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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Sound change converting an alveolar consonant to a rhotic consonant</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the sound change. For the speech errors, see <a href="/wiki/Speech_sound_disorder#Rhotacism" title="Speech sound disorder">Speech sound disorder § Rhotacism</a>. 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile" style="width:15em;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;padding: 0.3em; font-size: 120%;"><a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">Sound change</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alternation_(linguistics)" title="Alternation (linguistics)">alternation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">Metathesis</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_metathesis" title="Quantitative metathesis">Quantitative metathesis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">Lenition</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_gradation" title="Consonant gradation">Consonant gradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing" title="Consonant voicing and devoicing">Consonant voicing and devoicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assibilation" title="Assibilation">Assibilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirantization" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirantization">Spirantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debuccalization" title="Debuccalization">Debuccalization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fortition" title="Fortition">Fortition</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">Epenthesis</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prothesis_(linguistics)" title="Prothesis (linguistics)">Prothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paragoge" title="Paragoge">Paragoge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unpacking_(linguistics)" title="Unpacking (linguistics)">Unpacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_breaking" title="Vowel breaking">Vowel breaking</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">Elision</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apheresis_(linguistics)" title="Apheresis (linguistics)">Apheresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonology)" title="Syncope (phonology)">Syncope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocope" title="Apocope">Apocope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplology" title="Haplology">Haplology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_reduction" title="Cluster reduction">Cluster reduction</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Transphonologization" title="Transphonologization">Transphonologization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">Compensatory lengthening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">Nasalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)#Origin" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tonogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_tone" title="Floating tone">Floating tone</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology)" title="Assimilation (phonology)">Assimilation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_(phonetics)" title="Fusion (phonetics)">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coarticulation" title="Coarticulation">Coarticulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">Palatalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final-obstruent_devoicing" title="Final-obstruent devoicing">Final devoicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphony" title="Metaphony">Metaphony</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a>, <a href="/wiki/I-mutation" title="I-mutation">umlaut</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_harmony" title="Consonant harmony">Consonant harmony</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dissimilation" title="Dissimilation">Dissimilation</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">Sandhi</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liaison_(French)" title="Liaison (French)">Liaison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linking_and_intrusive_R" title="Linking and intrusive R">linking R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">Consonant mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_sandhi" title="Tone sandhi">Tone sandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_hiatus" title="Vowel hiatus">Vowel hiatus</a></li></ul> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; padding-right: 1em;"><a href="/wiki/Synalepha" title="Synalepha">Synalepha</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">Elision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crasis" title="Crasis">Crasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synaeresis" title="Synaeresis">Synaeresis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diaeresis_(prosody)" title="Diaeresis (prosody)">diaeresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synizesis" title="Synizesis">Synizesis</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Other types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">Apophony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affrication" class="mw-redirect" title="Affrication">Affrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">Gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipping_(phonetics)" title="Clipping (phonetics)">Clipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fronting_(sound_change)" title="Fronting (sound change)">Fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raising_(sound_change)" title="Raising (sound change)">Raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betacism" title="Betacism">Betacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iotacism" title="Iotacism">Iotacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_(phonetics)" title="Fusion (phonetics)">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_change#Merger" title="Phonological change">Merger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">Compensatory lengthening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophthongization" title="Monophthongization">Monophthongization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhotacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinoglottophilia" title="Rhinoglottophilia">Rhinoglottophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulcalization" title="Sulcalization">Sulcalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shm-reduplication" title="Shm-reduplication">Shm-reduplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">Consonant mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_shift" title="Vowel shift">Vowel shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_shift" title="Chain shift">Chain shift</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; padding-top: 1px;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sound_change" title="Template:Sound change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sound_change" title="Template talk:Sound change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sound_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sound change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Rhotacism</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/əm/: 'm' in 'rhythm'">əm</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">ROH</span>-tə-siz-əm</i></a>)<sup id="cite_ref-collins_american_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collins_american-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>rhotacization</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound change</a> that converts one consonant (usually a voiced <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar consonant</a>: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>) to a <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">rhotic consonant</a> in a certain environment. The most common may be of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Catford2001_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catford2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a dialect or member of a language family resists the change and keeps a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span> sound, this is sometimes known as <i>zetacism</i>. </p><p>The term comes from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek letter</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Rho_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rho (letter)">rho</a></i>, denoting <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Albanian">Albanian</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Albanian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The southern (<a href="/wiki/Tosk_Albanian" title="Tosk Albanian">Tosk</a>) dialects, the base of <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Standard Albanian</a>, changed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, but the northern (<a href="/wiki/Gheg_Albanian" title="Gheg Albanian">Gheg</a>) dialects did not:<sup id="cite_ref-Catford2001_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catford2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">zëri</i></span> vs. <span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">zâni</i></span> 'the voice'</li> <li><span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">gjuri</i></span> vs. <span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">gjuni</i></span> 'the knee'</li> <li><span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">Shqipëria</i></span> vs. <span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">Shqypnia</i></span> 'Albania'</li> <li><span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">Arbëria</i></span> vs. <span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">Arbënia</i></span> 'Albania' (older name of the country)</li> <li><span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">i djegur</i></span> vs. <span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">i djegun</i></span> 'burnt'</li> <li><span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">druri</i></span> vs. <span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">druni</i></span> 'wood'</li> <li><span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">bëra</i></span> vs. <span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">bona</i></span> 'did'</li> <li><span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">zura</i></span> vs. <span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">zuna</i></span> 'caught'</li> <li><span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">pluhur</i></span> vs. <span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">pluhun</i></span> 'dust'</li> <li><span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">dashuri</i></span> vs. <span title="Albanian-language text"><i lang="sq">dashni</i></span> 'love'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aramaic">Aramaic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Semitic">Proto-Semitic</a> <i>n</i> changed to <i>r</i> in a few words: </p> <ul><li><i>bar</i> "son" as compared to <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> בֵן <i>ben</i> (from Proto-Semitic *<i>bnu</i>)</li> <li><i>trên</i> and <i>tartên</i> "two" (masculine and feminine form respectively) as compared to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Demotic_Arabic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Demotic Arabic (page does not exist)">Demotic Arabic</a> <i>tnēn</i> and <i>tintēn</i>, from Proto-Semitic *<i>ṯnaimi</i> and *<i>ṯnataimi</i>. Compare also Aramaic <i>tinyânâ</i> "the second one", without the shift.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basque">Basque</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Basque"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aquitanian_language" title="Aquitanian language">Aquitanian</a> *<i>l</i> changed to the <a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">tapped <i>r</i></a> between vowels in <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can be observed in words borrowed from Latin; for example, Latin <i>caelum</i> (meaning "sky, heaven") became <i>zeru</i> in Basque (<i>caelum</i> > <i>celu</i> > <i>zeru</i>; compare <i>cielo</i> in Spanish). The original <i>l</i> is preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Souletin_dialect" title="Souletin dialect">Souletin dialect</a>: <i>caelum</i> > <i>celu</i> > <i>zelü</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Finnish">Finnish</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Finnish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Western dialects of <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a> are characterised by the pronunciation <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾ/</span> of the consonant written <i>d</i> in Standard Finnish <i>kahden kesken- kahren kesken</i> (two together = one on one).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (July 2016)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The reconstructed older pronunciation is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ð</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Goidelic_languages">Goidelic languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Goidelic languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> and some dialects of <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> in a variety of consonant clusters, often with nasalization of the following vowel. For example, the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kn/</span> cluster developed into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kr/</span>, as in Scottish Gaelic <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">cnoc</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[krɔ̃xk]</span> ‘hill’.<sup id="cite_ref-Catford2001_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catford2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within Ireland, this phenomenon is most prevalent in northern dialects and absent from the most southern dialects. Some examples of rhotacized clusters include <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kn/</span> (<i>cnó</i>), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mn/</span> (<i>mná</i>), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡn/</span> (<i>gnó</i>), and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tn/</span> (<i>tnáith</i>), while <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sn/</span> (<i>snámh</i>) is never rhotacized even in the most innovative dialects. This can lead to interesting pairs such as nominative <i>an sneachta</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈʃnʲæːxt̪ˠə/</span> versus genitive <i>an tsneachta</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈt̪ɾʲæːxt̪ˠə/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Germanic_languages">Germanic languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Germanic languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></div> <p>All surviving <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a>, which are members of the <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic families</a>, changed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, implying a more approximant-like rhotic consonant in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some languages later changed all forms to <i>r</i>, but <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a>, an extinct <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic language</a>, did not undergo rhotacism. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></th> <th>(<a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></th> <th>(<a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">Modern German</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>*was,<sup><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">1st/3rd sg</a></sup> *wēzum<sup>1st pl</sup></td> <td>was, wēsum<br /> </td> <td>var, várum<br /> </td> <td>(wæs, wǣron)<br />was, were</td> <td>was, wēren</td> <td> <br />was, waren</td> <td>(was, wārum)<br /><span style="color:gray">war</span>, waren </td></tr> <tr> <td>*fraleusaną,<sup><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">inf</a></sup> *fraluzanaz<sup><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">p.part.</a></sup></td> <td>fraliusan, fralusans<br /> </td> <td>—<br /> </td> <td>(forlēosan, forloren)<br />forlese, forlorn</td> <td>urliāsa, urlāren</td> <td> <br />verliezen, verloren</td> <td>(farliosan, farloren)<br />ver<span style="color:gray">lieren</span>, verloren </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Note that the Modern German forms have levelled the rhotic consonant to forms that did not originally have it. However, the original sound can still be seen in some nouns such as <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wesen" class="extiw" title="wikt:Wesen">Wesen</a></i>, "being" (from the same root as <i>war</i>/<i>waren</i>) as well as <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Verlust" class="extiw" title="wikt:Verlust">Verlust</a></i>, "loss" and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Verlies" class="extiw" title="wikt:Verlies">Verlies</a></i>, "dungeon" (both from the same root as <i>verlieren</i>/<i>verloren</i>). </p><p>Because of the presence of words that did not undergo rhotacisation from the same root as those that did, the result of the process remains visible in a few modern English word pairs: </p> <ul><li><i>is</i> and <i>are</i> (PGmc. <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/wesan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/wesaną">*isti</a></i> vs <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/wesan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/wesaną">*izi</a></i>)</li> <li><i>was</i> and <i>were (</i>PGmc. <i>*wesaną</i> vs <i>*wēz)</i></li> <li>the comparative and superlative suffixes <i>-er</i> and <i>-est</i> (PGmc. <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/-iz%C3%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/-izô">*-izô</a></i> vs <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/-istaz" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/-istaz">*-istaz</a></i>) and derived words such as <i>more</i> and <i>most</i> (<i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/maiz%C3%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/maizô">*maizô</a></i> vs <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/maistaz" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/maistaz">*maistaz</a></i>), <i>better</i> and <i>best</i> (<i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/batiz%C3%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/batizô">*batizô</a></i> vs <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/batistaz" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/batistaz">*batistaz</a></i>), etc</li> <li><i>rise</i> and <i>rear</i> (as in 'to bring up'; PGmc. <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/r%C4%ABsan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/rīsaną">*rīsaną</a></i> vs <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/raizijan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/raizijaną">*raizijaną</a></i>)</li> <li><i>loss</i> and <i>forlorn</i> (PGmc. <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/lus%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/lusą">*lusą</a></i> vs <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/fraleusan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/fraleusaną">*fraluzanaz</a></i>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English">English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity in English</a></div> <p>Intervocalic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> are commonly lenited to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span> in most accents of <a href="/wiki/North_American_English" title="North American English">North American</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a> and some accents of <a href="/wiki/Irish_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish English">Irish English</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_English" class="mw-redirect" title="English English">English English</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a process known as tapping or less accurately as <a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">flapping</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>got a lot of</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈɡɒtə<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈlɒtə/</span> becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɡɒɾə<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈlɒɾə]</span>. Contrast is usually maintained with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, and the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span> sound is rarely perceived as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Catford2001_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catford2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German">German</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: German"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a> dialects, especially <a href="/wiki/Rhine_Franconian_dialects" title="Rhine Franconian dialects">Rhine Franconian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> is frequently realised as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span> in intervocalic position. The change also occurs in <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburg dialects</a>. Compare <i>Borrem</i> (Central Hessian) and <i>Boden</i> (Standard German). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romance_languages_and_Latin">Romance languages and Latin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Romance languages and Latin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin">Latin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Latin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reflecting a highly-regular change in pre-<a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a>, intervocalic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> in <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a>, which is assumed to have been pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>]</span>, invariably became <i>r</i>, resulting in pairs such as these: </p> <ul><li><i><b>flōs</b></i><sup><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nom</a></sup> — <i><b>flōr</b>em</i><sup><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">acc</a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> <i><b>flōs</b>em</i>)</li> <li><i><b>genus</b></i><sup><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nom</a></sup> — <i><b>gener</b>is</i><sup><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">gen</a></sup> (from *<i><b>genes</b>es</i>, cf. Sanskrit <i>janasas</i>)</li> <li><i><b>rōbus</b></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><b>rōbus</b>tus</i> — <i><b>rōbur</b></i>, <i>cor<b>rōbor</b>āre</i> (verb from <span title="Latin-language text">*<i lang="la">con<b>robos</b>are</i></span>)</li> <li><i><b>jūs</b>tus</i> — <i>de <b>jūr</b>e</i> (from <i>de <b>jous</b>e</i>)</li> <li><i><b>es</b>t</i> — <i><b>er</b>ō</i> (from <i><b>es</b>ō</i>)</li> <li><i><b>ges</b>sī</i>, <i><b>ges</b>tō</i> — <i><b>ger</b>ō</i> (from <i><b>ges</b>ō</i>)</li></ul> <p>Intervocalic <i>s</i> in Classical Latin suggests either borrowing (<i>rosa</i>) or reduction of an earlier <i>ss</i> after a long vowel or a diphthong (<i>pausa</i> < <i>paussa</i>, <i>vīsum</i> < <i>*vīssum</i> < <i>*weid-tom</i>). The <i>s</i> was preserved initially (<i>septum</i>) and finally and in consonant clusters. </p><p>Old Latin <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/honos#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:honos"><i>honos</i></a> became <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/honor#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:honor"><i>honor</i></a> in <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> by analogy with the rhotacised forms in other cases such as genitive, dative and accusative <i>honoris</i>, <i>honori</i>, <i>honorem</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosemeyer2014_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosemeyer2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another form of rhotacism in Latin was <a href="/wiki/Dissimilation" title="Dissimilation">dissimilation</a> of <i>d</i> to <i>r</i> before another <i>d</i> and dissimilation of <i>l</i> to <i>r</i> before another <i>l</i>, resulting in pairs such as these: </p> <ul><li><i><b>medi</b>us</i> — <i><b>merī</b>diēs</i> (instead of *<i><b>medi</b>-diēs</i>)</li> <li><i><b>caelu</b>m</i> — <i><b>caer</b>uleus</i> (instead of *<i><b>cael</b>-uleus</i>)</li></ul> <p>The phenomenon was noted by the Romans themselves: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In many words in which the ancients said <i>s</i>, they later said <i>r</i>... foedesum foederum, plusima plurima, meliosem meliorem, asenam arenam</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a>, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, VII, 26, In multis verbis, in quo antiqui dicebant <i>s</i>, postea dicunt <i>r</i>... foedesum foederum, plusima plurima, meliosem meliorem, asenam arenam</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neapolitan">Neapolitan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Neapolitan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_language" title="Neapolitan language">Neapolitan</a>, rhotacism affects words that etymologically contained intervocalic or initial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>, when this is followed by a vowel; and when <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> is followed by another consonant. This last characteristic, however, is not very common in modern speech. </p> <ul><li><small>LAT. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">DENTE(M)</i></span></small> > Neap. <span title="Neapolitan-language text"><i lang="nap">dente</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nap-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Neapolitan" title="Help:IPA/Neapolitan">[ˈrɛndə]</a></span> "tooth"</li> <li><small>LAT. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">PEDE(M)</i></span></small> > Neap. <span title="Neapolitan-language text"><i lang="nap">pere</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nap-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Neapolitan" title="Help:IPA/Neapolitan">[ˈpɛːrə]</a></span> "foot"</li> <li><small>LAT. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">SOLDU(M)</i></span></small> > Neap. <span title="Neapolitan-language text"><i lang="nap">sòrdo</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nap-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Neapolitan" title="Help:IPA/Neapolitan">[ˈsɔːrdə]</a></span> (or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nap-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Neapolitan" title="Help:IPA/Neapolitan">[ˈsɔːldə]</a></span>) "money"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portuguese_and_Galician">Portuguese and Galician</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Portuguese and Galician"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Galician-Portuguese" class="mw-redirect" title="Galician-Portuguese">Galician-Portuguese</a>, rhotacism occurred from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, mainly in consonant clusters ending in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> such as in the words <i>obrigado</i>, "thank you" (originally from "obliged [in honourably serving my Sir]"); <i>praia</i>, "beach"; <i>prato</i>, "plate" or "dish"; <i>branco</i>, "white"; <i>prazer</i>/<i>pracer</i>, "pleasure"; <i>praça</i>/<i>praza</i>, "square". Compare Spanish <i>obligado</i> (obliged), <i>playa, plato, blanco, placer, plaza</i> from Latin <i>obligatus, plagia, platus, blancus</i> (Germanic origin), <i>placere</i> (verb), <i>platea</i>. </p><p>In contemporary <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese" title="Brazilian Portuguese">Brazilian Portuguese</a>, rhotacism of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> in the <a href="/wiki/Syllable#Coda" title="Syllable">syllable coda</a> is characteristic of the <a href="/wiki/Caipira_dialect" title="Caipira dialect">Caipira dialect</a>. Further rhotacism in the nationwide vernacular includes <i>planta</i>, "plant", as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈpɾɐ̃tɐ]</span>, <i>lava</i>, "<a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a>", as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈlarvɐ/</span> (then homophonous with <i>larva</i>, worm/maggot), <i>lagarto</i>, "lizard", as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[laʁˈɡaʁtu]</span> (in dialects with guttural coda <i>r</i> instead of a <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar flap">tap</a>) and <i>advogado</i>, "lawyer", as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐ̞de̞vo̞ʁˈɡadu]</span>. The nonstandard patterns are largely marginalised, and rhotacism is regarded as a sign of speech-language pathology or illiteracy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanesco_Italian">Romanesco Italian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Romanesco Italian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rhotacism, in <a href="/wiki/Romanesco_dialect" title="Romanesco dialect">Romanesco</a>, shifts <i>l</i> to <i>r</i> before a consonant, like certain Andalusian dialects of Spanish. Thus, Latin <i>altus</i> (tall) is <i>alto</i> in <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> but becomes <i>arto</i> in Romanesco. Rhotacism used to happen when <i>l</i> was preceded by a consonant, as in the word <i>ingrese</i> (English), but modern speech has lost that characteristic. </p><p>Another change related to <i>r</i> was the shortening of the <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a> <i>rr</i>, which is not rhotacism. Italian <i>errore</i>, <i>guerra</i> and <i>marrone</i> "error", "war", "brown" become <i>erore</i>, <i>guera</i> and <i>marone</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanian">Romanian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Romanian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, rhotacism shifted intervocalic <i>l</i> to <i>r</i> and <i>n</i> to <i>r</i>. </p><p>Thus, Latin <i>caelum</i> ‘sky; heaven’ became Romanian <i>cer</i>, Latin <i>fenestra</i> ‘window’ Romanian <i>fereastră</i> and Latin <i>felicitas</i> ‘happiness’ Romanian <i>fericire</i>. </p><p>Some northern Romanian dialects and <a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_language" title="Istro-Romanian language">Istro-Romanian</a> also changed all intervocalic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span> in words of Latin origin.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Latin <i>bonus</i> became Istro-Romanian <i>bur</i>: compare to standard Daco-Romanian <i>bun</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sicilian">Sicilian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sicilian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rhotacism is particularly widespread in the island of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, but it is almost completely absent in the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a> varieties of the mainland (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Calabria" title="Languages of Calabria">Calabrese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salentino_dialect" title="Salentino dialect">Salentino</a>). It affects intervocalic and initial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>: <i>cura</i> from Latin <i>caudam</i>, <i>peri</i> from Latin <i>pedem</i>, <i>'reci</i> from Latin <i>decem</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish">Spanish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Spanish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Andalusian_Spanish" title="Andalusian Spanish">Andalusian Spanish</a>, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>, at the end of a syllable before another consonant, <i>l</i> is replaced with <i>r</i>: <i>Huerva</i> for <i><a href="/wiki/Huelva" title="Huelva">Huelva</a></i>. The reverse occurs in <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Spanish" title="Caribbean Spanish">Caribbean Spanish</a>: <i>Puelto Rico</i> for <i><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></i> (lambdacism). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_languages">Other languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rhotacism (<i>mola</i> > <i>mora</i>, <i>filum</i> > <i>fir</i>, <i>sal</i> > <i>sare</i>) exists in some <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Italic_languages" title="Gallo-Italic languages">Gallo-Italic languages</a> as well: <a href="/wiki/Lombard_language" title="Lombard language">Lombard</a> (<a href="/wiki/Western_Lombard_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Lombard dialect">Western</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alpine_Lombard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alpine Lombard (page does not exist)">Alpine</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/lombard_alpin" class="extiw" title="lmo:lombard alpin">lmo</a>; <a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/dialetto_lombardo_alpino" class="extiw" title="it:dialetto lombardo alpino">it</a>]</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Ligurian_(Romance_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligurian (Romance language)">Ligurian</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Umbrian_language" title="Umbrian language">Umbrian</a> but not <a href="/wiki/Oscan_language" title="Oscan language">Oscan</a>, rhotacism of intervocalic <i>s</i> occurred as in Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Turkic">Turkic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Turkic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Oghur_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Oghur languages">Oghur branch</a> exhibits <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, opposing to the rest of Turkic, which exhibits <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span>. In this case, rhotacism refers to the development of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-/r/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-/z/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-/d/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-/k/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-/kh/</span> in this branch.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="South_Slavic_languages">South Slavic languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: South Slavic languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>(This section relies on the treatment in Greenberg 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p><p>In some <a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic languages</a>, rhotacism occasionally changes a voiced palatal fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʒ]</span> to a dental or alveolar tap or trill <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span> between vowels: </p> <ul><li><i>moreš</i> (<a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kajkavian" title="Kajkavian">Kajkavian</a> <a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian</a>) 'you can' from earlier <i>možešь</i></li> <li><i>kdor</i> (Slovene) from earlier *<i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/k%D1%8Ato" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/kъto">kъto</a>-<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/%C5%BEe" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/že">že</a></i></li></ul> <p>The beginning of the change is attested in the <a href="/wiki/Freising_manuscripts" title="Freising manuscripts">Freising manuscripts</a> from the 10th century AD, which show both the archaism (<i>ise</i> 'which' < *<i>jь-že</i>) and the innovation (<i>tere</i> 'also' < *<i>te-<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/%C5%BEe" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/že">že</a></i>). The shift is also found in individual lexical items in <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_dialects" title="Bulgarian dialects">Bulgarian dialects</a>, <i>дорде</i> 'until' (< *<i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/do" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/do">do</a>-<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/%C5%BEe" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/že">že</a>-dĕ</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a>, <i>сеѓере</i> (archaic: 'always' <<i>*<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/v%D1%8C%C5%9Beg%D1%8Ada" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/vьśegъda">vьsegъda</a></i>-<i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/%C5%BEe" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/že">že</a></i>). However, the results of the sound change have largely been reversed by lexical replacement in dialects in Serbia and Bosnia from the 14th century. </p><p>Dialects in <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a> have preserved more of the lexical items with the change and have even extended grammatical markers in <i>-r</i> from many sources that formally merged with the rhotic forms that arose from the sound change: Slovene dialect <i>nocor</i> 'tonight' (< *<i>not'ь-sь-ǫ-</i> + <i>-r-</i>) on the model of <i>večer</i> 'evening' (< *<i>večerъ</i>). The reversal of the change is evident in dialects in Serbia in which the <i>-r-</i> formant is systematically removed: Serbian <i>veče</i> 'evening'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lambdacism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lambdacism">Lambdacism</a>, the related condition or phonetic shift with regard to the sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-collins_american-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-collins_american_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/rhotacism">"American English Dictionary: Definition of rhotacism"</a>. Collins<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 13,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+English+Dictionary%3A+Definition+of+rhotacism&rft.pub=Collins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Famerican%2Frhotacism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhotacism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Catford2001-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Catford2001_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Catford2001_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Catford2001_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Catford2001_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCatford2001">Catford (2001</a>:178)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrask2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Trask" title="Larry Trask">Trask, R. Larry</a> (2008), Wheeler, Max W. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110607202936/http://www.sussex.ac.uk/linguistics/documents/lxwp23-08_edb.pdf"><i>A Historical Dictionary of Basque</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, University of Essex, p. 29, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sussex.ac.uk/linguistics/documents/lxwp23-08_edb.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on June 7, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 22,</span> 2011</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical+Dictionary+of+Basque&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=University+of+Essex&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Trask&rft.aufirst=R.+Larry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sussex.ac.uk%2Flinguistics%2Fdocuments%2Flxwp23-08_edb.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhotacism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCatford2001">Catford (2001</a>:179)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Hofmann, A.T. Popkema, Altfriesisches Handwörterbuch (Heidelberg 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1994" class="citation book cs1">Harris, John (1994). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englishsoundstru00harr_482"><i>English Sound Structure</i></a></span>. Blackwell. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englishsoundstru00harr_482/page/n67">121</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18741-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18741-3"><bdi>0-631-18741-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Sound+Structure&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-631-18741-3&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenglishsoundstru00harr_482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhotacism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadefoged2006" class="citation book cs1">Ladefoged, Peter (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/courseinphonetic00lade_0/page/171"><i>A Course in Phonetics</i></a></span>. Thomson. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/courseinphonetic00lade_0/page/171">171–3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4130-0688-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4130-0688-9"><bdi>978-1-4130-0688-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Course+in+Phonetics&rft.pages=171-3&rft.pub=Thomson&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4130-0688-9&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcourseinphonetic00lade_0%2Fpage%2F171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhotacism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=robus1">robus<sup>1</sup></a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=robur">rōbur</a>. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Latin_Dictionary" title="A Latin Dictionary">A Latin Dictionary</a></i> on <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rosemeyer2014-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rosemeyer2014_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalte_Rosemeyer2014" class="citation book cs1">Malte Rosemeyer (15 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QhVXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA81"><i>Auxiliary Selection in Spanish: Gradience, gradualness, and conservation</i></a>. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-7040-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-7040-5"><bdi>978-90-272-7040-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Auxiliary+Selection+in+Spanish%3A+Gradience%2C+gradualness%2C+and+conservation&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2014-04-15&rft.isbn=978-90-272-7040-5&rft.au=Malte+Rosemeyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQhVXAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhotacism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNandris1963">Nandris (1963</a>:255–258)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buck, Carl Darling. 1904. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/grammarofoscanum00buckuoft#page/74/mode/2up"><i>A grammar of Oscan and Umbrian: with a collection of inscriptions and a glossary</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larry Clark, "Chuvash", in <i>The Turkic Languages</i>, eds. Lars Johanson & Éva Ágnes Csató (London–NY: Routledge, 2006), 434–452.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg1999">Greenberg (1999)</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhotacism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatford2001" class="citation cs2">Catford, J.C. (2001), "On Rs, rhotacism and paleophony", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, <b>31</b> (2): 171–185, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100301002018">10.1017/S0025100301002018</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143611805">143611805</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=On+Rs%2C+rhotacism+and+paleophony&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=171-185&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100301002018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143611805%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Catford&rft.aufirst=J.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhotacism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowley1997" class="citation book cs1">Crowley, Terry (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi03edcrow"><i>An Introduction to Historical Linguistics</i></a></span> (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195583786" title="Special:BookSources/9780195583786"><bdi>9780195583786</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Historical+Linguistics&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780195583786&rft.aulast=Crowley&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontohi03edcrow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhotacism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg1999" class="citation cs2">Greenberg, Marc L. (1999), "Multiple Causation in the Spread and Reversal of a Sound Change: Rhotacism in South Slavic", <i>Slovenski Jezik/Slovene Linguistics Studies</i>, <b>2</b>: 63–76 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://hdl.handle.net/1808/803">http://hdl.handle.net/1808/803</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slovenski+Jezik%2FSlovene+Linguistics+Studies&rft.atitle=Multiple+Causation+in+the+Spread+and+Reversal+of+a+Sound+Change%3A+Rhotacism+in+South+Slavic&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=63-76+http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F1808%2F803&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Marc+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhotacism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNandris1963" class="citation cs2">Nandris, O (1963), <i>Phonétique Historique du Roumain</i>, Paris: Klincksiek</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phon%C3%A9tique+Historique+du+Roumain&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Klincksiek&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Nandris&rft.aufirst=O&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhotacism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:LetterR" title="Template:LetterR"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:LetterR" title="Template talk:LetterR"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:LetterR" title="Special:EditPage/Template:LetterR"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_letter_R" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">The letter <a href="/wiki/R" title="R">R</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic consonants (R-like sounds)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception_of_English_/r/_and_/l/_by_Japanese_speakers" title="Perception of English /r/ and /l/ by Japanese speakers">Perception of English /r/ and /l/ by Japanese speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_/r/" title="Pronunciation of English /r/">Pronunciation of English /r/</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">R-colored vowel</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhotacism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guttural_R" title="Guttural R">Guttural R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linking_and_intrusive_R" title="Linking and intrusive R">Linking and intrusive R</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pronunciations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_trill" title="Voiceless alveolar trill">Voiceless alveolar trill</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r̥]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_trills" title="Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills">Voiced alveolar trill</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_and_postalveolar_approximants" title="Voiced alveolar and postalveolar approximants">Voiced alveolar or postalveolar approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɹ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_tap_and_flap" title="Voiceless alveolar tap and flap">Voiceless alveolar tap</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ̥]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">Voiced alveolar tap</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_lateral_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar lateral flaps">Voiced alveolar lateral flap</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɺ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">Voiced retroflex approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɻ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_flap" title="Voiced retroflex flap">Voiced retroflex flap</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɽ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_trill" title="Voiced retroflex trill">Voiced retroflex trill</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɽr]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_approximant" title="Voiced velar approximant">Voiced velar approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɰ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_bunched_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced velar bunched approximant">Voiced velar bunched approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɹ̈]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">Voiceless velar fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">Voiced velar fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_trill" title="Voiceless uvular trill">Voiceless uvular trill</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʀ̥]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_trill" title="Voiced uvular trill">Voiced uvular trill</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʀ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">Voiceless uvular fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[χ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">Voiced uvular fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʁ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">Voiced pharyngeal fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʕ]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">Voiceless glottal fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">Voiced glottal fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɦ]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ꝛꝛ (<a href="/wiki/R_rotunda" title="R rotunda">R rotunda</a>)</li> <li>Ꞃꞃ (<a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular</a>)</li> <li>Ɽɽ (<a href="/wiki/R_with_tail" title="R with tail">R with tail</a>)</li> <li>Ɍɍ (<a href="/wiki/R_with_stroke" title="R with stroke">R with stroke</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yr_rune_(Younger_Futhark)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yr rune (Younger Futhark)">Ʀʀ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_grave_accent" title="Double grave accent">Ȑȑ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%94" title="Ŕ">Ŕŕ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedilla" title="Cedilla">Ŗŗ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%98" title="Ř">Řř</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C8%92" title="Ȓ">Ȓȓ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%CC%83" title="R̃">R̃r̃</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)" title="Dot (diacritic)">Ṙṙ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9A" title="Ṛ">Ṛṛ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%CC%84" class="mw-redirect" title="R̄">R̄r̄</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9C" title="Ṝ">Ṝṝ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="Ṟ">Ṟṟ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rd_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rd (digraph)">Rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rh_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rh (digraph)">Rh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rl_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rl (digraph)">Rl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rm_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rm (digraph)">Rm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rn_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rn (digraph)">Rn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rp (digraph)">Rp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rr_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rr (digraph)">Rr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rs_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rs (digraph)">Rs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rt_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rt (digraph)">Rt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rw_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rw (digraph)">Rw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rz_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rz (digraph)">Rz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rnd_(trigraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rnd (trigraph)">Rnd</a></li> <li>ᚱ (<a href="/wiki/Raido" title="Raido">Raidô</a>)</li> <li>ℝ (<a href="/wiki/Real_number" title="Real number">Real number</a>)</li> <li>® (<a href="/wiki/Registered_trademark_symbol" title="Registered trademark symbol">Registered trademark symbol</a>)</li> <li>Ⓡ (<a href="/wiki/Enclosed_R" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclosed R">Enclosed R</a>)</li> <li>℞ (<a href="/wiki/Medical_prescription" title="Medical prescription">Medical prescription</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" 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