Austria's Progressive Stance on Cyber Operations and International Law

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Security</a></li> <li id="menu-item-37577" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-37577"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/donate/">Donate</a></li> <li id="menu-item-76569" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-76569"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/early-edition-email-signup-2/">Signups for A.M. and P.M. emails</a></li> </ul></div></div></div></header><div id="content-wrap" class="clearfix"><div id="post-hero" class="clearfix" style="background-image:url(https://i0.wp.com/www.justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GettyImages-1324416409-scaled.jpg?fit=2560%2C1440&ssl=1); background-position:center center;"> <div class="overlay"></div> <div class="pagewidth pw1400"> <div class="title-wrap"> <h1>Austria’s Progressive Stance on Cyber Operations and International Law </h1> </div> </div> </div><div class="columns-wrap pagewidth pw1400 clearfix"><div id="secondary-left" class="secondary"><p class="authors">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/roguskiprzemyslaw/" title="Profile and articles by Przemysław Roguski" class="author url fn" rel="author">Przemysław Roguski</a></p><p class="date">June 25, 2024</p><div class="sharedaddy sd-sharing-enabled"><div class="robots-nocontent sd-block sd-social sd-social-icon sd-sharing"><h3 class="sd-title">Share this:</h3><div class="sd-content"><ul><li class="share-bluesky"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-bluesky-96993" class="share-bluesky sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/96993/austrias-stance-cyber-operations-international-law/?share=bluesky" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Bluesky" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Bluesky (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-twitter"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-twitter-96993" class="share-twitter sd-button share-icon no-text" 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clearfix" role="main"><article class="client-ui clearfix"><div class="print-authors"><p class="authors">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/roguskiprzemyslaw/" title="Profile and articles by Przemysław Roguski" class="author url fn" rel="author">Przemysław Roguski</a></p><p class="date">June 25, 2024</p></div><p>On May 29, the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs <a href="https://meetings.unoda.org/meeting/57871/documents">published</a> Austria’s <a href="https://docs-library.unoda.org/Open-Ended_Working_Group_on_Information_and_Communication_Technologies_-_(2021)/Austrian_Position_Paper_-_Cyber_Activities_and_International_Law_(Final_23.04.2024).pdf">national statement</a> on how international law applies to cyber activities of States. The statement adds to the list of now <a href="https://cyberlaw.ccdcoe.org/wiki/List_of_articles#National_positions">more than 30</a> national positions and is a comprehensive document dealing with a wide array of issues ranging from State sovereignty, non-intervention, and due diligence, to diplomatic and consular law, to international humanitarian law and neutrality. On many of these issues, Austria takes a progressive stance addressing problems where consensus-building has only just begun and proposing solutions to topics which so far have not been widely addressed. This article will focus on four selected issues – sovereignty, non-intervention, countermeasures, and diplomatic and consular law – where Austria’s position either adds a new perspective to ongoing discussions or addresses issues where discussions and consensus-building are only beginning to develop.</p> <h2><strong>Austria’s Expansive View on Sovereignty, Espionage and</strong> Pre-Positioning</h2> <p>The Austrian position paper starts its substantive part with a discussion of sovereignty, where Austria reiterates its <a href="https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/comments-by-austria.pdf">previous view</a> that the obligation to respect the sovereignty of other States is an rule of international law, separate and distinct from the prohibition of the use of force or the prohibition of intervention. In Austria’s view, a cyber activity violates the sovereignty of another State “when it violates a state’s territorial integrity, as well as when it constitutes an interference with or usurpation of an inherently governmental function of a state.”</p> <p>Austria therefore endorses, at least on first read, the understanding of sovereignty proposed by the authors of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316822524">Tallinn Manual 2.0</a> and since endorsed by a number of States, including <a href="https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/peace_security-paix_securite/cyberspace_law-cyberespace_droit.aspx?lang=eng">Canada</a>, <a href="https://www.government.nl/binaries/government/documenten/parliamentary-documents/2019/09/26/letter-to-the-parliament-on-the-international-legal-order-in-cyberspace/international-law-in-the-cyberdomain-netherlands.pdf">the Netherlands</a>, <a href="https://www.government.se/contentassets/3c2cb6febd0e4ab0bd542f653283b140/swedens-position-paper-on-the-application-of-international-law-in-cyberspace.pdf">Sweden</a> and <a href="https://www.eda.admin.ch/content/dam/eda/en/documents/aussenpolitik/voelkerrecht/20210527-Schweiz-Annex-UN-GGE-Cybersecurity-2019-2021_EN.pdf">Switzerland</a>. According to the authors of the Tallinn Manual 2.0, the lawfulness of remote cyber operations that manifest on a State’s territory depends on “(1) the degree of infringement upon the target State’s territorial integrity; and (2) whether there has been an interference with or usurpation of inherently governmental functions” (<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316822524">Tallinn Manual 2.0</a>, Rule 4, para. 10). Consequently, in Austria’s view “cyber activities that result in physical damage or injury certainly constitute a violation of state sovereignty,” while other more limited intrusions leading to temporary loss of functionality of critical infrastructure or temporary loss of access to governmental services “may also constitute a violation of sovereignty.”</p> <p>However, on a second reading of the national statement, Austria’s position seems to go beyond the Tallinn Manual view of sovereignty when it comes to issues such as espionage and pre-positioning of malware. Regarding cyber espionage, the authors of the Tallinn Manual 2.0 were of the view that “peacetime cyber espionage by States does not per se violate international law, the method by which it is carried out might do so” (<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316822524">Tallinn Manual 2.0</a>, Rule 10). Accordingly, an act of cyber espionage would only violate sovereignty if it met the criteria highlighted above. The experts could not achieve consensus on whether the mere emplacing of malware into a system, without causing any other effects on the system, would suffice to qualify as a breach of sovereignty (<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316822524">Tallinn Manual 2.0</a>, Rule 4, para. 14). Here, Austria seems to endorse a more expansive view by stating that “cyber espionage activities, including industrial cyber espionage against corporations, within a state’s territory may also violate that state’s sovereignty.”</p> <p>This statement marks a clear departure from the usual treatment of cyber espionage by States. While most national positions remain silent on the issue, some States (<a href="https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/peace_security-paix_securite/cyberspace_law-cyberespace_droit.aspx?lang=eng">Canada</a>, <a href="https://www.dpmc.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2020-12/The%20Application%20of%20International%20Law%20to%20State%20Activity%20in%20Cyberspace.pdf">New Zealand</a>, <a href="https://www.defense.gov/News/Speeches/Speech/Article/2099378/dod-general-counsel-remarks-at-us-cyber-command-legal-conference/">United States</a>) have argued the opposite of Austria: that pure espionage activity, while constituting a non-consensual intrusion into ICT infrastructure, is not itself regulated by international law and would therefore not be internationally wrongful. The view now espoused by Austria had previously been endorsed by <a href="https://documents.unoda.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Chinese-Position-Paper-on-the-Application-of-the-Principle-of-Sovereignty-ENG.pdf">China</a>, which argued that “[n]o State shall engage in ICT-enabled espionage or damages against other States, including mass surveillance and theft of important data and personal information,” while <a href="https://docs-library.unoda.org/Open-Ended_Working_Group_on_Information_and_Communication_Technologies_-_(2021)/Costa_Rica_-_Position_Paper_-_International_Law_in_Cyberspace.pdf">Costa Rica</a> allowed for the possibility “that, in some circumstances, cyber espionage may amount to a breach of State sovereignty.”</p> <p>In Costa Rica’s view this is the case because “it is often difficult to technically distinguish between a mere data-gathering operation from an operation penetrating a governmental system in order to interfere with a State’s sovereign functions.” In consequence, “once a piece of malware successfully enters a system or network, it remains a latent threat to its integrity. This may damage software or hardware and thus interfere with the conduct of State affairs.” This view is implicitly endorsed by Austria via the example of a cyber espionage activity against the Foreign Ministry of a State, which – upon discovery – necessitates “a total shutdown of the system and [temporary establishment of an alternative] while the IT system is cleaned and restored.” Such a cyber activity, according to Austria, “would constitute a violation of [that State’s] sovereignty.”</p> <p>However, Austria’s position goes even farther in also viewing “industrial cyber espionage against corporations” as a violation of sovereignty. Given that the target of such an operation is a private entity, it does not constitute an interference with or usurpation of inherently governmental functions, nor – at least without additional physical effects – a violation of the territorial integrity of a State. In consequence, this position would suggest greater closeness to the “<a href="https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/ils/vol97/iss1/50/">pure sovereignty</a>” or “penetration-based” approach to sovereignty, which views, in the words of the <a href="https://papsrepository.africa-union.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/2022/1196%20AU%20Common%20Position%20Adopted%20Version%20-%20EN.pdf?sequence=11&isAllowed=y">African Union’s statement</a>, “any unauthorized access by a State into the ICT infrastructure located on the territory of a foreign State [as] unlawful.”</p> <p>This conclusion finds additional support in the chapter on countermeasures, where Austria asserts that</p> <blockquote><p>[p]reventive cyber measures, prior to the commission of an internationally wrongful act conducted by or attributable to a state, such as exploiting vulnerabilities in other states’ ICT networks and placing “logic bombs” therein, cannot be justified under the law of state responsibility.</p></blockquote> <p>Thus, pre-positioning of malware in the ICT systems of another State for preventive reasons or as means of response to a potential future cyber operation would not be covered under the law of countermeasures. As the invocation of countermeasures is only necessary is when the act in question would otherwise violate international law, this passage seems to suggest that Austria would view the act of pre-positioning as a violation of an international obligation, most closely reflecting the sovereignty rule.</p> <p>Given the examples provided in its position paper, it is not immediately clear whether Austria would view any other cyber operations which penetrated the ICT infrastructure of another State, but did not result in any damage or loss of functionality, as falling outside of the scope of the sovereignty rule or indeed what the justification for such a distinction would be. If unauthorized access to ICT infrastructure of a chip manufacturer for the purposes of industrial espionage (or pre-positioning) constitutes a breach of sovereignty, why should any other unauthorized access to ICT infrastructure be treated differently? At present, Austria’s position offers no dogmatic justification for such a distinction. On this, greater clarity from the drafters of the statement would have been welcome.</p> <p>Finally, Austria’s position builds on the legal framework for “data embassies”, a concept <a href="https://e-estonia.com/solutions/e-governance/data-embassy/">pioneered</a> by Estonia. “Data embassies” are centers that host the governmental data of one State but are physically located in another State, often under a bilateral treaty or agreement giving the ICT infrastructure and data located therein a status similar to archives under diplomatic law. Austria is the first State to advance the proposition that</p> <blockquote><p>a cyber activity that causes the destruction of governmental data in the data embassy of state A in the territory of state B, may be considered a violation of sovereignty of both state A and state B.</p></blockquote> <p>Austria’s position addresses the reality that States increasingly rely on cloud services for the provision and execution of governmental functions and these cloud services may, for various reasons, use ICT infrastructure located outside of the territory of that State. It will be fascinating to see whether other States will take up Austria’s lead on this issue.</p> <h2><strong>Disinformation Campaigns can Violate the Non-Intervention Rule</strong></h2> <p>Austria’s statement directly confronts the growing challenge of foreign cyber interference in electoral processes through disinformation campaigns. With foreign threat actors <a href="https://www.congress.gov/event/115th-congress/senate-event/LC61682/text">(ab)using the openness of social media</a> such as Facebook or X to launch wide-scale disinformation campaigns, increasingly with the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2024/05/30/g-s1-1670/openai-influence-operations-china-russia-israel">use of artificial intelligence</a>, the question arises whether such campaigns, if conducted by another State, violate international law. While academia has been quite fast in offering assessments of this issue (for instance <a href="https://www.elac.ox.ac.uk/the-oxford-process/the-statements-overview/the-oxford-statement-on-international-law-protections-against-foreign-electoral-interference/">here</a>, <a href="https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2969&context=ils">here</a> or <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/39306/chapter-abstract/338903172?redirectedFrom=fulltext">here</a>), States have been hesitant to offer their views on whether and when disinformation breaches international legal obligations. Prior to the release of Austria’s position paper, only four States (<a href="https://docs-library.unoda.org/Open-Ended_Working_Group_on_Information_and_Communication_Technologies_-_(2021)/Costa_Rica_-_Position_Paper_-_International_Law_in_Cyberspace.pdf">Costa Rica</a>, <a href="https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/blob/2446304/32e7b2498e10b74fb17204c54665bdf0/on-the-application-of-international-law-in-cyberspace-data.pdf">Germany</a>, <a href="https://www.dpmc.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2020-12/The%20Application%20of%20International%20Law%20to%20State%20Activity%20in%20Cyberspace.pdf">New Zealand</a> and <a href="https://www.gov.pl/attachment/3203b18b-a83f-4b92-8da2-fa0e3b449131">Poland</a>) had endorsed the view that under certain conditions disinformation campaigns may breach the principle of non-intervention.</p> <p>The Austrian national statement endorses the understanding, formulated in the U.N. Friendly Relations Declaration and the <a href="https://www.icj-cij.org/case/70/judgments"><em>Nicaragua</em></a> case, that the rule of non-intervention prohibits the coercive interference in the internal or external affairs of another State. Endorsing the ICJ’s definition in the <em>Nicaragua </em>case, Austria finds that</p> <blockquote><p>[c]oercion occurs when a state seeks to compel another state to change its behaviour with respect to its internal or external affairs, i.e. to force that state to act in an involuntary manner or involuntarily refrain from acting in a particular way.</p></blockquote> <p>In the cyber context,</p> <blockquote><p>cyber activity that interferes with a state’s ability to hold elections or which manipulates election results could, if undertaken to compel a state to involuntarily change a government policy, constitute a violation of the prohibition of intervention. Large-scale cyber activities, including disinformation campaigns, conducted by or attributable to a state may also constitute, if undertaken to compel another state to involuntarily change its behaviour, a violation of the prohibition of intervention.</p></blockquote> <p>Importantly, Austria distinguishes such disinformation campaigns from “lawful public relations activities of state representatives,” where mere criticism of, for instance, the human rights situation in another State on social media would not suffice to constitute coercion.</p> <p>Austria considers large-scale campaigns which are intended to sow distrust within the population and causes the government’s eventual resignation and an ensuing governmental crisis as an example of a disinformation campaign which would cross the threshold of coercion.</p> <h2><strong>Endorsing Collective Countermeasures</strong></h2> <p>If a malicious cyber operation breaches an international obligation and therefore constitutes an internationally wrongful act, the targeted State may resort to countermeasures “in order to compel the responsible State to cease its internationally wrongful act and make full reparation.” While international law limits the right to take countermeasures to only the injured State (i.e. the State whose rights have been violated), some States have advocated for allowing States to respond collectively to cyber threats, with some approaches based on the doctrine of countermeasures. In 2019, Estonia was the first State <a href="https://news.err.ee/946827/president-kaljulaid-at-cycon-2019-cyber-attacks-should-not-be-easy-weapon">to argue</a> for the validity of collective countermeasures, stating that</p> <blockquote><p>states which are not directly injured may apply countermeasures to support the state directly affected by the malicious cyber operation. (…) The threats to the security of states increasingly involve unlawful cyber operations. It is therefore important that states may respond collectively to unlawful cyber operations where diplomatic action is insufficient, but no lawful recourse to use of force exists. Allies matter also in cyberspace.</p></blockquote> <p>At first, the Estonian view received little support, with <a href="https://documents.unoda.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/French-position-on-international-law-applied-to-cyberspace.pdf">France</a> and <a href="https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/peace_security-paix_securite/cyberspace_law-cyberespace_droit.aspx?lang=eng">Canada</a> arguing that there is insufficient State practice and <em>opinio juris </em>to conclude that collective countermeasures are permitted under international law. Subsequently, however, some States have reflected that at least in situations where a malicious cyber operation may violate <em>erga omnes </em>obligations, i.e. obligations owed to the international community as a whole, customary international law supports the right of non-injured States to take countermeasures against the responsible State. For instance, in the view of <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/nord/aop/article-10.1163-15718107-20230001/article-10.1163-15718107-20230001.xml">Denmark</a> “there may be instances where one State suffers a violation of an obligation owed to the international community as a whole, and where the victim State may request the assistance of other States in applying proportionate and necessary countermeasures in collective response hereto.” Similar views have been put forward by <a href="https://docs-library.unoda.org/Open-Ended_Working_Group_on_Information_and_Communication_Technologies_-_(2021)/Costa_Rica_-_Position_Paper_-_International_Law_in_Cyberspace.pdf">Costa Rica</a>, <a href="https://www.dfa.ie/media/dfa/ourrolepolicies/internationallaw/Ireland---National-Position-Paper.pdf">Ireland</a> and <a href="https://www.gov.pl/attachment/3203b18b-a83f-4b92-8da2-fa0e3b449131">Poland</a>, while <a href="https://www.dpmc.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2020-12/The%20Application%20of%20International%20Law%20to%20State%20Activity%20in%20Cyberspace.pdf">New Zealand</a> declared itself “open” to the proposition.</p> <p>This view is now also endorsed by Austria, which</p> <blockquote><p>holds the view that states may also take collective countermeasures against a state that breaches an obligation <em>erga omnes</em>, i.e. an obligation owed to the international community as a whole (cf. Art. 48 para 1(a) and Art. 54 ARSIWA), e.g. against a state that commits acts of aggression or genocide, especially if the directly injured state has requested the assistance of other states. (…) [A] public cyber campaign attributable to a state that calls for acts of violence against a national, ethnical or racial or religious group with the intention to destroy this group, could amount to public incitement to commit genocide in violation of Art. III(c) of the Genocide Convention. [footnotes omitted]</p></blockquote> <p>With Austria’s endorsement, momentum seems to be growing in recognition that third States have – in principle – the right to take countermeasures against the responsible State if the cyber operation violates <em>erga omnes </em>(or <em>erga omnes partes</em>) obligations. This view is also supported in academia (for instance <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/countermeasures-of-others-when-can-states-collaborate-in-the-taking-of-countermeasures/61B8CC40674F4D63F10538C8BA8B1FB2">here</a> and <a href="https://ccdcoe.org/uploads/2020/05/CyCon_2020_2_Roguski.pdf">here</a>). However, further national statements on this issue, as well as on questions of procedure, are necessary before we can conclude that there is an established trend in State practice.</p> <h2><strong>Inviolability of ICT Infrastructure on the Premises of a Diplomatic or Consular Mission or the Seat of an International Organization</strong></h2> <p>As the seat of many international organizations (IO), Austria is particularly interested in clarifying how ICT infrastructure of diplomatic and consular missions and IOs is protected against malicious cyber operations. Austria starts by underlining that, based on the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (VCDR) and the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (VCCR),</p> <blockquote><p>the premises of a mission are inviolable and must not be entered by agents of the host state except with consent by the head of mission. In addition, any property located within the mission – including ICT infrastructure – is immune from search, requisition, attachment or execution. This means that also remote access to the ICT infrastructure located within the mission without express consent is prohibited. [footnotes omitted]</p></blockquote> <p>Additionally,</p> <blockquote><p>[i]n the cyber context, (…) persons enjoying privileges and immunities must not engage in unlawful surveillance or espionage activities in the receiving state, and the premises of the mission must also not be used for such purposes.</p></blockquote> <p>These duties and obligations also apply with respect to International Organizations “to the extent they are specified in the headquarters agreements between the host State and the IO.” Moreover,</p> <blockquote><p>[h]ost states also have a duty to protect the premises of the IO from outside disturbances or unauthorized entry. Thus, if a state becomes aware of a malicious cyber activity against an IO situated on its territory, it has to take all appropriate steps to protect the IO from such an activity.</p></blockquote> <p>Consequently, Austria finds that host States have a duty of cooperation with IOs in addressing malicious cyber incidents. Furthermore, it would most likely regard malicious cyber operations directed against IOs as violations of Austrian sovereignty, if all the other prerequisites for a breach of sovereignty have been met.</p> <p>Austria’s national statement thus offers a welcome clarification of the duties and obligations of a host State owed to another State or an IO with respect to the ICT infrastructure located on the premises of a diplomatic or consular mission or IO premises. The document is unfortunately silent on the question of how Austria would qualify malicious cyber operations conducted against the ICT infrastructure of diplomatic and consular missions and IOs located on its territory by third States. For instance, if a third State were to conduct a cyberattack against the servers of, say, the U.S. diplomatic mission in Vienna, resulting loss of functionality and permanent deletion of data, how would Austria qualify such an attack? Or, if a similar attack were to be conducted against the ICT infrastructure of the International Atomic Energy Agency – would Austria view this as a breach of its own sovereignty?</p> <p>With regard to “data embassies” Austria has clarified that</p> <blockquote><p>a cyber activity that causes the destruction of governmental data in the data embassy of state A in the territory of state B, may be considered a violation of sovereignty of both state A and state B.</p></blockquote> <p>This fragment would suggest that Austria would regard a similar operation against a “regular” embassy as equally violating the sovereignty of both the host State and the sending State, but the national statement does not clearly address this. This raises follow-up questions of how Austria would view cyber operations against ICT infrastructure on the premises of a State such as the United Kingdom, which does not support the position that sovereignty is a rule of international law applicable to cyber activities, or how it would qualify operations against ICT infrastructure against IOs, which are not bearers of State sovereignty.</p> <h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2> <p>In summary, Austria’s national statement presents a detailed and nuanced perspective on the application of international law in cyberspace, advocating for a strict interpretation of sovereignty and a proactive stance against cyber espionage and other malicious cyber activities. Despite some unanswered questions, the Austrian national position on cyber activities and international law is remarkable for the breadth of the topics covered and the progressive approach. By offering detailed views on disinformation and endorsing collective countermeasures, Austria contributes significantly to the evolving discourse on State behavior in cyberspace. The statement’s approach to the inviolability of ICT infrastructure, the protection of data embassies, and the condemnation of disinformation as a form of intervention, reflect a commitment to upholding the rule of law in the digital domain. As cyber threats continue to evolve, Austria’s position is likely to influence ongoing international efforts to establish norms and principles that govern State conduct in cyberspace, potentially leading to more robust legal frameworks and cooperative measures to ensure cyber stability and security.</p> <p><em>This article is based on research funded by the Polish National Science Centre (NCN) under grant number UMO-2021/43/D/HS5/03138.</em></p> <h6><em>IMAGE: Abstract rendering of the map of Austria (via GettyImages)</em></h6> <div class="icon-end-post"></div><div class="mobile-post-tags"><div class="post-tags"><h3>Filed under:</h3><p><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/austria/" rel="tag">Austria</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/cyber-espionage/" rel="tag">Cyber espionage</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/cyberattacks/" rel="tag">Cyberattacks</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/cybercrime/" rel="tag">cybercrime</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/cybersecurity/" rel="tag">Cybersecurity</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/disarmament/" rel="tag">disarmament</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/non-intervention/" rel="tag">non-intervention</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/sovereignty/" rel="tag">sovereignty</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/united-nations/" rel="tag">United Nations (UN)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/vienna-convention-on-consular-relations/" rel="tag">Vienna Convention on Consular Relations</a></p></div></div></article></main><div id="secondary-right" class="secondary" role="complementary"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/early-edition-signup/" class="button has-icon icon-pm">Signups for A.M. & P.M. 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Nicola</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 10th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105064/mapping-state-reactions-icc/">Mapping State Reactions to the ICC Arrest Warrants for Netanyahu and Gallant</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ingberrebecca/" title="Profile and articles by Rebecca Ingber" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rebecca Ingber</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 10th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105552/public-framing-mass-deportation/">The Public Framing of Mass Deportation</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/coxadam/" title="Profile and articles by Adam Cox" class="author url fn" rel="author">Adam Cox</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 9th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105538/interpol-transparency-reform/">Interpol General Assembly Inches Forward on Transparency, Still Needs Reform Strategy</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bromundted/" title="Profile and articles by Ted R. Bromund" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ted R. Bromund</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/grossmansandra/" title="Profile and articles by Sandra Grossman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Sandra Grossman</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 9th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105406/georgia-protests-letter-us-diplomats/">Open Letter on Georgia from Former US Diplomats</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kramerdavidj/" title="Profile and articles by David J. Kramer" class="author url fn" rel="author">David J. Kramer</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/herbstjohne/" title="Profile and articles by Ambassador (ret) John E. Herbst" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ambassador (ret) John E. Herbst</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 3rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105321/military-immigration-enforcement-deportation/">Deployment of the U.S. Military for Immigration Enforcement: A Primer</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goiteinelizabeth/" title="Profile and articles by Elizabeth Goitein" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elizabeth Goitein</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 3rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105181/drones-graves-mexicos-disappeared/">Camera-Fitted Drones May Help Locate Graves of Mexico’s Disappeared</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/garciareyeskarina/" title="Profile and articles by Karina García-Reyes" class="author url fn" rel="author">Karina García-Reyes</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/moctezumamiguel/" title="Profile and articles by Miguel Moctezuma" class="author url fn" rel="author">Miguel Moctezuma</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105176/birthright-citizenship-undocumented-immigrants-2/">Birthright Citizenship and Undocumented Immigrants</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/sominilya/" title="Profile and articles by Ilya Somin" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ilya Somin</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 25th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105048/icc-arrest-warrants/">Nuts & Bolts of the International Criminal Court Arrest Warrants in the ‘Situation in Palestine’</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/dannenbaumtom/" title="Profile and articles by Tom Dannenbaum" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tom Dannenbaum</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 22nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105019/trump-ukraine-policy-peace-talks/">To ‘End’ War in Ukraine, Trump Might Be Tougher on Putin Than Critics Think</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/violagienger/" title="Profile and articles by Viola Gienger" class="author url fn" rel="author">Viola Gienger</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 21st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104929/ukraine-biden-trump-missiles/">Biden’s Final Efforts on Ukraine — and Trump’s First Moves</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/frieddaniel/" title="Profile and articles by Ambassador Daniel Fried" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ambassador Daniel Fried</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 19th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104770/new-technology-atrocity-prevention/">Thinking Beyond Risks: A Symposium on Tech and Atrocity Prevention</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/whiddengwendolyn/" title="Profile and articles by Gwendolyn Whidden" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gwendolyn Whidden</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 19th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104800/sanctions-effectiveness-models/">Do Sanctions Work? It Depends. Burma and the West Bank Might Be Models.</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bradbrooksrubin/" title="Profile and articles by Brad Brooks-Rubin" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brad Brooks-Rubin</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 13th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104728/ukraine-constitution-conscientious-objectors/">As Ukraine Struggles for Troops, Its Constitutional Court Considers the Rights of Conscientious Objectors</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nekoliakandrii/" title="Profile and articles by Andrii Nekoliak" class="author url fn" rel="author">Andrii Nekoliak</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 12th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104676/american-ai-leadership-requires-support-open-source/">The United States Must Win The Global Open Source AI Race</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mcbridekeegan/" title="Profile and articles by Keegan McBride" class="author url fn" rel="author">Keegan McBride</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/woodleyballdean/" title="Profile and articles by Dean W. Ball" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dean W. Ball</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 7th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104622/journalist-in-exile-laments-kyrgyzstan-crackdown-now-extending-to-his-12-year-old-son/">Journalist in Exile Laments Kyrgyzstan Crackdown, Now Extending to His 12-Year-Old Son</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/temirovbolot/" title="Profile and articles by Bolot Temirov" class="author url fn" rel="author">Bolot Temirov</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 6th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104655/real-time-litigation-tracker-election/">Election 2024 Real-Time Litigation Tracker</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/vancejoyce/" title="Profile and articles by Joyce Vance" class="author url fn" rel="author">Joyce Vance</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/geemadison/" title="Profile and articles by Madison Gee" class="author url fn" rel="author">Madison Gee</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 5th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104564/election-top-10-nov-4/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 4th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104448/older-people-human-rights-africa/">A Historic Day for Older People and Human Rights Across Africa</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mugabowishemaelie/" title="Profile and articles by Elie Mugabowishema" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elie Mugabowishema</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/buchananjane/" title="Profile and articles by Jane Buchanan" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jane Buchanan</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 4th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104398/new-interpol-chief-abuses-reforms/">As Interpol Gets New Secretary General, What are the Risks of Abuses Over Reforms?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bromundted/" title="Profile and articles by Ted R. Bromund" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ted R. Bromund</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/grossmansandra/" title="Profile and articles by Sandra Grossman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Sandra Grossman</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greenbergilan/" title="Profile and articles by Ilan Greenberg" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ilan Greenberg</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 1st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104416/congress-protect-americans-transnational-repression/">Congress Should Protect Americans from Transnational Repression</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ahmedrasheed/" title="Profile and articles by Rasheed Ahmed" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rasheed Ahmed</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 31st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104451/pentagon-plan-protect-civilians-promises/">Is The Pentagon’s Plan to Protect Civilians Living up to its Promises?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hunkemadison/" title="Profile and articles by Madison Hunke" class="author url fn" rel="author">Madison Hunke</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 31st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104393/election-top-10-oct-29/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 30th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104407/authoritarianism-plutocracy-press-freedom/">Rising Authoritarianism and Plutocracy Are a Dangerous Mix for Press Freedom</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kleinfeldrachel/" title="Profile and articles by Rachel Kleinfeld" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rachel Kleinfeld</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 30th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104385/presumptive-privilege-trump-pence/">Does a “Presumptive” Privilege Protect President Trump from Prosecution for Pressuring Pence?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/alschuleralbert/" title="Profile and articles by Albert W. Alschuler" class="author url fn" rel="author">Albert W. Alschuler</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 29th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104255/frictionless-government-national-security-constitution/">Frictionless Government and the National Security Constitution</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/deeksashley/" title="Profile and articles by Ashley Deeks" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ashley Deeks</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eichensehrkristen/" title="Profile and articles by Kristen Eichensehr" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kristen Eichensehr</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 28th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104348/israel-strikes-against-iran/">Making Sense of International Law in Light of Israel and Iran’s Latest Round of “Retaliation”</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/lieblicheliav/" title="Profile and articles by Eliav Lieblich" class="author url fn" rel="author">Eliav Lieblich</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104334/washington-post-endorsement-bezos/">On Dictatorship and Self-Censorship: Lessons the Owner of a Sudanese Newspaper Could Give Jeff Bezos</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hamiltonrebecca/" title="Profile and articles by Rebecca Hamilton" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rebecca Hamilton</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 25th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104328/dod-directive-changes/">Much Ado About Nothing: Recent Changes to Department of Defense Directive 5240.01</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nunnjoseph/" title="Profile and articles by Joseph Nunn" class="author url fn" rel="author">Joseph Nunn</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goiteinelizabeth/" title="Profile and articles by Elizabeth Goitein" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elizabeth Goitein</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 25th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104242/memorandum-ai-national-security/">The U.S. National Security Memorandum on AI: Leading Experts Weigh In</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 25th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104206/fair-fast-asylum-processing-switzerland/">Fair and Fast Asylum Processing: Lessons from Switzerland</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ghezelbashdaniel/" title="Profile and articles by Daniel Ghezelbash" class="author url fn" rel="author">Daniel Ghezelbash</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hruschkaconstantin/" title="Profile and articles by Constantin Hruschka" class="author url fn" rel="author">Constantin Hruschka</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 24th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104174/election-top-10-oct-23/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 23rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104130/rule-of-law-index-2024/">Rule of Law Index Shows Some Rays of Hope Amidst Continuing Global Recession</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/andersenelizabeth/" title="Profile and articles by Elizabeth Andersen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elizabeth Andersen</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/evangelidesalicia/" title="Profile and articles by Alicia Evangelides" class="author url fn" rel="author">Alicia Evangelides</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 23rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104036/heat-map-january-6th-defendants-2/">Heat Map of January 6th Defendants Across the United States</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103956/proud-boys-threat-assessment/">Proud Boys Threat Assessment: From the Planning of January 6th to Future Scenarios</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/joscelyntom/" title="Profile and articles by Tom Joscelyn" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tom Joscelyn</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103773/top-10-election-litigation/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 16th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103743/lifting-russia-sanctions/">Lifting Russia Sanctions – What Can a President Do Unilaterally?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/markustaisa/" title="Profile and articles by Taisa Markus" class="author url fn" rel="author">Taisa Markus</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 16th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103918/jack-goldsmith-jack-smith-explanation/">Refuting the Latest Baseless Attacks Against Special Counsel Jack Smith</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/weissmannandrew/" title="Profile and articles by Andrew Weissmann" class="author url fn" rel="author">Andrew Weissmann</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 15th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103838/un-future-summit-can-teach/">What the UN’s Summit of the Future Can Teach Us – When the Dust Settles</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/streetjordan/" title="Profile and articles by Jordan Street" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jordan Street</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 11th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103818/scenario-planning-january-6th/">The “War Game” Documentary, and Simulating a Worse January 6th</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rudesilldakota/" title="Profile and articles by Dakota S. Rudesill" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dakota S. Rudesill</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 10th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103777/maintaining-the-rule-of-law-in-the-age-of-ai/">Maintaining the Rule of Law in the Age of AI</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/szilagyikatie/" title="Profile and articles by Katie Szilagyi" class="author url fn" rel="author">Katie Szilagyi</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 9th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103478/2024-election-litigation-top-10/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 8th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103317/shattering-illusions-how-cyber-threat-intelligence-augments-legal-action-against-russias-influence-operations/">Shattering Illusions: How Cyber Threat Intelligence Augments Legal Action against Russia’s Influence Operations</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kruschmasonw/" title="Profile and articles by Mason W. Krusch" class="author url fn" rel="author">Mason W. Krusch</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 8th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103464/beyond-law-reaffirming-the-centrality-of-ethics-in-war/">Beyond Law: Reaffirming the Centrality of Ethics in War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/schwarzelke/" title="Profile and articles by Elke Schwarz" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elke Schwarz</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/renicneil/" title="Profile and articles by Neil Renic" class="author url fn" rel="author">Neil Renic</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 7th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103533/whos-who-jack-smith-immunity-brief/">Who’s Who in Jack Smith’s Immunity Brief</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/klasfeldadam/" title="Profile and articles by Adam Klasfeld" class="author url fn" rel="author">Adam Klasfeld</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 4th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103433/unlawful-private-militias-government-response/">The Threat from Unlawful Private Militias Has Evolved. The Federal Government’s Response Must Evolve Too.</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mccordmary/" title="Profile and articles by Mary B. McCord" class="author url fn" rel="author">Mary B. McCord</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/glickjacob/" title="Profile and articles by Jacob Glick" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jacob Glick</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 4th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103348/afghanistan-protect-allies/">US Should Learn from Afghanistan and Vietnam Withdrawals to Better Protect Vulnerable Allies</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rscottadams12/" title="Profile and articles by R. Scott Adams" class="author url fn" rel="author">R. Scott Adams</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 3rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103406/iran-israel-escalation/">Threats and Response Options in the Escalating Israel-Iran Conflict</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 2nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103380/un-future-pact-reform/">The UN’s New Pact for the Future: A Milestone That Can Set a Path for Change</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ponziorichard/" title="Profile and articles by Richard Ponzio" class="author url fn" rel="author">Richard Ponzio</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 2nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103339/artificial-intelligence-at-2024-united-nations/">AI at UNGA79: Recapping Key Themes</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 1st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/88039/trumps-legal-and-political-calendar-all-the-dates-you-need-to-know/">Master Calendar of Trump Court Dates: Criminal and Civil Cases</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/wattsiven/" title="Profile and articles by Siven Watt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Siven Watt</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/barrilleauxfrancois/" title="Profile and articles by Francois Barrilleaux" class="author url fn" rel="author">Francois Barrilleaux</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 1st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103200/state-department-reform-commission/">The State Department Reform Commission: A Once in A Generation Opportunity to Reform American Diplomacy</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/spokojnydan/" title="Profile and articles by Dan Spokojny" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dan Spokojny</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 30th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103265/analysis-iran-2024-election-interference-indictment/">Analysis of Remarkable and Unremarkable Aspects of Iranian 2024 Election Interference Indictment </a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aarondavid/" title="Profile and articles by David Aaron" class="author url fn" rel="author">David Aaron</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 28th, 2024</p> </li></ul></div></aside><div class="capitol-breaker"><h3 class="widget-title">Resources</h3></div><aside id="js-scrolling-content-4" class="widget js-scrolling-content clearfix"><h3 class="flexible-content-title">Trackers</h3><div class="flexible-content posts clearfix" style="height:auto;"><ul class="posts-list-min"><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/106653/collection-trump-administration-executive-actions/">Collection: Just Security’s Coverage of the Trump Administration Executive Actions</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 14th, 2025</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/107087/tracker-litigation-legal-challenges-trump-administration/">Litigation Tracker: Legal Challenges to Trump Administration Actions</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 16th, 2025</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/105064/mapping-state-reactions-icc/">Mapping State Reactions to the ICC Arrest Warrants for Netanyahu and Gallant</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ingberrebecca/" title="Profile and articles by Rebecca Ingber" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rebecca Ingber</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 10th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/81789/russias-eliminationist-rhetoric-against-ukraine-a-collection/">Russia’s Eliminationist Rhetoric Against Ukraine: A Collection</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/100235/unga-79-expert-analysis-resources/">UNGA 79: Expert Analysis & Resources</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nirmaya/" title="Profile and articles by Maya Nir" class="author url fn" rel="author">Maya Nir</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/violagienger/" title="Profile and articles by Viola Gienger" class="author url fn" rel="author">Viola Gienger</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 19th, 2024</p> </li></ul></div></aside><aside id="js-scrolling-content-6" class="widget js-scrolling-content clearfix"><h3 class="flexible-content-title">Series</h3><div class="flexible-content posts custom-scroll clearfix" style="height:350px;"><ul class="posts-list-min"><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104770/new-technology-atrocity-prevention/">Thinking Beyond Risks: A Symposium on Tech and Atrocity Prevention</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/whiddengwendolyn/" title="Profile and articles by Gwendolyn Whidden" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gwendolyn Whidden</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 19th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/96975/icc-prosecutor-policy-complementarity-cooperation/">Symposium: ICC Prosecutor Launches Policy on Complementarity and Cooperation</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/uruenarene/" title="Profile and articles by René Urueña" class="author url fn" rel="author">René Urueña</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 20th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/96881/symposium-on-ai-and-human-rights/">Introducing the Symposium on AI and Human Rights</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/peakejessica/" title="Profile and articles by Jessica Peake" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jessica Peake</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/94368/symposium-view-from-lviv/">Symposium: International Law in Ukraine – The View from Lviv</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Apr 5th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/95879/symposium-international-criminal-court-gaza/">A Symposium on the International Criminal Court and the Israel-Hamas War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Jan 7th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/90411/2024-and-beyond-just-securitys-us-election-protection-coverage/">2024 and Beyond: Just Security’s US Election Protection Coverage</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mollenkampallison2/" title="Profile and articles by Allison Mollenkamp" class="author url fn" rel="author">Allison Mollenkamp</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 4th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/92429/introducing-just-securitys-series-on-reparations-in-russias-war-against-ukraine/">Introducing Just Security’s Series on Reparations in Russia’s War Against Ukraine</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/corrarinomegan/" title="Profile and articles by Megan Corrarino" class="author url fn" rel="author">Megan Corrarino</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 20th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/92446/establish-syria-victims-fund/">It’s Time to Establish a Syria Victims Fund</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/seifjoumana/" title="Profile and articles by Joumana Seif" class="author url fn" rel="author">Joumana Seif</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 19th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/89838/the-future-of-atrocity-prevention-a-joint-symposium/">The Future of Atrocity Prevention: A Joint Symposium</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/whiddengwendolyn/" title="Profile and articles by Gwendolyn Whidden" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gwendolyn Whidden</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 31st, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/89583/introduction-to-symposium-governing-artificial-intelligence-power-justice-and-the-limits-of-the-law/">Introducing the Symposium on AI Governance: Power, Justice, and the Limits of the Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 18th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/88143/introduction-to-symposium-ending-perpetual-war/">Introduction to Symposium: Ending Perpetual War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 11th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/87280/joint-symposium-on-u-s-cooperation-with-the-international-criminal-courts-ukraine-investigation/">Joint Symposium on U.S. Cooperation with the International Criminal Court’s Ukraine Investigation</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 17th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/86748/u-n-general-assembly-and-international-criminal-tribunal-for-the-crime-of-aggression-against-ukraine/">U.N. General Assembly and International Criminal Tribunal for the Crime of Aggression Against Ukraine</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">May 9th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/85110/introducing-the-symposium-on-u-s-support-for-the-iccs-trust-fund-for-victims/">Introducing the Symposium on U.S. Support for the ICC’s Trust Fund for Victims</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/williamspaul/" title="Profile and articles by Paul R. Williams" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paul R. Williams</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/steriomilena/" title="Profile and articles by Milena Sterio" class="author url fn" rel="author">Milena Sterio</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/duttonyvonne/" title="Profile and articles by Yvonne Dutton" class="author url fn" rel="author">Yvonne Dutton</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kochalexandra/" title="Profile and articles by Alexandra Koch" class="author url fn" rel="author">Alexandra Koch</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/waldocklilian/" title="Profile and articles by Lilian Waldock" class="author url fn" rel="author">Lilian Waldock</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/lavaudfloriane/" title="Profile and articles by Floriane Lavaud" class="author url fn" rel="author">Floriane Lavaud</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/singhashika/" title="Profile and articles by Ashika Singh" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ashika Singh</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/glimcherisabelle/" title="Profile and articles by Isabelle Glimcher" class="author url fn" rel="author">Isabelle Glimcher</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 13th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/84901/antisemitism-and-threats-to-american-democracy/">Antisemitism and Threats to American Democracy</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hershenoveileen/" title="Profile and articles by Eileen B. Hershenov" class="author url fn" rel="author">Eileen B. Hershenov</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greerryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan B. Greer" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan B. Greer</a></p> <p class="date">Jan 26th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/84636/toward-a-values-based-foreign-policy-developing-an-ethical-checklist/">Toward a Values-Based Foreign Policy: Developing an Ethical Checklist</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mulreanpeter/" title="Profile and articles by Ambassador Peter Mulrean (ret.)" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ambassador Peter Mulrean (ret.)</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hawkwilliamj/" title="Profile and articles by William J. Hawk" class="author url fn" rel="author">William J. Hawk</a></p> <p class="date">Jan 4th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/83994/tracking-cop27-notable-moments-and-key-themes/">Tracking COP27: Notable Moments and Key Themes</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/fangkatherine/" title="Profile and articles by Katherine Fang" class="author url fn" rel="author">Katherine Fang</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 18th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/83460/on-indigenous-peoples-day-reflections-on-tribal-sovereignty-in-haaland-v-brackeen/">On Indigenous Peoples’ Day, Reflections on Tribal Sovereignty in Haaland v. Brackeen</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/whiteeagleamanda/" title="Profile and articles by Amanda L. White Eagle" class="author url fn" rel="author">Amanda L. White Eagle</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 10th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/83749/ending-perpetual-war/">Ending Perpetual War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 25th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/83117/the-case-for-creating-an-international-tribunal-to-prosecute-the-crime-of-aggression-against-ukraine/">The Case for Creating an International Tribunal to Prosecute the Crime of Aggression Against Ukraine (Part I)</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hathawayoona/" title="Profile and articles by Oona A. Hathaway" class="author url fn" rel="author">Oona A. Hathaway</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 20th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/80800/introduction-to-symposium-still-at-war-where-and-why-the-united-states-is-fighting-the-war-on-terror/">Introduction to Symposium: Still at War – Where and Why the United States is Fighting the “War on Terror”</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bridgemantess/" title="Profile and articles by Tess Bridgeman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tess Bridgeman</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Mar 24th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/82665/after-a-year-of-privation-with-the-talibans-return-the-people-of-afghanistan-deserve-better-from-the-us-and-the-world/">After a Year of Privation With the Taliban’s Return, the People of Afghanistan Deserve Better from the US and the World</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/andishanasir/" title="Profile and articles by Ambassador Nasir A. Andisha" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ambassador Nasir A. Andisha</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/marastonimarzia/" title="Profile and articles by Marzia Marastoni" class="author url fn" rel="author">Marzia Marastoni</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 15th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/80290/introduction-to-just-securitys-series-on-executive-order-9066-80-years-after-signing/">Introduction to Just Security’s Series on Executive Order 9066, 80 Years After Signing</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/corrarinomegan/" title="Profile and articles by Megan Corrarino" class="author url fn" rel="author">Megan Corrarino</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 18th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/79951/congress-can-and-should-address-the-threat-from-unauthorized-paramilitary-activity/">Congress Can and Should Address the Threat from Unauthorized Paramilitary Activity</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mccordmary/" title="Profile and articles by Mary B. McCord" class="author url fn" rel="author">Mary B. McCord</a></p> <p class="date">Jan 24th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/79900/the-good-governance-papers-a-january-2022-report-card-update/">The Good Governance Papers: A January 2022 “Report Card” Update</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bermanemily/" title="Profile and articles by Emily Berman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Emily Berman</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bridgemantess/" title="Profile and articles by Tess Bridgeman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tess Bridgeman</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/corrarinomegan/" title="Profile and articles by Megan Corrarino" class="author url fn" rel="author">Megan Corrarino</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rudesilldakota/" title="Profile and articles by Dakota S. Rudesill" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dakota S. 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Barela" class="author url fn" rel="author">Steven J. Barela</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/fallonmark/" title="Profile and articles by Mark Fallon" class="author url fn" rel="author">Mark Fallon</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 1st, 2021</p> </li></ul></div></aside><div class="capitol-breaker"><h3 class="widget-title">Key Topics</h3><div class="sub-title">Scroll within to view all topics.</div></div><aside id="js-scrolling-content-2" class="widget js-scrolling-content clearfix"><div class="flexible-content links custom-scroll clearfix" style="height:255px;"><ul class="link-list"><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/artificial-intelligence/">Artificial Intelligence (AI)</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/84303/just-securitys-climate-archive/">Climate Change</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/congressional-oversight/">Congressional Oversight</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/counterterrorism/">Counterterrorism</a></li><li><a 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Conflict (LOAC)</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/local-voices/">Local Voices</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/racial-justice/">Racial Justice</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/social-media-platforms/">Social Media Platforms</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/united-nations/">United Nations (UN)</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/use-of-force/">Use of Force</a></li></ul></div></aside></div></div><div id="post-meta-after" class="pagewidth pw1400 clearfix"><div class="post-bottom-row about-authors clearfix"><div class="secondary-left"><h3>About the Author(s)</h3></div><div class="primary"><div class="post-author-bio"><h4 title="Read bio and view posts by this author"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/roguskiprzemyslaw/">Przemysław <span>Roguski</span></a></h4><p>Dr. Przemysław Roguski (<a href="https://twitter.com/Roguski_P">@Roguski_P</a>) is an assistant professor at the Jagiellonian University, Chair for Public International Law, and Principal Investigator at the Polish National Science Council (NCN)-supported "Sovereignty 2.0 - 'digital sovereignty' in light of public international law" project.</p> </div><p class="clearfix"> <a href="mailto:lte@justsecurity.org" class="button has-icon icon-fa"> <i class="fa fa-envelope-o" aria-hidden="true"></i> Send A Letter To The Editor </a> </p></div></div><div class="post-bottom-row related-posts clearfix"><div class="secondary-left"><h3>Read these related stories next:</h3></div><div class="primary archive-wrap"><div class="result-entry type-post"> <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/107832/us-china-standoff-afghanistan-un/" class="thumb" style="background-image:url(https://i0.wp.com/www.justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/china-security-council-e1739452564443.jpg?fit=768%2C269&ssl=1);"></a> <h3><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/107832/us-china-standoff-afghanistan-un/">US-China Standoff on Who 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