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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p><b>Knowledge of results</b> is a term in the <a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_learning" title="Psychology of learning">psychology of learning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-John_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Art_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Art-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 619">: 619 </span></sup> A psychology dictionary defines it as <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> of information: </p> <dl><dd>"(a) to a subject about the correctness of [their] responses; (b) a student about success or failure in mastering material, or (c) a client in psychotherapy about progress".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>It describes the situation where a subject gets information which helps them to change <a href="/wiki/Behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Behaviour">behaviour</a> in a desirable way, or to gain understanding. </p><p>There are a number of similar terms in psychology: </p> <ul><li><b>KCR</b>: this means "knowledge of <i>correct</i> results". This <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">implies</a> that there is always a specific correct result.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">Operant conditioning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reinforcement" title="Reinforcement">reinforcement</a>: this implies a <a href="/wiki/Behaviourist" class="mw-redirect" title="Behaviourist">behaviourist</a> approach using <a href="/wiki/Schedules_of_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Schedules of reinforcement">schedules of reinforcement</a> to "shape behaviour".</li> <li>Feedback: this is a more general term, often used for the way <a href="/wiki/Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems">systems</a> adjust to preset limits. It is often used in general conversation, with various meanings. <a href="/wiki/Corrective_feedback" title="Corrective feedback">Corrective feedback</a> is a version sometimes used in school education.</li></ul> <p>Knowledge of results,<sup id="cite_ref-John_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or sometimes <i>immediate</i> knowledge of results,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be used for any learning where a student (or an animal) gets information after the action. The information is about how satisfactory the action is. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_evidence">Experimental evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_of_results&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Experimental evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An early experiment on knowledge of results was the machine invented by <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Pressey" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidney Pressey">Sidney Pressey</a>, where a device both tested and taught <a href="/wiki/Multiple-choice" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple-choice">multiple-choice</a> questions.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method tells the user (by <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a>) only whether the choice was correct or not. The material was multiple choice items, and the method used as an addition to collecting classroom test scores. </p><p>Later work in training research and education used the term "knowledge of results" frequently.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important question was whether scores would be improved more if direct teaching was given either before or after the question was asked. The answer in both cases was (broadly) yes. Using instructional films, Michael and Maccoby split groups into two halves. Half the students were given material which required active, explicit responses. After a pause, they were told the correct answer. The other half was not given feedback. Instructional time was identical. The result showed a "slight but significant gain" for the active-response procedure without feedback, but more gain when feedback was provided. The experimenters later described this as "KCR" rather than "feedback".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research on the active response itself is summarised in.<sup id="cite_ref-Art_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Art-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 614">: 614 </span></sup> Later discussion of experiments like these suggested that the results might be due to practice rather than feedback. Undoubtedly, the set-up had given extra practice on the questions as well as knowledge of results, and the experiments often <a href="/wiki/Confounding" title="Confounding">confounded</a> the two factors. </p><p>Another issue is that knowledge of results may give information to the instructor as to ways the material can be improved. Using a teaching program on <a href="/wiki/Decimal_arithmetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Decimal arithmetic">decimal arithmetic</a>, an experienced teacher can put student mistakes into types. For example, one group of mistakes are due to the learners not understanding the rules about placement of the point in decimal <a href="/wiki/Multiplication" title="Multiplication">multiplication</a>. This shows where and how the learning material needs to be revised. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conscious_thought_not_always_essential">Conscious thought not always essential</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_of_results&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Conscious thought not always essential"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Conscious" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscious">Conscious</a> thought is not always necessary for knowledge of results to have its effect. Research on <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/implicit" class="extiw" title="wikt:implicit">implicit</a> learning shows that complex information can be got by humans without their awareness.<sup id="cite_ref-Reber1993_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reber1993-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 10">: 10 </span></sup> This is also shown by experiments on animal learning which show the effects of knowledge of results on later behaviour. It seems likely that unconscious learning by results evolved first in early <a href="/wiki/Metazoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Metazoa">metazoa</a>, and conscious thought very much later. This is what Reber calls the "primacy of the implicit", meaning <a href="/wiki/Implicit_learning" title="Implicit learning">implicit learning</a> came first in evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Reber1993_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reber1993-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: Chapter 3">: Chapter 3 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_of_results&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-John-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-John_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAnnett1964" class="citation book cs1">Annett, J. (1964). "The role of knowledge of results in learning: a survey". In <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_De_Cecco" title="John Paul De Cecco">De Cecco, John P.</a> (ed.). <i>Educational Technology: Readings in Programmed Instruction</i>. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. pp. 279–285.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+role+of+knowledge+of+results+in+learning%3A+a+survey&rft.btitle=Educational+Technology%3A+Readings+in+Programmed+Instruction&rft.pages=279-285&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart+and+Winston&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Annett&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+of+results" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Art-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Art_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Art_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLumsdaine1963" class="citation book cs1">Lumsdaine, Arthur A. (1963). "Instruments and media of instruction". In Gage, Nathaniel L. (ed.). <i>Handbook of research on teaching</i>. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally. pp. 583–682.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Instruments+and+media+of+instruction&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+research+on+teaching&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.pages=583-682&rft.pub=Rand+McNally&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Lumsdaine&rft.aufirst=Arthur+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKnowledge+of+results" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReberReberAllen2001" class="citation book cs1">Reber, Arthur S.; Reber, Emily S.; Allen, Rhiannon (2001). <i>The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology</i> (3rd ed.). 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