest Will">Operation Earnest Will</a>, and during the <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a>, Air Force Space Command provided communications through the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System</a> and weather support through the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program" title="Defense Meteorological Satellite Program">Defense Meteorological Satellite Program</a>. In contrast, the Gulf War utilized the full range of U.S. space forces, with over sixty satellites providing 90% of theater communications and command and control for an army of 500,000 troops, weather support for mission planners, early warning of Iraqi <a href="/wiki/Scud_missile" title="Scud missile">Scud</a> missile launches, and navigation support to terrestrial forces.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the beginning <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Operation Desert Shield</a>, the defensive and preparation phase of the war, military communications satellites only provided support for an American administrative unit in Bahrain and two training groups in Saudi Arabia, and no weather, navigation, early warning, or remote sensing support was typically tasked to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Central_Command" title="United States Central Command">United States Central Command</a>, requiring time for space forces to be assigned to the region. Iraq possessed no space forces of its own, contracting satellite communications with <a href="/wiki/Intelsat" title="Intelsat">Intelsat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inmarsat" title="Inmarsat">Inmarsat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization" title="Arab Satellite Communications Organization">Arabsat</a>, however its military leadership made no effort to integrate space into its military planning.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Analysts after the war stated that satellite communications forces provided an absolutely crucial capacity, as much of the desert did not have reliable telecommunication networks. Satellite communications carried over 90% of all communications for the military campaign, with commercial satellites accounting for 24% of the traffic. Coalition forces received communications satellite support from Air Force Space Command's <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System</a>, Naval Space Command's <a href="/wiki/Fleet_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Fleet Satellite Communications System">Fleet Satellite Communications System</a>, the NATO III communication satellites, and <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Skynet_(satellite)" title="Skynet (satellite)">Skynet</a> satellite system. In August 1990, the DCSC network consisted of two DCSC II satellites and three DCSC III satellites, with one DSCS III in reserve and two DSCS II satellites for limited operational use. However, there were concerns if the DSCS network could provide the requisite capacity and concerns that satellite communications would be jammed by Iraqi forces, resulting in the reallocation of spacecraft by the <a href="/wiki/3d_Space_Operations_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="3d Space Operations Squadron">3rd Satellite Control Squadron</a>, which flew the constellation.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GPS-IIRM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/GPS-IIRM.jpg/220px-GPS-IIRM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/GPS-IIRM.jpg/330px-GPS-IIRM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/GPS-IIRM.jpg/440px-GPS-IIRM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2928" data-file-height="1749" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> Block II satellite on orbit.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Navstar Global Positioning System</a> was the most widely known space system used during the war. The first five operational Block I spacecraft were launched on a <a href="/wiki/Delta_II" title="Delta II">Delta II</a> rocket in 1989, joining the prototypes in orbit. The Gulf War accelerated the program, and by 22 August 1990, the constellation consisted of fourteen satellites (six Block I prototypes and eight Block II operational satellites). Launches of two Block II satellites on 2 October and 26 November increased the constellation to 16 satellites right before the commencement of Operation Desert Storm. Army Space Command had purchased 500 demonstration GPS trackers, providing them to fielded forces in August. The Army soon realized the critical navigation capability they provided to its ground forces, and put in an emergency requisition for 1,000 GPS receivers and 300 vehicle installation kits. Later, in December, they requested 7,178 GPS receivers.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coalition commanders also understood the importance of weather and earth monitoring satellite data in the Gulf region. Weather support was provided by Air Force Space Command's three <a href="/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program" title="Defense Meteorological Satellite Program">Defense Meteorological Satellite Program</a> (DMSP) spacecraft, <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>'s two <a href="/wiki/Television_Infrared_Observation_Satellite" title="Television Infrared Observation Satellite">Television Infrared Observation Satellite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geostationary_Operational_Environmental_Satellite" title="Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite">Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites</a>. Coalition forces also received weather data from the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency" title="Japan Meteorological Agency">Japan Meteorological Agency</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Himawari_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Himawari (satellite)">Himawari</a> satellites, the <a href="/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites" class="mw-redirect" title="European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites">European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites</a>' two <a href="/wiki/Meteosat" title="Meteosat">Meteosats</a>, and Soviet Union's twelve <a href="/wiki/Meteor_(satellite)" title="Meteor (satellite)">Meteor</a> satellites. Air Force Space Command's DMSP was considered to be the most useful of the coalition space weather systems, with DMSP terminals provided to Army ground forces and installed on Navy carriers and flagships. Earth imaging data was provided by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Landsat_4" title="Landsat 4">Landsat 4</a> and <a href="/wiki/Landsat_5" title="Landsat 5">Landsat 5</a> spacecraft, as well as the French <a href="/wiki/CNES" title="CNES">CNES</a> <a href="/wiki/SPOT_(satellite)" title="SPOT (satellite)">SPOT</a> satellites. Coalition leadership were concerned that Iraq would attempt to gain imaging data, and convinced Landsat and SPOT to not make any available for purchases to Iraq. The Air Force used Landsat data in the construction of airfields, however, both the Air Force and the Marine Corps preferred to use SPOT in mission planning and rehearsal.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Space-based early warning provided by Air Force Space Command's <a href="/wiki/Defense_Support_Program" title="Defense Support Program">Defense Support Program</a> (DSP) proved critical in detecting Iraqi <a href="/wiki/Scud_missile" title="Scud missile">Scud</a> ballistic missile strikes against coalition forces and Israel. In August 1990, the DSP constellation consisted of three operational satellites and two spares.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Iraq ignored the U.N. ultimatum to withdraw from Kuwait, <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Operation Desert Storm</a>, the offensive portion of the campaign, commenced. The <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System</a> performed over 700,000 transactions per day and enabled immediate updates of the <a href="/wiki/Air_tasking_order" title="Air tasking order">Air Tasking Order</a> (ATO). Over 1,500 satellite communications terminals were assigned in theater. DCSC itself provided over 50% of all satellite communications requirements, providing the ATO to every air base and carrier. The Navstar Global Positioning System enabled the Army's Left Hook across the Iraqi desert and positioning data provided accuracy to special forces, artillery, and strike aircraft that had never been achieve before in the history of warfare. GPS specifically enabled the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress" title="Boeing B-52 Stratofortress">Boeing B-52 Stratofortress</a> to perform all weather raids, provided precise coordinates for cruise missile strikes in Baghdad, and enabled Army Apache helicopters to create major gaps in the Iraqi air defense networks. DMSP data provided accurate weather reports that enabled the use of precision laser-guided munitions, tracked rain and sandstorms, and provided updates on oil fires, oil spills, and the possible spread of chemical agents. Defense Support Program satellites provided early warning to Army <a href="/wiki/Air_Defense_Artillery_Branch" title="Air Defense Artillery Branch">Air Defense Artillery</a> <a href="/wiki/MIM-104_Patriot" title="MIM-104 Patriot">MIM-104 Patriot</a> missiles.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Space_Commission">The Space Commission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The Space Commission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Milstar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Milstar.jpg/220px-Milstar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Milstar.jpg/330px-Milstar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Milstar.jpg/440px-Milstar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1237" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Milstar" title="Milstar">Milstar</a> satellite on orbit.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MC-2941_Wideband_Global_SATCOM_Satellite.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/MC-2941_Wideband_Global_SATCOM_Satellite.png/220px-MC-2941_Wideband_Global_SATCOM_Satellite.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/MC-2941_Wideband_Global_SATCOM_Satellite.png/330px-MC-2941_Wideband_Global_SATCOM_Satellite.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/MC-2941_Wideband_Global_SATCOM_Satellite.png/440px-MC-2941_Wideband_Global_SATCOM_Satellite.png 2x" data-file-width="2613" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wideband_Global_SATCOM" title="Wideband Global SATCOM">Wideband Global SATCOM</a> satellites on orbit.</figcaption></figure> <p>The lessons learned during the Gulf War resulted in a renaissance for military space forces, who saw their profile rise within the U.S. Armed Forces. Not burdened by being part of separate air commands, Air Force Space Command began to define its mission sets under the categories of space control, force application, force enhancement, and space support. Space control operations were intended to maintain the ability to use space, while denying an adversary the ability to do the same, to include the development of anti-satellite weapons like the <a href="/wiki/ASM-135_ASAT" title="ASM-135 ASAT">ASM-135 ASAT</a>. Force application was defined as fire support operations from space, such as ballistic missile defense and power projection operations against terrestrial targets. Elements from the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Brilliant_Pebbles" title="Brilliant Pebbles">Brilliant Pebbles</a> and Brilliant Eyes promised a more aggressive military role for space.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Space programs and systems continued to develop, including the completion of the 24-satellite <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Navstar Global Positioning System</a> constellation in 1993, the development of the <a href="/wiki/Space-Based_Infrared_System" title="Space-Based Infrared System">Space-Based Infrared System</a> to replace the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Support_Program" title="Defense Support Program">Defense Support Program</a>, and the first launches of <a href="/wiki/Milstar" title="Milstar">Milstar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1992, Air Force Systems Command was merged with <a href="/wiki/Air_Materiel_Command" title="Air Materiel Command">Air Force Logistics Command</a>, becoming <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Materiel_Command" title="Air Force Materiel Command">Air Force Materiel Command</a>, resulting in the Space Systems Division becoming the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Space and Missile Systems Center</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the completion of the GPS constellation in space acquisitions shifted to replacing aging spacecraft. In 1994, SMC began the development of the <a href="/wiki/Space-Based_Infrared_System" title="Space-Based Infrared System">Space-Based Infrared System</a> (SIBRS), a missile warning constellation that would serve as the successor of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Support_Program" title="Defense Support Program">Defense Support Program</a> (DSP). Milstar also had a replacement system under works, with the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Extremely_High_Frequency" title="Advanced Extremely High Frequency">Advanced Extremely High Frequency</a> (AEHF) satellite communications constellation contracted in 1999. A year later, SMC issued a contract for the <a href="/wiki/Wideband_Global_SATCOM" title="Wideband Global SATCOM">Wideband Global SATCOM</a> (WGS) to replace the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System" title="Defense Satellite Communications System">Defense Satellite Communications System</a> (DSCS).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Space and Missile Systems Center began development of a new generation of launch vehicles, with the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_III" title="Atlas III">Atlas III</a> procured in 1999. The <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Space_Launch" title="National Security Space Launch">Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle</a> program was contracted in 1995, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Delta_IV" title="Delta IV">Delta IV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atlas_V" title="Atlas V">Atlas V</a> space launch vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the rising prominence of space forces during the Gulf War, a number of prominent generals within the Air Force sought to merge air and space operations into a seamless aerospace continuum. This attracted the ire of Congress, who saw the Air Force attempting to subordinate space to its aviation component, establishing the commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization to investigate. Senator <a href="/wiki/Bob_Smith_(New_Hampshire_politician)" title="Bob Smith (New Hampshire politician)">Bob Smith</a>, in particular took issue with the Air Force's management of space and began to propose an independent space force.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chaired by former secretary of defense <a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Donald Rumsfeld</a>, the 2001 Space Commission recommended that the commander of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a> should cease to be exclusively granted to military pilots and that the entire armed forces needs to cease with the practice of assigning terrestrial combat leaders with little space experience to top space posts. In particular, it noted that of 150 personnel service in space leadership, fewer than 20% had a space background, with the majority of the officers drawn from the pilot, air defense artillery, or nuclear and missile operations careers, and that the average had only spent2.5 years of their careers in space positions. The commission also came to the conclusion that the Air Force was not appropriately developing an independent space culture or education program and was not paying sufficient budgetary attention to space. The commission stated that: "“Few witnesses before the commission expressed confidence that the current Air Force organization is suited to the conduct of these [space] missions...Nor was there confidence that the Air Force will fully address the requirement to provide space capabilities for the other services. Many believe the Air Force treats space solely as a supporting capability that enhances the primary mission of the Air Force to conduct offensive and defensive air operations. Despite official doctrine that calls for the integration of space and air capabilities, the Air Force does not treat the two equally. As with air operations, the Air Force must take steps to create a culture within the service dedicated to developing new space system concepts, doctrine, and operational capabilities." Ultimately, the Space Commission recommended the creation of a separate Space Force as a military branch in the long term, with the establishment of a Space Corps, analogous to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">Army Air Forces</a> within the Air Force in the period between 2007 and 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_forces_in_the_Global_War_on_Terrorism">Space forces in the Global War on Terrorism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Space forces in the Global War on Terrorism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GPS_Block_IIIA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/GPS_Block_IIIA.jpg/220px-GPS_Block_IIIA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/GPS_Block_IIIA.jpg/330px-GPS_Block_IIIA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/GPS_Block_IIIA.jpg/440px-GPS_Block_IIIA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> Block III satellite on orbit.</figcaption></figure> <p>The promise of a separate Space Corps or Space Force in the 2010s was cut short by the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a>, which reoriented the focus of the United States from emerging military powers like the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> to the <a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">Global War on Terrorism</a> against violent non-state actors. Air Force Space Command provided direct support to <a href="/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom" title="Operation Enduring Freedom">Operation Enduring Freedom</a>, enabling satellite communications, global positioning system enhancements, and deployed personnel to support counterterrorism operations. For <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Operation Iraqi Freedom</a>, the Air Force Space Command deployed space operators to forward operating bases in the Middle East and the Defense Satellite Communications System Phase III provided 80% of bandwidth for allied forces in theater, while 85% of Milstar communications capacity was directed towards support of tactical forces.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2001 Space Commission report was largely forgotten within the Air Force, replaced by the more pressing requirements of fighting low-end terrorist organizations. None of the White House-level recommendations of having the president declare military space as a top national priority, creating a presidential advisory group for national security space, or appoint an interagency group for space have occurred. Within the Department of Defense the recommendations of creating an under secretary of defense for space, intelligence, and information or putting space programs in a distinct funding category went unheeded. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a> was folded into <a href="/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Command" title="United States Strategic Command">United States Strategic Command</a> to make way for <a href="/wiki/United_States_Northern_Command" title="United States Northern Command">United States Northern Command</a>, which was responsible for nuclear warfare and deterrence, further diluting military space leadership. Within <a href="/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Command" title="United States Strategic Command">U.S. Strategic Command</a>, space responsibilities were absorbed into the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Functional_Component_Command_for_Space_and_Global_Strike" title="Joint Functional Component Command for Space and Global Strike">Joint Functional Component Command for Space and Global Strike</a>, in 2006 replaced by the Joint Functional Component Command for Space, and in 2017, be reorganized as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">Joint Force Space Component Commander</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some specific recommendations did get implemented, however, with the Air Force acting on the recommendation that space operations and acquisitions should be centralized under one major command, transitioning the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Space and Missile Systems Center</a> from Air Force Materiel Command to Air Force Space Command on 1 October 2001. During the waning days of Air Force Space Command, it was organized into the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Air_Force" title="Fourteenth Air Force">Fourteenth Air Force</a>, which consisted of the <a href="/wiki/21st_Space_Wing" title="21st Space Wing">21st Space Wing</a> for space control and missile warning, <a href="/wiki/50th_Space_Wing" title="50th Space Wing">50th Space Wing</a> for space operations, <a href="/wiki/460th_Space_Wing" title="460th Space Wing">460th Space Wing</a> for overhead persistent infrared operations, and the <a href="/wiki/30th_Space_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="30th Space Wing">30th Space Wing</a> and the <a href="/wiki/45th_Space_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="45th Space Wing">45th Space Wing</a> for space launch and range support, while the Space and Missile Systems Center served as its acquisitions arm.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the inactivation of U.S. Space Command in 2002, Russia and China began developing sophisticated on-orbit capabilities and an array of counter-space weapons. In particular, China conducted the <a href="/wiki/2007_Chinese_anti-satellite_missile_test" title="2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test">2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test</a>, destroying its <a href="/wiki/Fengyun" title="Fengyun">Fengyun</a> spacecraft, which, according to <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>, created 2,841 high-velocity debris items, a larger amount of dangerous <a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">space junk</a> than any other space event in history.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 29 August 2019, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a> was reestablished as a geographic combatant command.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Independent_Space_Force_(2019–present)"><span id="Independent_Space_Force_.282019.E2.80.93present.29"></span>Independent Space Force (2019–present)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Independent Space Force (2019–present)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proposals_of_service_independence">Proposals of service independence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Proposals of service independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:X-37B_OTV-5_being_processed_after_landing_01_5865144.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/X-37B_OTV-5_being_processed_after_landing_01_5865144.jpg/220px-X-37B_OTV-5_being_processed_after_landing_01_5865144.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/X-37B_OTV-5_being_processed_after_landing_01_5865144.jpg/330px-X-37B_OTV-5_being_processed_after_landing_01_5865144.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/X-37B_OTV-5_being_processed_after_landing_01_5865144.jpg/440px-X-37B_OTV-5_being_processed_after_landing_01_5865144.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6589" data-file-height="4398" /></a><figcaption>The Space Force's <a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-37" title="Boeing X-37">Boeing X-37B</a> spaceplane after landing.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first real attempt to centralize the military space organizations occurred in 1958, with the <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> sometimes being described as, and feared by its detractors that it would become, a fourth military service. While the 1981 proposal to rename the United States Air Force into the United States Aerospace Force was not an attempt to create a space service branch, it did mark a clear attempt by Congress to increase the profile of space within the service, which it rejected. The possibility that President Reagan would announce the creation of the Space Force as an independent service in 1982 spurred the Air Force to establish Air Force Space Command. The 1990s saw a number of proposals for an independent space force, including one by Air Force Space Command <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant colonel (United States)">Lieutenant Colonel</a> Cynthia A.S. McKinley in 2000 which called for the establishment of a United States Space Guard.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most notable proposal for an independent Space Force was by the 2001 Space Commission, which called for the creation of a Space Corps within the Air Force between 2007 and 2011, and the establishment of an independent Space Force after that. The Space Commission was established by Congress after it became concerned that the Air Force was seeking to artificially merge its air and space operations into a seamless aerospace continuum, without regard for the differences between space and air.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, due to the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a>, a Space Force was not established.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States' national security space organization actually regressed, with United States Space Command being inactivated in 2002, subsumed into <a href="/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Command" title="United States Strategic Command">United States Strategic Command</a>. The Allard Commission report, unveiled in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/2007_Chinese_anti-satellite_missile_test" title="2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test">2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test</a>, called for a reorganization of national security space, however many of its recommendations were not acted upon by the Air Force.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_Force_enlists_first_trainees_to_bootcamp_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Space_Force_enlists_first_trainees_to_bootcamp_%282%29.jpg/250px-Space_Force_enlists_first_trainees_to_bootcamp_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Space_Force_enlists_first_trainees_to_bootcamp_%282%29.jpg/375px-Space_Force_enlists_first_trainees_to_bootcamp_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Space_Force_enlists_first_trainees_to_bootcamp_%282%29.jpg/500px-Space_Force_enlists_first_trainees_to_bootcamp_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6502" data-file-height="3985" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vice_Chief_of_Space_Operations" title="Vice Chief of Space Operations">Vice chief of space operations</a> General <a href="/wiki/David_D._Thompson" title="David D. Thompson">David D. Thompson</a> swears in the first four enlisted Space Force recruits at the Baltimore Military Entrance Processing Station, Maryland on 20 October 2020.</figcaption></figure> <p>Growing impatient with the Air Force, who they felt was more interested in jet fighters than space, Representatives <a href="/wiki/Jim_Cooper" title="Jim Cooper">Jim Cooper</a> (D-TN) and <a href="/wiki/Mike_Rogers_(Alabama_politician)" title="Mike Rogers (Alabama politician)">Mike Rogers</a> (R-AL) unveiled a bipartisan proposal in the House of Representatives to establish the United States Space Corps as a separate military service within the Department of the Air Force, with the commandant of the Space Corps as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. This proposal was put forward to separate space professionals from the Air Force, give space a greater cultural focus, and help develop a leaner and faster space acquisitions system. This was done due to congressional concern that the space mission had become subordinate to the Air Force's preferred air dominance mission and that space officers were being treated unfairly within the Air Force, with Representative Rogers noting that in 2016 none of the 37 Air Force colonels selected for promotion to brigadier general were space officers and that only 2 of the 450 hours of Air Force professional military education were dedicated to space.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proposal passed in the House of Representatives, but was cut from the final bill in negotiations with the U.S. Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the defeat of the proposal in the Senate, both Representatives Cooper and Rogers heavily criticized Air Force leadership for not taking threats in space seriously and continued resistance to reform. The Space Corps proposal was, in large part, spurred on by the development of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Forces" title="Russian Space Forces">Russian Space Forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto4_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The House's Space Corps proposal had also been objected to by the Trump administration's White House, which called the idea "premature", while other dissenters were Defense Secretary <a href="/wiki/James_Mattis" class="mw-redirect" title="James Mattis">James Mattis</a>, Air Force Secretary <a href="/wiki/Heather_Wilson" title="Heather Wilson">Heather Wilson</a> and Air Force Chief of Staff General <a href="/wiki/David_Goldfein" class="mw-redirect" title="David Goldfein">David Goldfein</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 2018, President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> said that the creation of a Space Force was a "great idea" and "could happen".<sup id="cite_ref-awkward_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-awkward-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 2018, Trump said that he had asked the Department of Defense to begin establishing a Space Force as part of the military.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 2019, the Department of Defense gave Congress a legislative proposal for creating the Space Force.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This proposal called for the placement of the U.S. Space Force within the Department of the Air Force, before later creating and transferring the service to the Department of the Space Force.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Space Force proposal was supported by NASA Administrator <a href="/wiki/Jim_Bridenstine" title="Jim Bridenstine">Jim Bridenstine</a>, who has stated that a space force is critical to defending the United States' energy grid and GPS network and Secretary of the Air Force <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Barrett" title="Barbara Barrett">Barbara Barrett</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has also endorsed a space force.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other supporters include Air Force General and commander of both <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Space Command">Air Force Space Command</a> <a href="/wiki/John_W._Raymond" title="John W. Raymond">John W. Raymond</a>, Navy Admiral and <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe" title="Supreme Allied Commander Europe">Supreme Allied Commander</a> <a href="/wiki/James_G._Stavridis" title="James G. Stavridis">James Stavridis</a>, Air Force Colonel and astronaut <a href="/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin" title="Buzz Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a>, Air Force Colonel and astronaut <a href="/wiki/Terry_W._Virts" title="Terry W. Virts">Terry Virts</a>, Marine Corps Colonel and astronaut <a href="/wiki/Jack_Lousma" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack Lousma">Jack R. Lousma</a>, astronaut <a href="/wiki/David_Wolf_(astronaut)" title="David Wolf (astronaut)">David Wolf</a>, astronaut <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Anderson" title="Clayton Anderson">Clayton Anderson</a>, <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a> Chief National Security Correspondent <a href="/wiki/Jim_Sciutto" title="Jim Sciutto">Jim Sciutto</a>, and <a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a> CEO <a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 2019, a group of 43 former military, space, and intelligence leaders unaffiliated with the current administration released an open letter calling for a space force. Signatories include former <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a> <a href="/wiki/William_J._Perry" title="William J. Perry">William Perry</a>, former <a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Directors of National Intelligence</a> Admiral <a href="/wiki/Dennis_C._Blair" title="Dennis C. Blair">Dennis C. Blair</a> and Vice Admiral <a href="/wiki/Mike_McConnell_(U.S._Naval_officer)" title="Mike McConnell (U.S. Naval officer)">John Michael McConnell</a>, former Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Science,_Space,_and_Technology" title="United States House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology">House Science Committee</a> Congressman <a href="/wiki/Robert_Smith_Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Smith Walker">Robert Smith Walker</a>, former <a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Deputy Secretary of Defense">Deputy Secretary of Defense</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_O._Work" title="Robert O. Work">Robert O. Work</a>, former <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Secretary of the Air Force">Secretary of the Air Force</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leadership_of_the_National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="Leadership of the National Reconnaissance Office">Director of the National Reconnaissance Office</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Aldridge_Jr." title="Edward C. Aldridge Jr.">Edward C. Aldridge Jr.</a>, former <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force">Chiefs of Staff of the Air Force</a> Generals <a href="/wiki/Larry_D._Welch" title="Larry D. Welch">Larry D. Welch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fogleman" title="Ronald Fogleman">Ronald Fogleman</a>, former Commander of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Command" title="United States Strategic Command">Strategic Command</a> Admiral <a href="/wiki/James_O._Ellis" title="James O. Ellis">James O. Ellis</a>, former <a href="/wiki/Vice_Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force">Vice Chiefs of Staff of the Air Force</a> Generals <a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Moorman_Jr." title="Thomas S. Moorman Jr.">Thomas S. Moorman Jr.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lester_Lyles" title="Lester Lyles">Lester Lyles</a>, former Commander of <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Space Command">Air Force Space Command</a> General <a href="/wiki/Lance_W._Lord" title="Lance W. Lord">Lance W. Lord</a>, former <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="Assistant Secretary of the Air Force">Assistant Secretaries of the Air Force</a> <a href="/wiki/Tidal_W._McCoy" title="Tidal W. McCoy">Tidal W. McCoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sue_C._Payton" title="Sue C. Payton">Sue C. Payton</a>, former Assistant Secretaries of the Air Force for Space and National Reconnaissance Office Directors <a href="/wiki/Martin_C._Faga" title="Martin C. Faga">Martin C. Faga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_K._Harris" title="Jeffrey K. Harris">Jeffrey K. Harris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Keith_R._Hall" title="Keith R. Hall">Keith R. Hall</a>, Assistant Director of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Allen" title="Charles E. Allen">Charles E. Allen</a>, former National Reconnaissance Office Director <a href="/wiki/Scott_F._Large" title="Scott F. Large">Scott F. Large</a>, former Directors of the <a href="/wiki/National_Geospatial-Intelligence_Agency" title="National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency">National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency</a> <a href="/wiki/Letitia_Long" title="Letitia Long">Letitia Long</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cardillo" title="Robert Cardillo">Robert Cardillo</a>, and Vice Admiral <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Murrett" title="Robert B. Murrett">Robert B. Murrett</a>, former Deputy Undersecretaries of Defense for Space Policy Marc Berkowitz and Douglas Loverro, former Commander of the <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Missile Systems Center">Space and Missile Systems Center</a> <a href="/wiki/Brian_A._Arnold" title="Brian A. Arnold">Brian A. Arnold</a>, former Director of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Intelligence_Agency" title="Defense Intelligence Agency">Defense Intelligence Agency</a> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Burgess_Jr." title="Ronald L. Burgess Jr.">Ronald L. Burgess Jr.</a>, former Deputy Undersecretary of the Air Force for Space and astronaut <a href="/wiki/Gary_Payton_(astronaut)" title="Gary Payton (astronaut)">Gary Payton</a>, Deputy Director of the National Reconnaissance Office and Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space <a href="/wiki/David_Kier" title="David Kier">David Kier</a>, former Air Force astronaut Colonel <a href="/wiki/Pamela_Melroy" title="Pamela Melroy">Pamela Melroy</a>. The list also includes the former Deputy Commander of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">U.S. Space Command</a>, and the former Deputy Commander of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Cyber_Command" title="United States Cyber Command">U.S. Cyber Command</a>, and the Chairman of the Allard Commission on National Security Space.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2019 and July 2019, the Senate and the House passed their own versions of the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Authorization_Act_for_Fiscal_Year_2020" title="National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020">National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020</a>, with the Senate proposing a Space Force, and the House (via Representatives Jim Cooper and Mike Rogers) proposing a Space Corps.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Closer_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Closer-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Senate version had been proposed by the <a href="/wiki/Senate_Armed_Services_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Armed Services Committee">Senate Armed Services Committee</a>, with Senator <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Cramer" title="Kevin Cramer">Kevin Cramer</a> (R-ND) having "played a key role in crafting" the leadership model of the Space Force, reported NPR.<sup id="cite_ref-Closer_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Closer-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Negotiations were required as the House, Senate, and the Department of Defense all disagreed with aspects of the Space Force / Space Corps plan.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 9 December 2019, the Armed Services Committees of the House and the Senate announced an agreement regarding creating the Space Force.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 17 December 2019, the House and the Senate, with vote margins of 377–48 and 82–8 respectively, passed a compromise version of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020 which included the Space Force.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Strategic_and_International_Studies" title="Center for Strategic and International Studies">Center for Strategic and International Studies</a> think tank commented that the version of the Space Force approved by Congress was a mixture of the proposals by the House and Senate: "While the decision on <a href="/wiki/Title_10_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 10 of the United States Code">Title 10 authorities</a> favored the House, many of the details of implementation favored the Senate, including the name of the new service and how space acquisition would be structured."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 20 December 2019, President Donald Trump signed the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020 into law, which included legislative provisions for creation of the Space Force, under the United States Space Force Act.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Space Force was established as the sixth armed service branch, with Air Force General <a href="/wiki/John_W._Raymond" title="John W. Raymond">John "Jay" Raymond</a>, the commander of Air Force Space Command and U.S. Space Command, becoming the first <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Space_Operations" title="Chief of Space Operations">chief of space operations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 14 January 2020, Raymond was officially sworn in as chief of space operations by Vice President <a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Mike Pence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Raymond_era">Raymond era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Raymond era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gen_John_W._Raymond_(5).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gen_John_W._Raymond_%285%29.jpg/220px-Gen_John_W._Raymond_%285%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gen_John_W._Raymond_%285%29.jpg/330px-Gen_John_W._Raymond_%285%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gen_John_W._Raymond_%285%29.jpg/440px-Gen_John_W._Raymond_%285%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>General John Raymond is the Space Force's first member and chief of space operations.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 20 December 2019, Air Force Space Command was redesignated as the United States Space Force and its commander, General <a href="/wiki/John_W._Raymond" title="John W. Raymond">John W. Raymond</a> was sworn in as its first <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Space_Operations" title="Chief of Space Operations">chief of space operations</a>. On 20 December, its first organizational change occurred when Secretary of the Air Force <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Barrett" title="Barbara Barrett">Barbara Barrett</a> redesignated Air Force Space Command's <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Air_Force" title="Fourteenth Air Force">Fourteenth Air Force</a> as <a href="/wiki/Space_Operations_Command" title="Space Operations Command">Space Operations Command</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of Air Force Space Command's 16,000 active duty and civilian personnel were assigned to the new service.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SpaceForceCadets_USAFA2020.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/SpaceForceCadets_USAFA2020.jpg/220px-SpaceForceCadets_USAFA2020.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/SpaceForceCadets_USAFA2020.jpg/330px-SpaceForceCadets_USAFA2020.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/SpaceForceCadets_USAFA2020.jpg/440px-SpaceForceCadets_USAFA2020.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4509" data-file-height="3001" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy" title="United States Air Force Academy">United States Air Force Academy</a> commissioned the first 86 Space Force lieutenants on 18 April 2020 from the members of the class of 2020.</figcaption></figure> <p>Major organizational changes during the first year included replacing its space wings and operations groups with deltas and garrisons on 24 July 2020 and announcing its field command structure, merging wings and groups into deltas and numbered air forces and major commands into field commands. The Space Force announced that its field commands would be <a href="/wiki/Space_Operations_Command" title="Space Operations Command">Space Operations Command</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_Systems_Command" title="Space Systems Command">Space Systems Command</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Space_Training_and_Readiness_Delta_(Provisional)" title="Space Training and Readiness Delta (Provisional)">Space Training and Readiness Command</a> (STARCOM). <a href="/wiki/Space_Training_and_Readiness_Delta_(Provisional)" title="Space Training and Readiness Delta (Provisional)">Space Training and Readiness Delta (Provisional)</a> absorbed former <a href="/wiki/Air_Education_and_Training_Command" title="Air Education and Training Command">Air Education and Training Command</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_Combat_Command" title="Air Combat Command">Air Combat Command</a> space units, preparing for the activation of STARCOM. <a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Delta 2">Space Delta 2</a> became the space domain awareness delta, replacing the <a href="/wiki/21st_Operations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="21st Operations Group">21st Operations Group</a>; <a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Delta 3">Space Delta 3</a> became the space electronic warfare delta, replacing the <a href="/wiki/71st_Operations_Group" title="71st Operations Group">721st Operations Group</a>; <a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Delta 4">Space Delta 4</a> became the missile warning delta, replacing <a href="/wiki/460th_Operations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="460th Operations Group">460th Operations Group</a> and absorbing the ground-based missile warning radars of the <a href="/wiki/21st_Operations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="21st Operations Group">21st Operations Group</a>; <a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_5" title="Space Delta 5">Space Delta 5</a> became the command and control delta, replacing the <a href="/wiki/614th_Air_Operations_Center" title="614th Air Operations Center">614th Air Operations Center</a>; <a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_6" title="Space Delta 6">Space Delta 6</a> became the cyberspace operations delta, replacing the <a href="/wiki/50th_Network_Operations_Group" title="50th Network Operations Group">50th Network Operations Group</a>; <a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_7" title="Space Delta 7">Space Delta 7</a> became the intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance delta, replacing Air Combat Command's <a href="/wiki/544th_Intelligence,_Surveillance_and_Reconnaissance_Group" title="544th Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Group">544th Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Group</a>; <a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_8" title="Space Delta 8">Space Delta 8</a> became the satellite communication and navigation warfare delta, replacing the <a href="/wiki/50th_Operations_Group" title="50th Operations Group">50th Operations Group</a>; <a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_9" title="Space Delta 9">Space Delta 9</a> became the orbital warfare delta, replacing the <a href="/wiki/750th_Operations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="750th Operations Group">750th Operations Group</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Peterson-Schriever_Garrison" class="mw-redirect" title="Peterson-Schriever Garrison">Peterson-Schriever Garrison</a> became responsible for the base administration of <a href="/wiki/Peterson_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Peterson Air Force Base">Peterson Air Force Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schriever_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Schriever Air Force Base">Schriever Air Force Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_Mountain_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station">Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thule_Air_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Thule Air Base">Thule Air Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Boston_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="New Boston Air Force Station">New Boston Air Force Station</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kaena_Point_Satellite_Tracking_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaena Point Satellite Tracking Station">Kaena Point Satellite Tracking Station</a>, replacing the <a href="/wiki/21st_Space_Wing" title="21st Space Wing">21st Space Wing</a> and the <a href="/wiki/50th_Space_Wing" title="50th Space Wing">50th Space Wing</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Buckley_Garrison" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckley Garrison">Buckley Garrison</a> became responsible for the base administration of <a href="/wiki/Buckley_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckley Air Force Base">Buckley Air Force Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Cod_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Cod Air Force Station">Cape Cod Air Force Station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cavalier_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavalier Air Force Station">Cavalier Air Force Station</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Clear_Air_Force_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Clear Air Force Station">Clear Air Force Station</a>, replacing the <a href="/wiki/460th_Space_Wing" title="460th Space Wing">460th Space Wing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 21 October 2020, <a href="/wiki/Space_Operations_Command" title="Space Operations Command">Space Operations Command</a> was established as its first field command, replacing headquarters Air Force Space Command. The first Space Operations Command (redesignated Fourteenth Air Force) was redesignated as <a href="/wiki/Combined_Force_Space_Component_Command" title="Combined Force Space Component Command">Space Operations Command-West</a> and its air and space lineage was split between the Air Force and the Space Force.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_U.S._Army_Soldiers_Transfer_into_U.S._Space_Force_211001-F-RR403-0008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/First_U.S._Army_Soldiers_Transfer_into_U.S._Space_Force_211001-F-RR403-0008.jpg/220px-First_U.S._Army_Soldiers_Transfer_into_U.S._Space_Force_211001-F-RR403-0008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/First_U.S._Army_Soldiers_Transfer_into_U.S._Space_Force_211001-F-RR403-0008.jpg/330px-First_U.S._Army_Soldiers_Transfer_into_U.S._Space_Force_211001-F-RR403-0008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/First_U.S._Army_Soldiers_Transfer_into_U.S._Space_Force_211001-F-RR403-0008.jpg/440px-First_U.S._Army_Soldiers_Transfer_into_U.S._Space_Force_211001-F-RR403-0008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5568" data-file-height="3712" /></a><figcaption>Tech Sgt. Brandon Osborne takes the oath of enlistment as one of the first members of the United States Army to transfer into the Space Force on 1 October 2021.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 3 April 2020, Chief Master Sergeant <a href="/wiki/Roger_A._Towberman" title="Roger A. Towberman">Roger A. Towberman</a>, formerly command chief of Air Force Space Command, transferred to the Space Force as the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Master_Sergeant_of_the_Space_Force" title="Chief Master Sergeant of the Space Force">Senior Enlisted Advisor of the Space Force</a>, becoming its second member and first enlisted member. On 18 April 2020, 86 graduates of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy" title="United States Air Force Academy">United States Air Force Academy</a> became the first group of commissioned <a href="/wiki/Second_lieutenant" title="Second lieutenant">second lieutenants</a> in the U.S. Space Force, becoming the 3rd to 88th members of the Space Force.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 16 July 2020, the Space Force selected 2,410 space operations officers and enlisted space systems operators to transfer to the Space Force, with the first back recommissioning or reenlisting on 1 September. The Space Force swore in its first 7 enlisted recruits on 20 October 2020, graduating basic military training on 10 December 2020 and its first <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Officer_Training_School" title="Air Force Officer Training School">Officer Training School</a> candidates commissioned on 16 October.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Space Force also commissioned its first astronaut, with Colonel <a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Hopkins" title="Michael S. Hopkins">Michael S. Hopkins</a>, the commander of <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-1" title="SpaceX Crew-1">SpaceX Crew-1</a>, swearing into the Space Force from the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> on 18 December 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the first year major symbols were also unveiled, with the <a href="/wiki/Seal_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Seal of the United States Space Force">Seal of the United States Space Force</a> approved on 15 January 2020 and was revealed on 24 January 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Flag of the United States Space Force">flag of the United States Space Force</a> debuted at signing ceremony for the 2020 <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_Day" title="Armed Forces Day">Armed Forces Day</a> proclamation on 15 May 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Space_Force_Delta" title="Space Force Delta">Space Force Delta</a> symbol and motto of <i>Semper Supra</i> released on 22 July 2020, and the official service title of Guardian announced on 18 December 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-SFFactSheet_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFFactSheet-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first Air Force instillations were renamed to Space Force instillations on 9 December 2020, with Patrick Air Force Base and Cape Canaveral Air Force Station renamed as <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Space_Force_Base" title="Patrick Space Force Base">Patrick Space Force Base</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral Space Force Station</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 2020, the Space Force and NASA signed a <a href="/wiki/Memorandum_of_understanding" title="Memorandum of understanding">memorandum of understanding</a> formally acknowledging the joint role of both agencies. This new memorandum replaced a similar document signed in 2006 between NASA and Air Force Space Command.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 20, 2020, the first seven guardians enlisted directly into the Space Force.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 20 September 2022, the Space Force unveiled its official anthem, the march "<a href="/wiki/Semper_Supra_(march)" title="Semper Supra (march)">Semper Supra</a>" ("Always Above"), in a performance by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Band" title="United States Air Force Band">United States Air Force Band</a> during the 2022 <a href="/wiki/Air_%26_Space_Forces_Association" title="Air & Space Forces Association">Air & Space Forces Association</a> Air, Space and Cyber Conference at <a href="/wiki/National_Harbor,_Maryland" title="National Harbor, Maryland">National Harbor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Space Force's first combat operations as a new service included providing early warning of Iranian <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Force_of_the_Islamic_Revolutionary_Guard_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerospace Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps">Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Aerospace Force</a> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Martyr_Soleimani" title="Operation Martyr Soleimani">missile strikes</a> against U.S. troops at <a href="/wiki/Al_Asad_Airbase" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Asad Airbase">Al Asad Airbase</a> on 7 January 2020 through the <a href="/wiki/2nd_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="2nd Space Warning Squadron">2nd Space Warning Squadron</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Space-Based_Infrared_System" title="Space-Based Infrared System">Space Based Infrared System</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Space Force also monitored <a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Forces" title="Russian Space Forces">Russian Space Forces</a> spacecraft which had been tailing U.S. government satellites.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 1 October 2021, the first six U.S. Army soldiers, all assigned to <a href="/wiki/Space_Operations_Command" title="Space Operations Command">Space Operations Command</a>, were inducted into the Space Force at Peterson Space Force Base.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Raymond retired as CSO on November 2, 2022. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">History of spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">Space policy of the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHollingham" class="citation web cs1">Hollingham, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20140905-the-nazis-space-age-rocket">"V2: The Nazi rocket that launched the space age"</a>. <i>www.bbc.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.com&rft.atitle=V2%3A+The+Nazi+rocket+that+launched+the+space+age&rft.aulast=Hollingham&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Ffuture%2Farticle%2F20140905-the-nazis-space-age-rocket&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-38"><sup><i><b>am</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-39"><sup><i><b>an</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-40"><sup><i><b>ao</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-41"><sup><i><b>ap</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-42"><sup><i><b>aq</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-43"><sup><i><b>ar</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-44"><sup><i><b>as</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-45"><sup><i><b>at</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-46"><sup><i><b>au</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-47"><sup><i><b>av</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-48"><sup><i><b>aw</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-49"><sup><i><b>ax</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-50"><sup><i><b>ay</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-51"><sup><i><b>az</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-52"><sup><i><b>ba</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-53"><sup><i><b>bb</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-54"><sup><i><b>bc</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-55"><sup><i><b>bd</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-56"><sup><i><b>be</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-57"><sup><i><b>bf</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-58"><sup><i><b>bg</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-59"><sup><i><b>bh</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-60"><sup><i><b>bi</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-61"><sup><i><b>bj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-62"><sup><i><b>bk</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-63"><sup><i><b>bl</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-64"><sup><i><b>bm</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-65"><sup><i><b>bn</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-66"><sup><i><b>bo</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-67"><sup><i><b>bp</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-68"><sup><i><b>bq</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-69"><sup><i><b>br</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-70"><sup><i><b>bs</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-71"><sup><i><b>bt</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-72"><sup><i><b>bu</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-73"><sup><i><b>bv</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-74"><sup><i><b>bw</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-75"><sup><i><b>bx</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-76"><sup><i><b>by</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-77"><sup><i><b>bz</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-78"><sup><i><b>ca</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-79"><sup><i><b>cb</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-80"><sup><i><b>cc</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-81"><sup><i><b>cd</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-82"><sup><i><b>ce</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-83"><sup><i><b>cf</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-84"><sup><i><b>cg</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-85"><sup><i><b>ch</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-86"><sup><i><b>ci</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-87"><sup><i><b>cj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-88"><sup><i><b>ck</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-89"><sup><i><b>cl</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://media.defense.gov/2011/Jan/25/2001330110/-1/-1/0/AFD-110125-038.pdf">https://media.defense.gov/2011/Jan/25/2001330110/-1/-1/0/AFD-110125-038.pdf</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.defense.gov/2010/Oct/01/2001329745/-1/-1/0/AFD-101001-060.pdf">"The U.S. Air Force in Space 1945 to the Twenty-first Century"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Washington, D.C.: USAF History and Museums Program, United States Air Force. 1998.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Air+Force+in+Space+1945+to+the+Twenty-first+Century&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=USAF+History+and+Museums+Program%2C+United+States+Air+Force&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedia.defense.gov%2F2010%2FOct%2F01%2F2001329745%2F-1%2F-1%2F0%2FAFD-101001-060.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.losangeles.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/AFD-060912-025.pdf?ver=2016-05-02-112847-777">"Los Angeles Air Force Base > Home"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Los+Angeles+Air+Force+Base+%3E+Home&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.losangeles.af.mil%2FPortals%2F16%2Fdocuments%2FAFD-060912-025.pdf%3Fver%3D2016-05-02-112847-777&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afhra.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/432495/6-space-operations-squadron-afrc/">"6 Space Operations Squadron (AFRC)"</a>. <i>Air Force Historical Research Agency</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Historical+Research+Agency&rft.atitle=6+Space+Operations+Squadron+%28AFRC%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afhra.af.mil%2FAbout-Us%2FFact-Sheets%2FDisplay%2FArticle%2F432495%2F6-space-operations-squadron-afrc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121030120138/http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=10063">"Factsheets : 9 Space Division"</a>. 30 October 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=10063">the original</a> on 30 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Factsheets+%3A+9+Space+Division&rft.date=2012-10-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afhra.af.mil%2Ffactsheets%2Ffactsheet.asp%3Fid%3D10063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.losangeles.spaceforce.mil/Portals/16/documents/AFD-060912-028.pdf?ver=2016-05-02-112846-557">https://www.losangeles.spaceforce.mil/Portals/16/documents/AFD-060912-028.pdf?ver=2016-05-02-112846-557</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afhra.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/432827/fourteenth-air-force-air-forces-strategic-afspc/">"Fourteenth Air Force (Air Forces Strategic) (AFSPC"</a>. <i>Air Force Historical Research Agency</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Historical+Research+Agency&rft.atitle=Fourteenth+Air+Force+%28Air+Forces+Strategic%29+%28AFSPC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afhra.af.mil%2FAbout-Us%2FFact-Sheets%2FDisplay%2FArticle%2F432827%2Ffourteenth-air-force-air-forces-strategic-afspc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smdc.army.mil/Portals/38/Documents/Publications/History/Cmd%20History%20Book/Chap%203.pdf">"Seize the High Ground"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>smdc.army.mil</i>. Communications, Sensors, Maintaining Interest in Missile Defense, and the Strategic Defense Initiative, 1970-1989<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=smdc.army.mil&rft.atitle=Seize+the+High+Ground&rft.pages=Communications%2C+Sensors%2C+Maintaining+Interest+in+Missile+Defense%2C+and+the+Strategic+Defense+Initiative%2C+1970-1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smdc.army.mil%2FPortals%2F38%2FDocuments%2FPublications%2FHistory%2FCmd%2520History%2520Book%2FChap%25203.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.milsatmagazine.com/story.php?number=1811044549">"Military Satellite Systems: A History -- Part One"</a>. <i>Milsat Magazine</i>. May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Milsat+Magazine&rft.atitle=Military+Satellite+Systems%3A+A+History+--+Part+One&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.milsatmagazine.com%2Fstory.php%3Fnumber%3D1811044549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.losangeles.spaceforce.mil/Portals/16/documents/AFD-060912-025.pdf?ver=2016-05-02-112847-777">https://www.losangeles.spaceforce.mil/Portals/16/documents/AFD-060912-025.pdf?ver=2016-05-02-112847-777</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.losangeles.spaceforce.mil/Portals/16/documents/AFD-060912-024.pdf?ver=2016-05-02-112840-947">https://www.losangeles.spaceforce.mil/Portals/16/documents/AFD-060912-024.pdf?ver=2016-05-02-112840-947</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.afspc.af.mil/Portals/3/documents/AFD-110825-027.pdf?ver=2016-04-19-143348-797">https://www.afspc.af.mil/Portals/3/documents/AFD-110825-027.pdf?ver=2016-04-19-143348-797</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.airforcemag.com/article/0301space/">"The Space Commission Reports"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Space+Commission+Reports&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.airforcemag.com%2Farticle%2F0301space%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.schriever.spaceforce.mil/Portals/17/2019_Heritage_Pamphlet%20pdf.pdf">[1]</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShugart2018" class="citation web cs1">Shugart, Gary (1 October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190102000451/http://purview.dodlive.mil/2018/10/01/reestablishing-u-s-space-command/">"Re-establishing U.S. Space Command"</a>. <i>purview.dodlive.mil</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purview.dodlive.mil/2018/10/01/reestablishing-u-s-space-command/">the original</a> on 2 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=purview.dodlive.mil&rft.atitle=Re-establishing+U.S.+Space+Command&rft.date=2018-10-01&rft.aulast=Shugart&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpurview.dodlive.mil%2F2018%2F10%2F01%2Freestablishing-u-s-space-command%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/war-terror-supersedes-2001-space-commission-vision/">"War on Terror Supersedes 2001 Space Commission Vision"</a>. <i>SpaceNews</i>. 29 June 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=War+on+Terror+Supersedes+2001+Space+Commission+Vision&rft.date=2004-06-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fwar-terror-supersedes-2001-space-commission-vision%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.networkworld.com/community/node/64242">NASA identifies Top Ten space junk missions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019123913/http://www.networkworld.com/community/node/64242">Archived</a> 19 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Michael Cooney, <i>NetworkWorld</i>, 28 July 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.defense.gov/Explore/News/Article/Article/2096883/us-will-not-let-china-russia-deny-its-space-superiority-dod-officials-say/">"U.S. Will Not Let China, Russia Deny Its Space Superiority, DOD Officials Say"</a>. <i>U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+DEPARTMENT+OF+DEFENSE&rft.atitle=U.S.+Will+Not+Let+China%2C+Russia+Deny+Its+Space+Superiority%2C+DOD+Officials+Say&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.defense.gov%2FExplore%2FNews%2FArticle%2FArticle%2F2096883%2Fus-will-not-let-china-russia-deny-its-space-superiority-dod-officials-say%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/usspacecom-officially-re-established-with-a-focus-on-defending-satellites-and-deterring-conflict/">"Trump formally reestablishes U.S. Space Command at White House ceremony"</a>. <i>SpaceNews</i>. 29 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=Trump+formally+reestablishes+U.S.+Space+Command+at+White+House+ceremony&rft.date=2019-08-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fusspacecom-officially-re-established-with-a-focus-on-defending-satellites-and-deterring-conflict%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/ASPJ/journals/Volume-14_Issue-1-4/2000_Vol14_No1.pdf">https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/ASPJ/journals/Volume-14_Issue-1-4/2000_Vol14_No1.pdf</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aerospace.csis.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/RumsfeldCommission.pdf">"Report to the Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>csis.org</i>. 10 January 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=csis.org&rft.atitle=Report+to+the+Commission+to+Assess+United+States+National+Security+Space+Management+and+Organization&rft.date=2001-01-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faerospace.csis.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F09%2FRumsfeldCommission.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto4-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aerospace.csis.org/commanding-space/">"Commanding Space: The Story Behind the Space Force"</a>. <i>Aerospace Security</i>. 11 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aerospace+Security&rft.atitle=Commanding+Space%3A+The+Story+Behind+the+Space+Force&rft.date=2019-04-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faerospace.csis.org%2Fcommanding-space%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/congressman-rogers-a-space-corps-is-inevitable/">"Congressman Rogers: A space corps is 'inevitable'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>SpaceNews.com</i>. 2 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews.com&rft.atitle=Congressman+Rogers%3A+A+space+corps+is+%27inevitable%27&rft.date=2017-12-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fcongressman-rogers-a-space-corps-is-inevitable%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.defensetech.org/2017/11/08/space-corps-crashes-to-earth-in-negotiated-defense-bill/">"Space Corps Crashes to Earth in Negotiated Defense Bill"</a>. <i>Defensetech.org</i>. 8 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Defensetech.org&rft.atitle=Space+Corps+Crashes+to+Earth+in+Negotiated+Defense+Bill&rft.date=2017-11-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.defensetech.org%2F2017%2F11%2F08%2Fspace-corps-crashes-to-earth-in-negotiated-defense-bill%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/chairman-rogers-space-corps-needed-more-than-ever-air-force-in-denial/">"Chairman Rogers: space corps needed more than ever, Air Force 'in denial'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>SpaceNews</i>. 1 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=Chairman+Rogers%3A+space+corps+needed+more+than+ever%2C+Air+Force+%27in+denial%27&rft.date=2018-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fchairman-rogers-space-corps-needed-more-than-ever-air-force-in-denial%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwarts2017" class="citation news cs1">Swarts, Phillip (14 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/space-corps-proposal-has-murkier-path-forward-in-the-senate/">"Space Corps proposal has murkier path forward in the Senate"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SpaceNews" title="SpaceNews">SpaceNews</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=Space+Corps+proposal+has+murkier+path+forward+in+the+Senate&rft.date=2017-07-14&rft.aulast=Swarts&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fspace-corps-proposal-has-murkier-path-forward-in-the-senate%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-awkward-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-awkward_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould2018" class="citation news cs1">Gould, Joe (15 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.defensenews.com/congress/2018/03/14/trump-touting-space-force-puts-air-force-in-awkward-spot/">"Trump touting 'space force' puts Air Force in awkward spot"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Defense_News" title="Defense News">Defense News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Defense+News&rft.atitle=Trump+touting+%27space+force%27+puts+Air+Force+in+awkward+spot&rft.date=2018-03-15&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.defensenews.com%2Fcongress%2F2018%2F03%2F14%2Ftrump-touting-space-force-puts-air-force-in-awkward-spot%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMehtaMehta2018" class="citation news cs1">Mehta, Valerie; Mehta, Aaron (19 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.defensenews.com/space/2018/06/18/trump-orders-creation-of-independent-space-force/">"Trump orders creation of independent space force — but Congress will still have its say"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Defense_News" title="Defense News">Defense News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Defense+News&rft.atitle=Trump+orders+creation+of+independent+space+force+%E2%80%94+but+Congress+will+still+have+its+say&rft.date=2018-06-19&rft.aulast=Mehta&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft.au=Mehta%2C+Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.defensenews.com%2Fspace%2F2018%2F06%2F18%2Ftrump-orders-creation-of-independent-space-force%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2019" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, Kaitlyn (27 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/space-force-or-space-corps">"Space Force or Space Corps?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Strategic_%26_International_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Strategic & International Studies">Center for Strategic & International Studies</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Strategic+%26+International+Studies&rft.atitle=Space+Force+or+Space+Corps%3F&rft.date=2019-06-27&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Kaitlyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csis.org%2Fanalysis%2Fspace-force-or-space-corps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spaceforce.mil/About-Us/SPD-4">"Space Policy Directive 4"</a>. <i>spaceforce.mil</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=spaceforce.mil&rft.atitle=Space+Policy+Directive+4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spaceforce.mil%2FAbout-Us%2FSPD-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSetyon2018" class="citation web cs1">Setyon, Joe (27 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reason.com/blog/2018/08/27/nasa-administrator-we-need-a-space-force">"NASA Administrator: We Need a Space Force to Save Energy Grid From 'Existential Threat' - Hit & Run"</a>. <i>Reason.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reason.com&rft.atitle=NASA+Administrator%3A+We+Need+a+Space+Force+to+Save+Energy+Grid+From+%27Existential+Threat%27+-+Hit+%26+Run&rft.date=2018-08-27&rft.aulast=Setyon&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freason.com%2Fblog%2F2018%2F08%2F27%2Fnasa-administrator-we-need-a-space-force&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stripes.com/news/us/barbara-barrett-is-confirmed-as-air-force-secretary-1.603411">"Barbara Barrett is confirmed as Air Force secretary"</a>. <i>Stars and Stripes</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stars+and+Stripes&rft.atitle=Barbara+Barrett+is+confirmed+as+Air+Force+secretary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stripes.com%2Fnews%2Fus%2Fbarbara-barrett-is-confirmed-as-air-force-secretary-1.603411&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStavridis2018" class="citation web cs1">Stavridis, James (14 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct-perspec-space-force-cyber-military-threats-0815-20180814-story.html">"The U.S. needs a Space Force — and a Cyber Force"</a>. <i>chicagotribune.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=chicagotribune.com&rft.atitle=The+U.S.+needs+a+Space+Force+%E2%80%94+and+a+Cyber+Force&rft.date=2018-08-14&rft.aulast=Stavridis&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fopinion%2Fcommentary%2Fct-perspec-space-force-cyber-military-threats-0815-20180814-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJennifer_Hansler2018" class="citation web cs1">Jennifer Hansler (10 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/08/10/politics/buzz-aldrin-space-force-tweet/index.html">"Buzz Aldrin: Space Force is 'one giant leap in the right direction'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>CNN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Buzz+Aldrin%3A+Space+Force+is+%27one+giant+leap+in+the+right+direction%27&rft.date=2018-08-10&rft.au=Jennifer+Hansler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2018%2F08%2F10%2Fpolitics%2Fbuzz-aldrin-space-force-tweet%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/i-was-an-astronaut-we-need-a-space-force/2018/08/23/637667e6-a6fb-11e8-b76b-d513a40042f6_story.html">"Opinion | I was an astronaut. We need a Space Force"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Opinion+%26%23124%3B+I+was+an+astronaut.+We+need+a+Space+Force.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fopinions%2Fi-was-an-astronaut-we-need-a-space-force%2F2018%2F08%2F23%2F637667e6-a6fb-11e8-b76b-d513a40042f6_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180831002543/https://www.wthr.com/article/astronaut-wolf-says-proposed-space-force-key-exploration-innovation">"Astronaut Wolf says proposed 'Space Force' is key to exploration, innovation"</a>. <i>13 WTHR Indianapolis</i>. 10 August 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wthr.com/article/astronaut-wolf-says-proposed-space-force-key-exploration-innovation">the original</a> on 31 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=13+WTHR+Indianapolis&rft.atitle=Astronaut+Wolf+says+proposed+%27Space+Force%27+is+key+to+exploration%2C+innovation&rft.date=2018-08-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wthr.com%2Farticle%2Fastronaut-wolf-says-proposed-space-force-key-exploration-innovation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tmz.com/2018/08/10/clayton-anderson-donald-trump-space-force-astronaut-nasa-mike-pence-star-wars/">"NASA Astronaut Clayton Anderson Sees Potential in Donald Trump's Space Force"</a>. <i>TMZ</i>. 10 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TMZ&rft.atitle=NASA+Astronaut+Clayton+Anderson+Sees+Potential+in+Donald+Trump%27s+Space+Force&rft.date=2018-08-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tmz.com%2F2018%2F08%2F10%2Fclayton-anderson-donald-trump-space-force-astronaut-nasa-mike-pence-star-wars%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost2018" class="citation web cs1">Frost, Mikenzie (11 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://upnorthlive.com/news/local/retired-nasa-astronaut-believes-trump-proposal-of-a-space-force-is-right-on-target">"Retired NASA astronaut believes Trump proposal of a Space Force "is right on target"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>WPBN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WPBN&rft.atitle=Retired+NASA+astronaut+believes+Trump+proposal+of+a+Space+Force+%22is+right+on+target%22&rft.date=2018-09-11&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Mikenzie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fupnorthlive.com%2Fnews%2Flocal%2Fretired-nasa-astronaut-believes-trump-proposal-of-a-space-force-is-right-on-target&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2018" class="citation web cs1">Burke, Michael (4 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehill.com/policy/defense/414776-elon-musk-backs-trump-on-space-force-i-actually-like-it">"Elon Musk backs Trump on space force: 'I actually like' it"</a>. <i>TheHill</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheHill&rft.atitle=Elon+Musk+backs+Trump+on+space+force%3A+%27I+actually+like%27+it&rft.date=2018-11-04&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthehill.com%2Fpolicy%2Fdefense%2F414776-elon-musk-backs-trump-on-space-force-i-actually-like-it&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSciutto2019" class="citation news cs1">Sciutto, Jim (10 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-vulnerable-u-s-really-does-need-a-space-force-11557480601">"A Vulnerable U.S. Really Does Need a Space Force"</a>. <i>Wall Street Journal</i> – via www.wsj.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Vulnerable+U.S.+Really+Does+Need+a+Space+Force&rft.date=2019-05-10&rft.aulast=Sciutto&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fa-vulnerable-u-s-really-does-need-a-space-force-11557480601&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stripes.com/news/space-command-sending-experts-worldwide-as-us-advantage-erodes-top-officer-says-1.603228">"Space Command sending experts worldwide as US advantage erodes, top officer says"</a>. <i>Stars and Stripes</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stars+and+Stripes&rft.atitle=Space+Command+sending+experts+worldwide+as+US+advantage+erodes%2C+top+officer+says&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stripes.com%2Fnews%2Fspace-command-sending-experts-worldwide-as-us-advantage-erodes-top-officer-says-1.603228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/former-u-s-officials-sign-open-letter-in-support-of-dods-space-force-proposal/">"Former U.S. officials sign open letter in support of DoD's Space Force proposal"</a>. <i>SpaceNews.com</i>. 5 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews.com&rft.atitle=Former+U.S.+officials+sign+open+letter+in+support+of+DoD%27s+Space+Force+proposal&rft.date=2019-05-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fformer-u-s-officials-sign-open-letter-in-support-of-dods-space-force-proposal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErwin2019" class="citation news cs1">Erwin, Sandra (27 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/air-force-preparing-for-space-reorganization-as-senate-advances-ndaa/">"Air Force preparing for space reorganization as Senate advances NDAA"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SpaceNews" title="SpaceNews">SpaceNews</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=Air+Force+preparing+for+space+reorganization+as+Senate+advances+NDAA&rft.date=2019-06-27&rft.aulast=Erwin&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fair-force-preparing-for-space-reorganization-as-senate-advances-ndaa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Closer-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Closer_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Closer_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrisales2019" class="citation news cs1">Grisales, Claudia (11 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2019/08/11/743612373/with-congressional-blessing-space-force-is-closer-to-launch">"With Congressional Blessing, Space Force Is Closer To Launch"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=With+Congressional+Blessing%2C+Space+Force+Is+Closer+To+Launch&rft.date=2019-08-11&rft.aulast=Grisales&rft.aufirst=Claudia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2019%2F08%2F11%2F743612373%2Fwith-congressional-blessing-space-force-is-closer-to-launch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTritten2019" class="citation news cs1">Tritten, Travis (17 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://about.bgov.com/news/space-force-nears-approval-as-first-new-military-arm-since-1947/">"Space Force Nears Approval as First New Military Arm Since 1947"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bloomberg_Government" title="Bloomberg Government">Bloomberg Government</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg+Government&rft.atitle=Space+Force+Nears+Approval+as+First+New+Military+Arm+Since+1947&rft.date=2019-06-17&rft.aulast=Tritten&rft.aufirst=Travis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabout.bgov.com%2Fnews%2Fspace-force-nears-approval-as-first-new-military-arm-since-1947%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErwin2019" class="citation news cs1">Erwin, Sandra (11 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/joint-chiefs-nominee-backs-senates-piecemeal-approach-to-establish-space-force/">"Joint Chiefs nominee backs Senate's piecemeal approach to establish Space Force"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SpaceNews" title="SpaceNews">SpaceNews</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=Joint+Chiefs+nominee+backs+Senate%27s+piecemeal+approach+to+establish+Space+Force&rft.date=2019-07-11&rft.aulast=Erwin&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fjoint-chiefs-nominee-backs-senates-piecemeal-approach-to-establish-space-force%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErwin2019" class="citation news cs1">Erwin, Sandra (24 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/thornberry-pentagon-will-not-have-its-way-in-space-force-legislation/">"Thornberry: Pentagon will not have its way in space force legislation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SpaceNews" title="SpaceNews">SpaceNews</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=Thornberry%3A+Pentagon+will+not+have+its+way+in+space+force+legislation&rft.date=2019-07-24&rft.aulast=Erwin&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fthornberry-pentagon-will-not-have-its-way-in-space-force-legislation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErwin2019" class="citation news cs1">Erwin, Sandra (9 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/ndaa-conference-agreement-establishes-u-s-space-force-directs-major-overhaul-of-space-acquisitions/">"NDAA conference agreement establishes U.S. Space Force, directs major overhaul of space acquisitions"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SpaceNews" title="SpaceNews">SpaceNews</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=NDAA+conference+agreement+establishes+U.S.+Space+Force%2C+directs+major+overhaul+of+space+acquisitions&rft.date=2019-12-09&rft.aulast=Erwin&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fndaa-conference-agreement-establishes-u-s-space-force-directs-major-overhaul-of-space-acquisitions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould2019" class="citation news cs1">Gould, Joe (18 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.defensenews.com/congress/2019/12/17/congress-adopts-defense-bill-that-creates-space-force/#:~:text=WASHINGTON%20%E2%80%95%20Congress%20has%20approved%20a,for%20the%20Pentagon%20for%202020.">"Congress adopts defense bill that creates Space Force"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Defense_News" title="Defense News">Defense News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Defense+News&rft.atitle=Congress+adopts+defense+bill+that+creates+Space+Force&rft.date=2019-12-18&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.defensenews.com%2Fcongress%2F2019%2F12%2F17%2Fcongress-adopts-defense-bill-that-creates-space-force%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DWASHINGTON%2520%25E2%2580%2595%2520Congress%2520has%2520approved%2520a%2Cfor%2520the%2520Pentagon%2520for%25202020.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2019" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Kaitlyn (19 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aerospace.csis.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/NDAA-Space-Force.2.pdf">"Congress approved the Space Force. Now What?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Strategic_and_International_Studies" title="Center for Strategic and International Studies">Center for Strategic and International Studies</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Congress+approved+the+Space+Force.+Now+What%3F&rft.pub=Center+for+Strategic+and+International+Studies&rft.date=2019-12-19&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Kaitlyn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faerospace.csis.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F12%2FNDAA-Space-Force.2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacias2019" class="citation news cs1">Macias, Amanda (10 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/12/21/trump-signs-738-billion-defense-bill.html">"Trump signs $738 billion defense bill. Here's what the Pentagon is poised to get"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CNBC" title="CNBC">CNBC</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNBC&rft.atitle=Trump+signs+%24738+billion+defense+bill.+Here%27s+what+the+Pentagon+is+poised+to+get&rft.date=2019-12-10&rft.aulast=Macias&rft.aufirst=Amanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2019%2F12%2F21%2Ftrump-signs-738-billion-defense-bill.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeller2019" class="citation news cs1">Keller, Jared (10 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://taskandpurpose.com/news/space-force-defense-budget-2020/">"It's official: the Space Force is here to bring freedom and liberty to the stars"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Task_%26_Purpose" title="Task & Purpose">Task & Purpose</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Task+%26+Purpose&rft.atitle=It%27s+official%3A+the+Space+Force+is+here+to+bring+freedom+and+liberty+to+the+stars&rft.date=2019-12-10&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Jared&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftaskandpurpose.com%2Fnews%2Fspace-force-defense-budget-2020%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnn-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cnn_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan_Browne2019" class="citation news cs1">Ryan Browne (20 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/20/politics/trump-creates-space-force/index.html">"With a signature, Trump brings Space Force into being"</a>. <i>CNN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=With+a+signature%2C+Trump+brings+Space+Force+into+being&rft.date=2019-12-20&rft.au=Ryan+Browne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2019%2F12%2F20%2Fpolitics%2Ftrump-creates-space-force%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200119132009/https://www.abc12.com/content/news/New-Space-Force-uniforms-are-camo-but-why-567106481.html">"New Space Force uniforms are camo, but why?"</a>. <i>ABC12.com</i>. CNN\Gray News. 18 January 2020. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc12.com/content/news/New-Space-Force-uniforms-are-camo-but-why-567106481.html">the original</a> on 19 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC12.com&rft.atitle=New+Space+Force+uniforms+are+camo%2C+but+why%3F&rft.date=2020-01-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc12.com%2Fcontent%2Fnews%2FNew-Space-Force-uniforms-are-camo-but-why-567106481.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2019/12/30/14th-Air-Force-now-designated-as-US-Space-Operations-Command/6361577725755/">"14th Air Force now designated as U.S. Space Operations Command"</a>. <i>UPI</i>. 30 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=UPI&rft.atitle=14th+Air+Force+now+designated+as+U.S.+Space+Operations+Command&rft.date=2019-12-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FDefense-News%2F2019%2F12%2F30%2F14th-Air-Force-now-designated-as-US-Space-Operations-Command%2F6361577725755%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.airforcetimes.com/news/your-military/2019/12/21/the-space-force-is-officially-the-sixth-military-branch-heres-what-that-means/">"The Space Force is officially the sixth military branch. Here's what that means"</a>. <i>Air Force Times</i>. 20 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Times&rft.atitle=The+Space+Force+is+officially+the+sixth+military+branch.+Here%27s+what+that+means.&rft.date=2019-12-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.airforcetimes.com%2Fnews%2Fyour-military%2F2019%2F12%2F21%2Fthe-space-force-is-officially-the-sixth-military-branch-heres-what-that-means%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spaceforce.mil/News/Article/2287005/space-force-begins-transition-into-field-organizational-structure/">"Space Force begins transition into field organizational structure"</a>. <i>United States Space Force</i>. 24 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Space+Force&rft.atitle=Space+Force+begins+transition+into+field+organizational+structure&rft.date=2020-07-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spaceforce.mil%2FNews%2FArticle%2F2287005%2Fspace-force-begins-transition-into-field-organizational-structure%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/space-force-stands-up-operations-command-in-colorado-springs/">"Space Force stands up operations command in Colorado Springs"</a>. <i>SpaceNews</i>. 21 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=Space+Force+stands+up+operations+command+in+Colorado+Springs&rft.date=2020-10-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fspace-force-stands-up-operations-command-in-colorado-springs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErwin2020" class="citation news cs1">Erwin, Sandra (18 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/u-s-space-force-adds-86-new-officers-after-academy-graduation/">"U.S. Space Force adds 86 new officers after academy graduation"</a>. <i>SpaceNews.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews.com&rft.atitle=U.S.+Space+Force+adds+86+new+officers+after+academy+graduation&rft.date=2020-04-18&rft.aulast=Erwin&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fu-s-space-force-adds-86-new-officers-after-academy-graduation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/u-s-space-force-adds-86-new-officers-after-academy-graduation/">"U.S. Space Force adds 86 new officers after academy graduation"</a>. <i>SpaceNews</i>. 18 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=U.S.+Space+Force+adds+86+new+officers+after+academy+graduation&rft.date=2020-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fu-s-space-force-adds-86-new-officers-after-academy-graduation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spaceforce.mil/News/Article/2387089/space-force-enlists-first-trainees-sends-to-bootcamp">"Space Force enlists first trainees, sends to bootcamp"</a>. <i>United States Space Force</i>. 19 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Space+Force&rft.atitle=Space+Force+enlists+first+trainees%2C+sends+to+bootcamp&rft.date=2020-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spaceforce.mil%2FNews%2FArticle%2F2387089%2Fspace-force-enlists-first-trainees-sends-to-bootcamp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aetc.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/2385305/ots-commissions-first-space-force-officers/">"OTS commissions first Space Force officers"</a>. <i>Air Education and Training Command</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Air+Education+and+Training+Command&rft.atitle=OTS+commissions+first+Space+Force+officers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aetc.af.mil%2FNews%2FArticle-Display%2FArticle%2F2385305%2Fots-commissions-first-space-force-officers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/space-force-members-can-go-to-the-moon-if-theyre-picked-by-nasa/">"Space Force members can go to the moon, if they're picked by NASA"</a>. <i>SpaceNews</i>. 1 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=Space+Force+members+can+go+to+the+moon%2C+if+they%27re+picked+by+NASA&rft.date=2020-10-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fspace-force-members-can-go-to-the-moon-if-theyre-picked-by-nasa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spacenews.com/nasas-crew-1-commander-to-be-sworn-into-u-s-space-force-from-the-international-space-station/">"NASA's Crew-1 commander to be sworn into U.S. Space Force from the International Space Station"</a>. <i>SpaceNews</i>. 28 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=NASA%27s+Crew-1+commander+to+be+sworn+into+U.S.+Space+Force+from+the+International+Space+Station&rft.date=2020-10-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fnasas-crew-1-commander-to-be-sworn-into-u-s-space-force-from-the-international-space-station%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer2020" class="citation web cs1">Kramer, Miriam (18 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.axios.com/astronaut-mike-hopkins-space-force-7891a73d-33a8-4b3f-8437-72f502ecce37.html">"Astronaut Mike Hopkins sworn into the Space Force from orbit"</a>. <i>Axios</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Axios&rft.atitle=Astronaut+Mike+Hopkins+sworn+into+the+Space+Force+from+orbit&rft.date=2020-12-18&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.axios.com%2Fastronaut-mike-hopkins-space-force-7891a73d-33a8-4b3f-8437-72f502ecce37.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SFFactSheet-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SFFactSheet_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spaceforce.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheet">"Fact Sheet"</a>. Spaceforce.mil<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fact+Sheet&rft.pub=Spaceforce.mil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spaceforce.mil%2FAbout-Us%2FFact-Sheet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCathey2020" class="citation news cs1">Cathey, Libby (15 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/trump-presented-official-space-force-flag-military-officials/story?id=70701100">"Trump presented with Space Force flag by military officials in Oval Office"</a>. <i>ABC News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Trump+presented+with+Space+Force+flag+by+military+officials+in+Oval+Office&rft.date=2020-05-15&rft.aulast=Cathey&rft.aufirst=Libby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FPolitics%2Ftrump-presented-official-space-force-flag-military-officials%2Fstory%3Fid%3D70701100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPawlyk2020" class="citation web cs1">Pawlyk, Oriana (18 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.military.com/daily-news/2020/12/18/guardians-of-galaxy-pence-announces-name-of-space-force-members.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Guardians' of the Galaxy: Pence Announces Name of Space Force Members"</a>. <i>Military.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Military.com&rft.atitle=%27Guardians%27+of+the+Galaxy%3A+Pence+Announces+Name+of+Space+Force+Members&rft.date=2020-12-18&rft.aulast=Pawlyk&rft.aufirst=Oriana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.military.com%2Fdaily-news%2F2020%2F12%2F18%2Fguardians-of-galaxy-pence-announces-name-of-space-force-members.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.airforcemag.com/space-force-debuts-new-delta-logo/">"Space Force Debuts New Delta Logo, Motto"</a>. 22 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Space+Force+Debuts+New+Delta+Logo%2C+Motto&rft.date=2020-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.airforcemag.com%2Fspace-force-debuts-new-delta-logo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoy" class="citation web cs1">Joy, Rachael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2020/12/09/vice-president-pence-announces-official-name-change-patrick-space-force-base/6506564002/">"Vice President Pence announces official name change of Patrick Space Force Base"</a>. <i>Florida Today</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Florida+Today&rft.atitle=Vice+President+Pence+announces+official+name+change+of+Patrick+Space+Force+Base&rft.aulast=Joy&rft.aufirst=Rachael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.floridatoday.com%2Fstory%2Ftech%2Fscience%2Fspace%2F2020%2F12%2F09%2Fvice-president-pence-announces-official-name-change-patrick-space-force-base%2F6506564002%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/nasa_ussf_mou_21_sep_20.pdf">"Memorandum of Understanding Between The National Aeronautics And Space Administration and The United States Space Force"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>nasa.gov</i>. NASA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nasa.gov&rft.atitle=Memorandum+of+Understanding+Between+The+National+Aeronautics+And+Space+Administration+and+The+United+States+Space+Force&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fatoms%2Ffiles%2Fnasa_ussf_mou_21_sep_20.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spaceforce.mil/News/Article/2356032/nasa-us-space-force-establish-foundation-for-broad-collaboration/">"NASA, US Space Force Establish Foundation for Broad Collaboration"</a>. <i>spaceforce.mil</i>. USSF. 22 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=spaceforce.mil&rft.atitle=NASA%2C+US+Space+Force+Establish+Foundation+for+Broad+Collaboration&rft.date=2020-09-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spaceforce.mil%2FNews%2FArticle%2F2356032%2Fnasa-us-space-force-establish-foundation-for-broad-collaboration%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spaceforce.mil/News/Article/2387089/space-force-enlists-first-trainees-to-bootcamp">"Space Force enlists first trainees to bootcamp"</a>. <i>United States Space Force</i>. 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Space+Force&rft.atitle=Space+Force+enlists+first+trainees+to+bootcamp&rft.date=2020-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spaceforce.mil%2FNews%2FArticle%2F2387089%2Fspace-force-enlists-first-trainees-to-bootcamp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/music/2022/09/20/space-force-anthem/">Brodeur, Michael Andor, "With new official anthem, the Space Force hopes to land on your radar," washingtonpost.com, September 20, 2022 Accessed 22 September 2022</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrout2021" class="citation web cs1">Strout, Nathan (12 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c4isrnet.com/battlefield-tech/space/2021/01/07/exclusive-how-the-space-force-foiled-an-iranian-missile-attack-with-a-critical-early-warning/">"Exclusive: How the Space Force foiled an Iranian missile attack with a critical early warning"</a>. <i>C4ISRNET</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=C4ISRNET&rft.atitle=Exclusive%3A+How+the+Space+Force+foiled+an+Iranian+missile+attack+with+a+critical+early+warning&rft.date=2021-01-12&rft.aulast=Strout&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c4isrnet.com%2Fbattlefield-tech%2Fspace%2F2021%2F01%2F07%2Fexclusive-how-the-space-force-foiled-an-iranian-missile-attack-with-a-critical-early-warning%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/5779315/russian-spacecraft-spy-satellite-space-force/">"Exclusive: Russian Craft Shadowing U.S. Spy Satellite, Space Force Commander Says"</a>. <i>Time</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Exclusive%3A+Russian+Craft+Shadowing+U.S.+Spy+Satellite%2C+Space+Force+Commander+Says&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F5779315%2Frussian-spacecraft-spy-satellite-space-force%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dvidshub.net/news/406562/first-us-army-soldiers-transfer-into-us-space-force">"First U.S. Army Soldiers Transfer into U.S. Space Force"</a>. <i>DVIDS</i>. 1 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DVIDS&rft.atitle=First+U.S.+Army+Soldiers+Transfer+into+U.S.+Space+Force&rft.date=2021-10-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dvidshub.net%2Fnews%2F406562%2Ffirst-us-army-soldiers-transfer-into-us-space-force&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+United+States+Space+Force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Space_Force" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Space_Force" title="Template:United States Space Force"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_Space_Force" title="Template talk:United States Space Force"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_Space_Force" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States Space Force"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Space_Force" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">United States Space Force</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Leadership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Department of the Air Force">Department of the Air Force</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Secretary of the Air Force">Secretary of the Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Under_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Under Secretary of the Air Force">Under Secretary of the Air Force</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_of_the_United_States_Space_Force#Space_Staff" title="Structure of the United States Space Force">Space Staff</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Space_Operations" title="Chief of Space Operations">Chief of Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Chief_of_Space_Operations" title="Vice Chief of Space Operations">Vice Chief of Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Master_Sergeant_of_the_Space_Force" title="Chief Master Sergeant of the Space Force">Chief Master Sergeant of the Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Director of Staff of the United States Space Force">Director of Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Chief_of_Space_Operations" title="Deputy Chief of Space Operations">Deputy Chiefs of Space Operations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_duty_United_States_Space_Force_general_officers" title="List of active duty United States Space Force general officers">General Officers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Space_Force_four-star_generals" title="List of United States Space Force four-star generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Space_Force_lieutenant_generals" title="List of United States Space Force lieutenant generals">Lieutenant Generals</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Oversight" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Oversight</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Armed_Services" title="United States House Committee on Armed Services">House Armed Services Committee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Armed_Services_Subcommittee_on_Strategic_Forces" title="United States House Armed Services Subcommittee on Strategic Forces">Strategic Forces subcommittee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Armed_Services" title="United States Senate Committee on Armed Services">Senate Committee on Armed Services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Armed_Services_Subcommittee_on_Strategic_Forces" title="United States Senate Armed Services Subcommittee on Strategic Forces">Strategic Forces subcommittee</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/United_States_Space_Force_emblem.png/80px-United_States_Space_Force_emblem.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/United_States_Space_Force_emblem.png/120px-United_States_Space_Force_emblem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/United_States_Space_Force_emblem.png/160px-United_States_Space_Force_emblem.png 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="504" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Structure_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Structure of the United States Space Force">Structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Field commands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Futures_Command" title="Space Futures Command">Space Futures Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Operations_Command" title="Space Operations Command">Space Operations Command</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_Space_Operations_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of Space Operations Command">Commander</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Systems_Command" title="Space Systems Command">Space Systems Command</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_Space_Systems_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of Space Systems Command">Commander</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Training_and_Readiness_Command" title="Space Training and Readiness Command">Space Training and Readiness Command</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_Space_Training_and_Readiness_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of Space Training and Readiness Command">Commander</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Component Field Commands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Forces_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Space Forces Central">United States Space Forces Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Forces_Europe_and_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Space Forces Europe and Africa">United States Space Forces Europe and Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Forces_Indo-Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Space Forces Indo-Pacific">United States Space Forces Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Forces_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Space Forces Korea">United States Space Forces Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Forces_%E2%80%93_Space" title="United States Space Forces – Space">United States Space Forces – Space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Deltas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_1" title="Space Delta 1">Space Delta 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Delta_2" title="Mission Delta 2">Mission Delta 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Delta_3" title="Mission Delta 3">Mission Delta 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Delta_4" title="Mission Delta 4">Mission Delta 4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_5" title="Space Delta 5">Space Delta 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_6" title="Space Delta 6">Space Delta 6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_7" title="Space Delta 7">Space Delta 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_8" title="Space Delta 8">Space Delta 8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_9" title="Space Delta 9">Space Delta 9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_10" title="Space Delta 10">Space Delta 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_11" title="Space Delta 11">Space Delta 11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_12" title="Space Delta 12">Space Delta 12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_13" title="Space Delta 13">Space Delta 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_15" title="Space Delta 15">Space Delta 15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_18" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Delta 18">Space Delta 18</a></li> <li>Space Delta 21</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_23" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Delta 23">Space Delta 23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Delta_26" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Delta 26">Space Delta 26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Launch_Delta_30" title="Space Launch Delta 30">Space Launch Delta 30</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Delta_31" title="Mission Delta 31">Mission Delta 31</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Launch_Delta_45" title="Space Launch Delta 45">Space Launch Delta 45</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Base_Delta_1" title="Space Base Delta 1">Space Base Delta 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Base_Delta_2" title="Space Base Delta 2">Space Base Delta 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Base_Delta_3" title="Space Base Delta 3">Space Base Delta 3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Squadrons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_Delta_Operations_Squadron" title="1st Delta Operations Squadron">1st Delta Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/319th_Combat_Training_Squadron" title="319th Combat Training Squadron">319th Combat Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/328th_Weapons_Squadron" title="328th Weapons Squadron">328th Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/392d_Combat_Training_Squadron" title="392d Combat Training Squadron">392d Combat Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/533rd_Training_Squadron" title="533rd Training Squadron">533rd Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_Operations_Support_Squadron" title="21st Operations Support Squadron">21st Operations Support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15th_Space_Surveillance_Squadron" title="15th Space Surveillance Squadron">15th Space Surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th_Space_Defense_Squadron" title="18th Space Defense Squadron">18th Space Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_Space_Defense_Squadron" title="19th Space Defense Squadron">19th Space Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20th_Space_Surveillance_Squadron" title="20th Space Surveillance Squadron">20th Space Surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/721st_Operations_Support_Squadron" title="721st Operations Support Squadron">3rd Combat Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4th_Electromagnetic_Warfare_Squadron" title="4th Electromagnetic Warfare Squadron">4th EW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5th_Electromagnetic_Warfare_Squadron" title="5th Electromagnetic Warfare Squadron">5th EW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Electromagnetic_Warfare_Squadron" title="16th Electromagnetic Warfare Squadron">16th EW</a></li> <li>23rd EW</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="2nd Space Warning Squadron">2nd Space Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_Satellite_Communications_Squadron" title="3rd Satellite Communications Squadron">3rd satellite Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="5th Space Warning Squadron">5th Space Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="6th Space Warning Squadron">6th Space Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="7th Space Warning Squadron">7th Space Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="10th Space Warning Squadron">10th Space Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="11th Space Warning Squadron">11th Space Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="12th Space Warning Squadron">12th Space Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13th_Space_Warning_Squadron" title="13th Space Warning Squadron">13th Space Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/55th_Combat_Training_Squadron" title="55th Combat Training Squadron">55th Combat Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="21st Space Operations Squadron">21st Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/22nd_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="22nd Space Operations Squadron">22nd Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/23rd_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="23rd Space Operations Squadron">23rd Space Operations</a></li> <li>62nd Cyberspace</li> <li>63rd Cyberspace</li> <li><a href="/wiki/64th_Cyberspace_Squadron" title="64th Cyberspace Squadron">64th Cyberspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/65th_Cyberspace_Squadron" title="65th Cyberspace Squadron">65th Cyberspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/68th_Cyberspace_Squadron" title="68th Cyberspace Squadron">68th Cyberspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/69th_Cyberspace_Squadron" title="69th Cyberspace Squadron">69th Cyberspace</a></li> <li>645th Cyberspace</li> <li><a href="/wiki/71st_Intelligence,_Surveillance,_and_Reconnaissance_Squadron" title="71st Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Squadron">71st ISR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/72nd_Intelligence,_Surveillance,_and_Reconnaissance_Squadron" title="72nd Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Squadron">72nd ISR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th_Intelligence_Squadron" title="18th Intelligence Squadron">73rd ISR</a></li> <li>74th ISR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/75th_Intelligence,_Surveillance_and_Reconnaissance_Squadron" title="75th Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Squadron">75th ISR</a></li> <li>76th ISR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="1st Space Operations Squadron">1st Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Navigation_Warfare_Squadron" title="2nd Navigation Warfare Squadron">2nd Navigation Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="3rd Space Operations Squadron">3rd Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4th_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="4th Space Operations Squadron">4th Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10th_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="10th Space Operations Squadron">10th Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/53rd_Space_Operations_Squadron" title="53rd Space Operations Squadron">53rd Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/527th_Space_Aggressor_Squadron" title="527th Space Aggressor Squadron">527th Space Aggressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_Test_and_Evaluation_Squadron" title="1st Test and Evaluation Squadron">1st Test and Evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_Space_Experimentation_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="3rd Space Experimentation Squadron">3rd Test and Evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17th_Test_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="17th Test Squadron">17th Test and Evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/25th_Space_Range_Squadron" title="25th Space Range Squadron">25th Space Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Space_Launch_Squadron" title="2nd Space Launch Squadron">2nd Space Launch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5th_Space_Launch_Squadron" title="5th Space Launch Squadron">5th Space Launch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_Range_Operations_Squadron" title="1st Range Operations Squadron">1st Range Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Space_Institute" title="National Security Space Institute">NSSI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Direct reporting units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Development_Agency" title="Space Development Agency">Space Development Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Rapid_Capabilities_Office" title="Space Rapid Capabilities Office">Space Rapid Capabilities Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Warfighting_Analysis_Center" title="Space Warfighting Analysis Center">Space Warfighting Analysis Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Space Force Bases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buckley_Space_Force_Base" title="Buckley Space Force Base">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Air_Force_Base" title="Los Angeles Air Force Base">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Space_Force_Base" title="Patrick Space Force Base">Patrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peterson_Space_Force_Base" title="Peterson Space Force Base">Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schriever_Space_Force_Base" title="Schriever Space Force Base">Schriever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Space_Force_Base" title="Vandenberg Space Force Base">Vandenberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Space Bases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pituffik_Space_Base" title="Pituffik Space Base">Pituffik</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Space Force Stations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Cape Canaveral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Cod_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Cod Space Force Station">Cape Cod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalier_Space_Force_Station" title="Cavalier Space Force Station">Cavalier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_Mountain_Space_Force_Station" title="Cheyenne Mountain Space Force Station">Cheyenne Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_Space_Force_Station" title="Clear Space Force Station">Clear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaena_Point_Space_Force_Station" title="Kaena Point Space Force Station">Kaena Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Boston_Space_Force_Station" title="New Boston Space Force Station">New Boston</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Personnel<br />and training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Space_Force_astronauts" title="List of United States Space Force astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Air_Force" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Department of the Air Force">Awards and decorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Badges of the United States Space Force">Badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force_rank_insignia" title="United States Space Force rank insignia">Ranks</a></li> <li>Training <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy" title="United States Air Force Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Reserve_Officer_Training_Corps" title="Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps">Reserve Officer Training Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Officer_Training_School" title="Air Force Officer Training School">Officer Training School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Basic_Military_Training" title="United States Air Force Basic Military Training">Basic Military Training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Uniforms of the United States Space Force">Uniforms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">History and<br />traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Force_Delta" title="Space Force Delta">Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Flag of the United States Space Force">Flag</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Seal of the United States Space Force">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semper_Supra_(march)" title="Semper Supra (march)">"Semper Supra"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_%26_Space_Forces_Association" title="Air & Space Forces Association">Air & Space Forces Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Force_Association" title="Space Force Association">Space Force Association</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Former_wings_and_deltas" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Former wings and deltas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st_Space_Wing" title="21st Space Wing">21st Space Wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/50th_Space_Wing" title="50th Space Wing">50th Space Wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/460th_Space_Wing" title="460th Space Wing">460th Space Wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Training_and_Readiness_Delta_(Provisional)" title="Space Training and Readiness Delta (Provisional)">Space Training and Readiness Delta (Provisional)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Armed_Forces" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Template:United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Template talk:United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Armed_Forces" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">United States Armed Forces</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <dl><dt>Legend</dt> <dd>A = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></dd> <dd>MC = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></dd> <dd>N = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></dd> <dd>AF = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></dd> <dd>SF = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></dd> <dd>CG = <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Leadership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Deputy Secretary of Defense">Deputy Secretary of Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Secretary of Homeland Security">Secretary of Homeland Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security">Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff">Chairman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff">Vice Chairman</a></li></ul></li> <li>Committees on Armed Services <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Armed_Services" title="United States Senate Committee on Armed Services">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Armed_Services" title="United States House Committee on Armed Services">House</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_duty_United_States_four-star_officers" title="List of active duty United States four-star officers">Active duty four-star officers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_duty_United_States_three-star_officers" title="List of active duty United States three-star officers">Active duty three-star officers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_seniority" title="United States military seniority">United States military seniority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Act_of_1947" title="National Security Act of 1947">National Security Act of 1947</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldwater%E2%80%93Nichols_Act" title="Goldwater–Nichols Act">Goldwater–Nichols Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_components_of_the_U.S._Department_of_Defense" title="List of components of the U.S. Department of Defense">Components</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military departments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Army" title="United States Department of the Army">Department of the Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Army" title="United States Secretary of the Army">Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy" title="United States Department of the Navy">Department of the Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Department of the Air Force">Department of the Air Force</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Secretary of the Air Force">Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">Department of Homeland Security</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Secretary of Homeland Security">Secretary</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Service branches and heads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Army">Chief of Staff of the United States Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commandant_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Commandant of the United States Marine Corps">Commandant of the Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations" title="Chief of Naval Operations">Chief of Naval Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force">Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Space_Operations" title="Chief of Space Operations">Chief of Space Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard" title="Commandant of the Coast Guard">Commandant of the Coast Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Reserve_components_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces">Reserve components</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Reserves: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Reserve" title="United States Army Reserve">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reserve" title="United States Marine Corps Reserve">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Reserve" title="United States Navy Reserve">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Reserve_Command" title="Air Force Reserve Command">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Reserve" title="United States Coast Guard Reserve">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_National_Guard" title="Army National Guard">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_National_Guard" title="Air National Guard">AF</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries" title="Auxiliaries">Civilian auxiliaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Auxiliary_Radio_System" title="Military Auxiliary Radio System">Military Auxiliary Radio System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Corps_Cyber_Auxiliary" title="Marine Corps Cyber Auxiliary">Marine Corps Cyber Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Air_Patrol" title="Civil Air Patrol">Civil Air Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Auxiliary" title="United States Coast Guard Auxiliary">Coast Guard Auxiliary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Unified_combatant_command" title="Unified combatant command">Unified combatant command</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Africa_Command" title="United States Africa Command">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Central_Command" title="United States Central Command">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_European_Command" title="United States European Command">European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Indo-Pacific_Command" title="United States Indo-Pacific Command">Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Northern_Command" title="United States Northern Command">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Southern_Command" title="United States Southern Command">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Cyber_Command" title="United States Cyber Command">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Special_Operations_Command" title="United States Special Operations Command">Special Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Command" title="United States Strategic Command">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Transportation_Command" title="United States Transportation Command">Transportation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Title_10_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 10 of the United States Code">Title 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_14_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 14 of the United States Code">Title 14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_32_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 32 of the United States Code">Title 32</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_50_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 50 of the United States Code">Title 50</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">The Pentagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_military_bases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States military bases">Installations</a></li> <li>Units: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Category:Military units and formations of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Organization of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="Category:Military units and formations of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Category:Military units and formations of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Units_and_formations_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Category:Units and formations of the United States Space Force">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Organization of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_logistics_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Military logistics of the United States">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mass_media_of_the_military_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Mass media of the military of the United States">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Armed_Forces_unit_mottoes" title="List of United States Armed Forces unit mottoes">Unit mottoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Operations<br />and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_budget_of_the_United_States" title="Military budget of the United States">Budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_deployments" title="United States military deployments">Current deployments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_the_United_States" title="List of conflicts in the United States">Conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_United_States" title="List of wars involving the United States">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_affairs_in_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="History of civil affairs in the United States Armed Forces">Civil affairs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations" title="Timeline of United States military operations">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">By ancestry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Asian_Americans" title="Military history of Asian Americans">Asian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhists_in_the_United_States_military" title="Buddhists in the United States military">Buddhist Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Jewish_Americans" title="Military history of Jewish Americans">Jewish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslims_in_the_United_States_military" title="Muslims in the United States military">Muslim Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhs_in_the_United_States_military" title="Sikhs in the United States military">Sikh Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Hispanic_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Hispanic Americans">Hispanic Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Hispanics in the American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Hispanics in the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Hispanics in the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Navy" title="Hispanics in the United States Navy">Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Naval_Academy" title="Hispanics in the United States Naval Academy">Academy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">History centers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Center_of_Military_History" title="United States Army Center of Military History">Army Center of Military History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_History_Division" title="United States Marine Corps History Division">Marine Corps History Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_History_and_Heritage_Command" title="Naval History and Heritage Command">Naval History and Heritage Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Historical_Research_Agency" title="Air Force Historical Research Agency">Air Force Historical Research Agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/American_official_war_artists" title="American official war artists">War artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Art_Program" title="United States Army Art Program">Army Art Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Art_Program" title="United States Air Force Art Program">Air Force Art Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Personnel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_service_academies" title="United States service academies">Service academies</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">A</a><small> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy_Preparatory_School" title="United States Military Academy Preparatory School">prep</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy" title="United States Naval Academy">MC/N</a><small> (<a href="/wiki/Naval_Academy_Preparatory_School" title="Naval Academy Preparatory School">prep</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy" title="United States Air Force Academy">AF/SF</a><small> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy_Preparatory_School" title="United States Air Force Academy Preparatory School">prep</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Academy" title="United States Coast Guard Academy">CG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Merchant_Marine_Academy" title="United States Merchant Marine Academy">Merchant Marine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Officers%27_Training_Corps" title="Reserve Officers' Training Corps">ROTC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_Reserve_Officers%27_Training_Corps" title="Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Reserve_Officers_Training_Corps" title="Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps">MC/N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Reserve_Officer_Training_Corps" title="Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps">AF/SF</a></li></ul></li> <li>Officer candidate/training school: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Officer_Candidate_School_(United_States_Army)" title="Officer Candidate School (United States Army)">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officer_Candidates_School_(United_States_Marine_Corps)" title="Officer Candidates School (United States Marine Corps)">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officer_Candidate_School_(United_States_Navy)" title="Officer Candidate School (United States Navy)">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Officer_Training_School" title="Air Force Officer Training School">AF/SF</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrant_officer_(United_States)" title="Warrant officer (United States)">Warrant officer</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warrant_Officer_Candidate_School" title="Warrant Officer Candidate School">A</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Entrance_Processing_Command" title="United States Military Entrance Processing Command">MEPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Services_Vocational_Aptitude_Battery" title="Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery">ASVAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Basic_School" title="The Basic School">The Basic School</a> (MC)</li> <li>Enlisted recruit training: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Basic_Training" title="United States Army Basic Training">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Recruit_Training" title="United States Marine Corps Recruit Training">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruit_Training_Command,_Great_Lakes,_Illinois" title="Recruit Training Command, Great Lakes, Illinois">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Basic_Military_Training" title="United States Air Force Basic Military Training">AF/SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Training_Center_Cape_May" title="United States Coast Guard Training Center Cape May">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_education_and_training_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Military education and training in the United States">Other education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Uniforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Uniforms of the United States Armed Forces">Uniforms</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Uniforms of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Uniforms of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="Uniforms of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Uniforms of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Uniforms of the United States Space Force">SF</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Armed Forces">Awards & decorations</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inter-service_awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_military" title="Inter-service awards and decorations of the United States military">Inter-service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Army" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Department of the Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Navy" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Department of the Navy">MC/N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Air_Force" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Department of the Air Force">AF/SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Awards and decorations of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authorized_foreign_decorations_of_the_United_States_military" title="Authorized foreign decorations of the United States military">Foreign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_military_decoration_authorized_by_the_US_military" class="mw-redirect" title="International military decoration authorized by the US military">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_award_devices" title="United States military award devices">Devices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_badges_of_the_United_States" title="Military badges of the United States">Badges</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identification_badges_of_the_uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Identification badges of the uniformed services of the United States">Identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Badges of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Badges of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="Badges of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Badges of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Badges of the United States Space Force">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badges_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Badges of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_comparative_military_ranks" title="List of comparative military ranks">Ranks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Officer: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_officer_rank_insignia" title="United States Army officer rank insignia">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_rank_insignia" title="United States Marine Corps rank insignia">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_officer_rank_insignia" title="United States Navy officer rank insignia">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_officer_rank_insignia" title="United States Air Force officer rank insignia">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force_rank_insignia" title="United States Space Force rank insignia">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_officer_rank_insignia" title="United States Coast Guard officer rank insignia">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrant_officer_(United_States)" title="Warrant officer (United States)">Warrant officers</a></li> <li>Enlisted: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_enlisted_rank_insignia" title="United States Army enlisted rank insignia">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_rank_insignia" title="United States Marine Corps rank insignia">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Navy_enlisted_rates" title="List of United States Navy enlisted rates">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_enlisted_rank_insignia" title="United States Air Force enlisted rank insignia">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force_rank_insignia" title="United States Space Force rank insignia">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_enlisted_ranks" title="List of United States Coast Guard enlisted ranks">CG</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Oath: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces_oath_of_enlistment" title="United States Armed Forces oath of enlistment">Enlistment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Uniformed_Services_Oath_of_Office" title="United States Uniformed Services Oath of Office">Officer</a></li></ul></li> <li>Creeds & Codes: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_the_United_States_Fighting_Force" title="Code of the United States Fighting Force">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noncommissioned_officer%27s_creed" title="Noncommissioned officer's creed">NCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier%27s_Creed" title="Soldier's Creed">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifleman%27s_Creed" title="Rifleman's Creed">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailor%27s_Creed" title="Sailor's Creed">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airman%27s_Creed" title="Airman's Creed">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guardsman" title="Creed of the United States Coast Guardsman">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Armed_Forces)" title="Service number (United States Armed Forces)">Service numbers</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Army)" title="Service number (United States Army)">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Marine_Corps)" title="Service number (United States Marine Corps)">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Navy)" title="Service number (United States Navy)">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Air_Force)" title="Service number (United States Air Force)">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_number_(United_States_Coast_Guard)" title="Service number (United States Coast Guard)">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_occupation_code" title="United States military occupation code">Military Occupational Specialty</a>/<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Navy_ratings" title="List of United States Navy ratings">Rating</a>/<a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Specialty_Code" title="Air Force Specialty Code">Air Force Specialty Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_pay" title="United States military pay">Pay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice" title="Uniform Code of Military Justice">Uniform Code of Military Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps" title="Judge Advocate General's Corps">Judge Advocate General's Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Health_System" title="Military Health System">Military Health System</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tricare" title="Tricare">Tricare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_(United_States_military)" title="Separation (United States military)">Separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs" title="United States Department of Veterans Affairs">Veterans Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States" title="Conscription in the United States">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiefs_of_Chaplains_of_the_United_States" title="Chiefs of Chaplains of the United States">Chiefs of Chaplains</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Chaplains_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Chaplains of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaplain_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Chaplain of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Chaplains_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="Chief of Chaplains of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Chaplains_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Chief of Chaplains of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaplain_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Chaplain of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="List of equipment of the United States Armed Forces">Equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Army" title="List of equipment of the United States Army">A</a> (<a href="/wiki/Army_Nomenclature_System" title="Army Nomenclature System">Designations</a>)</li> <li>MC: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vehicles_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="List of vehicles of the United States Marine Corps">vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="List of weapons of the United States Marine Corps">weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Marine_Corps_individual_equipment" title="List of United States Marine Corps individual equipment">other</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="List of equipment of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="List of equipment of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="List of equipment of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Land</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_weapons_of_the_U.S._Armed_Forces" title="List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces">Individual weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crew-served_weapons_of_the_U.S._Armed_Forces" title="List of crew-served weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces">Crew-served weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_land_vehicles_of_the_U.S._Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="List of land vehicles of the U.S. Armed Forces">Vehicles</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_currently_active_United_States_military_land_vehicles" title="List of currently active United States military land vehicles">active</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Sea</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_currently_active_United_States_military_watercraft" title="List of currently active United States military watercraft">All watercraft</a></li> <li>Ships: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_United_States_Army" title="List of ships of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Navy_ships" title="List of United States Navy ships">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_ships_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="List of current ships of the United States Navy">active</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_ships_of_the_United_States_Navy#Future_ships" title="List of current ships of the United States Navy">future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="List of ships of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Coast_Guard_cutters" title="List of United States Coast Guard cutters">CG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Military_Sealift_Command_ships" title="List of Military Sealift Command ships">MSC</a></li></ul></li> <li>Weapons: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Navy_weapons" title="List of United States Navy weapons">N</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_naval_reactors" title="United States naval reactors">Reactors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Air</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_aircraft_of_the_United_States" title="Lists of military aircraft of the United States">Aircraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_undesignated_military_aircraft_of_the_United_States" title="List of undesignated military aircraft of the United States">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_United_States_military_aircraft" title="List of active United States military aircraft">active</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_future_military_aircraft_of_the_United_States" title="List of future military aircraft of the United States">future</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_aircraft_designation_systems" title="United States military aircraft designation systems">Aircraft designation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._helicopter_armament_subsystems" title="U.S. helicopter armament subsystems">Helicopter arms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_United_States_Army_during_World_War_II" title="List of equipment of the United States Army during World War II">WWII equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_football" title="Nuclear football">Nuclear football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_electronics_of_the_United_States" title="List of military electronics of the United States">Electronics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joint_Electronics_Type_Designation_System" title="Joint Electronics Type Designation System">designations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Flags of the United States Armed Forces">Flags</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Flag of the United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Flag of the United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="Flag of the United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="Flag of the United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Flag of the United States Space Force">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Flag of the United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ensign_of_the_United_States" title="Ensign of the United States">Ensign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_of_the_United_States" title="Jack of the United States">Jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guidon_(United_States)" title="Guidon (United States)">Guidons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_ration" title="United States military ration">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">WMDs</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_States" title="Nuclear weapons of the United States">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_biological_weapons_program" title="United States biological weapons program">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._chemical_weapons_topics" title="List of U.S. chemical weapons topics">Chemical</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Military of the United States">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Army" title="Category:United States Army">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Marine_Corps" title="Category:United States Marine Corps">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Navy" title="Category:United States Navy">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Air_Force" title="Category:United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Space_Force" title="Category:United States Space Force">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Coast_Guard" title="Category:United States Coast Guard">CG</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Navboxes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Army_navbox" title="Template:US Army navbox">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Marine_Corps_navbox" title="Template:US Marine Corps navbox">MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Navy_navbox" title="Template:US Navy navbox">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Air_Force" title="Template:United States Air Force">AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Space_Force" title="Template:United States Space Force">SF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Coast_Guard_navbox" title="Template:US Coast Guard navbox">CG</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:US history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:US history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&oldid=1256269699">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&oldid=1256269699</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces_by_service_branch" title="Category:History of the United States Armed Forces by service branch">History of the United States Armed Forces by service branch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Space_Force" title="Category:United States Space Force">United States Space Force</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States_by_topic" title="Category:History of the United States by topic">History of the United States by topic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_spaceflight" title="Category:History of spaceflight">History of spaceflight</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_bare_URLs_for_citations" title="Category:All articles with bare URLs for citations">All articles with bare URLs for citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_bare_URLs_for_citations_from_March_2022" title="Category:Articles with bare URLs for citations from March 2022">Articles with bare URLs for citations from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_PDF_format_bare_URLs_for_citations" title="Category:Articles with PDF format bare URLs for citations">Articles with PDF format bare URLs for citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_November_2024" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from November 2024">Articles with dead external links from November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_cleanup_from_June_2022" title="Category:Articles needing cleanup from June 2022">Articles needing cleanup from June 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_bare_URLs_for_citations_from_June_2022" title="Category:Articles with bare URLs for citations from June 2022">Articles with bare URLs for citations from June 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_covered_by_WikiProject_Wikify_from_June_2022" title="Category:Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from June 2022">Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from June 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_covered_by_WikiProject_Wikify" title="Category:All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify">All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_January_2021" title="Category:Use dmy dates from January 2021">Use dmy dates from January 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_sidebar_with_the_child_parameter" title="Category:Pages using sidebar with the child parameter">Pages using sidebar with the child parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_November_2022" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2022">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2022</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 9 November 2024, at 02:18<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-542sp","wgBackendResponseTime":144,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.403","walltime":"1.779","ppvisitednodes":{"value":7604,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":499491,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":7109,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":8,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":319670,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1166.916 1 -total"," 44.48% 519.080 1 Template:Reflist"," 21.87% 255.246 45 Template:Cite_web"," 14.34% 167.372 2 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 13.32% 155.436 1 Template:History_of_the_United_States"," 11.80% 137.695 1 Template:Short_description"," 8.16% 95.223 21 Template:Cite_news"," 7.81% 91.098 10 Template:Military_navigation"," 5.85% 68.303 1 Template:Cleanup_bare_URLs"," 5.75% 67.118 1 Template:United_States_Space_Force"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.654","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7923535,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-5dc468848-ptjw7","timestamp":"20241122152746","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of the United States Space Force","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q105062999","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q105062999","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2020-12-23T22:47:51Z","dateModified":"2024-11-09T02:18:21Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/55\/General_Bernard_A_Schriever.jpg","headline":"History of American military development"}</script> </body> </html>