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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge_of_performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Knowledge of performance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knowledge_of_performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Knowledge_of_results" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge_of_results"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Knowledge of results</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knowledge_of_results-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Experimental_design_and_knowledge_of_results" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_design_and_knowledge_of_results"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.1</span> <span>Experimental design and knowledge of results</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_design_and_knowledge_of_results-sublist" 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<p><b>Motor learning</b> refers broadly to changes in an organism's movements that reflect changes in the structure and function of the nervous system. Motor learning occurs over varying timescales and degrees of complexity: humans learn to walk or talk over the course of years, but continue to adjust to changes in height, weight, strength etc. over their lifetimes. Motor learning enables animals to gain new skills, and improves the smoothness and accuracy of movements, in some cases by calibrating simple movements like <a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflexes</a>. Motor learning research often considers variables that contribute to <a href="/wiki/Motor_program" title="Motor program">motor program</a> formation (i.e., underlying skilled motor behaviour), sensitivity of error-detection processes,<sup id="cite_ref-Adams_1971_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams_1971-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt_1975_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_1975-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and strength of movement schemas (see <a href="/wiki/Motor_program" title="Motor program">motor program</a>). Motor learning is "relatively permanent", as the capability to respond appropriately is acquired and retained. Temporary gains in performance during practice or in response to some perturbation are often termed <a href="/wiki/Motor_adaptation" title="Motor adaptation">motor adaptation</a>, a transient form of learning. Neuroscience research on motor learning is concerned with which parts of the brain and spinal cord represent movements and motor programs and how the nervous system processes feedback to change the connectivity and synaptic strengths. At the behavioral level, research focuses on the design and effect of the main components driving motor learning, i.e. the structure of practice and the feedback. The timing and organization of practice can influence information retention, e.g. how tasks can be subdivided and practiced (also see <a href="/wiki/Varied_practice" title="Varied practice">varied practice</a>), and the precise form of feedback can influence preparation, anticipation, and guidance of movement. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Behavioural_approach">Behavioural approach</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Behavioural approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure_of_practice_and_contextual_interference">Structure of practice and contextual interference</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structure of practice and contextual interference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contextual interference was originally defined as "function interference in learning responsible for memory improvement".<sup id="cite_ref-Barreiros_Figueiredo_2007_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barreiros_Figueiredo_2007-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contextual interference effect is "the effect on learning of the degree of functional interference found in a practice situation when several tasks must be learned and are practiced together".<sup id="cite_ref-Magill_Hall_1990_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magill_Hall_1990-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Variability of practice (or <a href="/wiki/Varied_practice" title="Varied practice">varied practice</a>) is an important component to contextual interference, as it places task variations within learning. Although varied practice may lead to poor performance throughout the acquisition phase, it is important for the development of the schemata, which is responsible for the assembly and improved retention and transfer of motor learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Barreiros_Figueiredo_2007_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barreiros_Figueiredo_2007-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moxley_1979_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moxley_1979-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the improvements in performance seen across a range of studies, one limitation of the contextual interference effect is the uncertainty with regard to the cause of performance improvements as so many variables are constantly manipulated. In a review of literature,<sup id="cite_ref-Barreiros_Figueiredo_2007_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barreiros_Figueiredo_2007-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the authors identify that there were few patterns to explain the improvements in experiments that use the contextual interference paradigm. Although there were no patterns in the literature, common areas and limitations that justified interference effects were identified:<sup id="cite_ref-Barreiros_Figueiredo_2007_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barreiros_Figueiredo_2007-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><ol><li>Although the skills being learned required whole-body movements, most tasks had a common feature; they all contained components that could be isolated.</li> <li>Most of the studies supporting interference effect used slow movements that enabled movement adjustments during movement execution.</li> <li>According to some authors bilateral transfer may be elicited through alternate practice conditions, as a source of information can develop from both sides of the body. Despite improvements seen in these studies, interference effects would not be attributed to their improvements, and it would have been a coincidence of task characteristics and schedule of practice.<sup id="cite_ref-Barreiros_Figueiredo_2007_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barreiros_Figueiredo_2007-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_1995_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_1995-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The terminology of "complex skills" has not been well defined. Procedural manipulations, which vary between experiments (e.g., changing the similarity between tasks) has been cited as a contributor to skill complexity.</li></ol></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feedback_given_during_practice">Feedback given during practice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Feedback given during practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">Feedback</a> is regarded as a critical variable for skill acquisition and is broadly defined as any kind of sensory information related to a response or movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt_2004_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_2004-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intrinsic feedback is response-produced — it occurs normally when a movement is made and the sources may be internal or external to the body. Typical sources of intrinsic feedback include <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proprioception" title="Proprioception">proprioception</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hearing_(sense)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearing (sense)">audition</a>. Extrinsic feedback is augmented information provided by an external source, in addition to intrinsic feedback. Extrinsic feedback is sometimes categorized as knowledge of performance or knowledge of results. </p><p>Several studies have manipulated the presentation features of feedback information (e.g., frequency, delay, interpolated activities, and precision) in order to determine the optimal conditions for learning. See Figure 4, Figure 6, and summary Table 1<sup id="cite_ref-Salmoni_1984_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salmoni_1984-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for a detailed explanation of feedback manipulation and knowledge of results (see below). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Knowledge_of_performance">Knowledge of performance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Knowledge of performance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Knowledge of performance (KP</b>) or kinematic feedback refers to information provided to a performer, indicating the quality or patterning of their movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt_2004_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_2004-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may include information such as displacement, velocity or joint motion. KP tends to be distinct from intrinsic feedback and more useful in real-world tasks. It is a strategy often employed by coaches or rehabilitation practitioners. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Knowledge_of_results">Knowledge of results</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Knowledge of results"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_results" title="Knowledge of results">Knowledge of results</a> (KR) is defined as extrinsic or augmented information provided to a performer after a response, indicating the success of their actions with regard to an environmental goal.<sup id="cite_ref-Salmoni_1984_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salmoni_1984-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> KR may be redundant with intrinsic feedback, especially in real-world scenarios.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt_2004_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_2004-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in experimental studies, it refers to information provided over and above those sources of feedback that are naturally received when a response is made (i.e., response-produced feedback;<sup id="cite_ref-Adams_1971_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams_1971-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adams_1968_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams_1968-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, KR is also verbal or verbalizable.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt_2005_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_2005-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impact of KR on motor learning has been well-studied and some implications are described below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Experimental_design_and_knowledge_of_results">Experimental design and knowledge of results</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Experimental design and knowledge of results"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Often, experimenters fail to separate the relatively permanent aspect of change in the capability for responding (i.e. indicative of learning) from transient effects (i.e. indicative of performance). In order to account for this, transfer designs have been created which involve two distinct phases.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt_2005_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_2005-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To visualize the transfer design, imagine a 4x4 grid. The column headings may be titled "Experiment #1" and "Experiment #2" and indicate the conditions you wish to compare. The row headings are titled "Acquisition" and "Transfer" whereby: </p> <ol><li>The acquisition block (2 columns) contains the test conditions in which some variable is manipulated (i.e. different levels of KR applied) and different groups receive different treatments. This block represents the transient effects of KR (i.e. performance)</li> <li>The transfer block (2 columns) contains the test conditions in which that variable is held constant (i.e. a common level of KR applied; normally a no-KR condition). When presented with a no-KR condition, this block represents the persistent effects of KR (i.e. learning). Conversely, if this block is given to subjects in a format where KR is available, transient and persistent effects of KR are convoluted and it is argued not interpretable for learning effects.</li></ol> <p>After a rest period, the change in the capability for responding (i.e. effects) are argued to be those attributed to learning, and the group with the most effective performance has learned the most. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Functional_role_of_knowledge_of_results_and_potential_confounding_of_effects">Functional role of knowledge of results and potential confounding of effects</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Functional role of knowledge of results and potential confounding of effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>KR seems to have many different roles, some of which can be viewed as temporary or transient (i.e. performance effects). Three of these roles include: 1) motivation, 2) associative function, and 3) guidance. The motivational influence can increase the effort and interest of the performer in the task as well as maintain this interest once KR is removed.<sup id="cite_ref-Elwell_Grindley_1938_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elwell_Grindley_1938-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though important to create interest in the task for performance and learning purposes, however the extent to which it affects learning is unknown. The associative function of KR is likely to be involved in the formation of associations between stimulus and response (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Law_of_effect" title="Law of effect">Law of Effect</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Nevin_1999_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nevin_1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this additional effect is not able to account for findings in transfer tasks manipulating the relative frequency of KR; specifically, decreasing relative frequency results in enhanced learning. For an alternate discussion on how KR may calibrate the motor system to the outside world (see schema theory in <a href="/wiki/Motor_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor Program">motor program</a>). The guidance role of KR is likely the most influential to learning<sup id="cite_ref-Adams_1971_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams_1971-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as both internal and external sources of feedback play a guiding role in performance of a motor task. As the performer is informed of errors in task performance, the discrepancy can be used to continually improve performance in following trials. However, the <i>guidance hypothesis</i> postulates that provision of too much external, augmented feedback (e.g., KR) during practice may cause the learner to develop a harmful dependency on this source of feedback.<sup id="cite_ref-Salmoni_1984_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salmoni_1984-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may lead to superior performance during practice but poor performance at transfer – an indication of poor motor learning. Additionally, it implies that, as the performer improves, the conditions of KR must be adapted according to the performer's skill and difficulty of the task in order to maximize learning (see <a href="/wiki/Challenge_point_framework" title="Challenge point framework">challenge point framework</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specificity_of_learning_hypothesis">Specificity of learning hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Specificity of learning hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The specificity of learning hypothesis suggests that learning is most effective when practice sessions include environment and movement conditions which closely resemble those required during performance of the task — replicating the target skill level and context for performance.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt_2004_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_2004-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>p. 194</sup> It suggests that the benefit of specificity in practice occurs because motor learning is combined with physical practice during the learned sport or skill.<sup id="cite_ref-Proteau_1992_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proteau_1992-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>p. 90</sup> Contrary to previous beliefs, skill learning is accomplished by alternating motor learning and physical performance, making the sources of feedback work together. The learning process, especially for a difficult task, results in the creation of a representation of the task where all relevant information pertaining to task performance is integrated. This representation becomes tightly coupled with increasing experience performing the task. As a result, removing or adding a significant source of information after a practice period where it was present or not, does not cause performance to deteriorate. Alternating motor learning and physical practice can ultimately lead to a great, if not better performance as opposed to just physical practice. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiological_approach">Physiological approach</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Physiological approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a> are critical for motor learning. As a result of the universal need for properly calibrated movement, it is not surprising that the cerebellum and <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a> are widely conserved across <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a> from <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> to <a href="/wiki/Humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Humans">humans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through motor learning the human is capable of achieving very skilled behavior, and through repetitive training a degree of automaticity can be expected. And although this can be a refined process much has been learned from studies of simple behaviors. These behaviors include <a href="/wiki/Eyeblink_conditioning" title="Eyeblink conditioning">eyeblink conditioning</a>, motor learning in the <a href="/wiki/Vestibulo-ocular_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestibulo-ocular reflex">vestibulo-ocular reflex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">birdsong</a>. Research on <i><a href="/wiki/Aplysia_californica" class="mw-redirect" title="Aplysia californica">Aplysia californica</a></i>, the sea slug, has yielded detailed knowledge of the cellular mechanisms of a simple form of learning. </p><p>A type of motor learning occurs during operation of a <a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">brain–computer interface</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lebedev" title="Mikhail Lebedev">Mikhail Lebedev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Nicolelis" title="Miguel Nicolelis">Miguel Nicolelis</a> and their colleagues recently demonstrated <a href="/wiki/Cortical_plasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical plasticity">cortical plasticity</a> that resulted in incorporation of an external actuator controlled through a <a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">brain–machine interface</a> into the subject's neural representation.<sup id="cite_ref-Lebedev_2005_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lebedev_2005-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At a cellular level, motor learning manifests itself in the <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a>. Using <a href="/wiki/Single-unit_recording" title="Single-unit recording">single-cell</a> recording techniques, Dr. Emilio Bizzi and his collaborators have shown the behavior of certain cells, known as "<a href="/wiki/Memory_Cells_(Motor_Cortex)" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory Cells (Motor Cortex)">memory cells</a>," can undergo lasting alteration with practice. </p><p>Motor learning is also accomplished on the <a href="/wiki/Musculoskeletal" class="mw-redirect" title="Musculoskeletal">musculoskeletal</a> level. Each <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neuron</a> in the body innervates one or more muscle cells, and together these cells form what is known as a motor unit. For a person to perform even the simplest motor task, the activity of thousands of these motor units must be coordinated. It appears that the body handles this challenge by organizing motor units into modules of units whose activity is correlated.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disordered_motor_learning">Disordered motor learning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Disordered motor learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developmental_coordination_disorder">Developmental coordination disorder</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Developmental coordination disorder"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Impairments associated with <a href="/wiki/Developmental_coordination_disorder" title="Developmental coordination disorder">developmental coordination disorder</a> (DCD) involve difficulty in learning new motor skills as well as limited postural control and deficits in sensorimotor coordination.<sup id="cite_ref-Geuze_2005_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geuze_2005-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It appears that children with DCD are not able to improve performance of complex motor tasks by practice alone.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is evidence that task-specific training can improve performance of simpler tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impaired skills learning may be correlated with brain activity, particularly, a reduction of brain activity in regions associated with skilled motor practice.<sup id="cite_ref-Zwicker_2011_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zwicker_2011-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apraxia">Apraxia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Apraxia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Motor learning has been applied to stroke recovery and neurorehabilitation, as rehabilitation is generally a process of relearning lost skills through practice and/or training.<sup id="cite_ref-Krakauer_2006_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krakauer_2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although rehabilitation clinicians utilize practice as a major component within an intervention, a gap remains between motor control and motor learning research and rehabilitation practice. Common motor learning paradigms include robot arm paradigms, where individuals are encouraged to resist against a hand held device throughout specific arm movements. Another important concept to motor learning is the amount practice implemented in an intervention. Studies regarding the relationship between the amount of training received and the retention of the memory a set amount of time afterwards have been a popular focus in research. It has been shown that over learning leads to major improvements in long term retention and little effect on performance.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Motor learning practice paradigms have compared the differences of different practice schedules, and it has proposed that repetition of the same movements is not enough in order to relearn a skill, as it is unclear whether true brain recovery is elicited through repetition alone.<sup id="cite_ref-Krakauer_2006_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krakauer_2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is suggested that compensation methods develop through pure repetition and to elicit cortical changes (true recovery), individuals should be exposed to more challenging tasks. Research that has implemented motor learning and rehabilitation practice has been used within the stroke population and includes arm ability training, <a href="/wiki/Constraint-induced_movement_therapy" title="Constraint-induced movement therapy">constraint-induced movement therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromyograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromyograph">electromyograph</a>-triggered neuromuscular stimulation, interactive robot therapy and <a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality_therapy" title="Virtual reality therapy">virtual reality-based rehabilitation</a>. A recent study ischemic conditioning was delivered via blood pressure cuff inflation and deflation to the arm, to facilitate learning. It showed for the first time in humans and animals, that ischemic conditioning can enhance motor learning and that the enhancement is retained over time. The potential benefits of ischemic conditioning extend far beyond stroke to other neuro-, geriatric, and pediatric rehabilitation populations.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These findings were featured on Global Medical Discovery news.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apraxia" title="Apraxia">Apraxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference_in_motor_learning" title="Bayesian inference in motor learning">Bayesian inference in motor learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalocaudal_trend" title="Cephalocaudal trend">Cephalocaudal trend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">Motor skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_coordination" title="Motor coordination">Motor coordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proximodistal_trend" title="Proximodistal trend">Proximodistal trend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_learning" title="Sequence learning">Sequence learning</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Adams_1971-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_1971_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_1971_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_1971_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAdams_JA1971" class="citation journal cs1">Adams JA (June 1971). 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"Schema: the variability of practice hypothesis". <i>J mot Behav</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 65–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00222895.1979.10735173">10.1080/00222895.1979.10735173</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15186973">15186973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+mot+Behav&rft.atitle=Schema%3A+the+variability+of+practice+hypothesis&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-70&rft.date=1979-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00222895.1979.10735173&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15186973&rft.au=Moxley+SE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith_1995-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smith_1995_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithDavies1995" class="citation journal cs1">Smith PJ, Davies M (December 1995). "Applying contextual interference to the Pawlata roll". <i>J Sports Sci</i>. <b>13</b> (6): 455–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02640419508732262">10.1080/02640419508732262</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8850571">8850571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Sports+Sci&rft.atitle=Applying+contextual+interference+to+the+Pawlata+roll&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=455-62&rft.date=1995-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02640419508732262&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8850571&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=PJ&rft.au=Davies%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmidt_2004-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt_2004_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt_2004_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt_2004_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt_2004_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidtWrisberg2004" class="citation book cs1">Schmidt, Richard A.; Wrisberg, Craig A. (2004). <i>Motor learning and performance</i>. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7360-4566-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7360-4566-7"><bdi>978-0-7360-4566-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/474742713">474742713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Motor+learning+and+performance&rft.place=Champaign%2C+IL&rft.pub=Human+Kinetics&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F474742713&rft.isbn=978-0-7360-4566-7&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft.au=Wrisberg%2C+Craig+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Salmoni_1984-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Salmoni_1984_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salmoni_1984_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salmoni_1984_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalmoniSchmidtWalter1984" class="citation journal cs1">Salmoni AW, Schmidt RA, Walter CB (May 1984). 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New York: Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486203812" title="Special:BookSources/9780486203812"><bdi>9780486203812</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/191755">191755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+psychology.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F191755&rft.isbn=9780486203812&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesofpsyc00will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adams_1968-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Adams_1968_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1968" class="citation journal cs1">Adams, Jack A. 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(2015-06-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4468973">"Remote limb ischemic conditioning enhances motor learning in healthy humans"</a>. <i>Journal of Neurophysiology</i>. <b>113</b> (10): 3708–3719. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fjn.01028.2014">10.1152/jn.01028.2014</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3077">0022-3077</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4468973">4468973</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25867743">25867743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neurophysiology&rft.atitle=Remote+limb+ischemic+conditioning+enhances+motor+learning+in+healthy+humans&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=3708-3719&rft.date=2015-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4468973%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0022-3077&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25867743&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fjn.01028.2014&rft.aulast=Cherry-Allen&rft.aufirst=Kendra+M.&rft.au=Gidday%2C+Jeff+M.&rft.au=Lee%2C+Jin-Moo&rft.au=Hershey%2C+Tamara&rft.au=Lang%2C+Catherine+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4468973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://globalmedicaldiscovery.com/key-clinical-research-articles-global-medica-discovery/remote-limb-ischemic-conditioning-enhances-motor-learning-in-healthy-humans/">"Remote limb ischemic conditioning enhances motor learning in healthy humans"</a>. <i>globalmedicaldiscovery.com</i>. 26 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-09-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=globalmedicaldiscovery.com&rft.atitle=Remote+limb+ischemic+conditioning+enhances+motor+learning+in+healthy+humans.&rft.date=2015-09-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobalmedicaldiscovery.com%2Fkey-clinical-research-articles-global-medica-discovery%2Fremote-limb-ischemic-conditioning-enhances-motor-learning-in-healthy-humans%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarreirosFigueiredoGodinho2007" class="citation journal cs1">Barreiros, J.; Figueiredo, T.; Godinho, M. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131207165251/http://www.fmh.utl.pt/labcmotor/images/stories/doc/barreiros_figueiredo_godinho_eper_2007.pdf">"The contextual interference effect in applied settings"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>European Physical Education Review</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 195–208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1356336X07076876">10.1177/1356336X07076876</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144969640">144969640</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fmh.utl.pt/labcmotor/images/stories/doc/barreiros_figueiredo_godinho_eper_2007.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2013-12-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Physical+Education+Review&rft.atitle=The+contextual+interference+effect+in+applied+settings&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-208&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1356336X07076876&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144969640%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Barreiros&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Figueiredo%2C+T.&rft.au=Godinho%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fmh.utl.pt%2Flabcmotor%2Fimages%2Fstories%2Fdoc%2Fbarreiros_figueiredo_godinho_eper_2007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardwickRottschyMiallEickhoff2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hardwick RM, Rottschy C, Miall RC, Eickhoff SB (February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3555187">"A quantitative meta-analysis and review of motor learning in the human brain"</a>. <i>NeuroImage</i>. <b>67</b>: 283–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2012.11.020">10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.11.020</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3555187">3555187</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23194819">23194819</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeuroImage&rft.atitle=A+quantitative+meta-analysis+and+review+of+motor+learning+in+the+human+brain&rft.volume=67&rft.pages=283-97&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3555187%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23194819&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2012.11.020&rft.aulast=Hardwick&rft.aufirst=RM&rft.au=Rottschy%2C+C&rft.au=Miall%2C+RC&rft.au=Eickhoff%2C+SB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3555187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattarOstry2007" class="citation journal cs1">Mattar AA, Ostry DJ (January 2007). "Neural averaging in motor learning". <i>J. Neurophysiol</i>. <b>97</b> (1): 220–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fjn.00736.2006">10.1152/jn.00736.2006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17021025">17021025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Neurophysiol.&rft.atitle=Neural+averaging+in+motor+learning&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=220-8&rft.date=2007-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fjn.00736.2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17021025&rft.aulast=Mattar&rft.aufirst=AA&rft.au=Ostry%2C+DJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShumway-CookWoollacott2001" class="citation book cs1">Shumway-Cook, Anne; Woollacott, Marjorie H. (2001). <i>Motor control : theory and practical application</i>. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-683-30643-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-683-30643-9"><bdi>978-0-683-30643-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/499223436">499223436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Motor+control+%3A+theory+and+practical+application&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+Wilkins&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F499223436&rft.isbn=978-0-683-30643-9&rft.aulast=Shumway-Cook&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft.au=Woollacott%2C+Marjorie+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShadmehrWise2005" class="citation book cs1">Shadmehr, Reza.; Wise, Steven P. 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Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-19508-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-19508-9"><bdi>978-0-262-19508-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54529569">54529569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+computational+neurobiology+of+reaching+and+pointing+%3A+a+foundation+for+motor+learnin&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54529569&rft.isbn=978-0-262-19508-9&rft.aulast=Shadmehr&rft.aufirst=Reza.&rft.au=Wise%2C+Steven+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShmuelofKrakauer2011" class="citation journal cs1">Shmuelof L, Krakauer JW (November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3389513">"Are we ready for a natural history of motor learning?"</a>. <i>Neuron</i>. <b>72</b> (3): 469–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2011.10.017">10.1016/j.neuron.2011.10.017</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3389513">3389513</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22078506">22078506</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuron&rft.atitle=Are+we+ready+for+a+natural+history+of+motor+learning%3F&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=469-76&rft.date=2011-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3389513%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22078506&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2011.10.017&rft.aulast=Shmuelof&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Krakauer%2C+JW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3389513&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinstein_CJ1991" class="citation journal cs1">Winstein CJ (February 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161008040732/http://ptjournal.apta.org/content/71/2/140.long">"Knowledge of results and motor learning--implications for physical therapy"</a>. <i>Phys Ther</i>. <b>71</b> (2): 140–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fptj%2F71.2.140">10.1093/ptj/71.2.140</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1989009">1989009</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ptjournal.apta.org/content/71/2/140.long">the original</a> on 2016-10-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys+Ther&rft.atitle=Knowledge+of+results+and+motor+learning--implications+for+physical+therapy&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=140-9&rft.date=1991-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fptj%2F71.2.140&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1989009&rft.au=Winstein+CJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fptjournal.apta.org%2Fcontent%2F71%2F2%2F140.long&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolpertDiedrichsenFlanagan2011" class="citation journal cs1">Wolpert DM, Diedrichsen J, Flanagan JR (December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/brainpub/155">"Principles of sensorimotor learning"</a>. <i>Nat. Rev. Neurosci</i>. <b>12</b> (12): 739–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn3112">10.1038/nrn3112</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22033537">22033537</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5172329">5172329</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nat.+Rev.+Neurosci.&rft.atitle=Principles+of+sensorimotor+learning&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=739-51&rft.date=2011-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5172329%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22033537&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrn3112&rft.aulast=Wolpert&rft.aufirst=DM&rft.au=Diedrichsen%2C+J&rft.au=Flanagan%2C+JR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fir.lib.uwo.ca%2Fbrainpub%2F155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotor+learning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Iaroslav_Blagouchine/publication/224080014_Control_of_a_Speech_Robot_via_an_Optimum_Neural-Network-Based_Internal_Model_With_Constraints">Iaroslav Blagouchine and Eric Moreau. <i>Control of a Speech Robot via an Optimum Neural-Network-Based Internal Model With Constraints.</i> IEEE Transactions on Robotics, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 142–159, February 2010.</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cimit.org">Center For Integration Of Medicine And Innovative Technology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131207151421/http://www.kin.sjsu.edu/faculty/ewughalter/New%20Schema%20Perspectives.ppt">New Schema Perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Speech-Language_Pathology/Stuttering/Fluency-Shaping_Therapy/Motor_Learning_and_Control" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/Fluency-Shaping Therapy/Motor Learning and 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_memory" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Memory" title="Template:Memory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Memory" title="Template talk:Memory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Memory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Memory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_memory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Motor learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forgetting" title="Forgetting">Forgetting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">Motivated forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactive_memory" title="Transactive memory">Transactive memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="/wiki/State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levels_of_Processing_model" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Molaison" title="Henry Molaison">HM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_Cochrane" title="Kent Cochrane">KC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_N.A." title="Patient N.A.">NA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. McHugh">Paul R. McHugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_O%27Brien" title="Dominic O'Brien">Dominic O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Pridmore" title="Ben Pridmore">Ben Pridmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_Rossellius" title="Cosmos Rossellius">Cosmos Rossellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriy_Slyusarchuk" title="Andriy Slyusarchuk">Andriy Slyusarchuk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&oldid=1250372792">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motor_learning&oldid=1250372792</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Memory" title="Category:Memory">Memory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cognition" title="Category:Cognition">Cognition</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Motor_skills" title="Category:Motor skills">Motor skills</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nervous_system" title="Category:Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Motor_control" title="Category:Motor control">Motor control</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2010" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 10 October 2024, at 01:27<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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