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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-sectarian_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Pre-sectarian Buddhism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pre-sectarian_Buddhism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pre-sectarian Buddhism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pre-sectarian_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preparatory_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preparatory_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Preparatory practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preparatory_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sati/smrti_(mindfulness)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sati/smrti_(mindfulness)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Sati/smrti (mindfulness) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sati/smrti_(mindfulness)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anussati_(recollections)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anussati_(recollections)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Anussati (recollections) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anussati_(recollections)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asubha_bhavana_(reflection_on_unattractiveness)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asubha_bhavana_(reflection_on_unattractiveness)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Asubha bhavana (reflection on unattractiveness) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asubha_bhavana_(reflection_on_unattractiveness)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anapanasati_(mindfulness_of_breathing)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anapanasati_(mindfulness_of_breathing)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anapanasati_(mindfulness_of_breathing)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dhyāna/jhāna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dhyāna/jhāna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Dhyāna/jhāna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dhyāna/jhāna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Four_rupa-jhanas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Four_rupa-jhanas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6.1 Four rupa-jhanas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Four_rupa-jhanas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Qualities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6.1.1 Qualities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qualities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6.1.2 Interpretation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arupas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arupas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6.2 Arupas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arupas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jhana_and_insight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jhana_and_insight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6.3 Jhana and insight </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jhana_and_insight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brahmavihāra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brahmavihāra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Brahmavihāra </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brahmavihāra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Early Buddhism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_Buddhism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early Buddhism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Samatha_(serenity)_and_vipassana_(insight)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samatha_(serenity)_and_vipassana_(insight)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Samatha (serenity) and vipassana (insight) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samatha_(serenity)_and_vipassana_(insight)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theravāda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theravāda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Theravāda </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theravāda-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Theravāda subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Theravāda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sutta_Pitaka_and_early_commentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sutta_Pitaka_and_early_commentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Sutta Pitaka and early commentaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sutta_Pitaka_and_early_commentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhaghosa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhaghosa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Buddhaghosa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhaghosa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_Theravāda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_Theravāda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Contemporary Theravāda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_Theravāda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vipassana_and/or_samatha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vipassana_and/or_samatha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Vipassana and/or samatha </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vipassana_and/or_samatha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vipassana_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vipassana_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Vipassana movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vipassana_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thai_Forest_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thai_Forest_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Thai Forest tradition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thai_Forest_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 Other forms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sarvāstivāda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sarvāstivāda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Sarvāstivāda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sarvāstivāda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Mahāyāna_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Mahāyāna_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Indian_Mahāyāna_Buddhism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Indian_Mahāyāna_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_the_Prajñāpāramitā_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Prajñāpāramitā_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 In the Prajñāpāramitā literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Prajñāpāramitā_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Innovative_meditation_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Innovative_meditation_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Innovative meditation methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Innovative_meditation_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asian_Mahāyāna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asian_Mahāyāna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 East Asian Mahāyāna </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-East_Asian_Mahāyāna-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle East Asian Mahāyāna subsection </button> <ul id="toc-East_Asian_Mahāyāna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-East_Asian_Yogācāra_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asian_Yogācāra_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 East Asian Yogācāra methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asian_Yogācāra_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tiantai_śamatha-vipaśyanā" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tiantai_śamatha-vipaśyanā"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Tiantai śamatha-vipaśyanā </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tiantai_śamatha-vipaśyanā-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Esoteric_practices_in_Japanese_Tendai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Esoteric_practices_in_Japanese_Tendai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Esoteric practices in Japanese Tendai </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Esoteric_practices_in_Japanese_Tendai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Huayan_meditation_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Huayan_meditation_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Huayan meditation theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Huayan_meditation_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pure_land_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pure_land_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Pure land Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pure_land_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chán" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chán"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Chán </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chán-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tantric_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tantric_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Tantric Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tantric_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Therapeutic_uses_of_meditation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Therapeutic_uses_of_meditation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Therapeutic uses of meditation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Therapeutic_uses_of_meditation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Key terms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Buddhist meditation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" > 25 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%84_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B0%D9%8A" title="تأمل بوذي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تأمل بوذي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বৌদ্ধ ধ্যান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৌদ্ধ ধ্যান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%9E_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Мэдытацыя ў будызьме – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мэдытацыя ў будызьме" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Будистка медитация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Будистка медитация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budisti%C4%8Dka_meditacija" title="Budistička meditacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Budistička meditacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myfyrdod_Bwdhaidd" title="Myfyrdod Bwdhaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Myfyrdod Bwdhaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budistlik_meditatsioon" title="Budistlik meditatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Budistlik meditatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditaci%C3%B3n_budista" title="Meditación budista – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Meditación budista" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9ditation_bouddhique" title="Méditation bouddhique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Méditation bouddhique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B0%B8%EC%84%A0" title="참선 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="참선" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditasi_(Buddhisme)" title="Meditasi (Buddhisme) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Meditasi (Buddhisme)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditazione_buddista" title="Meditazione buddista – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Meditazione buddista" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhista_medit%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Buddhista meditáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Buddhista meditáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_(%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7)" title="ध्यान (बौद्ध) – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ध्यान (बौद्ध)" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A6%85%E5%AE%9A" title="禅定 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="禅定" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhistisk_meditasjon" title="Buddhistisk meditasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Monkey_gives_honey_to_Buddha_Shakyamuni%2C_India%2C_Bihar%2C_probably_Kurkihar%2C_Pala_dynasty%2C_c._1000_AD%2C_black_stone_-_%C3%96stasiatiska_museet%2C_Stockholm_-_DSC09270.JPG/260px-Monkey_gives_honey_to_Buddha_Shakyamuni%2C_India%2C_Bihar%2C_probably_Kurkihar%2C_Pala_dynasty%2C_c._1000_AD%2C_black_stone_-_%C3%96stasiatiska_museet%2C_Stockholm_-_DSC09270.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="373" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Monkey_gives_honey_to_Buddha_Shakyamuni%2C_India%2C_Bihar%2C_probably_Kurkihar%2C_Pala_dynasty%2C_c._1000_AD%2C_black_stone_-_%C3%96stasiatiska_museet%2C_Stockholm_-_DSC09270.JPG/390px-Monkey_gives_honey_to_Buddha_Shakyamuni%2C_India%2C_Bihar%2C_probably_Kurkihar%2C_Pala_dynasty%2C_c._1000_AD%2C_black_stone_-_%C3%96stasiatiska_museet%2C_Stockholm_-_DSC09270.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Monkey_gives_honey_to_Buddha_Shakyamuni%2C_India%2C_Bihar%2C_probably_Kurkihar%2C_Pala_dynasty%2C_c._1000_AD%2C_black_stone_-_%C3%96stasiatiska_museet%2C_Stockholm_-_DSC09270.JPG/520px-Monkey_gives_honey_to_Buddha_Shakyamuni%2C_India%2C_Bihar%2C_probably_Kurkihar%2C_Pala_dynasty%2C_c._1000_AD%2C_black_stone_-_%C3%96stasiatiska_museet%2C_Stockholm_-_DSC09270.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3518" data-file-height="5042" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha Shakyamuni</a> meditating in the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_position" title="Lotus position">lotus position</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, probably Kurkihar, <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala dynasty</a>, c. 1000 AD, black stone – Östasiatiska museet, <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:16.0em;border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFD068">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism" title="Category:Buddhism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD068"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/90px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/135px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/180px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="697" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline in the Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Later Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Concepts</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharma wheel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Five Aggregates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicca">Impermanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Not-self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Dependent Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">Buddhavacana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Sanskrit literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-canonical_Buddhist_texts" title="Post-canonical Buddhist texts">Post-canon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Practices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Paths_to_liberation" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Paths to liberation">Buddhist Paths to liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Perfections</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophical reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotional practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Mindfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Sublime abidings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Aids to Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Lay life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_chant" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist chant">Buddhist chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvāṇa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four Stages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyekabuddha">Pratyekabuddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddha</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Traditions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Buddhism by country</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/16px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/24px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/32px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="697" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Buddhism" title="Portal:Buddhism">Buddhism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:18.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Lotus_position.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Lotus_position.svg/60px-Lotus_position.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Lotus_position.svg/90px-Lotus_position.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Lotus_position.svg/120px-Lotus_position.svg.png 2x" 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title="Vipassanā">Vipassanā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Psychology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_stress_reduction" title="Mindfulness-based stress reduction">Mindfulness-based stress reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_cognitive_therapy" title="Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy">Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_pain_management" title="Mindfulness-based pain management">Mindfulness-based pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy" title="Acceptance and commitment therapy">Acceptance and commitment therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_behavior_therapy" title="Dialectical behavior therapy">Dialectical behavior therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_deactivation_therapy" title="Mode deactivation therapy">Mode deactivation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morita_therapy" title="Morita therapy">Morita therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakomi" title="Hakomi">Hakomi therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness_(journal)" title="Mindfulness (journal)">Mindfulness (journal)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Other</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Buddhism and psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Similar concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wakefulness" title="Wakefulness">Wakefulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alertness" title="Alertness">Alertness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientiousness" title="Conscientiousness">Conscientiousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemplation" title="Contemplation">Contemplation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epoch%C3%A9" title="Epoché">Epoché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choiceless_awareness" title="Choiceless awareness">Choiceless awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_tank" title="Isolation tank">Isolation tank</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Mindfulness" title="Category:Mindfulness">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mindfulness" title="Template:Mindfulness"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mindfulness" title="Template talk:Mindfulness"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mindfulness" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mindfulness"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Buddhist meditation is the practice of <a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are <a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">bhāvanā</a> ("mental development")<a href="#cite_note-bhāvanā-1">[note 1]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">jhāna/dhyāna</a> (mental training resulting in a calm and <a href="/wiki/Luminous_mind" title="Luminous mind">luminous mind</a>).<a href="#cite_note-dhyana-2">[note 2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhists</a> pursue meditation as part of the path toward <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">liberation</a> from defilements (<a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">kleshas</a>) and clinging and craving (<a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81d%C4%81na" title="Upādāna">upādāna</a>), also called <a href="/wiki/Bodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhi">awakening</a>, which results in the attainment of <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a>,<a href="#cite_note-3">[note 3]</a> and includes a variety of meditation techniques, most notably <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">anapanasati</a> (mindfulness of breathing). Other techniques include <a href="/wiki/Patikulamanasikara" title="Patikulamanasikara">asubha bhavana</a> ("reflections on repulsiveness");<a href="#cite_note-Deleanu-4">[1]</a> reflection on <a href="/wiki/Pratityasamutpada" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratityasamutpada">pratityasamutpada</a> (dependent origination); <a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">anussati</a> (recollections, including anapanasati) and <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">sati</a> (mindfulness), culminating in dhyana (developing an alert and <a href="/wiki/Luminous_mind" title="Luminous mind">luminous mind</a>);<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988-5">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-6">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anālayo_2017,_p_109-7">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016-8">[5]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Brahma-viharas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahma-viharas">Brahma-viharas</a> (loving-kindness and compassion). These techniques aim to develop equanimity and <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">sati</a> (mindfulness); <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a> (unification of mind) c.q. <a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">samatha</a> (tranquility) and <a href="/wiki/Vipassan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassanā">vipassanā</a> (insight); and are also said to lead to <a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">abhijñā</a> (supramundane powers). These meditation techniques are preceded by and combined with practices which aid this development, such as moral restraint and right effort to develop wholesome states of mind. While these techniques are used across <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Buddhist schools</a>, there is also significant diversity. A basic classification of meditation techniques is samatha (calming the mind) and vipassana (gaining insight). In the Theravada tradition, emphasizing vipassana, these are seen as opposing techniques,<a href="#cite_note-9">[note 4]</a> while Mahayana Buddhism stresses the interplay between samatha and vipassana.<a href="#cite_note-10">[6]</a> In both traditions, breath meditation is a central practice. Chinese and Japanese Buddhism also preserved a wide range of meditation techniques, which go back to early Buddhism, and were transmitted via <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a> Buddhism. In Tibetan Buddhism, <a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">deity yoga</a> includes visualisations, which precede the realization of <a href="/wiki/Sunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunyata">sunyata</a> ("emptiness").<a href="#cite_note-11">[note 5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are <a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">bhāvanā</a> (mental development)<a href="#cite_note-bhāvanā-1">[note 1]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">jhāna/dhyāna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dhyana-2">[note 2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Possible_influence_from_pre-Buddhist_India">Possible influence from pre-Buddhist India</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Possible influence from pre-Buddhist India">edit</a>]</div> Modern Buddhist studies have attempted to reconstruct the meditation practices of <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">early Buddhism</a>, mainly through philological and text critical methods using the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">early canonical texts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2012-12">[7]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">Indologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bronkhorst" title="Johannes Bronkhorst">Johannes Bronkhorst</a>, "the teaching of the Buddha as presented in the early canon contains a number of contradictions,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20122-13">[8]</a> presenting "a variety of methods that do not always agree with each other,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20124-14">[9]</a> containing "views and practices that are sometimes accepted and sometimes rejected."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20122-13">[8]</a> These contradictions are due to the influence of non-Buddhist traditions on early Buddhism. One example of these non-Buddhist meditative methods found in the early sources is outlined by Bronkhorst: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The <a href="/wiki/Vitakkasanthana_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitakkasanthana Sutta">Vitakkasanthāna Sutta</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Majjhima_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Majjhima Nikaya">Majjhima Nikāya</a> and its parallels in Chinese translation recommend the practicing monk to ‘restrain his thought with his mind, to coerce and torment it’. Exactly the same words are used elsewhere in the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli canon</a> (in the Mahāsaccaka Sutta, Bodhirājakumāra Sutta and Saṅgārava Sutta) in order to describe the futile attempts of the Buddha before his enlightenment to reach liberation after the manner of the <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2012-12">[7]</a></blockquote> According to Bronkhorst, such practices which are based on a "suppression of activity" are not authentically Buddhist, but were later adopted from the <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jains</a> by the Buddhist community. The two major traditions of meditative practice in pre-Buddhist India were the <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain</a> <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">ascetic</a> practices and the various <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic</a> <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Brahmanical</a> practices. There is still much debate in Buddhist studies regarding how much influence these two traditions had on the development of early Buddhist meditation. The early Buddhist texts mention that Gautama trained under two teachers known as <a href="/wiki/%C4%80%E1%B8%B7%C4%81ra_K%C4%81l%C4%81ma" title="Āḷāra Kālāma">Āḷāra Kālāma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uddaka_R%C4%81maputta" title="Uddaka Rāmaputta">Uddaka Rāmaputta</a>, both of them taught <a href="/wiki/Ar%C5%ABpajh%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Arūpajhāna">formless</a> <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">jhanas</a> or mental absorptions, a key practice of Theravada Buddhist meditation.<a href="#cite_note-15">[10]</a> Alexander Wynne considers these figures historical persons associated with the doctrines of the early <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[11]</a> Other practices which the Buddha undertook have been associated with the Jain ascetic tradition by the <a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">Indologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bronkhorst" title="Johannes Bronkhorst">Johannes Bronkhorst</a> including extreme <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a> and a forceful "meditation without breathing".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst199310-17">[12]</a> According to the early texts, the Buddha rejected the more extreme Jain ascetic practices in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">middle way</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-sectarian_Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pre-sectarian Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lying_Buddha_Statue_Polonnaruwa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Lying_Buddha_Statue_Polonnaruwa.jpg/220px-Lying_Buddha_Statue_Polonnaruwa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Lying_Buddha_Statue_Polonnaruwa.jpg/330px-Lying_Buddha_Statue_Polonnaruwa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Lying_Buddha_Statue_Polonnaruwa.jpg/440px-Lying_Buddha_Statue_Polonnaruwa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1105" /></a><figcaption>The early Buddhist tradition also taught other meditation postures, such as the standing posture and the lion posture performed lying down on one side.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Early Buddhism</a>, as it existed before the development of various schools, is called <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">pre-sectarian Buddhism</a>. Its meditation-techniques are described in the Pali Canon and the Chinese <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Agamas</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preparatory_practices">Preparatory practices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Preparatory practices">edit</a>]</div> Meditation and contemplation are preceded by preparatory practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988-5">[2]</a> As described in the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, right view leads to leaving the household life and becoming a wandering <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monk</a>. Sila, morality, comprises the rules for right conduct. Sense restraint and <a href="/wiki/Right_effort" class="mw-redirect" title="Right effort">right effort</a>, c.q. the <a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">four right efforts</a>, are important preparatory practices. Sense restraint means controlling the response to sensual perceptions, not giving in to lust and aversion but simply noticing the objects of perception as they appear.<a href="#cite_note-18">[13]</a> Right effort aims to prevent the arising of unwholesome states, and to generate wholesome states. By following these preparatory steps and practices, the mind becomes set, almost naturally, for the onset of dhyana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxv-19">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011-20">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[note 6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sati/smrti_(mindfulness)">Sati/smrti (mindfulness)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sati/smrti (mindfulness)">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati (Buddhism)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana_Sutta" title="Satipatthana Sutta">Satipatthana Sutta</a></div> An important quality to be cultivated by a Buddhist meditator is <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">mindfulness (sati)</a>. Mindfulness is a polyvalent term which refers to remembering, recollecting and "bearing in mind". It also relates to remembering the teachings of the Buddha and knowing how these teachings relate to one's experiences. The Buddhist texts mention different kinds of mindfulness practice. The Pali <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana_Sutta" title="Satipatthana Sutta">Satipatthana Sutta</a> and its parallels as well as numerous other <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">early Buddhist texts</a> enumerates four subjects (satipaṭṭhānas) on which <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">mindfulness</a> is established: the body (including the four elements, the <a href="/wiki/Patikulamanasikara" title="Patikulamanasikara">parts of the body</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maranasati" class="mw-redirect" title="Maranasati">death</a>); feelings (<a href="/wiki/Vedan%C4%81" title="Vedanā">vedana</a>); mind (citta); and phenomena or principles (<a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma (Buddhism)">dhammas</a>), such as the <a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">five hindrances</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Factors of Enlightenment">seven factors of enlightenment</a>. Different early texts give different enumerations of these four mindfulness practices. Meditation on these subjects is said to develop insight.<a href="#cite_note-22">[16]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bronkhorst" title="Johannes Bronkhorst">Bronkhorst</a>, there were originally two kinds of mindfulness, "observations of the positions of the body" and the <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">four satipaṭṭhānas</a>, the "establishment of mindfulness," which constituted formal meditation.<a href="#cite_note-Bhikkhu_148-23">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Sujato" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhikkhu Sujato">Bhikkhu Sujato</a> and Bronkhorst both argue that the mindfulness of the positions of the body (which is actually "clear comprehension") wasn't originally part of the four satipatthana formula, but was later added to it in some texts.<a href="#cite_note-Bhikkhu_148-23">[17]</a> Bronkhorst (1985) also argues that the earliest form of the satipaṭṭhāna sutta only contained the observation of the impure body parts under mindfulness of the body, and that mindfulness of dhammas was originally just the observation of the seven awakening factors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuan2008107-24">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[note 7]</a> Sujato's reconstruction similarly only retains the contemplation of the impure under mindfulness of the body, while including only the five hindrances and the seven awakening factors under mindfulness of dhammas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuan2008108-26">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[note 8]</a> According to Analayo, mindfulness of breathing was probably absent from the original scheme, noting that one can easily contemplate the body's decay taking an external object, that is, someone else's body, but not be externally mindfull of the breath, that is, someone else's breath. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnālayo201348-49-28">[20]</a> According to Grzegorz Polak, the four upassanā have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations of which one should be aware, but are an alternate description of the jhanas, describing how the <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">samskharas</a> are tranquilized:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011153–156,_196–197-29">[21]</a> <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Ayatana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatana">six sense-bases</a> which one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā);</li> <li>contemplation on <a href="/wiki/Vedan%C4%81" title="Vedanā">vedanās</a>, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā);</li> <li>the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā);</li> <li>the development from the <a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">five hindrances</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Seven_factors_of_enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven factors of enlightenment">seven factors of enlightenment</a> (dhammānupassanā).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anussati_(recollections)">Anussati (recollections)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Anussati (recollections)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asubha_Body_Contemplation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Asubha Contemplation Illustration" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Asubha_Body_Contemplation.png/220px-Asubha_Body_Contemplation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Asubha_Body_Contemplation.png 1.5x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="268" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of <a href="/wiki/Mara%E1%B9%87asati" title="Maraṇasati">mindfulness of death</a> using corpses in a <a href="/wiki/Charnel_ground" title="Charnel ground">charnel ground</a>, a subset of mindfulness of the body, the first <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">satipatthana</a>. From an early-20th-century manuscript found in <a href="/wiki/Chaiya_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaiya District">Chaiya District</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surat_Thani_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Surat Thani Province">Surat Thani Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[22]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Anussati</a> (<a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli">Pāli</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: Anusmriti) means "recollection," "contemplation," "remembrance," "meditation" and "mindfulness."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhys-DavidsStede1921–2545,_"Anussati"-31">[23]</a> It refers to specific meditative or devotional practices, such as recollecting the sublime qualities of <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">the Buddha</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">anapanasati</a> (mindfulness of breathing), which lead to <a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">mental tranquillity</a> and <a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">abiding joy</a>. In various contexts, the <a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Pali literature</a> and Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a> emphasize and identify different enumerations of recollections. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asubha_bhavana_(reflection_on_unattractiveness)">Asubha bhavana (reflection on unattractiveness)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Asubha bhavana (reflection on unattractiveness)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Patikulamanasikara" title="Patikulamanasikara">Patikulamanasikara</a></div> Asubha bhavana is reflection on "the foul"/unattractiveness (Pāli: asubha). It includes two practices, namely cemetery contemplations, and Paṭikkūlamanasikāra, "reflections on repulsiveness". Patikulamanasikara is a Buddhist meditation whereby thirty-one parts of the body are contemplated in a variety of ways. In addition to developing <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">sati</a> (mindfulness) and <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samādhi</a> (concentration, dhyana), this form of meditation is considered to be conducive to overcoming desire and lust.<a href="#cite_note-Nanamoli1998-32">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anapanasati_(mindfulness_of_breathing)">Anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anapanasati Sutta">Anapanasati Sutta</a></div> Anapanasati, mindfulness of breathing, is a core meditation practice in Theravada, Tiantai and Chan traditions of Buddhism as well as a part of many <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">mindfulness</a> programs. In both ancient and modern times, anapanasati by itself is likely the most widely used Buddhist method for contemplating bodily phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnālayo2003125-33">[25]</a> The Ānāpānasati Sutta specifically concerns mindfulness of inhalation and exhalation, as a part of paying attention to one's body in quietude, and recommends the practice of anapanasati meditation as a means of cultivating the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Factors of Enlightenment">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a>: sati (mindfulness), <a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">dhamma vicaya</a> (analysis), <a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">viriya</a> (persistence), which leads to <a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">pīti</a> (rapture), then to <a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">passaddhi</a> (serenity), which in turn leads to <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a> (concentration) and then to <a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">upekkhā</a> (equanimity). Finally, the Buddha taught that, with these factors developed in this progression, the practice of anapanasati would lead to release (Pali: vimutti; Sanskrit mokṣa) from <a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a> (suffering), in which one realizes <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nibbana</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dhyāna/jhāna">Dhyāna/jhāna</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Dhyāna/jhāna">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">Dhyāna in Buddhism</a></div> Many scholars of early Buddhism, such as Vetter, Bronkhorst and Anālayo, see the practice of jhāna (Sanskrit: dhyāna) as central to the meditation of Early Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988-5">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-6">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anālayo_2017,_p_109-7">[4]</a> According to Bronkhorst, the oldest Buddhist meditation practice are the <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">four dhyanas</a>, which lead to the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Asava" title="Asava">asavas</a> as well as the practice of <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">mindfulness</a> (sati).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2012-12">[7]</a> According to Vetter, the practice of dhyana may have constituted the core liberating practice of early Buddhism, since in this state all "pleasure and pain" had waned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988-5">[2]</a> According to Vetter, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[P]robably the word "immortality" (a-mata) was used by the Buddha for the first interpretation of this experience and not the term cessation of suffering that belongs to the four noble truths [...] the Buddha did not achieve the experience of salvation by discerning the four noble truths and/or other data. But his experience must have been of such a nature that it could bear the interpretation "achieving immortality".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter19885–6-34">[26]</a></blockquote> Alexander Wynne agrees that the Buddha taught a kind of meditation exemplified by the four dhyanas, but argues that the Buddha adopted these from the <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a> teachers <a href="/wiki/%C4%80%E1%B8%B7%C4%81ra_K%C4%81l%C4%81ma" title="Āḷāra Kālāma">Āḷāra Kālāma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uddaka_R%C4%81maputta" title="Uddaka Rāmaputta">Uddaka Rāmaputta</a>, though he did not interpret them in the same Vedic cosmological way and rejected their Vedic goal (union with Brahman). The Buddha, according to Wynne, radically transformed the practice of dhyana which he learned from these Brahmins which "consisted of the adaptation of the old yogic techniques to the practice of mindfulness and attainment of insight".<a href="#cite_note-35">[27]</a> For Wynne, this idea that liberation required not just meditation but an act of insight, was radically different from the Brahminic meditation, "where it was thought that the yogin must be without any mental activity at all, ‘like a log of wood’."<a href="#cite_note-36">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Four_rupa-jhanas">Four rupa-jhanas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Four rupa-jhanas">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Qualities">Qualities</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Qualities">edit</a>]</div> In the sutras, jhāna is entered when one 'sits down cross-legged and establishes mindfulness'. According to Buddhist tradition, it may be supported by <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">ānāpānasati</a>, mindfulness of breathing, a core meditative practice which can be found in almost all schools of Buddhism. The Suttapiṭaka and the Agamas describe four stages of rūpa jhāna. Rūpa refers to the material realm, in a neutral stance, as different from the kāma-realm (lust, desire) and the arūpa-realm (non-material realm).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuller-Sasaki2008-37">[29]</a> While interpreted in the Theravada-tradition as describing a deepening concentration and one-pointedness, originally the jhānas seem to describe a development from <a href="/wiki/Dhamma-vicaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma-vicaya">investigating body and mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Right_effort" class="mw-redirect" title="Right effort">abandoning unwholesome states</a>, to perfected equanimity and watchfulness,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016-8">[5]</a> an understanding which is retained in Zen and Dzogchen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011-20">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016-8">[5]</a> The stock description of the jhānas, with traditional and alternative interpretations, is as follows:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016-8">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[note 9]</a> <ol><li>First jhāna: <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Right_effort" class="mw-redirect" title="Right effort">Separated</a> (vivicceva) from desire for sensual pleasures, separated (vivicca) from [other] <a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">unwholesome states</a> (akusalehi dhammehi, unwholesome dhammas<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohansson198183-39">[30]</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">bhikkhu</a> enters upon and abides in the first jhana, which is [mental] <a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">pīti</a> ("rapture," "joy") and [bodily] <a href="/wiki/Sukha" title="Sukha">sukha</a> ("pleasure"; also: 'lasting', in contrast to 'transient' (dukkha)) "born of <a href="/wiki/Viveka" title="Viveka">viveka</a>" (traditionally, "seclusion"; alternatively, "discrimination" (of dhamma's)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel201650-51-40">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[note 10]</a>), accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Vitarka-vicara" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitarka-vicara">vitarka-vicara</a> (traditionally, initial and sustained attention to a meditative object; alternatively, initial inquiry and <a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">subsequent investigation</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWayman199748-44">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESangpoDhammajoti20122413-45">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus200289-46">[36]</a> of dhammas (<a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">defilements</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen2017"samadhi:_A_calm,_stable_and_concentrative_state_of_mind"-47">[37]</a> and wholesome thoughts<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel201673-48">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[note 11]</a>); also: "discursive thought"<a href="#cite_note-57">[note 12]</a>).</dd></dl></li> <li>Second jhāna: <dl><dd>Again, with the stilling of vitarka-vicara, a bhikkhu enters upon and abides in the second jhana, which is [mental] pīti and [bodily] sukha "born of <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a>" (samadhi-ji; trad. born of "concentration"; altern. "knowing but non-discursive [...] awareness,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel201694-58">[46]</a> "bringing the buried latencies or <a href="/wiki/Samskara_(Indian_philosophy)" title="Samskara (Indian philosophy)">samskaras</a> into full view"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus2002113-59">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[note 13]</a>), and has <a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">sampasadana</a> ("stillness,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel201686-62">[49]</a> "inner tranquility"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBucknell1993375-376-55">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[note 14]</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Ekaggata" title="Ekaggata">ekaggata</a> (unification of mind,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel201686-62">[49]</a> awareness) without <a href="/wiki/Vitarka-vicara" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitarka-vicara">vitarka-vicara</a>;</dd></dl></li> <li>Third jhāna: <dl><dd>With the fading away of pīti, a bhikkhu abides in <a href="/wiki/Upekkh%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkhā">upekkhā</a> (equanimity," "affective detachment"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBucknell1993375-376-55">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[note 15]</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">sato</a> (mindful) and [with] <a href="/wiki/Sampaja%C3%B1%C3%B1a" title="Sampajañña">sampajañña</a> ("fully knowing,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016115-65">[50]</a> "discerning awareness"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus200290-66">[51]</a>). [Still] experiencing sukha with the body, he enters upon and abides in the third jhana, on account of which the noble ones announce, "abiding in [bodily] pleasure, one is equanimous and mindful".</dd></dl></li> <li>Fourth jhāna: <dl><dd>With the abandoning of [the desire for] sukha ("pleasure") and [aversion to] <a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a> ("pain"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016124-67">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus200290-66">[51]</a>) and with the previous disappearance of [the inner movement between] somanassa ("gladness,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016125-68">[53]</a>) and domanassa ("discontent"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016125-68">[53]</a>), a bhikkhu enters upon and abides in the fourth jhana, which is adukkham asukham ("neither-painful-nor-pleasurable,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016124-67">[52]</a> "freedom from pleasure and pain"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohansson198198-69">[54]</a>) and has <a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">upekkhā</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">sati</a>-<a href="/wiki/Purity_in_Buddhism" title="Purity in Buddhism">parisuddhi</a> (complete purity of <a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">equanimity</a> and mindfulness).<a href="#cite_note-71">[note 16]</a></dd></dl></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Interpretation">Interpretation</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Interpretation">edit</a>]</div> According to Richard Gombrich, the sequence of the four rupa-jhanas describes two different cognitive states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007140,_note_58-72">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[note 17]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[57]</a> Alexander Wynne further explains that the dhyana-scheme is poorly understood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007106-75">[58]</a> According to Wynne, words expressing the inculcation of awareness, such as sati, sampajāno, and upekkhā, are mistranslated or understood as particular factors of meditative states,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007106-75">[58]</a> whereas they refer to a particular way of perceiving the sense objects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007106-75">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[note 18]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[note 19]</a> Polak notes that the qualities of the jhanas resemble the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">bojjhaṅgā</a>, the seven factors of awakening]], arguing that both sets describe the same essential practice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011-20">[15]</a> Polak further notes, elaborating on Vetter, that the onset of the first dhyana is described as a quite natural process, due to the preceding efforts to restrain the senses and the <a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">nurturing of wholesome states</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011-20">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxv-19">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Upekkh%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkhā">Upekkhā</a>, equanimity, which is perfected in the fourth dhyana, is one of the four Brahma-vihara. While the commentarial tradition downplayed the Brahma-viharas, Gombrich notes that the Buddhist usage of the brahma-vihāra, originally referred to an awakened state of mind, and a concrete attitude toward other beings which was equal to "living with <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>" here and now. The later tradition took those descriptions too literally, linking them to cosmology and understanding them as "living with Brahman" by rebirth in the Brahma-world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich199784–85-79">[60]</a> According to Gombrich, "the Buddha taught that kindness – what Christians tend to call love – was a way to salvation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich199762-80">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arupas">Arupas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Arupas">edit</a>]</div> In addition to the four <a href="/wiki/Rupajhana" class="mw-redirect" title="Rupajhana">rūpajhānas</a>, there are also meditative attainments which were later called by the tradition the <a href="/wiki/Ar%C5%ABpajh%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Arūpajhāna">arūpajhānas</a>, though the early texts do not use the term dhyana for them, calling them <a href="/wiki/Ayatana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatana">āyatana</a> (dimension, sphere, base). They are: <ul><li>The Dimension of infinite space (Pali ākāsānañcāyatana, Skt. ākāśānantyāyatana),</li> <li>The Dimension of infinite consciousness (Pali viññāṇañcāyatana, Skt. vijñānānantyāyatana),</li> <li>The Dimension of infinite nothingness (Pali ākiñcaññāyatana, Skt. ākiṃcanyāyatana),</li> <li>The Dimension of neither perception nor non-perception (Pali nevasaññānāsaññāyatana, Skt. naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana).</li> <li>Nirodha-samāpatti, also called saññā-vedayita-nirodha, 'extinction of feeling and perception'.</li></ul> These formless jhanas may have been incorporated from non-Buddhist traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-6">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007-81">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jhana_and_insight">Jhana and insight</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Jhana and insight">edit</a>]</div> Various early sources mention the attainment of insight after having achieved jhana. In the Mahasaccaka Sutta, dhyana is followed by insight into the four noble truths. The mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight" is probably a later addition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmithausen1981-82">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter19885–6-34">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-6">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007-81">[62]</a> Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation may be a later development,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxxiv–xxxvii-83">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich1997131-84">[65]</a> under pressure of developments in Indian religious thinking, which saw "liberating insight" as essential to liberation.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2015)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2015]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2015)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-85">[66]</a> This may also have been due to an over-literal interpretation by later scholastics of the terminology used by the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich199796–134-86">[67]</a> and to the problems involved with the practice of dhyana, and the need to develop an easier method.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxxv-87">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmithausen1981-82">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter19885–6-34">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-6">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007-81">[62]</a> Collett Cox and <a href="/wiki/Damien_Keown" title="Damien Keown">Damien Keown</a> question the existence of a dichotomy between dhyana and insight, arguing that samadhi is a key aspect of the later Buddhist process of liberation, which cooperates with insight to remove the <a href="/wiki/Asava" title="Asava">āsavas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brahmavihāra">Brahmavihāra</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Brahmavihāra">edit</a>]</div> Another important meditation in the early sources are the four <a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihāra</a> (divine abodes) which are said to lead to cetovimutti, a "liberation of the mind".<a href="#cite_note-90">[71]</a> The four Brahmavihāra are: <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Loving-kindness</a> (Pāli: <a href="/wiki/Mett%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Mettā">mettā</a>, Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/Mett%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Mettā">maitrī</a>) is active good will towards all;<a href="#cite_note-Fowler1999p60-91">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-peterharvey2012p154-92">[73]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Compassion</a> (Pāli and Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">karuṇā</a>) results from metta, it is identifying the suffering of others as one's own;<a href="#cite_note-Fowler1999p60-91">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-peterharvey2012p154-92">[73]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Empathetic joy</a> (Pāli and Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">muditā</a>): is the feeling of joy because others are happy, even if one did not contribute to it, it is a form of sympathetic joy;<a href="#cite_note-Fowler1999p60-91">[72]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">Equanimity</a> (Pāli: <a href="/wiki/Upekkh%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkhā">upekkhā</a>, Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">upekṣā</a>): is even-mindedness and serenity, treating everyone impartially.<a href="#cite_note-Fowler1999p60-91">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-peterharvey2012p154-92">[73]</a></li></ol> According to Anālayo:<blockquote>The effect of cultivating the brahmavihāras as a liberation of the mind finds illustration in a simile which describes a conch blower who is able to make himself heard in all directions. This illustrates how the brahmavihāras are to be developed as a boundless radiation in all directions, as a result of which they cannot be overruled by other more limited karma.<a href="#cite_note-93">[74]</a></blockquote>The practice of the four divine abodes can be seen as a way to overcome ill-will and sensual desire and to train in the quality of deep concentration (<a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a>).<a href="#cite_note-94">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Buddhism">Early Buddhism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Early Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> Traditionally, <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Eighteen schools of Buddhism</a> are said to have developed after the time of the Buddha. The Sarvastivada school was the most influential, but the Theravada is the only school that still exists. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samatha_(serenity)_and_vipassana_(insight)">Samatha (serenity) and vipassana (insight)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Samatha (serenity) and vipassana (insight)">edit</a>]</div> The Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice: <ul><li>"serenity" or "tranquillity" (Pali: <a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">samatha</a>; Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a>) which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind;</li> <li>"insight" (Pali: <a href="/wiki/Vipassan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassanā">vipassanā</a>) which enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">aggregates</a>).<a href="#cite_note-95">[note 20]</a></li></ul> The Buddha is said to have extolled serenity and insight as conduits for attaining <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nibbana</a> (Pali; Skt.: Nirvana), the unconditioned state as in the "Kimsuka Tree Sutta" (SN 35.245), where the Buddha provides an elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight are "the swift pair of messengers" who deliver the message of Nibbana via the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[note 21]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Threefold_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Threefold training">Threefold training</a>, samatha is part of samadhi, the eight limb of the threefold path, together with sati, mindfulness. According to Mahāsi Sayādaw, tranquility meditation can lead to the attainment of supernatural powers such as psychic powers and mind reading while insight meditation can lead to the realisation of <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">nibbāna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[76]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a>, the Buddha never mentions independent samatha and vipassana meditation practices; instead, samatha and vipassana are two qualities of mind, to be developed through meditation.<a href="#cite_note-98">[note 22]</a> Nonetheless, according to the Theravada tradition some meditation practices (such as contemplation of a <a href="/wiki/Kasina" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasina">kasina</a> object) favor the development of samatha, others are conducive to the development of vipassana (such as contemplation of the <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">aggregates</a>), while others (such as <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">mindfulness of breathing</a>) are classically used for developing both mental qualities.<a href="#cite_note-99">[77]</a> In the "Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta" (AN 4.170), Ven. <a href="/wiki/Ananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ananda">Ananda</a> reports that people attain <a href="/wiki/Arahant" class="mw-redirect" title="Arahant">arahantship</a> using serenity and insight in one of three ways: <ol><li>they develop serenity and then insight (Pali: samatha-pubbangamam vipassanam)</li> <li>they develop insight and then serenity (Pali: vipassana-pubbangamam samatham)</li> <li>they develop serenity and insight in tandem (Pali: samatha-vipassanam yuganaddham) as in, for instance, obtaining the first <a href="/wiki/Jhana" class="mw-redirect" title="Jhana">jhana</a>, and then seeing in the associated aggregates the <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">three marks of existence</a>, before proceeding to the second jhana.<a href="#cite_note-100">[78]</a></li></ol> While the Nikayas state that the pursuit of vipassana can precede the pursuit of samatha, according to the Burmese <a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a> vipassana be based upon the achievement of stabilizing "access <a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dhi_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Samādhi (Buddhism)">concentration</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a>: upacara samadhi). According to the Theravada tradition, through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to suppress obscuring <a href="/wiki/Five_Hindrances" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Hindrances">hindrances</a>; and, with the suppression of the hindrances, it is through the meditative development of <a href="/wiki/Sampaja%C3%B1%C3%B1a" title="Sampajañña">insight</a> that one gains liberating <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisdom in Buddhism">wisdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theravāda">Theravāda</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Theravāda">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg/220px-Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg/330px-Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg/440px-Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Buddhaghosa with three copies of Visuddhimagga, Kelaniya Raja Maha Vihara</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sutta_Pitaka_and_early_commentaries">Sutta Pitaka and early commentaries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sutta Pitaka and early commentaries">edit</a>]</div> The oldest material of the <a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda">Theravāda</a> tradition on meditation can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> Nikayas, and in texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Patisambhidamagga" class="mw-redirect" title="Patisambhidamagga">Patisambhidamagga</a> which provide commentary to meditation suttas like the <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati_sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anapanasati sutta">Anapanasati sutta</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Buddhaghosa">edit</a>]</div> An early Theravāda meditation manual is the <a href="/wiki/Vimuttimagga" title="Vimuttimagga">Vimuttimagga</a> ('Path of Freedom', 1st or 2nd century).<a href="#cite_note-102">[80]</a> The most influential presentation though, is that of the 5th-century <a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a> ('Path of Purification') of <a href="/wiki/Buddhagho%E1%B9%A3a" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhaghoṣa">Buddhaghoṣa</a>, which seems to have been influenced by the earlier Vimuttimagga in his presentation.<a href="#cite_note-103">[81]</a> The Visuddhimagga's doctrine reflects Theravāda <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidhamma</a> scholasticism, which includes several innovations and interpretations not found in the earliest discourses (suttas) of the Buddha.<a href="#cite_note-104">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[83]</a> Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga includes non-canonical instructions on Theravada meditation, such as "ways of guarding the mental image (nimitta)," which point to later developments in Theravada meditation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw20065-106">[84]</a> The text is centered around <a href="/wiki/Kasina" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasina">kasina</a>-meditation, a form of concentration-meditation in which the mind is focused on a (mental) object.<a href="#cite_note-Thanissaro-107">[85]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Thanissaro_Bhikkhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanissaro Bhikkhu">Thanissaro Bhikkhu</a>, "[t]he text then tries to fit all other meditation methods into the mold of kasina practice, so that they too give rise to countersigns, but even by its own admission, breath meditation does not fit well into the mold."<a href="#cite_note-Thanissaro-107">[85]</a> In its emphasis on kasina-meditation, the Visuddhimagga departs from the Pali Canon, in which <a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">dhyana</a> is the central meditative practice, indicating that what "jhana means in the commentaries is something quite different from what it means in the Canon."<a href="#cite_note-Thanissaro-107">[85]</a> The Visuddhimagga describes forty meditation subjects, most being described in the early texts.<a href="#cite_note-108">[86]</a> Buddhaghoṣa advises that, for the purpose of developing concentration and consciousness, a person should "apprehend from among the forty meditation subjects one that suits his own temperament" with the advice of a "good friend" (<a href="/wiki/Kaly%C4%81%E1%B9%87a-mittat%C4%81" title="Kalyāṇa-mittatā">kalyāṇa-mittatā</a>) who is knowledgeable in the different meditation subjects (Ch. III, § 28).<a href="#cite_note-109">[87]</a> Buddhaghoṣa subsequently elaborates on the forty meditation subjects as follows (Ch. III, §104; Chs. IV–XI):<a href="#cite_note-110">[88]</a> <ul><li>ten <a href="/wiki/Kasina" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasina">kasinas</a>: earth, water, fire, air, blue, yellow, red, white, light, and "limited-space".</li> <li>ten kinds of foulness: "the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested, and a skeleton".</li> <li>ten <a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">recollections</a>: <a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81nusm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Buddhānusmṛti">Buddhānussati</a>, the Dhamma, the Sangha, virtue, <a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">generosity</a>, the virtues of <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">deities</a>, death (see the <a href="/wiki/Upajjhatthana_Sutta" title="Upajjhatthana Sutta">Upajjhatthana Sutta</a>), the body, the breath (see <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">anapanasati</a>), and peace (see <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nibbana</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">four divine abodes</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mett%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Mettā">mettā</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">karuṇā</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">mudita</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">upekkha</a>.</li> <li>four <a href="/wiki/Ar%C5%ABpajh%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Arūpajhāna">immaterial states</a>: boundless space, boundless perception, nothingness, and neither perception nor non-perception.</li> <li>one perception (of "repulsiveness in nutriment")</li> <li>one "defining" (that is, the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C5%ABta" title="Mahābhūta">four elements</a>)</li></ul> When one overlays Buddhaghosa's 40 meditative subjects for the development of concentration with the Buddha's foundations of mindfulness, three practices are found to be in common: breath meditation, foulness meditation (which is similar to the Sattipatthana Sutta's cemetery contemplations, and to contemplation of bodily repulsiveness), and contemplation of the four elements. According to <a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Pali commentaries</a>, breath meditation can lead one to the equanimous fourth jhanic absorption. Contemplation of foulness can lead to the attainment of the first jhana, and contemplation of the four elements culminates in pre-jhana access concentration.<a href="#cite_note-111">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_Theravāda">Contemporary Theravāda</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Contemporary Theravāda">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_monk_in_Mae_Klang_Waterfall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Buddhist_monk_in_Mae_Klang_Waterfall.jpg/220px-Buddhist_monk_in_Mae_Klang_Waterfall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Buddhist_monk_in_Mae_Klang_Waterfall.jpg/330px-Buddhist_monk_in_Mae_Klang_Waterfall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Buddhist_monk_in_Mae_Klang_Waterfall.jpg/440px-Buddhist_monk_in_Mae_Klang_Waterfall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3317" data-file-height="2243" /></a><figcaption>The modern <a href="/wiki/Thai_Forest_Tradition" title="Thai Forest Tradition">Thai Forest Tradition</a> advocates practicing in the wilderness.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meditation_Hall,_Burmese_Buddhist_Temple,_Singapore_-_20070721.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Meditation_Hall%2C_Burmese_Buddhist_Temple%2C_Singapore_-_20070721.jpg/220px-Meditation_Hall%2C_Burmese_Buddhist_Temple%2C_Singapore_-_20070721.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Meditation_Hall%2C_Burmese_Buddhist_Temple%2C_Singapore_-_20070721.jpg/330px-Meditation_Hall%2C_Burmese_Buddhist_Temple%2C_Singapore_-_20070721.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Meditation_Hall%2C_Burmese_Buddhist_Temple%2C_Singapore_-_20070721.jpg/440px-Meditation_Hall%2C_Burmese_Buddhist_Temple%2C_Singapore_-_20070721.jpg 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>The practice of meditation by Buddhist laypersons is a key feature of the modern <a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">vipassana movement</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vipassana_and/or_samatha">Vipassana and/or samatha</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Vipassana and/or samatha">edit</a>]</div> The role of samatha in Buddhist practice, and the exact meaning of samatha, are points of contention and investigation in contemporary Theravada and western vipassanan. Burmese vipassana teachers have tended to disregard samatha as unnecessary, while Thai teachers see samatha and vipassana as intertwined. The exact meaning of samatha is also not clear, and westerners have started to question the received wisdom on this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011-20">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016-8">[5]</a> While samatha is usually equated with the jhanas in the commentarial tradition, scholars and practitioners have pointed out that jhana is more than a narrowing of the focus of the mind. While the second jhana may be characterized by samadhi-ji, "born of concentration," the first jhana sets in quite naturally as a result of sense-restraint,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxv-19">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011-20">[15]</a> while the third and fourth jhana are characterized by mindfulness and equanimity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-6">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007-81">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011-20">[15]</a> Sati, sense-restraint and mindfulness are necessary preceding practices, while insight may mark the point where one enters the "stream" of development which results in vimukti, release.<a href="#cite_note-112">[90]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Analayo" title="Bhikkhu Analayo">Anālayo</a>, the jhanas are crucial meditative states which lead to the abandonment of hindrances such as lust and aversion; however, they are not sufficient for the attainment of liberating insight. Some early texts also warn meditators against becoming attached to them, and therefore forgetting the need for the further practice of insight.<a href="#cite_note-113">[91]</a> According to Anālayo, "either one undertakes such insight contemplation while still being in the attainment, or else one does so retrospectively, after having emerged from the absorption itself but while still being in a mental condition close to it in concentrative depth."<a href="#cite_note-114">[92]</a> The position that insight can be practiced from within jhana, according to the early texts, is endorsed by Gunaratna, Crangle and Shankaman.<a href="#cite_note-115">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[95]</a> Anālayo meanwhile argues, that the evidence from the early texts suggest that "contemplation of the impermanent nature of the mental constituents of an absorption takes place before or on emerging from the attainment".<a href="#cite_note-118">[96]</a> Arbel has argued that insight precedes the practice of jhana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016-8">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vipassana_movement">Vipassana movement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Vipassana movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></div> Particularly influential from the twentieth century onward has been the Burmese <a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>, especially the "New Burmese Method" or "Vipassanā School" approach to <a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">samatha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vipassan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassanā">vipassanā</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Mingun_Sayadaw" title="Mingun Sayadaw">Mingun Sayadaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/U_N%C4%81rada" title="U Nārada">U Nārada</a> and popularized by <a href="/wiki/Mahasi_Sayadaw" title="Mahasi Sayadaw">Mahasi Sayadaw</a>. Here samatha is considered an optional but not necessary component of the practice—vipassanā is possible without it. Another Burmese method popularized in the west, notably that of <a href="/wiki/Pa-Auk" class="mw-redirect" title="Pa-Auk">Pa-Auk</a> sayadaw <a href="/wiki/Bhaddanta_%C4%80ci%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a" title="Bhaddanta Āciṇṇa">Bhaddanta Āciṇṇa</a>, uphold the emphasis on samatha explicit in the commentarial tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a>. Other Burmese traditions, derived from <a href="/wiki/Ledi_Sayadaw" title="Ledi Sayadaw">Ledi Sayadaw</a> via <a href="/wiki/Sayagyi_U_Ba_Khin" title="Sayagyi U Ba Khin">Sayagyi U Ba Khin</a> and popularized in the west by <a href="/wiki/Mother_Sayamagyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother Sayamagyi">Mother Sayamagyi</a> and <a href="/wiki/S._N._Goenka" title="S. N. Goenka">S. N. Goenka</a>, takes a similar approach. These Burmese traditions have been influential on Western Theravada-oriented teachers, notably <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goldstein_(writer)" title="Joseph Goldstein (writer)">Joseph Goldstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sharon_Salzberg" title="Sharon Salzberg">Sharon Salzberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kornfield" title="Jack Kornfield">Jack Kornfield</a>. There are also other less well known Burmese meditation methods, such as the system developed by <a href="/wiki/U_Vimala" title="U Vimala">U Vimala</a>, which focuses on knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Dependent_origination" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent origination">dependent origination</a> and cittanupassana (mindfulness of the mind).<a href="#cite_note-119">[97]</a> Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Sayadaw_U_Tejaniya" title="Sayadaw U Tejaniya">Sayadaw U Tejaniya</a>'s method also focuses on mindfulness of the mind. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thai_Forest_tradition">Thai Forest tradition</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Thai Forest tradition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></div> Also influential is the <a href="/wiki/Thai_Forest_Tradition" title="Thai Forest Tradition">Thai Forest Tradition</a> deriving from <a href="/wiki/Mun_Bhuridatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mun Bhuridatta">Mun Bhuridatta</a> and popularized by <a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a>, which, in contrast, stresses the inseparability of the two practices, and the essential necessity of both practices. Other noted practitioners in this tradition include <a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Thate" title="Ajahn Thate">Ajahn Thate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Maha_Bua" title="Ajahn Maha Bua">Ajahn Maha Bua</a>, among others.<a href="#cite_note-120">[98]</a> There are other forms of Thai Buddhist meditation associated with particular teachers, including <a href="/wiki/Buddhadasa_Bhikkhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhadasa Bhikkhu">Buddhadasa Bhikkhu</a>'s presentation of <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">anapanasati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Lee" title="Ajahn Lee">Ajahn Lee</a>'s breath meditation method (which influenced his American student <a href="/wiki/Thanissaro" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanissaro">Thanissaro</a>) and the "<a href="/wiki/Mahasati_meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahasati meditation">dynamic meditation</a>" of Luangpor Teean Cittasubho.<a href="#cite_note-Newell1-121">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_forms">Other forms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Other forms">edit</a>]</div> There are other less mainstream forms of Theravada meditation practiced in Thailand which include the <a href="/wiki/Dhammakaya_meditation" title="Dhammakaya meditation">vijja dhammakaya meditation</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Luang_Pu_Sodh_Candasaro" title="Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro">Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro</a> and the meditation of former supreme patriarch Suk Kai Thuean (1733–1822).<a href="#cite_note-Newell1-121">[99]</a> Newell notes that these two forms of modern Thai meditation share certain features in common with tantric practices such as the use of visualizations and centrality of maps of the body.<a href="#cite_note-Newell1-121">[99]</a> A less common type of meditation is practiced in Cambodia and Laos by followers of <a href="/wiki/Tantric_Theravada" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantric Theravada">Borān kammaṭṭhāna</a> ('ancient practices') tradition. This form of meditation includes the use of mantras and visualizations. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sarvāstivāda">Sarvāstivāda</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sarvāstivāda">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_sutras" title="Dhyāna sutras">Dhyāna sutras</a></div> The now defunct <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> tradition, and its related sub-schools like the <a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Vaibhāṣika</a>, were the most influential Buddhists in <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. Their highly complex <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> treatises, such as the <a href="/wiki/Mahavibhasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavibhasa">Mahavibhasa</a>, the Sravakabhumi and the <a href="/wiki/Abhidharmako%C5%9Bak%C4%81rik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidharmakośakārikā">Abhidharmakosha</a>, contain new developments in meditative theory which had a major influence on meditation as practiced in <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Mahayana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a>. Individuals known as yogācāras (<a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a> practitioners) were influential in the development of Sarvāstivāda meditation praxis, and some modern scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Yin_Shun" title="Yin Shun">Yin Shun</a> believe they were also influential in the development of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> meditation.<a href="#cite_note-122">[100]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_sutras" title="Dhyāna sutras">Dhyāna sutras</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 禪経) or "meditation summaries" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 禪要) are a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which are mostly based on the Yogacara<a href="#cite_note-123">[note 23]</a> meditation teachings of the Sarvāstivāda school of <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> circa 1st–4th centuries CE, which focus on the concrete details of the meditative practice of the Yogacarins of northern <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> and Kashmir.<a href="#cite_note-Deleanu-4">[1]</a> Most of the texts only survive in Chinese and were key works in the development of the Buddhist meditation practices of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>. According to K.L. Dhammajoti, the Sarvāstivāda meditation practitioner begins with <a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">samatha</a> meditations, divided into the fivefold mental stillings, each being recommended as useful for particular personality types: <ol><li>contemplation on the impure (<a href="/wiki/Patikulamanasikara" title="Patikulamanasikara">asubhabhavana</a>), for the greedy type person.</li> <li>meditation on <a href="/wiki/Mett%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Mettā">loving kindness</a> (maitri), for the hateful type</li> <li>contemplation on <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">conditioned co-arising</a>, for the deluded type</li> <li>contemplation on the division of the <a href="/wiki/Skandha#Eighteen_Dhātus_and_Four_Paramatthas" title="Skandha">dhatus</a>, for the conceited type</li> <li>mindfulness of breathing (<a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">anapanasmrti</a>), for the distracted type.<a href="#cite_note-:3-124">[101]</a></li></ol> Contemplation of the impure, and mindfulness of breathing, was particularly important in this system; they were known as the 'gateways to immortality' (amrta-dvāra).<a href="#cite_note-125">[102]</a> The Sarvāstivāda system practiced breath meditation using the same sixteen aspect model used in the <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anapanasati Sutta">anapanasati sutta</a>, but also introduced a unique six aspect system which consists of: <ol><li>counting the breaths up to ten,</li> <li>following the breath as it enters through the nose throughout the body,</li> <li>fixing the mind on the breath,</li> <li>observing the breath at various locations,</li> <li>modifying is related to the practice of the four applications of mindfulness and</li> <li>purifying stage of the arising of insight.<a href="#cite_note-126">[103]</a></li></ol> This sixfold breathing meditation method was influential in East Asia, and expanded upon by the Chinese Tiantai meditation master <a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-124">[101]</a> After the practitioner has achieved tranquility, Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma then recommends one proceeds to practice the four applications of mindfulness (smrti-upasthāna) in two ways. First they contemplate each specific characteristic of the four applications of mindfulness, and then they contemplate all four collectively.<a href="#cite_note-127">[104]</a> In spite of this systematic division of samatha and vipasyana, the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharmikas held that the two practices are not mutually exclusive. The <a href="/wiki/Mahavibhasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavibhasa">Mahavibhasa</a> for example remarks that, regarding the six aspects of mindfulness of breathing, "there is no fixed rule here—all may come under samatha or all may come under vipasyana."<a href="#cite_note-:4-128">[105]</a> The Sarvāstivāda Abhidharmikas also held that attaining the dhyānas was necessary for the development of insight and wisdom.<a href="#cite_note-:4-128">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indian_Mahāyāna_Buddhism">Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muchaku_Hokuendo_Kofukuji_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Muchaku_Hokuendo_Kofukuji_2.jpg/180px-Muchaku_Hokuendo_Kofukuji_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Muchaku_Hokuendo_Kofukuji_2.jpg/270px-Muchaku_Hokuendo_Kofukuji_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Muchaku_Hokuendo_Kofukuji_2.jpg/360px-Muchaku_Hokuendo_Kofukuji_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1977" data-file-height="3094" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Asa%E1%B9%85ga" class="mw-redirect" title="Asaṅga">Asaṅga</a>, a Mahayana scholar who wrote numerous works and is believed to have contributed to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81rabh%C5%ABmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogācārabhūmi">Yogācārabhūmi</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> practice is centered on the path of the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a>, a being which is aiming for full <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>. Meditation (dhyāna) is one of the transcendent virtues (<a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">paramitas</a>) which a bodhisattva must perfect in order to reach Buddhahood, and thus, it is central to Mahāyāna Buddhist praxis. Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism was initially a network of loosely connected groups and associations, each drawing upon various <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist sutras">Buddhist texts</a>, doctrines and meditation methods.<a href="#cite_note-129">[106]</a> Because of this, there is no single set of Indian Mahāyāna practices which can be said to apply to all Indian Mahāyānists, nor is there is a single set of texts which were used by all of them. Textual evidence shows that many Mahāyāna Buddhists in northern India as well as in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> practiced meditation in a similar way to that of the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> school outlined above. This can be seen in what is probably the most comprehensive and largest Indian <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> treatise on meditation practice, the <a href="/wiki/Yogacarabhumi-sastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacarabhumi-sastra">Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra</a> (compiled c. 4th century), a compendium which explains in detail <a href="/wiki/Yogacarabhumi-sastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacarabhumi-sastra">Yogācāra</a> meditation theory, and outlines numerous meditation methods as well as related advice.<a href="#cite_note-130">[107]</a> Among the topics discussed are the various early Buddhist meditation topics such as the four <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">dhyānas</a>, the different kinds of <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samādhi</a>, the development of insight (<a href="/wiki/Vipa%C5%9Byan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipaśyanā">vipaśyanā</a>) and tranquility (<a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">śamatha</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">four foundations of mindfulness</a> (smṛtyupasthāna), the five hindrances (<a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">nivaraṇa</a>), and classic Buddhist meditations such as the contemplation of unattractiveness (<a href="/wiki/Patikulamanasikara" title="Patikulamanasikara">aśubhasaṃjnā</a>), impermanence (<a href="/wiki/Impermanence" title="Impermanence">anitya</a>), suffering (<a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">duḥkha</a>), and contemplation death (<a href="/wiki/Mara%E1%B9%87asati" title="Maraṇasati">maraṇasaṃjñā</a>).<a href="#cite_note-131">[108]</a> Other works of the <a href="/wiki/Yogacarabhumi-sastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacarabhumi-sastra">Yogācāra</a> school, such as <a href="/wiki/Asa%E1%B9%85ga" class="mw-redirect" title="Asaṅga">Asaṅga</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma-samuccaya" title="Abhidharma-samuccaya">Abhidharmasamuccaya</a>, and Vasubandhu's <a href="/wiki/Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika" title="Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika">Madhyāntavibhāga</a>-bhāsya also discuss classic meditation topics such as <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">mindfulness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">smṛtyupasthāna</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">37 wings to awakening</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[109]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahāyāna sutras</a> also teach early Buddhist meditation practices. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra">Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mahaprajnaparamita_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra">Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a> both teach the <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">four foundations of mindfulness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Prajñāpāramitā_literature">In the Prajñāpāramitā literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: In the Prajñāpāramitā literature">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā Sutras</a> are some of the earliest Mahāyāna sutras. Their teachings center on the bodhisattva path (viz. the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">paramitas</a>), the most important of which is the perfection of transcendent knowledge or prajñāpāramitā. In the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras, prajñāpāramitā is described as a kind of <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samādhi</a> (meditative absorption) which is also a deep understanding of reality arising from meditative insight that is totally non-conceptual and completely unattached to any person, thing or idea. The <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita#Aṣṭasāhasrikā_Prajñāpāramitā" title="Prajnaparamita">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā</a>, possibly the earliest of these texts, also equates <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">prajñāpāramitā</a> with what it terms the aniyato (unrestricted) samādhi, “the samādhi of not taking up (aparigṛhīta) any dharma”, and “the samādhi of not grasping at (anupādāna) any dharma” (as a <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">self</a>).<a href="#cite_note-134">[111]</a> According to Shi Huifeng, this meditative concentration:<blockquote>entails not only not clinging to the <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five aggregates</a> as representative of all phenomena, but also not clinging to the very notion of the five aggregates, their existence or non-existence, their impermanence or eternality, their being <a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dissatisfactory</a> or satisfactory, their <a href="/wiki/Emptiness" title="Emptiness">emptiness</a> or self-hood, their generation or cessation, and so forth with other antithetical pairs. To so mistakenly perceive the aggregates is to “course in a sign” (nimite carati; xíng xiāng 行相), i.e. to engage in the signs and conceptualization of phenomena, and not to course in Prajñāpāramitā. Even to perceive of oneself as a <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> who courses, or the Prajñāpāramitā in which one courses, are likewise coursing in signs.<a href="#cite_note-135">[112]</a></blockquote>Prajñāpāramitā is closely associated with the practice of the three <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samādhis</a> (trayaḥ samādhyaḥ): <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">emptiness</a> (śūnyatā), signlessness (animitta), and wishlessness or desirelessness (apraṇihita).<a href="#cite_note-auto-136">[113]</a> These three are found in early Buddhism as the three gates of liberation (triṇi vimokṣamukhāni). The <a href="/wiki/Large_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtras" title="Large Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras">Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā</a> describes these three contemplations as follows:<blockquote>The focused state (sthiti) of mind examining all phenomena as being empty of individual characteristics is called the gate of liberation [through] emptiness, [or] the contemplation of emptiness. The focused state of mind examining all phenomena as being without [distinctive] signs [or: characteristics] is called the gate of liberation [through] signlessness, [or] the contemplation of signlessness. The focused state of mind examining all phenomena as being un[worthy of] desire [or: of directing one's attention to them] is called the gate of liberation [through] desirelessness, [or] the contemplation of desirelessness.<a href="#cite_note-137">[114]</a></blockquote>These three samadhis are also described in the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81upade%C5%9Ba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa">Mahāprajñāpāramitōpadeśa</a> (Ch. Dà zhìdù lùn), chapter X.<a href="#cite_note-:5-138">[115]</a> Another key element of the practice of meditation in the Prajñāpāramitā texts is the fact that a bodhisattva must be careful while practicing these meditations to "not realize them" (na sākṣātkaroti), i.e. they must take care not to attain enlightenment prematurely and thus become an <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-139">[116]</a> This would entail a failure to stay on the bodhisattva path to full <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a> and to fall into the lesser vehicle (<a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">hinayana</a>). To stay on the path of the bodhisattva while also practicing these powerful meditations, the bodhisattva must base themselves on universal friendliness (<a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">maitrī</a>) directed towards all living beings and on <a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">bodhicitta</a> (the intention to become a Buddha for the sake of all beings).<a href="#cite_note-:6-139">[116]</a> As the Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā states<blockquote>He does not cling to the disciples’ level or the level of Solitary Buddhas. On the contrary, it occurs to him, ‘Having intently practised the perfection of contemplation, my duty here [in this world] is to liberate all beings from the cycle of rebirths.’<a href="#cite_note-:6-139">[116]</a> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Innovative_meditation_methods">Innovative meditation methods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Innovative meditation methods">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Paradise_of_the_Buddha_Amitabha,_Hebei_province,_Fengfeng,_southern_Xiangtangshan_Cave_Temples,_Cave_2,_Northern_Qi_dynasty,_550-577_AD,_limestone_with_traces_of_pigment_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC05703.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Western_Paradise_of_the_Buddha_Amitabha%2C_Hebei_province%2C_Fengfeng%2C_southern_Xiangtangshan_Cave_Temples%2C_Cave_2%2C_Northern_Qi_dynasty%2C_550-577_AD%2C_limestone_with_traces_of_pigment_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC05703.JPG/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Western_Paradise_of_the_Buddha_Amitabha%2C_Hebei_province%2C_Fengfeng%2C_southern_Xiangtangshan_Cave_Temples%2C_Cave_2%2C_Northern_Qi_dynasty%2C_550-577_AD%2C_limestone_with_traces_of_pigment_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC05703.JPG/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Western_Paradise_of_the_Buddha_Amitabha%2C_Hebei_province%2C_Fengfeng%2C_southern_Xiangtangshan_Cave_Temples%2C_Cave_2%2C_Northern_Qi_dynasty%2C_550-577_AD%2C_limestone_with_traces_of_pigment_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC05703.JPG/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Buddhafield of Buddha Amitabha, <a href="/wiki/Xiangtangshan_Caves" title="Xiangtangshan Caves">Xiangtangshan Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, Northern Qi dynasty, c. 550–577 CE.</figcaption></figure> Various Indian <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> texts show new innovative methods which were unique to <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> Buddhism. Texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism#The_arrival_of_the_Pure_Land_sutras_in_China" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land sutras</a>, the Akṣobhya-vyūha Sūtra and the <a href="/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra">Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra</a> teach meditations on a particular Buddha (such as <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> or <a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Akshobhya</a>). Through the repetition of their name or some other phrase and certain visualization methods, one is said to be able to meet a Buddha face to face or at least to be reborn in a <a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">Buddha field</a> (also known as "Pure land") like <a href="/wiki/Abhirati" title="Abhirati">Abhirati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Sukhavati</a> after death.<a href="#cite_note-140">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[118]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra">Pratyutpanna</a> sutra for example, states that if one practices recollection of the Buddha (<a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81nusm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Buddhānusmṛti">Buddhānusmṛti</a>) by visualizing a Buddha in their Buddha field and developing this samadhi for some seven days, one may be able to meet this Buddha in a vision or a dream so as to learn the Dharma from them.<a href="#cite_note-142">[119]</a> Alternatively, being reborn in one of their Buddha fields allows one to meet a Buddha and study directly with them, allowing one to reach Buddhahood faster. A set of sutras known as the <a href="/wiki/Visualization_sutras" title="Visualization sutras">Visualization Sutras</a> also depict similar innovative practices using mental imagery. These practices been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sutras which are seen traditionally as direct visionary revelations from the Buddhas in their pure lands.<a href="#cite_note-143">[120]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Incantation_to_the_Blue-throated_Avalokitesvara_(N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Incantation_to_the_Blue-throated_Avalokitesvara_%28N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%29.jpg/180px-Incantation_to_the_Blue-throated_Avalokitesvara_%28N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Incantation_to_the_Blue-throated_Avalokitesvara_%28N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%29.jpg/270px-Incantation_to_the_Blue-throated_Avalokitesvara_%28N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Incantation_to_the_Blue-throated_Avalokitesvara_%28N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%29.jpg/360px-Incantation_to_the_Blue-throated_Avalokitesvara_%28N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="1420" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB" title="Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī">Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī</a> written in two languages – <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and central Asian <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a></figcaption></figure> Another popular Mahayana practice was the memorization and recitation of various texts, such as <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">sutras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dharanis</a>. According to Akira Hirakawa, the practice of reciting <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dharanis</a> (chants or incantations) became very important in Indian <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[121]</a> These chants were believed to have "the power to preserve good and prevent evil", as well as being useful to attain meditative concentration or <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto-136">[113]</a> Important Mahāyāna sutras such as the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra">Heart Sutra</a> and others prominently include dharanis.<a href="#cite_note-Abe1999164-145">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[123]</a> Ryûichi Abé states that dharanis are also prominent in the <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā Sutras</a> wherein the Buddha "praises dharani incantation, along with the cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a>, as virtuous activity of a <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Abe1999164-145">[122]</a> They are also listed in the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81upade%C5%9Ba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa">Mahāprajñāpāramitōpadeśa</a>, chapter X, as an important quality of a bodhisattva.<a href="#cite_note-:5-138">[115]</a> Later Yogācāra sources also indicate that Mahayanists had begun to see their meditation methods as unique and different from <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">Śrāvakayānist</a> (i.e. non-Mahayana Buddhists) methods. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra</a> criticizes certain early Buddhist meditations as not suitable for Mahayanists, who instead focus their meditation on the true nature of things (suchness, <a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">tathatā</a>).<a href="#cite_note-147">[124]</a> The Āryasaṃdhinirmocanabhāṣya, a commentary attributed to Asaṅga, comments: <blockquote>In the Śrāvakayāna, one thoroughly knows (*parijānāti) the Truth of Suffering, and so on [i.e. the other Truths], while in the Mahāyāna, one thoroughly knows [the Truths] through Suchness (*tathatā), etc.’<a href="#cite_note-:1-148">[125]</a></blockquote>According to Florin Delenau, "the text contrasts, I believe, the Śrāvakayānika analytical, highly reflective approach to the Mahāyānika synthetic, ultimately intuitive insight into the essence of the Reality. "<a href="#cite_note-:1-148">[125]</a> A later <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> work which discusses meditation practice is <a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shantideva's</a> <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattvacary%C4%81vat%C4%81ra" title="Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra">Bodhicaryāvatāra</a> (8th century) which depicts how a bodhisattva's meditation was understood in the later period of Indian <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a>. Shantideva begins by stating that isolating the body and the mind from the world (i.e. from discursive thoughts) is necessary for the practice of meditation, which must begin with the practice of tranquility (<a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">śamatha</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:2-149">[126]</a> He promotes classic practices like meditating on corpses and living in forests, but these are preliminary to the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> practices which initially focus on generating <a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">bodhicitta</a>, a mind intent on awakening for the benefit of all beings. An important of part of this practice is to cultivate and practice the understanding that oneself and other beings are actually the same, and thus all suffering must be removed, not just "mine". This meditation is termed by <a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shantideva</a> "the exchange of self and other" and it is seen by him as the apex of meditation, since it simultaneously provides a basis for ethical action and cultivates insight into the nature of reality, i.e. <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">emptiness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-149">[126]</a> Another late Indian <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> meditation text is <a href="/wiki/Kamala%C5%9B%C4%ABla" title="Kamalaśīla">Kamalaśīla</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81van%C4%81krama" title="Bhāvanākrama">Bhāvanākrama</a> ("stages of meditation", 9th century), which teaches insight (<a href="/wiki/Vipa%C5%9Byan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipaśyanā">vipaśyanā</a>) and tranquility (<a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">śamatha</a>) from a <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka#Yogācāra-Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Yogācāra-Madhyamaka</a> perspective.<a href="#cite_note-150">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="East_Asian_Mahāyāna">East Asian Mahāyāna</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: East Asian Mahāyāna">edit</a>]</div> The meditation forms practiced during the initial stages of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a> did not differ much from those of Indian Mahayana Buddhism, though they did contain developments that could have arisen in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia.</a> The works of the Chinese translator <a href="/wiki/An_Shigao" title="An Shigao">An Shigao</a> (安世高, 147–168 CE) are some of the earliest meditation texts used by <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a> and their focus is <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">mindfulness of breathing</a> (annabanna 安那般那). The Chinese translator and scholar <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumarajiva</a> (344–413 CE) transmitted various meditation works, including a meditation treatise titled The Sūtra Concerned with Samādhi in Sitting Meditation (坐禅三昧经, T.614, K.991) which teaches the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> system of fivefold mental stillings.<a href="#cite_note-151">[128]</a> These texts are known as the <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_sutras" title="Dhyāna sutras">Dhyāna sutras</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[129]</a> They reflect the meditation practices of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kashmir" title="Buddhism in Kashmir">Kashmiri Buddhists</a>, influenced by <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrantika</a> meditation teachings, but also by <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Buddhism">Mahayana Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asian_Yogācāra_methods">East Asian Yogācāra methods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: East Asian Yogācāra methods">edit</a>]</div> The East Asian <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogācāra school</a> or <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" title="East Asian Yogācāra">"Consciousness only school" (Ch. Wéishí-zōng)</a>, known in Japan as the Hossō school was a very influential tradition of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>. They practiced several forms of meditation. According to Alan Sponberg, they included a class of visualization exercises, one of which centered on constructing a <a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">mental image</a> of the Bodhisattva (and presumed future Buddha) <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tushita" title="Tushita">Tusita heaven</a>. A biography the Chinese <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" title="East Asian Yogācāra">Yogācāra</a> master and translator <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> depicts him practicing this kind of meditation. The goal of this practice seems to have been rebirth in Tusita heaven, so as to meet Maitreya and study Buddhism under him.<a href="#cite_note-154">[131]</a> Another method of meditation practiced in Chinese Yogācāra is called "the five level discernment of <a href="/wiki/Yogachara#The_doctrine_of_Vijñapti-mātra" title="Yogachara">vijñapti-mātra</a>" (impressions only), introduced by Xuanzang's disciple, <a href="/wiki/Kuiji" title="Kuiji">Kuījī</a> (632–682), which became one of the most important East Asian <a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogācāra</a> teachings.<a href="#cite_note-155">[132]</a> According to Alan Sponberg, this kind of <a href="/wiki/Vipassan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassanā">vipasyana</a> meditation was an attempt "to penetrate the true nature of reality by understanding the three aspects of existence in five successive steps or stages". These progressive stages or ways of seeing (kuan) the world are:<a href="#cite_note-156">[133]</a> <ol><li>"dismissing the false – preserving the real" (ch 'ien-hsu ts'un-shih)</li> <li>"relinquishing the diffuse – retaining the pure" (she-lan liu-ch 'un)</li> <li>"gathering in the extensions – returning to the source" (she-mo kuei-pen)</li> <li>"suppressing the subordinate – manifesting the superior" (yin-lueh hsien-sheng)</li> <li>"dismissing the phenomenal aspects – realizing the true nature" (ch 'ien-hsiang cheng-hsing)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tiantai_śamatha-vipaśyanā">Tiantai śamatha-vipaśyanā</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Tiantai śamatha-vipaśyanā">edit</a>]</div> In China it has been traditionally held that the meditation methods used by the <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a> school are the most systematic and comprehensive of all.<a href="#cite_note-Luk_110-157">[134]</a> In addition to its doctrinal basis in Indian Buddhist texts, the Tiantai school also emphasizes use of its own meditation texts which emphasize the principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Of these texts, <a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi's</a> Concise Śamathavipaśyanā (小止観), <a href="/wiki/Mohe_Zhiguan" title="Mohe Zhiguan">Mohe Zhiguan</a> (摩訶止観, Sanskrit Mahāśamathavipaśyanā), and Six Subtle Dharma Gates (六妙法門) are the most widely read in China.<a href="#cite_note-Luk_110-157">[134]</a> Rujun Wu identifies the work Mahā-śamatha-vipaśyanā of Zhiyi as the seminal meditation text of the Tiantai school.<a href="#cite_note-158">[135]</a> Regarding the functions of śamatha and vipaśyanā in meditation, Zhiyi writes in his work Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The attainment of Nirvāṇa is realizable by many methods whose essentials do not go beyond the practice of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Śamatha is the first step to untie all bonds and vipaśyanā is essential to root out delusion. Śamatha provides nourishment for the preservation of the knowing mind, and vipaśyanā is the skillful art of promoting spiritual understanding. Śamatha is the unsurpassed cause of samādhi, while vipaśyanā begets wisdom.<a href="#cite_note-159">[136]</a></blockquote> The Tiantai school also places a great emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">ānāpānasmṛti</a>, or mindfulness of breathing, in accordance with the principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Zhiyi classifies breathing into four main categories: panting (喘), unhurried breathing (風), deep and quiet breathing (氣), and stillness or rest (息). Zhiyi holds that the first three kinds of breathing are incorrect, while the fourth is correct, and that the breathing should reach stillness and rest.<a href="#cite_note-160">[137]</a> Zhiyi also outlines four kinds of <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a> in his Mohe Zhiguan, and ten modes of practicing <a href="/wiki/Vipassan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassanā">vipaśyanā</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Esoteric_practices_in_Japanese_Tendai">Esoteric practices in Japanese Tendai</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Esoteric practices in Japanese Tendai">edit</a>]</div> One of the adaptations by the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a> school was the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Mikky%C5%8D" title="Mikkyō">Mikkyō</a> (esoteric practices) into Tendai Buddhism, which was later named Taimitsu by <a href="/wiki/Ennin" title="Ennin">Ennin</a>. Eventually, according to Tendai Taimitsu doctrine, the esoteric rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the exoteric teachings of the Lotus Sutra. Therefore, by chanting <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a>, maintaining <a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">mudras</a>, or performing certain meditations, one is able to see that the sense experiences are the teachings of Buddha, have faith that one is inherently an enlightened being, and one can attain enlightenment within this very body. The origins of Taimitsu are found in China, similar to the lineage that <a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a> encountered in his visit to <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saich%C5%8D" title="Saichō">Saichō</a>'s disciples were encouraged to study under Kūkai.<a href="#cite_note-Abé2013-161">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Huayan_meditation_theory">Huayan meditation theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Huayan meditation theory">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan school</a> was a major school of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>, which also strongly influenced <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Chan Buddhism</a>. An important element of their meditation theory and practice is what was called the "Fourfold Dharmadhatu" (sifajie, 四法界).<a href="#cite_note-Fox-162">[139]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dharmadhatu" title="Dharmadhatu">Dharmadhatu</a> (法界) is the goal of the bodhisattva's practice, the ultimate nature of reality or deepest truth which must be known and realized through meditation. According to Fox, the Fourfold Dharmadhatu is "four cognitive approaches to the world, four ways of apprehending reality". Huayan meditation is meant to progressively ascend through these four "increasingly more holographic perspectives on a single phenomenological manifold." These four ways of seeing or knowing reality are:<a href="#cite_note-Fox-162">[139]</a> <ol><li>All dharmas are seen as particular separate events or phenomena (shi 事). This is the mundane way of seeing.</li> <li>All events are an expression of li (理, the absolute, principle or <a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">noumenon</a>), which is associated with the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Shunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunyata">shunyata</a>, "One Mind" (yi xin 一心) and <a href="/wiki/Buddha_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha nature">Buddha nature</a>. This level of understanding or perspective on reality is associated with the meditation on "true emptiness".</li> <li>Shi and Li <a href="/wiki/Interpenetration_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpenetration (Buddhism)">interpenetrate</a> (lishi wuai 理事無礙), this is illuminated by the meditation on the "non-obstruction of principle and phenomena."</li> <li>All events interpenetrate (shishi wuai 事事無礙), "all distinct phenomenal dharmas interfuse and penetrate in all ways" (<a href="/wiki/Zongmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Zongmi">Zongmi</a>). This is seen through the meditation on "universal pervasion and complete accommodation."</li></ol> According to <a href="/wiki/Paul_Williams_(Buddhist_studies_scholar)" title="Paul Williams (Buddhist studies scholar)">Paul Williams</a>, the reading and recitation of the <a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Avatamsaka sutra</a> was also a central practice for the tradition, for monks and laity.<a href="#cite_note-163">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pure_land_Buddhism">Pure land Buddhism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Pure land Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amitabha_Mantra.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Amitabha_Mantra.png/220px-Amitabha_Mantra.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Amitabha_Mantra.png/330px-Amitabha_Mantra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Amitabha_Mantra.png/440px-Amitabha_Mantra.png 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption>Engraving of a <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhāraṇī">dhāraṇī</a> for <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> written in the <a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ script</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a>, repeating the name of <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> is traditionally a form of <a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81nusm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Buddhānusmṛti">mindfulness of the Buddha</a> (Skt. buddhānusmṛti). This term was translated into Chinese as <a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">nianfo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 念佛), by which it is popularly known in English. The practice is described as calling the buddha to mind by repeating his name, to enable the practitioner to bring all his or her attention upon that Buddha (samādhi).<a href="#cite_note-Luk_83-164">[141]</a> This may be done vocally or mentally, and with or without the use of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_prayer_beads" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist prayer beads">Buddhist prayer beads</a>. Those who practice this method often commit to a fixed set of repetitions per day, often from 50,000 to over 500,000.<a href="#cite_note-Luk_83-164">[141]</a> Repeating the <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism#Sutra_and_Dhāraṇī_chanting" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Rebirth dhāraṇī</a> is another method in Pure Land Buddhism. Similar to the mindfulness practice of repeating the name of Amitābha Buddha, this dhāraṇī is another method of meditation and recitation in Pure Land Buddhism. The repetition of this dhāraṇī is said to be very popular among traditional Chinese Buddhists.<a href="#cite_note-Luk_84-165">[142]</a> Another practice found in Pure Land Buddhism is meditative contemplation and visualization of Amitābha, his attendant bodhisattvas, and the Pure Land. The basis of this is found in the <a href="/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitayurdhyana Sutra">Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra</a> ("Amitābha Meditation Sūtra").<a href="#cite_note-166">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chán">Chán</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Chán">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg/180px-Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg/270px-Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg/360px-Kodo_Sawaki_Zazen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1786" data-file-height="2551" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dd%C5%8D_Sawaki" title="Kōdō Sawaki">Kōdō Sawaki</a> practicing <a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">zazen</a></figcaption></figure> During sitting meditation (坐禅, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: zuòchán; <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: <a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">zazen</a>; <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>: jwaseon), practitioners usually assume a position such as the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_position" title="Lotus position">lotus position</a>, <a href="/wiki/Half_lotus" class="mw-redirect" title="Half lotus">half-lotus</a>, Burmese, or <a href="/wiki/Seiza" title="Seiza">seiza</a>, often using the <a href="/wiki/Mudra#Dhy.C4.81na_Mudr.C4.81" title="Mudra">dhyāna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">mudrā</a>. Often, a square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used. Various techniques and meditation forms are used in the different Zen traditions. <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Mindfulness of breathing</a> is a common practice, used to develop mental focus and concentration.<a href="#cite_note-167">[144]</a> Another common form of sitting meditation is called "silent illumination" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: mòzhào; <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: mokushō). This practice was traditionally promoted by the <a href="/wiki/Caodong_school" title="Caodong school">Caodong</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a> and is associated with <a href="/wiki/Hongzhi_Zhengjue" title="Hongzhi Zhengjue">Hongzhi Zhengjue</a> (1091—1157).<a href="#cite_note-168">[145]</a> In Hongzhi's practice of "nondual objectless meditation" the mediator strives to be aware of the totality of phenomena instead of focusing on a single object, without any interference, <a href="/wiki/Prapa%C3%B1ca" class="mw-redirect" title="Prapañca">conceptualizing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81d%C4%81na" title="Upādāna">grasping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aimlessness_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aimlessness (Buddhism)">goal seeking</a>, or <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81#Yogācāra_school" title="Śūnyatā">subject-object duality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[146]</a> This practice is also popular in the major schools of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a>, but especially <a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dt%C5%8D" title="Sōtō">Sōtō</a>, where it is more widely known as <a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza (Ch. zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, "Just sitting")</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B2ng_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sòng dynasty">Sòng dynasty</a>, a new meditation method was popularized by figures such as <a href="/wiki/Dahui_Zonggao" title="Dahui Zonggao">Dahui</a>, which was called kanhua chan ("observing the phrase" meditation) which referred to contemplation on a single word or phrase (called the <a href="/wiki/Hua_Tou" title="Hua Tou">huatou</a>, "critical phrase") of a gōng'àn (<a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kōan">kōan</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlyth1966-170">[147]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a>, this practice of "observing the <a href="/wiki/Hua_Tou" title="Hua Tou">huatou</a>" (hwadu in Korean) is a widely practiced method.<a href="#cite_note-171">[148]</a> In the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Rinzai_school" title="Rinzai school">Rinzai school</a>, kōan introspection developed its own formalized style, with a standardized curriculum of kōans which must be studies and "passed" in sequence. This process includes standardized questions and answers during a private interview with one's Zen teacher.<a href="#cite_note-172">[149]</a> Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during <a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">zazen</a> (sitting meditation), <a href="/wiki/Kinhin" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinhin">kinhin</a> (walking meditation), and throughout all the activities of daily life. The goal of the practice is often termed <a href="/wiki/Kensh%C5%8D" title="Kenshō">kensho</a> (seeing one's true nature). Kōan practice is particularly emphasized in Rinzai, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoori2006-173">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tantric_Buddhism">Tantric Buddhism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Tantric Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paubha_waumha_tara.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Paubha_waumha_tara.jpg/220px-Paubha_waumha_tara.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Paubha_waumha_tara.jpg/330px-Paubha_waumha_tara.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Paubha_waumha_tara.jpg/440px-Paubha_waumha_tara.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1798" /></a><figcaption>Meditation through the use of complex <a href="/wiki/Guided_imagery" title="Guided imagery">guided imagery</a> based on Buddhist deities like <a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tara</a> is a key practice in <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a>. Visual aids such as this <a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">thangka</a> are often used.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kongokai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Kongokai.jpg/220px-Kongokai.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Kongokai.jpg/330px-Kongokai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Kongokai.jpg/440px-Kongokai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3125" data-file-height="3567" /></a><figcaption>Diamond Realm (Kongokai) Mandala of the <a href="/wiki/Shingon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shingon">Shingon</a> school</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tantra_techniques_(Vajrayana)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)">Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Tantric Buddhism</a> (Esoteric Buddhism or Mantrayana) refers to various traditions which developed in India from the fifth century onwards and then spread to the Himalayan regions and East Asia. In the Tibetan tradition, it is also known as <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a>, while in China it is known as Zhenyan (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Ch</a>: 真言, "true word", "<a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantra</a>"), as well as Mìjiao (Esoteric Teaching), Mìzōng ("Esoteric Tradition") or Tángmì ("Tang Esoterica"). Tantric Buddhism generally includes all of the traditional forms of Mahayana meditation, but its focus is on several unique and special forms of "<a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantric</a>" or "esoteric" meditation practices, which are seen as faster and more efficacious. These Tantric Buddhist forms are derived from texts called the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Tantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Tantras">Buddhist Tantras</a>. To practice these advanced techniques, one is generally required to be initiated into the practice by an esoteric master (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: acarya) or guru (<a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tib</a>. lama) in a ritual consecration called <a href="/wiki/Empowerment_(Vajrayana)" class="mw-redirect" title="Empowerment (Vajrayana)">abhiseka</a> (Tib. wang). In <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a>, the central defining form of Vajrayana meditation is <a href="/wiki/Deity_Yoga" class="mw-redirect" title="Deity Yoga">Deity Yoga</a> (devatayoga).<a href="#cite_note-174">[151]</a> This involves the recitation of <a href="/wiki/Mantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantras">mantras</a>, prayers and <a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">visualization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yidam" title="Yidam">yidam</a> or deity (usually the form of a <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddha</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a>) along with the associated <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">mandala</a> of the deity's <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure Land">Pure Land</a>.<a href="#cite_note-175">[152]</a> Advanced Deity Yoga involves imagining yourself as the deity and developing "divine pride", the understanding that oneself and the deity are not separate. "Yidam" in Tibetan technically means "tight mind" which suggests that the use of a deity as an object of meditation is intended to create total absorption into the meditative experience. Yidam practice focuses on three essential aspects of deities which, in turn, are the three principal aspects of all being: body, speech and mind. Practitioners meditate on the body of the deity, usually visually themselves becoming that body. Chanting mantra becomes the manifestation of enlightened speech with the meditation ultimately aspiring to become Buddha mind. Most tantric practices incorporate these three aspects sequentially or simultaneously. Deity practice should be differentiated from worship of gods in other religions. One way of describing tantric practice is to understand it as a "strong method" for developing an awareness of the true nature of consciousness. Other forms of meditation in Tibetan Buddhism include the <a href="/wiki/Mahamudra" title="Mahamudra">Mahamudra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a> teachings, each taught by the <a href="/wiki/Kagyu" title="Kagyu">Kagyu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a> lineages of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> respectively. The goal of these is to familiarize oneself with the ultimate nature of mind which underlies all existence, the <a href="/wiki/Dharmak%C4%81ya" title="Dharmakāya">Dharmakāya</a>. There are also other practices such as <a href="/wiki/Dream_Yoga" class="mw-redirect" title="Dream Yoga">Dream Yoga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tummo" title="Tummo">Tummo</a>, the yoga of the intermediate state (at death) or <a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">bardo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karmamudr%C4%81" title="Karmamudrā">sexual yoga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%B6d" title="Chöd">chöd</a>. The shared preliminary practices of Tibetan Buddhism are called <a href="/wiki/Ng%C3%B6ndro" title="Ngöndro">ngöndro</a>, which involves visualization, <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantra</a> recitation, and many <a href="/wiki/Prostration" title="Prostration">prostrations</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese esoteric Buddhism</a> focused on a separate set of tantras than Tibetan Buddhism (such as the <a href="/wiki/Mahavairocana_Tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavairocana Tantra">Mahavairocana Tantra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vajrasekhara_Sutra" title="Vajrasekhara Sutra">Vajrasekhara Sutra</a>), and thus their practices are drawn from these different sources, though they revolve around similar techniques such as visualization of mandalas, mantra recitation and use of <a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">mudras</a>. This also applies for the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a> school and the <a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a> school (which, though derived from the Tiantai school, also adopted esoteric practices). In the East Asian tradition of esoteric praxis, the use of mudra, mantra and mandala are regarded as the "three modes of action" associated with the "Three Mysteries" (sanmi 三密) are seen as the hallmarks of esoteric Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-176">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Therapeutic_uses_of_meditation">Therapeutic uses of meditation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Therapeutic uses of meditation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mindfulness (Buddhism)">Mindfulness (Buddhism)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a></div> Meditation based on Buddhist meditation principles has been practiced by people for a long time for the purposes of effecting mundane and worldly benefit.<a href="#cite_note-177">[154]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> and other Buddhist meditation techniques have been advocated in the West by psychologists and expert Buddhist meditation teachers such as <a href="/wiki/Dipa_Ma" title="Dipa Ma">Dipa Ma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Munindra" title="Anagarika Munindra">Anagarika Munindra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pema_Ch%C3%B6dr%C3%B6n" title="Pema Chödrön">Pema Chödrön</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clive_Sherlock" title="Clive Sherlock">Clive Sherlock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mother_Sayamagyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother Sayamagyi">Mother Sayamagyi</a>, <a href="/wiki/S._N._Goenka" title="S. N. Goenka">S. N. Goenka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jon_Kabat-Zinn" title="Jon Kabat-Zinn">Jon Kabat-Zinn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kornfield" title="Jack Kornfield">Jack Kornfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goldstein_(writer)" title="Joseph Goldstein (writer)">Joseph Goldstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tara_Brach" title="Tara Brach">Tara Brach</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alan_Clements&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alan Clements (page does not exist)">Alan Clements</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sharon_Salzberg" title="Sharon Salzberg">Sharon Salzberg</a>, who have been widely attributed with playing a significant role in integrating the healing aspects of Buddhist meditation practices with the concept of psychological awareness, healing, and well-being. Although mindfulness meditation<a href="#cite_note-178">[155]</a> has received the most research attention, loving kindness<a href="#cite_note-:0-179">[156]</a> (metta) and equanimity (upekkha) meditation are beginning to be used in a wide array of research in the fields of psychology and neuroscience.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The accounts of meditative states in the Buddhist texts are in some regards free of dogma, so much so that the Buddhist scheme has been adopted by Western psychologists attempting to describe the phenomenon of meditation in general.<a href="#cite_note-180">[note 24]</a> However, it is exceedingly common to encounter the Buddha describing meditative states involving the attainment of such magical powers (Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Addhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ṛddhi">ṛddhi</a>, Pali iddhi) as the ability to multiply one's body into many and into one again, appear and vanish at will, pass through solid objects as if space, rise and sink in the ground as if in water, walking on water as if land, fly through the skies, touching anything at any distance (even the moon or sun), and travel to other worlds (like the world of Brahma) with or without the body, among other things,<a href="#cite_note-181">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[159]</a> and for this reason the whole of the Buddhist tradition may not be adaptable to a secular context, unless these magical powers are seen as metaphorical representations of powerful internal states that conceptual descriptions could not do justice to. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_terms">Key terms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Key terms">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>English </th> <th>Pali </th> <th>Sanskrit </th> <th>Chinese </th> <th>Tibetan </th></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">mindfulness/awareness </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">sati</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">smṛti</a> </td> <td>念 (niàn) </td> <td>དྲན་པ། (wylie: dran pa) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">clear comprehension </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sampaja%C3%B1%C3%B1a" title="Sampajañña">sampajañña</a> </td> <td>samprajaña </td> <td>正知力 (zhèng zhī lì) </td> <td>ཤེས་བཞིན། shezhin (shes bzhin) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">vigilance/heedfulness </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Appamada" class="mw-redirect" title="Appamada">appamada</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apram%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Apramāda">apramāda</a> </td> <td>不放逸座 (bù fàng yì zuò) </td> <td>བག་ཡོད། bakyö (bag yod) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">ardency </td> <td>atappa </td> <td>ātapaḥ </td> <td>勇猛 (yǒng měng) </td> <td>nyima (nyi ma) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">attention/engagement </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Manasikara" class="mw-redirect" title="Manasikara">manasikara</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Manask%C4%81ra%E1%B8%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="Manaskāraḥ">manaskāraḥ</a> </td> <td>如理作意 (rú lǐ zuò yì) </td> <td>ཡིད་ལ་བྱེད་པ། yila jepa (yid la byed pa) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">foundation of mindfulness </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Satipa%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Satipaṭṭhāna">satipaṭṭhāna</a> </td> <td>smṛtyupasthāna </td> <td>念住 (niànzhù) </td> <td>དྲན་པ་ཉེ་བར་བཞག་པ། trenpa neybar zhagpa (dran pa nye bar gzhag pa) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">mindfulness of breathing </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C4%80n%C4%81p%C4%81nasati" class="mw-redirect" title="Ānāpānasati">ānāpānasati</a> </td> <td>ānāpānasmṛti </td> <td>安那般那 (ānnàbānnà) </td> <td>དབུགས་དྲན་པ། wūk trenpa (dbugs dran pa) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">calm abiding/cessation </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">samatha</a> </td> <td>śamatha </td> <td>止 (zhǐ) </td> <td>ཞི་གནས། shiney (zhi gnas) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">insight/contemplation </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vipassan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassanā">vipassanā</a> </td> <td>vipaśyanā </td> <td>観 (guān) </td> <td>ལྷག་མཐོང་། (lhag mthong) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">meditative concentration </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Samādhi">samādhi</a> </td> <td>samādhi </td> <td>三昧 (sānmèi) </td> <td>ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན། ting-nge-dzin (ting nge dzin) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">meditative absorption </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jh%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Jhāna">jhāna</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">dhyāna</a> </td> <td>禪 (<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">chán</a>) </td> <td>བསམ་གཏན། samten (bsam gtan) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">cultivation </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81van%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhāvanā">bhāvanā</a> </td> <td>bhāvanā </td> <td>修行 (xiūxíng) </td> <td>སྒོམ་པ། (sgom pa) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">cultivation of analysis </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vitarka-vic%C4%81ra" title="Vitarka-vicāra">vitakka and vicāra</a> </td> <td>*vicāra-bhāvanā </td> <td>尋伺察 (xún sì chá) </td> <td>དཔྱད་སྒོམ། (dpyad sgom) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="DDDDDD">cultivation of settling </td> <td>— </td> <td>*sthāpya-bhāvanā </td> <td>— </td> <td>འཇོག་སྒོམ། jokgom ('jog sgom) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <dl><dt>General Buddhist practices</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mindfulness (Buddhism)">Mindfulness</a> – awareness in the present moment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a> - Four Foundations of Mindfulness, based on <a href="/wiki/Satipa%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta">Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a> – focusing on the breath, reference to <a href="/wiki/%C4%80n%C4%81p%C4%81nasati_Sutta" title="Ānāpānasati Sutta">Ānāpānasati Sutta</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> Buddhist meditation practices</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha">Samatha</a> – calm-abiding, which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassanā">Vipassanā</a> – insight, which enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five aggregates</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a> – Mindfulness of body, sensations, mind and mental phenomena</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> – including loving-kindness (<a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Metta</a>), compassion (<a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a>), sympathetic joy (<a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a>) and equanimity (<a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">Upekkha</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81nussati" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhānussati">Buddhānussati</a> – meditation on the nine Noble Qualities of Lord <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patikkulamanasikara" class="mw-redirect" title="Patikkulamanasikara">Patikkulamanasikara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasati_Meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahasati Meditation">Mahasati Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammakaya_Meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhammakaya Meditation">Dhammakaya Meditation</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> Buddhist meditation practices</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a> – just sitting</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinhin" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinhin">Kinhin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_Tou" title="Hua Tou">Hua Tou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suizen" class="mw-redirect" title="Suizen">Suizen</a> (historically practiced by the <a href="/wiki/Fuke_Zen" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuke Zen">Fuke sect</a>)</li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhist</a> meditation practices</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngondro" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngondro">Ngondro</a> – preliminary practices</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a> – giving and receiving</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phowa" title="Phowa">Phowa</a> – transference of consciousness at the time of death</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%B6d" title="Chöd">Chöd</a> – cutting through fear by confronting it</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahamudra" title="Mahamudra">Mahamudra</a> – the Kagyu version of 'entering the all-pervading Dharmadatu', the 'nondual state', or the 'absorption state'</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a> – the natural state, the <a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a> version of <a href="/wiki/Mahamudra" title="Mahamudra">Mahamudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra_techniques_(Vajrayana)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)">Tantra techniques</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Proper floor-sitting postures and supports while meditating</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>Floor sitting: <a href="/wiki/Sitting#Cross-legged" title="Sitting">cross-legged</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lotus_position" title="Lotus position">full lotus</a>, half lotus, Burmese) or <a href="/wiki/Seiza" title="Seiza">seiza</a></li> <li>Cushions: <a href="/wiki/Zafu" title="Zafu">zafu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zabuton" title="Zabuton">zabuton</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Traditional <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a> on meditation</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anapanasati Sutta">Anapanasati Sutta</a> (in the Pali Nikayas) and parallels in the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a> (Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana_Sutta" title="Satipatthana Sutta">Satipatthana Sutta</a> (in the Pali Nikayas) and its parallel in the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a> (Smṛtyupasthāna Sūtra)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upajjhatthana_Sutta" title="Upajjhatthana Sutta">Upajjhatthana Sutta</a> (in the Pali Nikayas)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81yagat%C4%81sati_Sutta" title="Kāyagatāsati Sutta">Kāyagatāsati Sutta</a> (in the Pali Nikayas)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a> ('The path of Purification'), used in <a href="/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravada Buddhism">Theravada Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogacarabhumi-sastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacarabhumi-sastra">Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra</a> (Treatise on the Stages of Yoga), a classic north Indian compendium on meditation used by the Indian <a href="/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogācāra">Yogācāra</a> school, remains influential in <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mohe_Zhiguan" title="Mohe Zhiguan">Great Concentration and Insight</a> (Mohe Zhiguan) – used in the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a> school</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_tantras" title="Seventeen tantras">Seventeen tantras</a> – Major Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a> texts.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Wangchuk_Dorje" class="mw-redirect" title="Wangchuk Dorje">Wangchuk Dorje</a>'s "Ocean of Definitive Meaning", major text on Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Mahamudra" title="Mahamudra">Mahamudra</a> meditation in the <a href="/wiki/Kagyu" title="Kagyu">Kagyu</a> school.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakpo_Tashi_Namgyal" class="mw-redirect" title="Dakpo Tashi Namgyal">Dakpo Tashi Namgyal</a>'s "Mahamudra: The Moonlight – Quintessence of Mind and Meditation"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen#Other_writings" title="Dōgen">Fukan-zazengi</a> (Advice on <a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a>) – By <a href="/wiki/Dogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogen">Dogen</a>, used in the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Soto_Zen" class="mw-redirect" title="Soto Zen">Soto Zen</a> school.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Traditional preliminary practices to Buddhist meditation</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Refuge (Buddhism)">Taking refuge</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Gem" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple Gem">Triple Gem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Precepts" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Precepts">Five Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Precepts" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight Precepts">Eight Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awgatha" title="Awgatha">Awgatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadaw" title="Gadaw">Gadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">prostrations</a> (also see <a href="/wiki/Ngondro" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngondro">Ngondro</a>)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Western mindfulness</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mindfulness (psychology)">Mindfulness (psychology)</a> – Western applications of Buddhist ideas</li></ul> <dl><dt>Analog in Vedas</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Hinduism" title="Dhyana in Hinduism">Dhyana in Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksirodakasayi_Vishnu" title="Ksirodakasayi Vishnu">Ksirodakasayi Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramatma" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramatma">Paramatma</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Analog in Taoism</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daoist_meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoist meditation">Daoist meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_alchemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal alchemy">Internal alchemy</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-bhāvanā-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bhāvanā_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bhāvanā_1-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word bhāvanā literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this term with "meditation," see Epstein (1995), p. 105; and, Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 20. As an example from a well-known discourse of the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a>, in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (Maha-Rahulovada Sutta, <a href="/wiki/Majjhima_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Majjhima Nikaya">MN</a> 62), <a href="/wiki/Sariputta" class="mw-redirect" title="Sariputta">Sariputta</a> tells <a href="/wiki/Rahula" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahula">Rahula</a> (in Pali, based on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tipitaka.org/romn/cscd/s0202m.mul1.xml">VRI, n.d.)</a>: ānāp ānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html">Thanissaro (2006)</a> translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [bhāvana] of <a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">mindfulness of in-&-out breathing</a>." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.) </li> <li id="cite_note-dhyana-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dhyana_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dhyana_2-1">b</a> See, for example, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2005.pali">Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), entry for "jhāna1"</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html">Thanissaro (1997)</a>; as well as, Kapleau (1989), p. 385, for the derivation of the word "<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">zen</a>" from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> "dhyāna." <a href="/wiki/Pali_Text_Society" title="Pali Text Society">PTS</a> Secretary Dr. Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">wandering ascetics</a> contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as 'altered states of consciousness'. In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts, such states come to be termed 'meditations' (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: dhyāna, <a href="/wiki/Pali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali language">Pali</a>: jhāna) or 'concentrations' (<a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Samādhi">samādhi</a>); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world." (Gethin, 1998, p. 10.)</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> * Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that has <a href="/wiki/Bodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhi">awakening</a> as its ultimate aim." * Bodhi (1999): "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation [...] At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye [...] shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nibbana</a>." * Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 142: "Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'" * Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4). </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Goldstein (2003) writes that, in regard to the <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana_Sutta" title="Satipatthana Sutta">Satipatthana Sutta</a>, "there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are called vipassana [...] and in one form or another – and by whatever name – are found in all the major Buddhist traditions." (p. 92) The forty concentrative meditation subjects refer to <a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a>'s oft-referenced enumeration. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Regarding Tibetan visualizations, Kamalashila (2003), writes: "The Tara meditation [...] is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form of <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a>." (p. 227) </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Polak refers to Vetter, who noted that in the suttas right effort leads to a calm state of mind. When this calm and self-restraint had been reached, the Buddha is described as sitting down and attaining the first jhana, in an almost natural way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011-20">[15]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Kuan refers to Bronkhorst (1985), Dharma and Abhidharma, p.312-314. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Kuan refers to Sujato (2006), A history of mindfulness: how insight worsted tranquility in the Satipatthana Sutta, p.264-273 </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Keren Arbel refers to Majjhima Nikaya 26, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.026.than.html">Ariyapariyesana Sutta, The Noble Search</a> See also: * Majjhima Nikaya 111, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.111.than.html">Anuppada Sutta</a> * AN 05.028, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.028.than.html">Samadhanga Sutta: The Factors of Concentration</a>. See Johansson (1981), Pali Buddhist texts Explained to Beginners for a word-by-word translation. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Arbel explains that "viveka" is usually translated as "detachment," "separation," or "seclusion," but the primary meaning is "discrimination." According to Arbel, the usage of vivicca/vivicceva and viveka in the description of the first dhyana "plays with both meanings of the verb; namely, its meaning as discernment and the consequent 'seclusion' and letting go," in line with the "discernment of the nature of experience" developed by the four satipatthanas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel201650-51-40">[31]</a> Compare Dogen: "Being apart from all disturbances and dwelling alone in a quiet place is called "enjoying serenity and tranquility.""<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaezumiCook200763-41">[32]</a> Arbel further argues that viveka resembles <a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">dhamma vicaya</a>, which is mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Bojjhanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Bojjhanga">bojjhanga</a>, an alternative description of the dhyanas, but the only bojjhanga-term not mentioned in the stock dhyana-description.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016106-42">[33]</a> Compare Sutta Nipatha 5.14 Udayamāṇavapucchā (The Questions of Udaya): "Pure equanimity and mindfulness, preceded by investigation of principles—this, I declare, is liberation by enlightenment, the smashing of ignorance.” (Translation: Sujato) </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Stta Nipatha 5:13 Udaya’s Questions (transl. Thanissaro): "With delight the world’s fettered. With directed thought it’s examined." <a href="#CITEREFChen2017">Chen 2017</a>: "Samadhi with general examination and specific in-depth investigation means getting rid of the <a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">not virtuous dharmas</a>, such as greedy desire and hatred, to stay in joy and pleasure caused by nonarising, and to enter the first meditation and fully dwell in it." <a href="#CITEREFArbel2016">Arbel 2016</a>, p. 73: "Thus, my suggestion is that we should interpret the existence of vitakka and vicara in the first jhana as wholesome 'residues' of a previous development of wholesome thoughts. They denote the 'echo' of these wholesome thoughts, which reverberates in one who enters the first jhana as wholesome attitudes toward what is experienced." </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Pali_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali canon">Pali canon</a>, Vitakka-vicāra form one expression, which refers to directing one's thought or attention on an object (vitarka) and investigate it (vicāra).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus200289-46">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhys-DavidsStede1921–25-50">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuentherKawamura1975Kindle_Locations_1030-1033-51">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunsang200430-52">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerzin2006-53">[42]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Dan_Lusthaus" title="Dan Lusthaus">Dan Lusthaus</a>, vitarka-vicāra is analytic scrutiny, a form of <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">prajna</a>. It "involves focusing on [something] and then breaking it down into its functional components" to understand it, "distinguishing the multitude of conditioning factors implicated in a phenomenal event."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus2002116-54">[43]</a> The Theravada commentarial tradition, as represented by <a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a>, interprets vitarka and vicāra as the initial and sustained application of attention to a meditational object, which culminates in the stilling of the mind when moving on to the second dhyana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBucknell1993375-376-55">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStuart-Fox198982-56">[45]</a> According to Fox and Bucknell it may also refer to "the normal process of discursive thought," which is quieted through absorption in the second jhāna.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStuart-Fox198982-56">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBucknell1993375-376-55">[44]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> The standard translation for samadhi is "concentration"; yet, this translation/interpretation is based on commentarial interpretations, as explained by a number of contemporary authors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016-8">[5]</a> Tilmann Vetter notes that samadhi has a broad range of meanings, and "concentration" is just one of them. Vetter argues that the second, third and fourth dhyana are samma-samadhi, "right samadhi," building on a "spontaneous awareness" (sati) and equanimity which is perfected in the fourth dhyana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988XXVI,_note_9-60">[48]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> The common translation, based on the commentarial interpretation of dhyana as expanding states of absorption, translates sampasadana as "internal assurance." Yet, as Bucknell explains, it also means "tranquilizing," which is more apt in this context.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBucknell1993375-376-55">[44]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Upekkhā is one of the <a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmaviharas</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> With the fourth jhāna comes the attainment of higher knowledge (<a href="/wiki/Abhijna" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhijna">abhijñā</a>), that is, the extinction of all mental intoxicants (<a href="/wiki/%C4%80sava" class="mw-redirect" title="Āsava">āsava</a>), but also psychic powers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarbacker2021entry:_"abhijñā"-70">[55]</a> For instance in <a href="/wiki/Anguttara_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Anguttara Nikaya">AN</a> 5.28, the Buddha states (Thanissaro, 1997.): "When a monk has developed and pursued the five-factored noble right concentration in this way, then whichever of the six higher knowledges he turns his mind to know and realize, he can witness them for himself whenever there is an opening...." "If he wants, he wields manifold supranormal powers. Having been one he becomes many; having been many he becomes one. He appears. He vanishes. He goes unimpeded through walls, ramparts, and mountains as if through space. He dives in and out of the earth as if it were water. He walks on water without sinking as if it were dry land. Sitting crosslegged he flies through the air like a winged bird. With his hand he touches and strokes even the sun and moon, so mighty and powerful. He exercises influence with his body even as far as the Brahma worlds. He can witness this for himself whenever there is an opening ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Gombrich: "I know this is controversial, but it seems to me that the third and fourth jhanas are thus quite unlike the second."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007140,_note_58-72">[56]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Wynne: "Thus the expression sato sampajāno in the third jhāna must denote a state of awareness different from the meditative absorption of the second jhāna (cetaso ekodibhāva). It suggests that the subject is doing something different from remaining in a meditative state, i.e., that he has come out of his absorption and is now once again aware of objects. The same is true of the word upek(k)hā: it does not denote an abstract 'equanimity', [but] it means to be aware of something and indifferent to it [...] The third and fourth jhāna-s, as it seems to me, describe the process of directing states of meditative absorption towards the mindful awareness of objects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007106–107-76">[59]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> According to Gombrich, "the later tradition has falsified the jhana by classifying them as the quintessence of the concentrated, calming kind of meditation, ignoring the other - and indeed higher - element.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007140,_note_58-72">[56]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> These definitions of samatha and vipassana are based on the "Four Kinds of Persons Sutta" (<a href="/wiki/Anguttara_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Anguttara Nikaya">AN</a> 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi (2005), pp. 269-70, 440 n. 13. See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.094.than.html">Thanissaro (1998d)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Bodhi (2000), pp. 1251-53. See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn35/sn35.204.than.html">Thanissaro (1998c)</a> (where this sutta is identified as SN 35.204). See also, for instance, a discourse (Pali: <a href="/wiki/S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Sūtra">sutta</a>) entitled, "Serenity and Insight" (<a href="/wiki/Samyutta_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Samyutta Nikaya">SN</a> 43.2), where the Buddha states: "And what, <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">bhikkhus</a>, is the path leading to the <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">unconditioned</a>? Serenity and insight...." (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1372-73). </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html">Thanissaro (1997)</a> where for instance he underlines: "When [the Pali discourses] depict the Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying 'go do vipassana,' but always 'go do jhana.' And they never equate the word vipassana with any mindfulness techniques. In the few instances where they do mention vipassana, they almost always pair it with samatha – not as two alternative methods, but as two qualities of mind that a person may 'gain' or 'be endowed with,' and that should be developed together." Similarly, referencing <a href="/wiki/Majjhima_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Majjhima Nikaya">MN</a> 151, vv. 13–19, and <a href="/wiki/Anguttara_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Anguttara Nikaya">AN</a> IV, 125-27, Ajahn Brahm (who, like Bhikkhu Thanissaro, is of the <a href="/wiki/Thai_Forest_Tradition" title="Thai Forest Tradition">Thai Forest Tradition</a>) writes: "Some traditions speak of two types of meditation, insight meditation (vipassana) and calm meditation (samatha). In fact, the two are indivisible facets of the same process. Calm is the peaceful happiness born of meditation; insight is the clear understanding born of the same meditation. Calm leads to insight and insight leads to calm." (Brahm, 2006, p. 25.) </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> To be distinguished from the Mahayana <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yogacara_school&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yogacara school (page does not exist)">Yogacara school</a>, though they may have been a precursor.<a href="#cite_note-Deleanu-4">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, pages 33-34. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986. The author is referring to Pali literature. See however B. Alan Wallace, The bridge of quiescence: experiencing Tibetan Buddhist meditation. Carus Publishing Company, 1998, where the author demonstrates similar approaches to analyzing meditation within the Indo-Tibetan and Theravada traditions. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Deleanu-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Deleanu_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Deleanu_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Deleanu_4-2">c</a> Deleanu, Florin (1992); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/mindfulness-of-breathing-in-the-dhayana-sutra_florin-deleanu_1992.pdf">Mindfulness of Breathing in the Dhyāna Sūtras</a>. Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan (TICOJ) 37, 42-57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988_5-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFVetter1988">Vetter 1988</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993_6-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst1993">Bronkhorst (1993)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Anālayo_2017,_p_109-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Anālayo_2017,_p_109_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anālayo_2017,_p_109_7-1">b</a> Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 109 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArbel2016_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArbel2016_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArbel2016_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArbel2016_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArbel2016_8-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArbel2016_8-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArbel2016_8-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFArbel2016">Arbel 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Sujato, A history of mindfulness. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2012-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2012_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2012_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst2012_12-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst2012">Bronkhorst (2012)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20122-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20122_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20122_13-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst2012">Bronkhorst (2012)</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20124-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst20124_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst2012">Bronkhorst (2012)</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, 2017, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Wynne, Alexander, The origin of Buddhist meditation, pp. 23, 37 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst199310-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst199310_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst1993">Bronkhorst (1993)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Analayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, p.69-70, 80 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxv-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxv_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxv_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxv_19-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFVetter1988">Vetter 1988</a>, p. xxv. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolak2011_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolak2011_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolak2011_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolak2011_20-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolak2011_20-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolak2011_20-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolak2011_20-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolak2011_20-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFPolak2011">Polak 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> For instance, see Solé-Leris (1986), p. 75; and, Goldstein (2003), p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bhikkhu_148-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bhikkhu_148_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bhikkhu_148_23-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSujato2012" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bhante_Sujato" title="Bhante Sujato">Sujato, Bhante</a> (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://santifm.org/santipada/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/A_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf">A History of Mindfulness</a> (PDF), Santipada, p. 148, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781921842108" title="Special:BookSources/9781921842108"><bdi>9781921842108</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mindfulness&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Santipada&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781921842108&rft.aulast=Sujato&rft.aufirst=Bhante&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsantifm.org%2Fsantipada%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F08%2FA_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuan2008107-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuan2008107_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuan2008">Kuan 2008</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuan2008108-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuan2008108_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuan2008">Kuan 2008</a>, p. 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnālayo201348-49-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnālayo201348-49_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnālayo2013">Anālayo 2013</a>, p. 48-49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolak2011153–156,_196–197-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolak2011153–156,_196–197_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPolak2011">Polak 2011</a>, pp. 153–156, 196–197. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zugangzureinsicht.org/html/lib/authors/buddhadasa/dhammawithpictures_en.html">Teaching Dhamma by pictures: Explanation of a Siamese Traditional Buddhist Manuscript</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhys-DavidsStede1921–2545,_"Anussati"-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhys-DavidsStede1921–2545,_"Anussati"_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRhys-DavidsStede1921–25">Rhys-Davids & Stede (1921–25)</a>, p. 45, "Anussati". </li> <li id="cite_note-Nanamoli1998-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Nanamoli1998_32-0">^</a> Nanamoli (1998), p. 110, n. 16, which references the Anapanasati Sutta and the Visuddhimagga, Ch. 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1981</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel201650-51-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArbel201650-51_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArbel201650-51_40-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFArbel2016">Arbel 2016</a>, p. 50-51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaezumiCook200763-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaezumiCook200763_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaezumiCook2007">Maezumi & Cook (2007)</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArbel2016106-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArbel2016106_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArbel2016">Arbel 2016</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWayman199748-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWayman199748_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWayman1997">Wayman 1997</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESangpoDhammajoti20122413-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESangpoDhammajoti20122413_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSangpoDhammajoti2012">Sangpo & Dhammajoti 2012</a>, p. 2413. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELusthaus200289-46">^ <a 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Experience+in+Early+Buddhism&rft.pub=OCHS+Library&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Gombrich&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ochs.org.uk%2Flectures%2Freligious-experience-early-buddhism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007106-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynne2007106_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynne2007106_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynne2007106_75-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWynne2007">Wynne (2007)</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2007106–107-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynne2007106–107_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWynne2007">Wynne (2007)</a>, pp. 106–107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich199784–85-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich199784–85_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1997">Gombrich (1997)</a>, pp. 84–85. </li> <li 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href="#CITEREFGombrich1997">Gombrich (1997)</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2015]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2015)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2015]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2015)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVetter1988">Vetter 1988</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich199796–134-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich199796–134_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGombrich1997">Gombrich (1997)</a>, pp. 96–134. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxxv-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxxv_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVetter1988">Vetter 1988</a>, p. xxxv. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Keown, Damien (1992/2001) "The Nature of Buddhist Ethics," p. 79-82, New York: Palgrave. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Cox, Collett (1992/1994) “Attainment through Abandonment: The Sarvāstivāda Path of Removing Defilements”, in Paths to Liberation, The Mārga and Its Transformations in Buddhist Thought, R.E. Buswell jr. and R.M. Gimello (ed.), 63–105, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fowler1999p60-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler1999p60_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler1999p60_91-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler1999p60_91-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler1999p60_91-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerv_Fowler1999" class="citation book cs1">Merv Fowler (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A7UKjtA0QDwC">Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices</a>. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 60–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-66-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-66-0"><bdi>978-1-898723-66-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism%3A+Beliefs+and+Practices&rft.pages=60-62&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-898723-66-0&rft.au=Merv+Fowler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA7UKjtA0QDwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-peterharvey2012p154-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-peterharvey2012p154_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-peterharvey2012p154_92-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-peterharvey2012p154_92-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Harvey2012" class="citation book cs1">Peter Harvey (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8XAgAwAAQBAJ">An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 154, 326. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-85126-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-85126-8"><bdi>978-1-139-85126-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Buddhism%3A+Teachings%2C+History+and+Practices&rft.pages=154%2C+326&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-139-85126-8&rft.au=Peter+Harvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8XAgAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayādaw" class="citation book cs1">Sayādaw, Mahāsi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aimwell.org/forty.html">Buddhist Meditation and its Forty Subjects</a>. Retrieved 26 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Meditation+and+its+Forty+Subjects&rft.aulast=Say%C4%81daw&rft.aufirst=Mah%C4%81si&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aimwell.org%2Fforty.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> See, for instance, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/waytoend.html">Bodhi (1999)</a> and Nyanaponika (1996), p. 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Bodhi (2005), pp. 268, 439 nn. 7, 9, 10. See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.170.than.html">Thanissaro (1998f)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> See, for instance, AN 2.30 in Bodhi (2005), pp. 267-68, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an02/an02.030.than.html">Thanissaro (1998e)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> PV Bapat. Vimuttimagga & Visuddhimagga – A Comparative Study, p. lv </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> PV Bapat. Vimuttimagga & Visuddhimagga – A Comparative Study, p. lvii </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSujato2012" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bhante_Sujato" title="Bhante Sujato">Sujato, Bhante</a> (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://santifm.org/santipada/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/A_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf">A History of Mindfulness</a> (PDF), Santipada, p. 329, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781921842108" title="Special:BookSources/9781921842108"><bdi>9781921842108</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mindfulness&rft.pages=329&rft.pub=Santipada&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781921842108&rft.aulast=Sujato&rft.aufirst=Bhante&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsantifm.org%2Fsantipada%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F08%2FA_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw20065-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw20065_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShaw2006">Shaw (2006)</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-Thanissaro-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thanissaro_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thanissaro_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thanissaro_107-2">c</a> Bhikkhu Thanissaro, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dhammatalks.net/Books/Bhikkhu_Thanissaro_Jhanas_Concentration_Wisdom.htm">Concentration and Discernment</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Sarah Shaw, Buddhist meditation: an anthology of texts from the Pāli canon. Routledge, 2006, pages 6-8. A Jataka tale gives a list of 38 of them. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SC6Ss7GgRZwC&pg=PA5&dq=buddhaghosa+meditation+subjects#PPA6,M1">[1]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Buddhaghosa & Nanamoli (1999), pp. 85, 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Buddhaghoṣa & Nanamoli (1999), p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Regarding the jhanic attainments that are possible with different meditation techniques, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/gunaratana/wheel351.html">Gunaratana (1988)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Gethin, Buddhist practice </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 112, 115 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 117 </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices, 1994, p 238 </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> “Should We Come Out of jhāna to Practice vipassanā?”, in Buddhist Studies in Honour of Venerable Kirindigalle Dhammaratana, S. 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A Concise History of Buddhism. 1997. p. 104 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrewes2010" class="citation journal cs1">Drewes, David (2010). "Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives". Religion Compass. 4 (2): 66–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x">10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion+Compass&rft.atitle=Early+Indian+Mahayana+Buddhism+II%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=66-74&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x&rft.aulast=Drewes&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 40-41. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Akira Hirakawa, A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, p. 300. </li> <li id="cite_note-Abe1999164-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abe1999164_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abe1999164_145-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyûichi_Abé1999" class="citation book cs1">Ryûichi Abé (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0ExNmHIACskC">The Weaving of Mantra: Kûkai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse</a>. Columbia University Press. pp. 164–168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52887-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52887-0"><bdi>978-0-231-52887-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Weaving+of+Mantra%3A+K%C3%BBkai+and+the+Construction+of+Esoteric+Buddhist+Discourse&rft.pages=164-168&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-231-52887-0&rft.au=Ry%C3%BBichi+Ab%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0ExNmHIACskC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_N._Linrothe1999" class="citation book cs1">Robert N. Linrothe (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AdtYxZoG228C&pg=PA56">Ruthless Compassion: Wrathful Deities in Early Indo-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhist Art</a>. Serindia Publications. pp. 56–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906026-51-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-906026-51-9"><bdi>978-0-906026-51-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ruthless+Compassion%3A+Wrathful+Deities+in+Early+Indo-Tibetan+Esoteric+Buddhist+Art&rft.pages=56-59&rft.pub=Serindia+Publications&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-906026-51-9&rft.au=Robert+N.+Linrothe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAdtYxZoG228C%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Keenan, John (2000), Scripture on the Explication of the Underlying Meaning, p. 56. Berkeley: Numata Center, ISBN 1886439109 </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_148-1">b</a> Delenau, Florin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/106604621/_Mind_Only_and_Beyond_History_of_Yogacara_Meditation_Oxford_lectures_2010_">Mind Only and Beyond: History of Yogacara Meditation</a>, 2010, p. 30. Lectures Series (Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies). </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_149-1">b</a> Takeuchi Yoshinori (editor), Buddhist Spirituality: Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, and Early Chinese, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, pp. 61-62. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Adam, Martin T. Meditation and the Concept of Insight in Kamalashila's Bhavanakramas, 2002. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Bhante Dhammadipa, Kumārajīva's Meditative Legacy in China, 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Deleanu, Florin (1992); Mindfulness of Breathing in the Dhyāna Sūtras. Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan (TICOJ) 37, 42-57. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Thich Hang Dat, A Reappraisal of Kumārajīva's Role in Medieval Chinese Buddhism: An Examination of Kumārajīva's Translation Text on "The Essential Explanation of the Method of Dhyana" </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Gregory, Peter N. (editor), Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, 1986, pp. 23–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Gregory, Peter N. (editor), Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, 1986, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Gregory, Peter N. (editor), Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, 1986, pp. 32–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-Luk_110-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Luk_110_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Luk_110_157-1">b</a> Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 110 </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rujun_Wu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rujun Wu (page does not exist)">Wu, Rujun</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q79b8T3inIMC">T'ien-t'ai Buddhism and Early Mādhyamika</a>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1561-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1561-5"><bdi>978-0-8248-1561-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%27ien-t%27ai+Buddhism+and+Early+M%C4%81dhyamika&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1561-5&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Rujun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ79b8T3inIMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 111 </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 125 </li> <li id="cite_note-Abé2013-161"><a href="#cite_ref-Abé2013_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbe2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ryuichi_Abe" title="Ryuichi Abe">Abe, Ryūichi</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0ExNmHIACskC">The Weaving of Mantra: Kūkai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52887-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52887-0"><bdi>978-0-231-52887-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Weaving+of+Mantra%3A+K%C5%ABkai+and+the+Construction+of+Esoteric+Buddhist+Discourse&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-231-52887-0&rft.aulast=Abe&rft.aufirst=Ry%C5%ABichi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0ExNmHIACskC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fox-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fox_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fox_162-1">b</a> Fox, Alan. The Practice of Huayan Buddhism, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.fgu.edu.tw/~cbs/pdf/2013%E8%AB%96%E6%96%87%E9%9B%86/q16.pdf">http://www.fgu.edu.tw/~cbs/pdf/2013%E8%AB%96%E6%96%87%E9%9B%86/q16.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170910083143/http://www.fgu.edu.tw/~cbs/pdf/2013%E8%AB%96%E6%96%87%E9%9B%86/q16.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-09-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, page 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-Luk_83-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Luk_83_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Luk_83_164-1">b</a> Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 83 </li> <li id="cite_note-Luk_84-165"><a href="#cite_ref-Luk_84_165-0">^</a> Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 85 </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Katsuki Sekida, Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy, Shambhala Publications, 2005, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Taigen Dan Leighton. Cultivating the Empty Field: The Silent Illumination of Zen Master Hongzhi, Tuttle, 2000, p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Taigen Dan Leighton. Cultivating the Empty Field: The Silent Illumination of Zen Master Hongzhi, Tuttle, 2000, pp. 1–2 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlyth1966-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlyth1966_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlyth1966">Blyth (1966)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Buswell, Robert E. (1991). Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen (Classics in East Asian Buddhism). University of Hawaii Press. pp. 68–69. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0824814274" title="Special:BookSources/0824814274">0824814274</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Bodiford, William M. (2006). Koan practice. In: "Sitting with Koans". Ed. John Daido Loori. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoori2006-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoori2006_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoori2006">Loori (2006)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Power, John; Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, page 271 </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Garson, Nathaniel DeWitt; Penetrating the Secret Essence Tantra: Context and Philosophy in the Mahayoga System of rNying-ma Tantra, 2004, p. 37 </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Orzech, Charles D. (general editor) (2011). Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. Brill, p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> See, for instance, Zongmi's description of bonpu and gedō zen, described further below. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://marc.ucla.edu/workfiles/pdfs/marc-mindfulness-research-summary.pdf">"MARC UCLA"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MARC+UCLA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmarc.ucla.edu%2Fworkfiles%2Fpdfs%2Fmarc-mindfulness-research-summary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-179"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutcherson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Hutcherson, Cendri (2008-05-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161118120450/http://www.emmaseppala.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/research-Hutcherson_08_2-1.pdf">"Loving-Kindness Meditation Increases Social Connectedness"</a> (PDF). Emotion. 8 (5): 720–724. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.378.4164">10.1.1.378.4164</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0013237">10.1037/a0013237</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18837623">18837623</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emmaseppala.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/research-Hutcherson_08_2-1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2016-11-18. Retrieved 2017-01-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emotion&rft.atitle=Loving-Kindness+Meditation+Increases+Social+Connectedness&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=720-724&rft.date=2008-05-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.378.4164%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18837623&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0013237&rft.aulast=Hutcherson&rft.aufirst=Cendri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emmaseppala.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F11%2Fresearch-Hutcherson_08_2-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn51/sn51.020.than.html">"Iddhipada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of the Bases of Power"</a>. Access to Insight.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Access+to+Insight&rft.atitle=Iddhipada-vibhanga+Sutta%3A+Analysis+of+the+Bases+of+Power&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accesstoinsight.org%2Ftipitaka%2Fsn%2Fsn51%2Fsn51.020.than.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.html">"Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life"</a>. Access to Insight.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Access+to+Insight&rft.atitle=Sama%C3%B1%C3%B1aphala+Sutta%3A+The+Fruits+of+the+Contemplative+Life&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accesstoinsight.org%2Ftipitaka%2Fdn%2Fdn.02.0.than.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.11.0.than.html">"Kevatta (Kevaddha) Sutta: To Kevatta"</a>. Access to Insight.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Access+to+Insight&rft.atitle=Kevatta+%28Kevaddha%29+Sutta%3A+To+Kevatta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accesstoinsight.org%2Ftipitaka%2Fdn%2Fdn.11.0.than.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnālayo2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Analayo" title="Bhikkhu Analayo">Anālayo</a> (2003). 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Birmingham: Windhorse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-899579-54-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-899579-54-0"><bdi>1-899579-54-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Satipa%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na+%3A+the+direct+path+to+realization&rft.place=Birmingham&rft.pub=Windhorse&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-899579-54-0&rft.au=An%C4%81layo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnālayo2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Analayo" title="Bhikkhu Analayo">Anālayo</a> (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/perspectives.pdf">Perspectives on Satipatthāna</a> (PDF), Cambridge: Windhorse Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-909314-03-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-909314-03-0"><bdi>978-1-909314-03-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Perspectives+on+Satipatth%C4%81na&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Windhorse+Publications&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-909314-03-0&rft.au=An%C4%81layo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de%2Fpdf%2F5-personen%2Fanalayo%2Fperspectives.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArbel2016" class="citation cs2">Arbel, Keren (2016), Early Buddhist Meditation: The Four Jhanas as the Actualization of Insight, Taylor & Francis, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317383994" title="Special:BookSources/9781317383994"><bdi>9781317383994</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Buddhist+Meditation%3A+The+Four+Jhanas+as+the+Actualization+of+Insight&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781317383994&rft.aulast=Arbel&rft.aufirst=Keren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerzin2006" class="citation cs2">Berzin, Alexander (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/science-of-mind/mind-mental-factors/primary-minds-and-the-51-mental-factors">Primary Minds and the 51 Mental Factors</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primary+Minds+and+the+51+Mental+Factors&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Berzin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstudybuddhism.com%2Fen%2Fadvanced-studies%2Fscience-of-mind%2Fmind-mental-factors%2Fprimary-minds-and-the-51-mental-factors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodhi2005" class="citation cs2">Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2005), In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon, Simon and Schuster</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Buddha%27s+Words%3A+An+Anthology+of+Discourses+from+the+Pali+Canon&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Bodhi&rft.aufirst=Bhikkhu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronkhorst1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bronkhorst" title="Johannes Bronkhorst">Bronkhorst, Johannes</a> (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Two+Traditions+Of+Meditation+In+Ancient+India&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Bronkhorst&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronkhorst2012" class="citation conference cs1">Bronkhorst, Johannes (2012). 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class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhys-DavidsStede1921–25" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated">Rhys-Davids, T.W.; Stede, William, eds. (1921–25), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:1489.pali">The Pali Text Society's Pali–English dictionary</a>, Pali Text Society)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pali+Text+Society%27s+Pali%E2%80%93English+dictionary&rft.pub=Pali+Text+Society%29&rft.date=1921%2F1925&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fphilologic%2Fgetobject.pl%3Fc.3%3A1%3A1489.pali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangpoDhammajoti2012" class="citation cs2">Sangpo, Gelong Lodro; Dhammajoti, Bhikkhu K.L. (2012), Abhidharmakosa-Bhasya of Vasubandhu: Volume 3, Motilal Banarsidass</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abhidharmakosa-Bhasya+of+Vasubandhu%3A+Volume+3&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Sangpo&rft.aufirst=Gelong+Lodro&rft.au=Dhammajoti%2C+Bhikkhu+K.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarbacker2021" class="citation cs2">Sarbacker, Stuart Ray (2021), Tracing the Path of Yoga: The History and Philosophy of Indian Mind-Body Discipline, State University of New York Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tracing+the+Path+of+Yoga%3A+The+History+and+Philosophy+of+Indian+Mind-Body+Discipline&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Sarbacker&rft.aufirst=Stuart+Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmithausen1981" class="citation cs2">Schmithausen, Lambert (1981), On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism". In: Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus (Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf), hrsg. von Klaus Bruhn und Albrecht Wezler, Wiesbaden 1981, 199–250</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+some+Aspects+of+Descriptions+or+Theories+of+%27Liberating+Insight%27+and+%27Enlightenment%27+in+Early+Buddhism%22.+In%3A+Studien+zum+Jainismus+und+Buddhismus+%28Gedenkschrift+f%C3%BCr+Ludwig+Alsdorf%29%2C+hrsg.+von+Klaus+Bruhn+und+Albrecht+Wezler%2C+Wiesbaden+1981%2C+199%E2%80%93250&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Schmithausen&rft.aufirst=Lambert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShankman2008" class="citation cs2">Shankman, Richard (2008), The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation, Shambhala</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Experience+of+Samadhi%3A+An+In-depth+Exploration+of+Buddhist+Meditation&rft.pub=Shambhala&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Shankman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2006" class="citation cs2">Shaw, Sarah (2006), Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pali Canon, Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Meditation%3A+An+Anthology+of+Texts+from+the+Pali+Canon&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuart-Fox1989" class="citation cs2">Stuart-Fox, Martin (1989), "Jhana and Buddhist Scholasticism", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 12 (2)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Association+of+Buddhist+Studies&rft.atitle=Jhana+and+Buddhist+Scholasticism&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Stuart-Fox&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSujato2012" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bhante_Sujato" title="Bhante Sujato">Sujato, Bhante</a> (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://santifm.org/santipada/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/A_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf">A History of Mindfulness</a> (PDF), Santipada, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781921842092" title="Special:BookSources/9781921842092"><bdi>9781921842092</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mindfulness&rft.pub=Santipada&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781921842092&rft.aulast=Sujato&rft.aufirst=Bhante&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsantifm.org%2Fsantipada%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F08%2FA_History_of_Mindfulness_Bhikkhu_Sujato.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVetter1988" class="citation cs2">Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ideas+and+Meditative+Practices+of+Early+Buddhism&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Vetter&rft.aufirst=Tilmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWayman1997" class="citation cs2">Wayman, Alex (1997), "Introduction", Calming the Mind and Discerning the Real: Buddhist Meditation and the Middle View, from the Lam Rim Chen Mo Tson-kha-pa, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Calming+the+Mind+and+Discerning+the+Real%3A+Buddhist+Meditation+and+the+Middle+View%2C+from+the+Lam+Rim+Chen+Mo+Tson-kha-pa&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Wayman&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynne2007" class="citation cs2">Wynne, Alexander (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+Buddhist+Meditation&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Wynne&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt>Scholarly (general overview)</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Gethin" title="Rupert Gethin">Gethin, Rupert</a> (1998). The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-289223-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-289223-1">0-19-289223-1</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Scholarly (origins)</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Stuart-Fox, Martin (1989), "Jhana and Buddhist Scholasticism", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 12 (2)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Association+of+Buddhist+Studies&rft.atitle=Jhana+and+Buddhist+Scholasticism&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Stuart-Fox&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Bucknell, Robert S. (1993), "Reinterpreting the Jhanas", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 16 (2)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Association+of+Buddhist+Studies&rft.atitle=Reinterpreting+the+Jhanas&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Bucknell&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ideas+and+Meditative+Practices+of+Early+Buddhism&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Vetter&rft.aufirst=Tilmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bronkhorst" title="Johannes Bronkhorst">Bronkhorst, Johannes</a> (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Two+Traditions+Of+Meditation+In+Ancient+India&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Bronkhorst&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Traditional Theravada</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henepola_Gunaratana" title="Henepola Gunaratana">Gunaratana, Henepola</a> (1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/gunaratana/wheel351.html">The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation</a> (Wheel No. 351/353). Kandy, Sri Lanka: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Publication_Society" title="Buddhist Publication Society">Buddhist Publication Society</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/955-24-0035-X" title="Special:BookSources/955-24-0035-X">955-24-0035-X</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Burmese Vipassana Movement</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nyanaponika_Thera" title="Nyanaponika Thera">Nyanaponika Thera</a> (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bps.lk/library-search-select.php?id=bp509s">The Heart of Buddhist Meditation</a>. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser, Inc. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87728-073-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87728-073-8">0-87728-073-8</a>.</li> <li>Hart, William (1987), The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation: As Taught by <a href="/wiki/S.N._Goenka" class="mw-redirect" title="S.N. Goenka">S.N. Goenka</a>. HarperOne. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-063724-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-063724-2">0-06-063724-2</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Thai Forest Tradition</dt></dl> <ul><li>Brahm, Ajahn (2006), Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86171-275-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86171-275-7">0-86171-275-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Amaro" title="Ajahn Amaro">Ajahn Amaro</a> (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abhayagiri.org/books/610-the-breakthrough">The Breakthrough</a>, based upon talks and meditation instructions during retreat at Amaravati</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanissaro_Bhikkhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanissaro Bhikkhu">Thanissaro Bhikkhu</a>, Wings to Awakening, a study of the factors taught by <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> as being essential for <a href="/wiki/Bodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhi">awakening</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Other Thai traditions</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhadasa" title="Buddhadasa">Buddhadasa</a>, Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree</li></ul> <dl><dt>Re-assessing jhana</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Quli, Natalie (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leighb.com/Jhana_in_Theravada_Quli.pdf">"Multiple Buddhist Modernisms: Jhana in Convert Theravada"</a> (PDF), Pacific World 10:225–249</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pacific+World+10%3A225%E2%80%93249&rft.atitle=Multiple+Buddhist+Modernisms%3A+Jhana+in+Convert+Theravada&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Quli&rft.aufirst=Natalie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.leighb.com%2FJhana_in_Theravada_Quli.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Shankman, Richard (2008), The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation, Shambhala</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Experience+of+Samadhi%3A+An+In-depth+Exploration+of+Buddhist+Meditation&rft.pub=Shambhala&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Shankman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Arbel, Keren (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317383994">Early Buddhist Meditation: The Four Jhanas as the Actualization of Insight</a>, Taylor & Francis, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315676043">10.4324/9781315676043</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317383994" title="Special:BookSources/9781317383994"><bdi>9781317383994</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Buddhist+Meditation%3A+The+Four+Jhanas+as+the+Actualization+of+Insight&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315676043&rft.isbn=9781317383994&rft.aulast=Arbel&rft.aufirst=Keren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2F9781317383994&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Zen</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHakuin2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hakuin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakuin">Hakuin</a> (2006). Low, Albert (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oDKQEAAAQBAJ">Hakuin on Kensho: The Four Ways of Knowing</a> (annotated ed.). <a href="/wiki/Shambhala_Publications" title="Shambhala Publications">Shambhala</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781590303771" title="Special:BookSources/9781590303771"><bdi>9781590303771</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hakuin+on+Kensho%3A+The+Four+Ways+of+Knowing&rft.edition=annotated&rft.pub=Shambhala&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781590303771&rft.au=Hakuin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoDKQEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuzuki2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shunry%C5%AB_Suzuki" title="Shunryū Suzuki">Suzuki, Shunryu</a> (2011). <a href="/wiki/Zen_Mind,_Beginner%27s_Mind" title="Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind">Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind</a>. Shambhala. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59030-849-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59030-849-3"><bdi>978-1-59030-849-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zen+Mind%2C+Beginner%27s+Mind&rft.pub=Shambhala&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59030-849-3&rft.aulast=Suzuki&rft.aufirst=Shunryu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+meditation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Kapleau" title="Philip Kapleau">Kapleau, Phillip</a> (1989), The Three Pillars of Zen: Teaching, Practice and Enlightenment. NY: Anchor Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-26093-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-26093-8">0-385-26093-8</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Tibetan Buddhism</dt></dl> <ul><li>Mipham, Sakyong (2003). Turning the Mind into an Ally. NY: Riverhead Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57322-206-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-57322-206-2">1-57322-206-2</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Buddhist modernism</dt></dl> <ul><li>Jack Kornfield, A Path With Heart</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goldstein_(writer)" title="Joseph Goldstein (writer)">Goldstein, Joseph</a> (2003). One Dharma: The Emerging Western Buddhism. NY: HarperCollins Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-251701-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-251701-5">0-06-251701-5</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Mindfulness</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Kabat-Zinn" title="Jon Kabat-Zinn">Kabat-Zinn, Jon</a> (2001). Full Catastrophe Living. NY: Dell Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-30312-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-30312-2">0-385-30312-2</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_meditation&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 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aria-labelledby="25px&#124;link=Dharmachakra_Topics_in_Buddhism_25px&#124;link=Buddhist_flag" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Buddhism_topics" title="Template:Buddhism topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Buddhism_topics" title="Template talk:Buddhism topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism topics"><abbr 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/38px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/50px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā (mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī (aunt, adoptive mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā (wife)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda (cousin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta (cousin)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">Buddhist crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāḷi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Comparative_Buddhism" title="Category:Comparative Buddhism">Comparison</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Buddhism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Buddhism and Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_influences_on_Christianity" title="Buddhist influences on Christianity">Influences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity">Comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Eastern_religions" title="Buddhism and Eastern religions">East Asian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism" title="Buddhism and Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Jainism" title="Buddhism and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Theosophy" title="Buddhism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_violence" title="Buddhism and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_philosophy" title="Buddhism and Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism-related_lists" title="Category:Buddhism-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bodhisattvas" title="List of bodhisattvas">Bodhisattvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhas">Buddhas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suttas" title="List of suttas">Suttas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples" title="List of Buddhist temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhist festivals">Festivals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism" title="Category:Buddhism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/16px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" 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href="/wiki/Brain_activity_and_meditation" title="Brain activity and meditation">Brain activity and meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="History of meditation">History of meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation_in_popular_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Meditation in popular culture">Meditation in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_interventions" title="Mind–body interventions">Mind–body interventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_meditation" title="Effects of meditation">Research on meditation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati (Buddhist breathing meditation)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhist meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_meditation" title="Christian meditation">Christian meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_meditation" title="Taoist meditation">Taoist meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dancemeditation" title="Dancemeditation">Dancemeditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna (Buddhist meditation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Hinduism" title="Dhyana in Hinduism">Dhyāna (Hindu meditation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henosis" title="Henosis">Henosis (Neoplatonic meditation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic meditation">Islamic meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_meditation" title="Jain meditation">Jain meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_meditation" title="Jewish meditation">Jewish meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muraqabah" title="Muraqabah">Muraqabah (Sufi meditation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation#New_Age" title="Meditation">New Age meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naam_Japo" title="Naam Japo">Naam Japo (Sikism meditation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neigong" title="Neigong">Neigong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pranayama" title="Pranayama">Pranayama (yoga breathing practice)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">Qigong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza (Zen Buddhist seated meditation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silva_Method" title="Silva Method">Silva Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental meditation (TM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassana" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha-vipassana">Vipassanā (Silent meditation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen (Zen Buddhist seated meditation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhan_zhuang" title="Zhan zhuang">Zhan zhuang (tai chi standing meditation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5Rhythms" title="5Rhythms">5Rhythms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofeedback" title="Biofeedback">Biofeedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainwave_entrainment" title="Brainwave entrainment">Brainwave entrainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaphragmatic_breathing" title="Diaphragmatic breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chanting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Dhāraṇā">Concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscious_breathing" title="Conscious breathing">Conscious breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="Guided meditation">Guided meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_consciousness" title="Higher consciousness">Higher consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation_music" title="Meditation music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Oneness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditative_poetry" title="Meditative poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditative_postures" title="Meditative postures">Postures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxation_technique" title="Relaxation technique">Relaxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samyama" title="Samyama">Samyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantric_sex" title="Tantric sex">Tantric sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassana" class="mw-redirect" title="Samatha-vipassana">Silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation#Sound-based_meditation" title="Meditation">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">Trance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Visualization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Focused attention <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thich Nhat Hanh</a></li></ul></li> <li>Open awareness <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Kabat-Zinn" title="Jon Kabat-Zinn">Jon Kabat-Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Harris" title="Sam Harris">Sam Harris</a></li></ul></li> <li>Multiple methods <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pema_Ch%C3%B6dr%C3%B6n" title="Pema Chödrön">Pema Chödrön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Piver" title="Susan Piver">Susan Piver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S._N._Goenka" title="S. N. Goenka">S. N. Goenka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goldstein_(writer)" title="Joseph Goldstein (writer)">Joseph Goldstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuval_Noah_Harari" title="Yuval Noah Harari">Yuval Harari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthieu_Ricard" title="Matthieu Ricard">Matthieu Ricard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharon_Salzberg" title="Sharon Salzberg">Sharon Salzberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Goleman" title="Daniel Goleman">Daniel Goleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thubten_Chodron" title="Thubten Chodron">Thubten Chodron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martine_Batchelor" title="Martine Batchelor">Martine Batchelor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Batchelor_(author)" title="Stephen Batchelor (author)">Stephen Batchelor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Varieties_of_the_Meditative_Experience" title="The Varieties of the Meditative Experience">The Varieties of the Meditative Experience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meditation_and_pain" title="Meditation and pain">Meditation and pain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Meditation" title="Category:Meditation">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1207203#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85083212">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph184262&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007563019705171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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