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Vedas - Wikipedia
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texts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vedic_texts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Vedic texts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Vedic_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vedic_Sanskrit_corpus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_Sanskrit_corpus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Vedic Sanskrit corpus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedic_Sanskrit_corpus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Śruti_and_smriti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Śruti_and_smriti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Śruti and smriti</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Śruti_and_smriti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authorship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authorship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Authorship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronology,_transmission,_and_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology,_transmission,_and_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Chronology, transmission, and interpretation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chronology,_transmission,_and_interpretation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chronology, transmission, and interpretation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chronology,_transmission,_and_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chronology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Chronology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Transmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vedic_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Vedic learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedic_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vedic_schools_or_recensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_schools_or_recensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Vedic schools or recensions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedic_schools_or_recensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Four_Vedas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Four_Vedas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Four Vedas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Four_Vedas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Four Vedas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Four_Vedas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rigveda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rigveda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Rigveda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rigveda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samaveda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samaveda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Samaveda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samaveda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yajurveda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yajurveda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Yajurveda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yajurveda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atharvaveda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atharvaveda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Atharvaveda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atharvaveda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Embedded_Vedic_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Embedded_Vedic_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Embedded Vedic texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Embedded_Vedic_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brahmanas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brahmanas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.1</span> <span>Brahmanas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brahmanas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aranyakas_and_Upanishads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aranyakas_and_Upanishads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.2</span> <span>Aranyakas and Upanishads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aranyakas_and_Upanishads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Vedic_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Vedic_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Post-Vedic literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-Vedic_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post-Vedic literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post-Vedic_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vedanga" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedanga"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Vedanga</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedanga-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parisista" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parisista"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Parisista</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parisista-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upaveda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upaveda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Upaveda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upaveda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Fifth"_and_other_Vedas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Fifth"_and_other_Vedas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>"Fifth" and other Vedas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Fifth"_and_other_Vedas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Puranas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Puranas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Puranas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Puranas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vedas_in_Sangam_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedas_in_Sangam_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Vedas in Sangam literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedas_in_Sangam_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authority_of_the_Vedas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authority_of_the_Vedas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Authority of the Vedas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authority_of_the_Vedas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Indology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Indology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Western Indology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Indology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vedas</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 116 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-116" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">116 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="वेद – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="वेद" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="فيدا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فيدا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6" title="বেদ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বেদ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedes" title="Vedes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Vedes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedalar" title="Vedalar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vedalar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%A9da" title="Wéda – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Wéda" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6" title="বেদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বেদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_(%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC)" title="Веды (індуізм) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Веды (індуізм)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="वेद – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="वेद" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Веди – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Веди" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8D" title="རིག་བྱེད། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རིག་བྱེད།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vede" title="Vede – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vede" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9dy" title="Védy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Védy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedaerne" title="Vedaerne – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vedaerne" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="वेद – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="वेद" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veedad" title="Veedad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Veedad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%AD%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Βέδες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βέδες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vedas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedoj" title="Vedoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vedoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedak" title="Vedak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Vedak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7" title="وداها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="وداها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Vedas" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feda" title="Feda – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Feda" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda_(relixi%C3%B3n)" title="Veda (relixión) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Veda (relixión)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A6" title="વેદ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વેદ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="वेद – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="वेद" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EB%8B%A4" title="베다 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베다" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Վեդաներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վեդաներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="वेद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वेद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vede" title="Vede – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vede" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weda" title="Weda – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Weda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedaritin" title="Vedaritin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vedaritin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA" title="ודות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ודות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%A9da" title="Wéda – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Wéda" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%A6" title="ವೇದ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವೇದ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ვედები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ვედები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ведалар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ведалар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9da" title="Véda – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Véda" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ведалар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ведалар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedi" title="Vedi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Vedi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%93das" title="Vēdas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vēdas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedos" title="Vedos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vedos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9d%C3%A1k" title="Védák – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Védák" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="वेद – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="वेद" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Веди – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Веди" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="വേദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വേദം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="वेद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वेद" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ვედეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ვედეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="ودا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ودا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%9A%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%97%EA%AF%A5" title="ꯚꯦꯗꯥ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯚꯦꯗꯥ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda%27s" title="Veda's – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Veda's" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="वेद – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="वेद" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="वेद – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="वेद" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%80" title="ヴェーダ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヴェーダ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedaene" title="Vedaene – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vedaene" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%A6" title="ବେଦ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବେଦ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedalar" title="Vedalar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Vedalar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A6" title="ਵੇਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵੇਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6" title="वेद – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="वेद" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>पालि</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="وید – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="وید" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Vedas" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedy" title="Wedy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wedy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vedas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vede" title="Vede – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Vede" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wita" title="Wita – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Wita" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Веды – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Веды" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83" title="वेदः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="वेदः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%9A" title="ᱵᱮᱫᱚ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱵᱮᱫᱚ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Vedas" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedat" title="Vedat – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Vedat" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF" title="වේද – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වේද" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Vedas" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="ويد – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ويد" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9da" title="Véda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Véda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vede" title="Vede – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vede" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A4%DB%8E%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ڤێداکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڤێداکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5" title="Веде – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Веде" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vede" title="Vede – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vede" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weda" title="Weda – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Weda" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda-kirjat" title="Veda-kirjat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Veda-kirjat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="வேதம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வேதம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ведалар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ведалар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="చతుర్వేదాలు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="చతుర్వేదాలు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%97" title="พระเวท – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พระเวท" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D2%B3%D0%BE" title="Ведаҳо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ведаҳо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%A6" title="ವೇದ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ವೇದ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedalar" title="Vedalar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Vedalar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Веди – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Веди" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="وید – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="وید" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinh_V%E1%BB%87-%C4%91%C3%A0" title="Kinh Vệ-đà – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kinh Vệ-đà" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedaq" title="Vedaq – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vedaq" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%A0%E9%99%80" title="吠陀 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="吠陀" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda" title="Veda – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Veda" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%A0%E9%99%80" title="吠陀 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="吠陀" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%A0%E9%99%80" title="吠陀 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="吠陀" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%97das" title="Vėdas – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Vėdas" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Veda_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Veda (disambiguation)">Veda (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vedic_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Vedic (disambiguation)">Vedic (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) 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href="/wiki/File:1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda,_manuscript_page_sample_i,_Mandala_1,_Hymn_1_(Sukta_1),_Adhyaya_1,_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Four Vedas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/220px-1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/330px-1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/440px-1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2791" data-file-height="1150" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Rigveda manuscript page, Mandala 1, Hymn 1 (Sukta 1), lines 1.1.1 to 1.1.9 (Sanskrit, Devanagari script)</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #FFC569; color: #000000;">Information</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> <dl><dd><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500</span>–1200 BCE (<a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_2003_69_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_2003_69-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dating_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dating-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span>–900 BCE (<a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_2003_69_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_2003_69-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Verses</th><td class="infobox-data">20,379 mantras<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #FFC569; color: #000000;"><b>Full text</b></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/16px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/32px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Vedas" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The Vedas">The Vedas</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource"> English Wikisource</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu scriptures and texts</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/100px-Om_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/150px-Om_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/200px-Om_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="border:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Shruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smriti</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">List</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vedas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> <p><span style="position: relative; top: 0.5em;"><b>Divisions</b></span> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"><b>Rig vedic</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></li></ul> <p><span style="position: relative; top: 0.5em;"><b>Sama vedic</b></span> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></li></ul> <p><span style="position: relative; top: 0.5em;"><b>Yajur vedic</b></span> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitri</a></li></ul> <p><span style="position: relative; top: 0.5em;"><b>Atharva vedic</b></span> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)">Other scriptures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Āgama (Hinduism)">Agamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Tantras</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;"> Related Hindu texts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedangas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"><b>Brahma puranas</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Purana" title="Brahma Purana">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmanda_Purana" title="Brahmanda Purana">Brahmānda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Vaivarta_Purana" title="Brahma Vaivarta Purana">Brahmavaivarta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markandeya_Purana" title="Markandeya Purana">Markandeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavishya_Purana" title="Bhavishya Purana">Bhavishya</a></li></ul> <p><span style="position: relative; top: 0.5em;"><b>Vaishnava puranas</b></span> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Purana" title="Vishnu Purana">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naradiya_Purana" title="Naradiya Purana">Naradiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garuda_Purana" title="Garuda Purana">Garuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padma_Purana" title="Padma Purana">Padma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vamana_Purana" title="Vamana Purana">Vamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varaha_Purana" title="Varaha Purana">Varaha Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurma_Purana" title="Kurma Purana">Kurma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Purana" title="Matsya Purana">Matsya</a></li></ul> <p><span style="position: relative; top: 0.5em;"><b>Shaiva puranas</b></span> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Purana" title="Shiva Purana">Shiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linga_Purana" title="Linga Purana">Linga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_Purana" title="Skanda Purana">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu_Purana" title="Vayu Purana">Vayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Purana" title="Agni Purana">Agni</a></li></ul> <p><span style="position: relative; top: 0.5em;"><b>Shakta puranas</b></span> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devi_Bhagavata_Purana" title="Devi Bhagavata Purana">Devi Bhagavata</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Ramayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Historicity of the Ramayana">Historicity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Mahabharata" class="mw-redirect" title="Historicity of the Mahabharata">Historicity</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Saiva Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugazh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugazh">Thiruppugazh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramavataram" title="Ramavataram">Kamba Ramayanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aathichoodi" class="mw-redirect" title="Aathichoodi">Aathichoodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhirami_Anthadhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhirami Anthadhi">Abhirami Anthadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">Shastras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharma Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Artha Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamasutra">Kamasutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkhyapravachana Sutra">Samkhya Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramana Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastu_Shastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vastu Shastra">Vastu Shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandha" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandha">Divya Prabandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramcharitmanas" title="Ramcharitmanas">Ramcharitmanas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Swarodaya" title="Shiva Swarodaya">Swara yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Samhita" title="Shiva Samhita">Shiva Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheranda_Samhita" title="Gheranda Samhita">Gheranda Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedantasara_(of_Sadananda)" title="Vedantasara (of Sadananda)">Vedantasara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.15em;padding-left:0.25em;;color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hindu_texts" title="Timeline of Hindu texts">Timeline of Hindu texts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Template:Hindu scriptures and texts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Template talk:Hindu scriptures and texts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu scriptures and texts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atharva-Veda_samhita_page_471_illustration.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Atharva-Veda_samhita_page_471_illustration.png/260px-Atharva-Veda_samhita_page_471_illustration.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Atharva-Veda_samhita_page_471_illustration.png/390px-Atharva-Veda_samhita_page_471_illustration.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Atharva-Veda_samhita_page_471_illustration.png/520px-Atharva-Veda_samhita_page_471_illustration.png 2x" data-file-width="2313" data-file-height="3106" /></a><figcaption>The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the <i><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Vedas</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <span lang="sa">वेदः</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Sanskrit">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vēdaḥ</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'knowledge') are a large body of <a href="/wiki/Religious_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious texts">religious texts</a> originating in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a>. Composed in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a>, the texts constitute the oldest layer of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Sanskrit literature</a> and the oldest <a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">scriptures</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are four Vedas: the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gflood_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gflood-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each Veda has four subdivisions – the <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhitas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benediction" title="Benediction">benedictions</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmanas</a> (commentaries on and explanation of rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices – <a href="/wiki/Yaj%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Yajña">Yajñas</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyakas</a> (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), and the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> (texts discussing <a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a>, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).<sup id="cite_ref-gflood_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gflood-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A_Bhattacharya_2006_pp._8–14_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Bhattacharya_2006_pp._8–14-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jan_Gonda_1975_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jan_Gonda_1975-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars add a fifth category – the <a href="/wiki/Upasana" title="Upasana">Upāsanās</a> (worship).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20068–14_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20068–14-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995351–357_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995351–357-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The texts of the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the heterodox <i>sramana</i> traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199682-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Samhitas and Brahmanas describe daily rituals and are generally meant for the <a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a> and <a href="/wiki/G%E1%B9%9Bhastha" title="Gṛhastha">Gr̥hastha</a> stages of the <a href="/wiki/Chaturashrama" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaturashrama">Chaturashrama</a> system, while the Aranyakas and <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> are meant for the <a href="/wiki/V%C4%81naprastha" title="Vānaprastha">Vānaprastha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a> stages, respectively. </p><p>Vedas are <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">śruti</a></i></span></i> ("what is heard"),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965887_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEApte1965887-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">smr̥ti</a></i></span></i> ("what is remembered"). Hindus consider the Vedas to be <i><a href="/wiki/Apauru%E1%B9%A3eya" class="mw-redirect" title="Apauruṣeya">apauruṣeya</a></i>, which means "not of a man, superhuman"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965"apauruSeya"_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEApte1965"apauruSeya"-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "impersonal, authorless",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma2011196–197_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma2011196–197-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWesterhoff2009290_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWesterhoff2009290-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd2013128_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd2013128-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> revelations of sacred sounds and texts heard by ancient <a href="/wiki/Sages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sages">sages</a> after intense meditation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollock201141–58_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollock201141–58-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharfe200213–14_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharfe200213–14-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vedas have been orally transmitted since the 2nd millennium BCE with the help of elaborate <a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">mnemonic techniques</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mantras, the oldest part of the Vedas, are recited in the modern age for their <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> rather than the <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a>, and are considered to be "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By reciting them the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a> is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The various <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian philosophies">Indian philosophies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindu_sects" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu sects">Hindu sects</a> have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy that acknowledge the importance or primal authority of the Vedas comprise <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> specifically and are together classified as the six "orthodox" (<a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika" class="mw-redirect" title="Āstika">āstika</a>) schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Freschi_2012_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freschi_2012-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">śramaṇa</a> traditions, such as <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ajivika" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajivika">Ajivika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, which did not regard the Vedas as authoritative, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (<a href="/wiki/N%C4%81stika" class="mw-redirect" title="Nāstika">nāstika</a>) schools.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199682-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EB_astika_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB_astika-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_usage">Etymology and usage</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">véda</i></span></i> "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root <i>vid-</i> "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a> root <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*weyd-</span></span></i>, meaning "see" or "know".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1048html_p._1015]_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1048html_p._1015]-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965856_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEApte1965856-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The noun is from Proto-Indo-European <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*weydos</span></span></i>, cognate to <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">(ϝ)εἶδος</span></span> "aspect", "form" . This is not to be confused with the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">véda</i></span></i>, cognate to Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">(ϝ)οἶδα</span></span> (<i>(w)oida</i>) "I know". Root cognates are Greek <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ἰδέα</a>, English <i><a href="/wiki/Wit" title="Wit">wit</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>videō</i> "I see", <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> ве́дать (<i>védat'</i>) "to know", etc.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sanskrit term <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">veda</i></span></i> as a common noun means "knowledge".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1048html_p._1015]_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1048html_p._1015]-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the <i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i>, means "obtaining or finding wealth, property",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1050html_p._1017_(2nd_Column)]_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1050html_p._1017_(2nd_Column)]-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while in some others it means "a bunch of grass together" as in a broom or for <a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">ritual fire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1050html_p._1017_(3rd_Column)]_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1050html_p._1017_(3rd_Column)]-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vedic_texts">Vedic texts</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rigveda_MS2097.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/260px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/390px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.jpg/520px-Rigveda_MS2097.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1056" /></a><figcaption><i>Rigveda</i> manuscript in <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vedic_Sanskrit_corpus">Vedic Sanskrit corpus</h3></div> <p>The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings: </p> <ol><li>Texts composed in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age India</a>)</li> <li>Any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The corpus of <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> texts includes: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Samhitas" class="mw-redirect" title="Samhitas">Samhitas</a> (Sanskrit <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">saṃhitā</i></span></i>, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("<a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a>"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the <a href="/wiki/Rig-Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rig-Veda">Rig-Veda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yajur-Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Yajur-Veda">Yajur-Veda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sama-Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Sama-Veda">Sama-Veda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atharva-Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Atharva-Veda">Atharva-Veda</a>, most of which are available in several <a href="/wiki/Recension" title="Recension">recensions</a> (<i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">śākhā</i></span></i>). In some contexts, the term <i>Veda</i> is used to refer only to these Samhitas, the collection of mantras. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, which were composed between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500</span>–1200 BCE (Rig Veda book 2–9),<sup id="cite_ref-dating_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dating-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1200–900 BCE for the other <i>Samhitas</i>. The Samhitas contain invocations to deities like <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a>, "to secure their benediction for success in battles or for welfare of the clan."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020150_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020150-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bloomfield" title="Maurice Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a>'s <i>Vedic Concordance</i> (1907) consists of some 89,000 <a href="/wiki/Pada_(Hindu_mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pada (Hindu mythology)">padas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Metrical_feet" class="mw-redirect" title="Metrical feet">metrical feet</a>), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmanas</a> are prose texts that comment on and explain the solemn rituals as well as expound on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467–69_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467–69-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ebri_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebri-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the <a href="/wiki/Shatapatha_Brahmana" title="Shatapatha Brahmana">Shatapatha Brahmana</a>), were complete by about 700 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-mw_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mw-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bcp_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bcp-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyakas</a>, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of ceremonies, from ritualistic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view.<sup id="cite_ref-jago_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jago-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is frequently read in secondary literature.</li> <li>Older <a href="/wiki/Principal_Upanishads" title="Principal Upanishads">Principal Upanishads</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Bṛhadāraṇyaka</i></span></a>, <a href="/wiki/Chandogya" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandogya">Chandogya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kaṭha</i></span></a>, <a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a>, and others),<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_2003_69_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_2003_69-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Michaels_2004_51_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michaels_2004_51-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> composed between 800 BCE and the end of the Vedic period.<sup id="cite_ref-Mahony1998p271_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahony1998p271-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> are largely philosophical works, some in dialogue form. They are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-wendydoniger_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wendydoniger-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads are still influential in Hinduism.<sup id="cite_ref-wendydoniger_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wendydoniger-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" are less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as the later <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sutra_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutra literature">Sutra literature</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Shrauta_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrauta Sutras">Shrauta Sutras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)#Gryhasutras" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Gryha Sutras</a>, which are smriti texts. Together, the Vedas and these Sutras form part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_2003_69_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_2003_69-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased with the end of the Vedic period, additional Upanishads were composed after the end of the Vedic period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2003100–101_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2003100–101-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmanas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyakas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>, among other things, interpret and discuss the <a href="/wiki/Samhitas" class="mw-redirect" title="Samhitas">Samhitas</a> in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (<a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>), and the soul or the self (<a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a>), introducing <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> philosophy, one of the major trends of later <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>. In other parts, they show evolution of ideas, such as from actual sacrifice to symbolic sacrifice, and of spirituality in the Upanishads. This has inspired later Hindu scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> to classify each Veda into <i>karma-kanda</i> (कर्म खण्ड, action/sacrificial ritual-related sections, the <i>Samhitas</i> and <i>Brahmanas</i>); and <i>jnana-kanda</i> (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related sections, mainly the Upanishads').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartley2001490_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartley2001490-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege199630_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege199630-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1983409_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1983409-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20069_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20069-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnapp200510–11_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnapp200510–11-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roer_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roer-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Śruti_and_smriti"><span id=".C5.9Aruti_and_smriti"></span>Śruti and smriti</h3></div> <p>Vedas are <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">śruti</a></i></span></i> ("what is heard"),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965887_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEApte1965887-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">smṛti</a></i></span></i> ("what is remembered"). This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As <a href="/wiki/Axel_Michaels" title="Axel Michaels">Axel Michaels</a> explains: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only <i>one</i> collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads [...] are sometimes not to be distinguished from <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Āraṇyakas</i></span> [...]; <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Brāhmaṇas</i></span> contain older strata of language attributed to the <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Saṃhitās</i></span>; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."<sup id="cite_ref-Michaels_2004_51_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michaels_2004_51-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Among the widely known śrutis include the Vedas and their embedded texts – the <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhitas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmanas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyakas</a>. The well-known smṛtis include <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a> and the epics <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, amongst others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Authorship">Authorship</h3></div> <p>Hindus consider the Vedas to be <i><a href="/wiki/Apauru%E1%B9%A3ey%C4%81" title="Apauruṣeyā">apauruṣeyā</a></i>, which means "not of a man, superhuman"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965"apauruSeya"_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEApte1965"apauruSeya"-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "impersonal, authorless".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma2011196–197_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma2011196–197-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWesterhoff2009290_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWesterhoff2009290-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd2013128_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd2013128-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedas, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient <a href="/wiki/Sages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sages">sages</a> after intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollock201141–58_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollock201141–58-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharfe200213–14_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharfe200213–14-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Hindu Epic <i><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i>, the creation of Vedas is credited to <a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created by <i><a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">Rishis</a></i> (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharfe200213–14_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharfe200213–14-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest part of the Rig Veda <i>Samhita</i> was orally composed in north-western India (<a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a>) between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 and 1200 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-dating_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dating-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while book 10 of the Rig Veda, and the other Samhitas were composed between 1200 and 900 BCE more eastward, between the <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> rivers, the heartland of <a href="/wiki/Aryavarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryavarta">Aryavarta</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 900 BCE</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony200749_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200749-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200868_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200868-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrazier2011344_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrazier2011344-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">redaction</a> of the Samhitas, date to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1000</span>–500 BCE. </p><p>According to tradition, <i><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></i> is the compiler of the Vedas, who arranged the four kinds of <i>mantras</i> into four <i>Samhitas</i> (Collections).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2012249,_250_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2012249,_250-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalal2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUCEoAwAAQBAJpgPT16_16]_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalal2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUCEoAwAAQBAJpgPT16_16]-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chronology,_transmission,_and_interpretation"><span id="Chronology.2C_transmission.2C_and_interpretation"></span>Chronology, transmission, and interpretation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronology">Chronology</h3></div> <p>The Vedas are among the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">oldest sacred texts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutt200636_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutt200636-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bulk of the Rigveda Samhita was composed in the northwestern region (Punjab) of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, most likely between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 and 1200 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although a wider approximation of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1700–1100 BCE has also been given.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumar2014179_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2014179-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dating_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dating-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other three Samhitas are considered to date from the time of the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>, approximately <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200–900 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_2003_69_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_2003_69-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">redaction</a> of the Samhitas, date to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1000</span>–500 BCE, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">Late Bronze Age</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">shakhas</a> all over Northern India which annotated the mantra <a href="/wiki/Samhitas" class="mw-redirect" title="Samhitas">samhitas</a> with <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a> discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> and <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Panini</a> and the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a> (archaeologically, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a>). <a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a> gives a time span of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500</span> to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span>–400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_superstrate_in_Mitanni" title="Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni">Mitanni material</a> of the 14th century BCE, the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (<a href="/wiki/Pata%C3%B1jali" class="mw-redirect" title="Patañjali">Patañjali</a>) as a <a href="/wiki/Terminus_ante_quem" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminus ante quem">terminus ante quem</a> for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age</a>) as <a href="/wiki/Terminus_post_quem" title="Terminus post quem">terminus post quem</a> for the Atharvaveda.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200368_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200368-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission">Transmission</h3></div> <p>The Vedas were orally transmitted since their composition in the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> for several millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Witzel2003_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel2003-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995344_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995344-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authoritative transmission<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the Vedas is by an <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> in a <i><a href="/wiki/Sampradaya" title="Sampradaya">sampradaya</a></i> from father to son or from teacher (<i>guru</i>) to student (<i>shishya</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995344_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995344-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroo201692_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroo201692-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPruthi2004286_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPruthi2004286-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> believed to be initiated by the Vedic <i><a href="/wiki/Rishis" class="mw-redirect" title="Rishis">rishis</a></i> who heard the <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81da_yoga" title="Nāda yoga">primordial sounds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2012165_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2012165-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only this tradition, embodied by a living teacher, can teach the correct pronunciation of the sounds and explain hidden meanings, in a way the "dead and entombed manuscript" cannot do.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroo201692_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroo201692-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Leela Prasad states, "According to <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Shankara</a>, the "correct tradition" (<i>sampradaya</i>) has as much authority as the written Shastra", explaining that the tradition "bears the authority to clarify and provide direction in the application of knowledge".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad2007125_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2007125-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The emphasis in this transmission<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is on the "proper articulation and pronunciation of the Vedic sounds", as prescribed in the <a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011345_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011345-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a> (Vedic study) of sound as uttered in a Vedic recitation,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanerji1989323–324_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanerji1989323–324-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011477–495_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011477–495-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mastering the texts "literally forward and backward in fully acoustic fashion".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Houben and Rath note that the Vedic textual tradition cannot simply be characterized as oral, "since it also depends significantly on a memory culture".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERath201222_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERath201222-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedas were preserved with precision with the help of elaborate <a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">mnemonic techniques</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as memorizing the texts in eleven different modes of recitation (<i><a href="/wiki/Patha" class="mw-redirect" title="Patha">pathas</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using the alphabet as a <a href="/wiki/Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">mnemotechnical device</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1999122_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1999122-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERath201219_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERath201219-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "matching physical movements (such as nodding the head) with particular sounds and chanting in a group"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger2010106_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger2010106-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and visualizing sounds by using <i><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">mudras</a></i> (hand signs).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011479_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011479-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This provided an additional visual confirmation, and also an alternate means to check the reading integrity by the audience, in addition to the audible means.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011479_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011479-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Houben and Rath note that a strong "memory culture" existed in ancient India when texts were transmitted orally, before the advent of writing in the early first millennium CE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERath201219_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERath201219-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Frits_Staal" title="Frits Staal">Staal</a>, criticising the <a href="/wiki/Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Goody</a>-Watt hypothesis "according to which literacy is more reliable than orality",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffman2012171_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2012171-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this tradition of oral transmission "is closely related to Indian forms of science" and "by far the more remarkable" than the relatively recent tradition of written transmission.<sup id="cite_ref-Staal_discoveries_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staal_discoveries-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While according to Mookerji, <a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">understanding the meaning</a> (<i>vedarthajnana</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz2004328_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz2004328-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">artha</a>-<a href="/wiki/Buddhi" title="Buddhi">bodha</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-artha_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-artha-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) of the words of the Vedas was part of the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic learning">Vedic learning</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Holdrege and other Indologists<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have noted that in the transmission of the <i>Samhitas</i>, the emphasis is on the phonology of the sounds (<i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aabda" class="mw-redirect" title="Śabda">śabda</a></i>) and not on the meaning (<i><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">artha</a></i>) of the mantras.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroo201692_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroo201692-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Already at the end of the Vedic period their original meaning had become obscure for "ordinary people",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kautas_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautas-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">niruktas</a></i>, etymological compendia, were developed to preserve and clarify the original meaning of many Sanskrit words.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755_99-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2016"Sayana,_Vidyaranya’s_brother"_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2016"Sayana,_Vidyaranya’s_brother"-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Staal, as referenced by Holdrege, though the mantras may have a discursive meaning, when the mantras are recited in the Vedic rituals "they are disengaged from their original context and are employed in ways that have little or nothing to do with their meaning".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346_98-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346–347_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346–347-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "do not constitute <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">linguistic utterances</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become <a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">magical</a> sounds, "means to an end".<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Holdrege notes that there are scarce commentaries on the meaning of the mantras, in contrast to the number of commentaries on the Brahmanas and Upanishads, but states that the lack of emphasis on the "discursive meaning does not necessarily imply that they are meaningless".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346,_347_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346,_347-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered as "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the <i>mantras</i> will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Coward2008_mimamsa_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coward2008_mimamsa-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frazier further notes that "later Vedic texts sought deeper understanding of the reasons the rituals worked", which indicates that the Brahmin communities considered study to be a "process of understanding".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrazier201134_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrazier201134-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A literary tradition is traceable in post-Vedic times, after the rise of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurya period">Maurya period</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> perhaps earliest in the <a href="/wiki/Kanvas" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanvas">Kanva</a> recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition of transmission remained active.<sup id="cite_ref-Witzel2003_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel2003-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Jack Goody</a> has argued for an earlier literary tradition, concluding that the Vedas bear hallmarks of a literate culture along with oral transmission,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011192_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011192-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1987_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1987-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Goody's views have been strongly criticised by Falk, Lopez Jr,. and Staal, though they have also found some support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELopez201635–36_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELopez201635–36-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsonCole201315_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonCole201315-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vedas were written down only after 500 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Witzel2003_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel2003-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but only the orally transmitted texts are regarded as authoritative, given the emphasis on the exact pronunciation of the sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345_74-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Witzel suggests that attempts to write down the Vedic texts towards the end of 1st millennium BCE were unsuccessful, resulting in <i>smriti</i> rules explicitly forbidding the writing down of the Vedas.<sup id="cite_ref-Witzel2003_72-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel2003-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sampurnanand_Sanskrit_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Sampurnanand Sanskrit University">Sampurnanand Sanskrit University</a> has a Rigveda manuscript from the 14th century;<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> that are dated from the 11th century onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vedic_learning">Vedic learning</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81dhy%C4%81ya" title="Svādhyāya">Svādhyāya</a></div> <p>The Vedas, Vedic rituals and its ancillary sciences called the <a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedangas</a>, were part of the curriculum at ancient universities such as at <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vikramashila" title="Vikramashila">Vikramashila</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2013_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2013-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrazier2011[httpsarchiveorgdetailscontinuumcompani00frazpagen48_34]_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrazier2011[httpsarchiveorgdetailscontinuumcompani00frazpagen48_34]-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Deshpande, "the tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit grammarians">Sanskrit grammarians</a> also contributed significantly to the preservation and interpretation of Vedic texts."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeshpande199033_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeshpande199033-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81ska" title="Yāska">Yāska</a> (4th c. BCE<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisra200049_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisra200049-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></i>, which reflects the concerns about the loss of meaning of the mantras,<sup id="cite_ref-Kautas_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautas-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇinis</a> (4th c. BCE) <i><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%AD%C4%81dhy%C4%81y%C4%AB" title="Aṣṭādhyāyī">Aṣṭādhyāyī</a></i> is the most important surviving text of the Vyākaraṇa traditions. <a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Sayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayana">Sayanas</a> (14th c. CE) major <i>Vedartha Prakasha</i><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a rare<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996354_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996354-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> commentary on the Vedas, which is also referred to by contemporary scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2016ch.3_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2016ch.3-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yaska and Sayana, reflecting an ancient understanding, state that the Veda can be interpreted in three ways, giving "the truth about <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">gods</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Dharma#History" title="Dharma">dharma</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Parabrahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Parabrahman">parabrahman</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter1990106_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter1990106-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>pūrva-kāņda</i> (or <i>karma-kanda</i>), the part of the Veda dealing with ritual, gives knowledge of <i>dharma</i>, "which brings us satisfaction." The <i>uttara-kanda</i> (or <i><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">jnana-kanda</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the part of the Veda dealing with the knowledge of the absolute, gives knowledge of <i>Parabrahma</i>, "which fulfills all of our desires."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201130_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201130-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Holdrege, for the exponents of <i>karma-kandha</i> the Veda is to be "inscribed in the minds and hearts of men" by memorization and recitation, while for the exponents of the <i>jnana-kanda</i> and meditation the Vedas express a transcendental reality which can be approached with mystical means.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996355,_356–357_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996355,_356–357-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Holdrege notes that in Vedic learning "priority has been given to recitation over interpretation" of the Samhitas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996354_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996354-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galewicz states that Sayana, a <a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a> scholar,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200440_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200440-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz2011338_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz2011338-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins2009"237_Sayana"_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2009"237_Sayana"-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "thinks of the Veda as something to be trained and mastered to be put into practical ritual use", noticing that "it is not the meaning of the mantras that is most essential [...] but rather the perfect mastering of their sound form."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Galewicz, Sayana saw the purpose (<i>artha</i>) of the Veda as the "<i><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">artha</a></i> of carrying out sacrifice", giving precedence to the <i>Yajurveda</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200440_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200440-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Sayana, whether the mantras had meaning depended on the context of their practical usage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This conception of the Veda, as a repertoire to be mastered and performed, takes precedence over the internal meaning or "autonomous message of the hymns."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441–42_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441–42-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta_rituals" class="mw-redirect" title="Śrauta rituals">Śrauta rituals</a> are not performed in the modern era, and those that are, are rare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels2016237–238_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels2016237–238-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Radha_Kumud_Mukherjee" title="Radha Kumud Mukherjee">Mukherjee</a> notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the <i>Ŗik</i> (words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge of <i>dharma</i> and <i>Parabrahman</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129–31_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129–31-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mukherjee concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension of <a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">their meaning</a> was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129,_34_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129,_34-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mookei refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts, <i>akshara-praptī</i>, is followed by <i><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">artha</a>-<a href="/wiki/Buddhi" title="Buddhi">bodha</a></i>, perception of their meaning."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-artha_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-artha-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mukherjee explains that the Vedic knowledge was first perceived by the <i>rishis</i> and <i>munis</i>. Only the perfect language of the Vedas, as in contrast to ordinary speech, can reveal these truths, which were preserved by committing them to memory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134–35_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134–35-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Mukherjee, while these truths are imparted to the student by the memorized texts,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135–36_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135–36-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "the realization of <a href="/wiki/Rta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rta">Truth</a>" and the knowledge of <i><a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">paramatman</a></i> as revealed to the <i>rishis</i> is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201136_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201136-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The supreme knowledge of the Absolute, <i><a href="/wiki/Para_Brahman" title="Para Brahman">para Brahman</a>-<a href="/wiki/Jnana_yoga" title="Jnana yoga">jnana</a></i>, the knowledge of <i><a href="/wiki/Rta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rta">rta</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">satya</a></i>, can be obtained by taking vows of silence and obedience<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji2011196_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji2011196-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sense-restraint, <i><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Hinduism" title="Dhyana in Hinduism">dhyana</a></i>, the practice of <i><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">tapas</a></i> (austerities),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and discussing the <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji2011196_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji2011196-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vedic_schools_or_recensions">Vedic schools or recensions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">Shakha</a></div> <p>The four Vedas were transmitted in various <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">śākhā</i></span>s</a> (branches, schools).<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_1996_39_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_1996_39-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-witzelthreefour_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witzelthreefour-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each school likely represented an ancient community of a particular area, or kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-witzelthreefour_150-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witzelthreefour-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each school followed its own canon. Multiple recensions (revisions) are known for each of the Vedas.<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_1996_39_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_1996_39-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, states Witzel as well as Renou, in the 2nd millennium BCE, there was likely no canon of one broadly accepted Vedic texts, no Vedic “Scripture”, but only a canon of various texts accepted by each school. Some of these texts have survived, most lost or yet to be found. Rigveda that survives in modern times, for example, is in only one extremely well preserved school of Śåkalya, from a region called <a href="/wiki/Videha" title="Videha">Videha</a>, in modern north <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, south of <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jamisonwitzelvedic_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jamisonwitzelvedic-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedic canon in its entirety consists of texts from all the various Vedic schools taken together.<sup id="cite_ref-witzelthreefour_150-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witzelthreefour-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were Vedic schools that believed in <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a> in which numerous gods had different natural functions, <a href="/wiki/Henotheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Henotheistic">henotheistic</a> beliefs where only one god was worshipped but others were thought to exist, <a href="/wiki/Monotheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotheistic">monotheistic</a> beliefs in a single <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">god</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">agnosticism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Monistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monistic">monistic</a> beliefs where "there is an absolute reality that goes beyond the gods and that includes or transcends everything that exists."<sup id="cite_ref-:102_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:102-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yama" title="Yama">Yama</a> were popular subjects of worship by polytheist organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-:102_152-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:102-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each of the four Vedas were shared by the numerous schools, but revised, interpolated and adapted locally, in and after the Vedic period, giving rise to various recensions of the text. Some texts were revised into the modern era, raising significant debate on parts of the text which are believed to have been corrupted at a later date.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedas each have an Index or <a href="/wiki/Anukramani" class="mw-redirect" title="Anukramani">Anukramani</a>, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Sarvānukramaṇī</i></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prodigious energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, memorization of the sacred <i>Vedas</i> included up to eleven <a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">forms of recitation</a> of the same text. The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">jaṭā-pāṭha</i></span></i> (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated in the original order.<sup id="cite_ref-filliozat-p139_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-filliozat-p139-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That these methods have been effective, is attested to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the <i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i>, as <a href="/wiki/Redacted" class="mw-redirect" title="Redacted">redacted</a> into a single text during the <i>Brahmana</i> period, without any variant readings within that school.<sup id="cite_ref-filliozat-p139_158-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-filliozat-p139-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Vedas were orally transmitted by memorization, and were written down only after 500 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Witzel2003_72-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Witzel2003-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All printed editions of the Vedas that survive in the modern times are likely the version existing in about the 16th century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Four_Vedas">Four Vedas</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.5em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_texts" title="Category:Hindu texts">a series</a> on <a href="/wiki/Hindu_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu scriptures">Hindu scriptures</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vedas</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Shakhas" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakhas">Shakhas</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Om"><img alt="Om" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Om2.svg/80px-Om2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Om2.svg/120px-Om2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Om2.svg/160px-Om2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Shakala" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakala">Shakala</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bhashkala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bhashkala (page does not exist)">Bhashkala</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">Ranayana<br />Shatyamukhya<br />Vyasa<br />Bhaguri<br />Olundi<br />Goulgulvi<br />Bhanumanoupamayava<br />Karati<br />Mashaka Argya<br />Varshgagavya<br />Kuthuma<br />Shakugitre<br /><a href="/wiki/Jaiminiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaiminiya">Jaiminiya</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda#Krishna_Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Krishna Yajurveda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Samhita" class="mw-redirect" title="Taittiriya Samhita">Taittiriya Samhita</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Maitrayani" class="mw-redirect" title="Maitrayani">Maitrayani Samhita</a> <br />Karaka Katha Samhita <br />Kapisthala Kahta Samhita<br />Kathaka</div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda#Shukla_Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Shukla Yajurveda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">Kanava<br />Madhyandin</div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Shaunaka" title="Shaunaka">Shaunaka</a><br />Paippalada<br />Stauda<br />Mauda<br />Jajala<br />Jalada<br />Kuntap<br />Brahmavada<br />Devadarsa<br />Caranavaidya</div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Hinduism portal</a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Vedas_and_Shakhas" title="Template:Vedas and Shakhas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Vedas_and_Shakhas" title="Template talk:Vedas and Shakhas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vedas_and_Shakhas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Vedas and Shakhas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (<i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">turīya</i></span></i>) viz.,<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> (RV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a> (YV, with the main division <a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Shakha" title="Taittiriya Shakha">TS</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">VS</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a> (SV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a> (AV)</li></ol> <p>Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "<i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">trayī vidyā</i></span></i>"; that is, "the triple science" of reciting hymns (Rigveda), performing sacrifices (Yajurveda), and chanting songs (Samaveda).<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacDonell200429–39_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDonell200429–39-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Rig Veda most likely was composed between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-dating_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dating-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Witzel notes that it is the Vedic period itself, where incipient lists divide the Vedic texts into three (trayī) or four branches: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.<sup id="cite_ref-witzelthreefour_150-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witzelthreefour-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhitas</a> (mantras and benedictions), the <a href="/wiki/Aranyakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Aranyakas">Aranyakas</a> (text on rituals, ceremonies such as newborn baby's rites of passage, coming of age, marriages, retirement and cremation, sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices), the <a href="/wiki/Brahmanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanas">Brahmanas</a> (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).<sup id="cite_ref-gflood_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gflood-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A_Bhattacharya_2006_pp._8–14_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Bhattacharya_2006_pp._8–14-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jan_Gonda_1975_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jan_Gonda_1975-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Upasana" title="Upasana">Upasanas</a> (short ritual worship-related sections) are considered by some scholars<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20068–14_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20068–14-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995351–357_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995351–357-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the fifth part. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel</a> notes that the rituals, rites and ceremonies described in these ancient texts reconstruct to a large degree the Indo-European marriage rituals observed in a region spanning the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the European area, and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts such as the Grhya Sūtras.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only one version of the Rigveda is known to have survived into the modern era.<sup id="cite_ref-jamisonwitzelvedic_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jamisonwitzelvedic-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several different versions of the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda are known, and many different versions of the Yajur Veda have been found in different parts of South Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The texts of the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the heterodox <i>sramana</i>-traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199682-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rigveda">Rigveda</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:26em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #FFE0BB;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p><a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_Sukta" title="Nasadiya Sukta">Nasadiya Sukta</a> (Hymn of non-Eternity): </p><p>Who really knows?<br /> Who can here proclaim it?<br /> Whence, whence this creation sprang?<br /> Gods came later, after the creation of this universe. </p><p>Who then knows whence it has arisen?<br /> Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute;<br /> Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows,<br /> He only knows, or perhaps He does not know. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Rig_Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rig Veda">Rig Veda</a> 10.129.6–7<sup id="cite_ref-nasadiyasukta_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasadiyasukta-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda Samhita</a> is the oldest extant <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indic</a> text.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a collection of 1,028 <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a> and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: <i>mandalas</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hymns are dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">Rigvedic deities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 and 1200 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-dating_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dating-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (the early <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sapta_Sindhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapta Sindhu">Sapta Sindhu</a>) region of the northwest <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. According to Michael Witzel, the initial codification of the <i>Rigveda</i> took place at the end of the Rigvedic period at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200 BCE</span>, in the early <a href="/wiki/Kuru_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru (India)">Kuru</a> kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997261_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997261-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles. The Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni, Indra, <a href="/wiki/Soma_(deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soma (deity)">Soma</a> and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each deity collection; for each deity series, the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, but the number of hymns per book increases. Finally, the meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.<sup id="cite_ref-witzelthreefour_150-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witzelthreefour-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rituals became increasingly complex over time, and the king's association with them strengthened both the position of the Brahmans and the kings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020150–151_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020150–151-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Rajasuya" title="Rajasuya">Rajasuya</a> rituals, performed with the coronation of a king, "set in motion [...] cyclical regenerations of the universe."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020151_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020151-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terms of substance, the nature of hymns shift from praise of deities in early books to <a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_Sukta" title="Nasadiya Sukta">Nasadiya Sukta</a> with questions such as, "what is the origin of the universe?, do even gods know the answer?",<sup id="cite_ref-nasadiyasukta_165-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasadiyasukta-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the virtue of <a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a> (charity) in society,<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other metaphysical issues in its hymns.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are similarities between the mythology, rituals and linguistics in Rigveda and those found in ancient central Asia, Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samaveda">Samaveda</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda Samhita</a><sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda.<sup id="cite_ref-Michaels_2004_51_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michaels_2004_51-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-witzelsamaveda_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witzelsamaveda-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rigvedic period, the existing compilation dates from the post-Rigvedic Mantra period of <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a>, between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span> and 1000 BCE or "slightly later", roughly contemporary with the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-witzelsamaveda_176-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witzelsamaveda-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Samaveda samhita has two major parts. The first part includes four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक).<sup id="cite_ref-witzelsamaveda_176-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witzelsamaveda-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in the <i>arcika</i> books. Just as in the Rigveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with hymns to Agni and Indra but shift to the abstract. Their meters shift also in a descending order. The songs in the later sections of the Samaveda have the least deviation from the hymns derived from the Rigveda.<sup id="cite_ref-witzelsamaveda_176-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witzelsamaveda-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Samaveda, some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two major recensions have survived, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of the <a href="/wiki/Udgatr" class="mw-redirect" title="Udgatr"><i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">udgātṛ</i></span></i></a> or "singer" priests.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011381_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011381-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda Samhita</a> consists of prose mantras.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200376–77_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200376–77-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the <a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">yajna</a> fire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200376–77_180-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200376–77-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period of <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE – younger than the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, and roughly contemporary with the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a>, the Rigvedic <a href="/wiki/Khilani" title="Khilani">Khilani</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Sāmaveda</i></span></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Witzel dates the Yajurveda <a href="/wiki/Music_of_India#History" title="Music of India">hymns</a> to the early Indian <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age</a>, after c. 1200 and before 800 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> corresponding to the early <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taittiriya_Samhita_Vedas,_Devanagari_script,_Sanskrit_pliv.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Taittiriya_Samhita_Vedas%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_Sanskrit_pliv.jpg/260px-Taittiriya_Samhita_Vedas%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_Sanskrit_pliv.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Taittiriya_Samhita_Vedas%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_Sanskrit_pliv.jpg/390px-Taittiriya_Samhita_Vedas%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_Sanskrit_pliv.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Taittiriya_Samhita_Vedas%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_Sanskrit_pliv.jpg/520px-Taittiriya_Samhita_Vedas%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_Sanskrit_pliv.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="1696" /></a><figcaption>A page from the <i>Taittiriya Samhita</i>, a layer of text within the <i>Yajurveda</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">samhita</a> includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the Samaveda which is almost entirely based on Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda samhitas are in prose, and they are different from earlier Vedic texts linguistically.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Yajur Veda has been the primary source of information about sacrifices during Vedic times and associated rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two major groups of texts in this Veda: the "Black" (<i>Krishna</i>) and the "White" (<i>Shukla</i>). The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" (well arranged) Yajurveda.<sup id="cite_ref-pauldeussen217_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pauldeussen217-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the <a href="/wiki/Shatapatha_Brahmana" title="Shatapatha Brahmana">Shatapatha Brahmana</a>), the Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda, texts from four major schools have survived (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), while of the White Yajurveda, two (Kanva and Madhyandina).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200452_Table_3_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200452_Table_3-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-prabhakar_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prabhakar-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The youngest layer of Yajurveda text is not related to rituals nor sacrifice, it includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Philosophy_of_the_Upanishads_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Philosophy_of_the_Upanishads-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Patrick_Olivelle_1998_pp._1–17_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patrick_Olivelle_1998_pp._1–17-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Artharvaveda Samhita</a> is the text 'belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Atharvan" title="Atharvan">Atharvan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angiras_(sage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiras (sage)">Angirasa</a> poets. It has about 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456_192-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two different versions of the text – the <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Paippalāda</i></span> and the <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Śaunakīya</i></span> – have survived into the modern times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456_192-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fritsstaal136_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fritsstaal136-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Atharvaveda was not considered as a Veda in the Vedic era, and was accepted as a Veda in late 1st millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was compiled last,<sup id="cite_ref-zaehnerlastav_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zaehnerlastav-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> probably around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456_192-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas",<sup id="cite_ref-lauriepatton38_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lauriepatton38-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-jangonda277_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jangonda277-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhita</a> layer of the text likely represents a developing 2nd millennium BCE tradition of <a href="/wiki/Magico-religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Magico-religious">magico-religious</a> rites to address superstitious anxiety, spells to remove maladies believed to be caused by demons, and herbs- and nature-derived potions as medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The text, states Kenneth Zysk, is one of oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious medicine and reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity".<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many books of the Atharvaveda Samhita are dedicated to rituals without magic, such as to philosophical speculations and to <a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">theosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jangonda277_198-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jangonda277-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Atharva veda has been a primary source for information about Vedic culture, the customs and beliefs, the aspirations and frustrations of everyday Vedic life, as well as those associated with kings and governance. The text also includes hymns dealing with the two major rituals of passage – <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">cremation</a>. The Atharva Veda also dedicates significant portion of the text asking the meaning of a ritual.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Embedded_Vedic_texts">Embedded Vedic texts</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:279px;max-width:279px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:277px;max-width:277px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript,_Tamil_Grantha_Script,_Sanskrit,_Tamil_Nadu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Tamil_Grantha_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg/275px-Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Tamil_Grantha_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Tamil_Grantha_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg/413px-Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Tamil_Grantha_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Tamil_Grantha_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg/550px-Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Tamil_Grantha_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Tamil_Nadu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2568" data-file-height="1253" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:277px;max-width:277px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:16th_century_Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript,_Malayalam_Script,_Sanskrit,_Kerala.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/16th_century_Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Malayalam_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Kerala.jpg/275px-16th_century_Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Malayalam_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Kerala.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/16th_century_Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Malayalam_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Kerala.jpg/413px-16th_century_Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Malayalam_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Kerala.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/16th_century_Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Malayalam_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Kerala.jpg/550px-16th_century_Vedas_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Malayalam_Script%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Kerala.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2223" data-file-height="1169" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Manuscripts of the Vedas are in the Sanskrit language, but in many regional scripts in addition to the <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a>. Top: <a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha script</a> (Tamil Nadu), Below: <a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam script</a> (Kerala).</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brahmanas">Brahmanas</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></div> <p>The Brahmanas are commentaries, explanation of proper methods and meaning of Vedic Samhita rituals in the four Vedas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467–69_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467–69-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also incorporate myths, legends and in some cases philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467–69_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467–69-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ebri_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebri-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each regional Vedic <i><a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">shakha</a></i> (school) has its own operating manual-like Brahmana text, most of which have been lost.<sup id="cite_ref-winter_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-winter-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A total of 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two associated with the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, six with the <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a>, ten with the <a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a> and one with the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a>. The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the <a href="/wiki/Shatapatha_Brahmana" title="Shatapatha Brahmana">Shatapatha Brahmana</a>), were complete by about 700 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-mw_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mw-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bcp_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bcp-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Jan_Gonda" title="Jan Gonda">Jan Gonda</a>, the final codification of the Brahmanas took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The substance of the Brahmana text varies with each Veda. For example, the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes eight ritual <i>suktas</i> (hymns) for the ceremony of marriage and rituals at the birth of a child.<sup id="cite_ref-maxmullercb_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maxmullercb-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pauldeussencb_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pauldeussencb-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first hymn is a recitation that accompanies offering a <a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a> oblation to <i>Agni</i> (fire) on the occasion of a marriage, and the hymn prays for prosperity of the couple getting married.<sup id="cite_ref-maxmullercb_205-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maxmullercb-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second hymn wishes for their long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny.<sup id="cite_ref-maxmullercb_205-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maxmullercb-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third hymn is a mutual marriage pledge, between the bride and groom, by which the two bind themselves to each other. The sixth through last hymns of the first chapter in Chandogya Brahmana are ritual celebrations on the birth of a child and wishes for health, wealth, and prosperity with a profusion of cows and <a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">artha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-maxmullercb_205-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maxmullercb-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these verses are incomplete expositions, and their complete context emerges only with the Samhita layer of text.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aranyakas_and_Upanishads">Aranyakas and Upanishads</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></div> <p>The Aranyakas layer of the Vedas include rituals, discussion of symbolic meta-rituals, as well as philosophical speculations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995351–357_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995351–357-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jago_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jago-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Aranyakas</i>, however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure.<sup id="cite_ref-jago_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jago-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are a medley of instructions and ideas, and some include chapters of Upanishads within them. Two theories have been proposed on the origin of the word <i>Aranyakas</i>. One theory holds that these texts were meant to be studied in a forest, while the other holds that the name came from these being the manuals of allegorical interpretation of sacrifices, for those in <a href="/wiki/Vanaprastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanaprastha">Vanaprastha</a> (retired, forest-dwelling) stage of their life, according to the historic age-based <a href="/wiki/Ashrama_(stage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashrama (stage)">Ashrama</a> system of human life.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Upanishads reflect the last composed layer of texts in the Vedas. They are commonly referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Ved%C4%81nta" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedānta">Vedānta</a></i>, variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Vedas" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central concern of the Upanishads are the connections "between parts of the human organism and cosmic realities."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998liii_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998liii-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Upanishads intend to create a hierarchy of connected and dependent realities, evoking a sense of unity of "the separate elements of the world and of human experience [compressing] them into a single form."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998lv_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998lv-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concepts of <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>, the Ultimate Reality from which everything arises, and <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman</a>, the essence of the individual, are central ideas in the <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahadevan195259_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahadevan195259-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ptraju_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ptraju-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and knowing the correspondence between Ātman and Brahman as "the fundamental principle which shapes the world" permits the creation of an integrative vision of the whole.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998lv_212-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998lv-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ptraju_214-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ptraju-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions,<sup id="cite_ref-wendydoniger_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wendydoniger-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have influenced the diverse traditions of Hinduism.<sup id="cite_ref-wendydoniger_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wendydoniger-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Aranyakas</i> are sometimes identified as <i>karma-kanda</i> (ritualistic section), while the Upanishads are identified as <i>jnana-kanda</i> (spirituality section).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege199630_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege199630-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1983409_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1983409-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20069_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20069-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roer_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roer-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an alternate classification, the early part of Vedas are called <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhitas</a> and the commentary are called the <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmanas</a> which together are identified as the ceremonial <i>karma-kanda</i>, while <i>Aranyakas</i> and <i>Upanishads</i> are referred to as the <i>jnana-kanda</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnapp200510–11_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnapp200510–11-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-Vedic_literature">Post-Vedic literature</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vedanga">Vedanga</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a></div> <p>The Vedangas developed towards the end of the vedic period, around or after the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. These auxiliary fields of Vedic studies emerged because the language of the Vedas,<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> composed centuries earlier, became too archaic to the people of that time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1999xxiii_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1999xxiii-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedangas were sciences that focused on helping understand and interpret the Vedas that had been composed many centuries earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1999xxiii_218-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1999xxiii-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The six subjects of Vedanga are phonetics (<a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Śikṣā</i></span></a>), poetic meter (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Chandas</i></span></a>), grammar (<a href="/wiki/Vyakarana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vyakarana"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vyākaraṇa</i></span></a>), etymology and linguistics (<a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a>), rituals and rites of passage (<a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kalpa</i></span></a>), time keeping and astronomy (<a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Jyotiṣa</i></span></a>).<sup id="cite_ref-jameslochtefeldvedanga_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jameslochtefeldvedanga-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011391–394_with_footnotes,_416–419_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011391–394_with_footnotes,_416–419-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter1990105–110_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter1990105–110-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters, structure of sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced post-Vedic studies, arts, culture and various schools of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011472–532_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011472–532-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter199018_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter199018-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kalpa Vedanga studies, for example, gave rise to the Dharma-sutras, which later expanded into Dharma-shastras.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1999xxiii_218-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1999xxiii-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parisista">Parisista</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pari%C5%9Bi%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADa" title="Pariśiṣṭa">Pariśiṣṭa</a></div> <p><i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Pariśiṣṭa</i></span></i> "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Samhitas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmanas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyakas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Sutras</a>. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a> is extensive. </p> <ul><li>The <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa</i></span></i> is a very late text associated with the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> canon.</li> <li>The <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa</i></span></i> is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively.</li> <li>The <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas</i></span></i>, ascribed to <a href="/wiki/Katyayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyayana"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kātyāyana</i></span></a>, consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the <a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Caraṇavyūha</i></span></a>) and the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa</i></span></i>.</li> <li>The <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kṛṣṇa</i></span> <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a> has 3 parisistas The </i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Āpastamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa</i></span><i>, which is also found as the second </i>praśna<i> of the </i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Satyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra</i></span>', the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa</i></span></i></li> <li>For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Upaveda">Upaveda</h3></div> <p>The term <b>upaveda</b> ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw0200mw_0240html_207]_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw0200mw_0240html_207]-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965293_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEApte1965293-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The <a href="/wiki/Charanavyuha" class="mw-redirect" title="Charanavyuha">Charanavyuha</a> mentions four Upavedas:<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">Archery</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Dhanurveda</a>), associated with the Yajurveda</li> <li>Architecture (<a href="/wiki/Sthapatyaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Sthapatyaveda">Sthapatyaveda</a>), associated with the Rigveda.</li> <li>Music and <a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_dance" title="Indian classical dance">sacred dance</a> (<span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndharvaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndharvaveda">Gāndharvaveda</a></i></span>), associated with the Samaveda</li> <li>Medicine (<a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Āyurveda</i></span></a>), associated with the Atharvaveda.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Fifth"_and_other_Vedas"><span id=".22Fifth.22_and_other_Vedas"></span>"Fifth" and other Vedas</h3></div> <p>Some post-Vedic texts, including the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Natyasastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Natyasastra">Natyasastra</a><sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and certain <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a>, refer to themselves as the "<a href="/wiki/Fifth_Veda" title="Fifth Veda">fifth Veda</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESullivan1994385_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan1994385-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the <a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya Upanishad</a> in hymn 7.1.2.<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>Let drama and dance (Nātya, नाट्य) be the fifth vedic scripture. Combined with an epic story, tending to virtue, wealth, joy and spiritual freedom, it must contain the significance of every scripture, and forward every art. Thus, from all the Vedas, <a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a> framed the Nātya Veda. From the Rig Veda he drew forth the words, from the Sama Veda the melody, from the Yajur Veda gesture, and from the Atharva Veda the sentiment. </p> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>First chapter of <i>Nātyaśāstra</i>, Abhinaya Darpana <sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>"<a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandha" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandha">Divya Prabandha</a>", for example Tiruvaymoli, is a term for canonical <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> texts considered as Vernacular Veda by some South Indian Hindus.<sup id="cite_ref-John_Carman_1989_pp._259–261_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Carman_1989_pp._259–261-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vasudha_Narayanan_1994_pp._43,_117_238-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vasudha_Narayanan_1994_pp._43,_117-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedanta Sutras">Vedanta Sutras</a> are considered <i>shruti</i> or "Vedic" by some <a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Hindu denominations</a> but not universally within Hinduism. The <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gaudiya_Vaishnavism" title="Gaudiya Vaishnavism">Gaudiya Vaishnavism</a> in particular extended the term <i>veda</i> to include the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Epics" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit Epics">Sanskrit Epics</a> and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Pancharatra" title="Pancharatra">Pancharatra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Puranas">Puranas</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></div> <p>The <i>Puranas</i> is a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.<sup id="cite_ref-oliverleaman437_240-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oliverleaman437-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several of these texts are named after major <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.<sup id="cite_ref-ludorocher_241-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludorocher-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nair_2008_266_242-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nair_2008_266-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are 18 <i>Maha Puranas</i> (Great Puranas) and 18 <i>Upa Puranas</i> (Minor Puranas), with over 400,000 verses.<sup id="cite_ref-oliverleaman437_240-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oliverleaman437-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Puranas have been influential in the <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> culture.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gregbailey442_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gregbailey442-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are considered <i>Vaidika</i> (congruent with Vedic literature).<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a> has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of <a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">non-dualistic</a> tenor.<sup id="cite_ref-richardthompson_246-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-richardthompson-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Puranic literature wove with the <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a> in India, and both <a href="/wiki/Dvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a> and <a href="/wiki/Advaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Advaita">Advaita</a> scholars have commented on the underlying Vedanta themes in the <i>Maha Puranas</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vedas_in_Sangam_literature">Vedas in Sangam literature</h2></div> <p>Vedas finds its earliest literary mention in the Sangam literature dated to the 5th century BCE. The Vedas were read by almost every caste in ancient <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>. An Indian <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologist">archaeologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epigraphist" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigraphist">epigraphist</a> named <a href="/wiki/R._Nagaswamy" title="R. Nagaswamy">Ramachandran Nagaswamy</a> mentions that Tamil Nadu was a land of Vedas and a place where everyone knew the Vedas.<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Vedas are also considered as a text filled with deep meaning which can be understood only by scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-kz49_250-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kz49-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Purananuru" title="Purananuru">Purananuru</a> mentions that the ancestors of Velir kings where born from the <a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Sacred fire</a> of a Northern sage<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Pa%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADi%E1%B9%89app%C4%81lai" title="Paṭṭiṉappālai">Paṭṭiṉappālai</a> mentions that the four Vedas were chanted by the priests of Ancient Tamilakam,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194641_252-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194641-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this shows chanting of Vedas and growing sacred fires are part of the Tamil culture. Vedas are called <i>Maṛai</i> or <i>Vaymoli</i> in parts of South India. Marai literally means "hidden, a secret, mystery". <a href="/wiki/Perump%C4%81%E1%B9%87%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai">Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai</a> mentions a <i>yupa</i> post (a form of Vedic altar) in the <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a> village.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194698–99_253-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194698–99-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vedas are recited by these Brahmins, and even their parrots are mentioned in the poem as those who sing the Vedic hymns. People in these Vedic villages did not eat meat, nor raise fowls. They ate rice, salad leaves boiled in ghee, pickles and vegetables.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194698–100_254-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194698–100-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from the Sanskrit Vedas there are other texts like <a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tevaram" title="Tevaram">Tevaram</a> called as Tamil Veda and Dravida Veda.<sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-John_Carman_1989_pp._259–261_237-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Carman_1989_pp._259–261-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Authority_of_the_Vedas">Authority of the Vedas</h2></div> <p>The various <a href="/wiki/Hindu_sects" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu sects">Hindu sects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian philosophies">Indian philosophies</a> have taken differing positions on the authority of the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which acknowledge the authority of the Vedas are classified as "orthodox" (<a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika" class="mw-redirect" title="Āstika">āstika</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">śramaṇa</a> traditions, such as <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ajivika" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajivika">Ajivika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, which do not regard the Vedas as authorities, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (<a href="/wiki/N%C4%81stika" class="mw-redirect" title="Nāstika">nāstika</a>) schools.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199682-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EB_astika_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB_astika-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain traditions which are often seen as being part of Hinduism also rejected the Vedas. For example, authors of the tantric <a href="/wiki/Vaishnava_Sahajiya" title="Vaishnava Sahajiya">Vaishnava Sahajiya</a> tradition, like Siddha Mukundadeva, rejected the Vedas' authority.<sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, some tantric Shaiva Agamas reject the Vedas. The <i>Anandabhairava-tantra</i> for example, states that "the wise man should not elect as his authority the word of the Vedas, which is full of impurity, produces but scanty and transitory fruits and is limited."<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipner201216_261-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipner201216-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipner201215–17_264-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipner201215–17-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Hindu reform movement such as <a href="/wiki/Arya_Samaj" title="Arya Samaj">Arya Samaj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brahmo_Samaj" title="Brahmo Samaj">Brahmo Samaj</a> accept the authority of Vedas,<sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Hindu modernists</a> like <a href="/wiki/Debendranath_Tagore" title="Debendranath Tagore">Debendranath Tagore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Keshub_Chandra_Sen" title="Keshub Chandra Sen">Keshub Chandra Sen</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambachan1994272_266-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambachan1994272-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and social reformers like <a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a> reject its authority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENagappa2011283_("It_is_said_that_the_Varna_system_[...]_Sanatan_Hindu")_267-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENagappa2011283_("It_is_said_that_the_Varna_system_[...]_Sanatan_Hindu")-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Western_Indology">Western Indology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_studies" title="Sanskrit studies">Sanskrit studies</a></div> <p>The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century. In the early 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Upanishads. The importance of Vedic Sanskrit for <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a> was also recognized in the early 19th century. English translations of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th century, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Books_of_the_East" title="Sacred Books of the East">Sacred Books of the East</a></i> series edited by <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Müller</a> between 1879 and 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_T._H._Griffith" title="Ralph T. H. Griffith">Ralph T. H. Griffith</a> also presented English translations of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899. </p><p>Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Memory_of_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory of the World">Memory of the World</a> <a href="/wiki/Memory_of_the_World_Register_%E2%80%93_Asia_and_the_Pacific" title="Memory of the World Register – Asia and the Pacific">Register</a> in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid_Texts" title="Pyramid Texts">Pyramid Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakha" title="Shakha">Shakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">Vedic chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahminism">Brahminism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-dating-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dating_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dating_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dating_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dating_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dating_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dating_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">It is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian">Indo-Iranian</a> separation of ca. 2000 BCE and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1400 BCE. The oldest available text is estimated to be from 1200 BCE. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a>: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüller1892_270-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüller1892-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">EIEC</a> (s.v. <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian languages</a>, p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BCE.</li> <li>Flood and Witzel both mention <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1200 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Anthony mentions <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1300 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Thomas Oberlies (<i>Die Religion des Rgveda</i>, 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="#CITEREFOberlies1998">Oberlies 1998</a>, p. 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155_271-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, p. 4 mentions <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1200 BCE. According to <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 263, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1900 BCE</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200 BCE</span>: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets)24 of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this “snapshot” view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary “tape recordings.” On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-vedic hymns of the Atharvaveda."</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Freschi_2012-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Freschi_2012_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are not <a href="/wiki/Deontic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontic">deontic</a> authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontological <a href="/wiki/Epistemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemic">epistemic</a> authority by a Hindu orthodox school."<a href="#CITEREFFreschi2012">Freschi 2012</a>, p. 62 This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a table of all Vedic texts see <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, pp. 100–101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is incorporated in <i><a href="/wiki/A_Vedic_Word_Concordance" title="A Vedic Word Concordance">A Vedic Word Concordance</a></i> (<i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa</i></span></i>) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935–1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts. Volume I: Samhitas, Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas, Volume III: Upanishads, Volume IV: Vedangas; A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973–1976.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roer-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roer_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roer_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward Roer (Translator), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3uwDAAAAMAAJ">Shankara's Introduction</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> to <i>Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad</i> at pp. 1–5: "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"As a skilled craftsman makes a car, a singer I, Mighty One! this hymn for thee have fashioned. If thou, O Agni, God, accept it gladly, may we obtain thereby the heavenly Waters". – <i>Rigveda 5.2.11</i>, Translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Gavin Flood</a> sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroo2016">Broo 2016</a>, p. 92 quotes Harold G. Coward and K. Kunjunni Raja.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Of the complete Veda, by <i>pāțha-śālā</i> (priestly schools), as distinguished from the transmission in the <i>pūjā</i>, the daily services.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011344–345_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011344–345-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Several authors refer to the Chinese Buddhist Monk I-Tsing, who visited India in the 7th century to retrieve Buddhist texts and gave examples of mnemonic techniques used in India:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1999122_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1999122-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "In India there are two traditional ways in which one can attain great intellectual power. Firstly by repeatedly committing to memory the intellect is developed; secondly the alphabet fixes (to) one's ideas. By this way, after a practice of ten days or a month, a student feels his thoughts rise like a fountain, and can commit to memory whatever he has heard once."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERath201219_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERath201219-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1999122_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1999122-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Staal_discoveries-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Staal_discoveries_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Staal: [this tradition of oral transmission is] "by far the more remarkable [than the relatively recent tradition of written transmission], not merely because it is characteristically Indian and unlike anything we find elsewhere, but also because it has led to scientific discoveries that are of enduring interest and from which the contemporary West still has much to learn." <a href="#CITEREFSchiffman2012">Schiffman (2012</a>, p. 171), quoting <a href="#CITEREFStaal1986">Staal (1986</a>, p. 27)<br />Staal argued that the ancient Indian grammarians, especially <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>, had completely mastered methods of linguistic theory not rediscovered again until the 1950s and the applications of modern mathematical logic to linguistics by <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>. (Chomsky himself has said that the first <a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">generative grammar</a> in the modern sense was Panini's grammar).<sup id="cite_ref-front_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-front-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These early Indian methods allowed the construction of discrete, potentially infinite generative systems. Remarkably, these early linguistic systems were codified orally, though writing was then used to develop them in some way. The formal basis for Panini's methods involved the use of "auxiliary" markers, rediscovered in the 1930s by the logician <a href="/wiki/Emil_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Emil Post">Emil Post</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-artha-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-artha_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-artha_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Artha</i> may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kautas-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kautas_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kautas_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlostermaier2007">Klostermaier 2007</a>, p. 55: "Kautas, a teacher mentioned in the <i><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></i> by <i><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81ska" title="Yāska">Yāska</a></i> (ca. 500 BCE), a work devoted to an etymology of Vedic words that were no longer understood by ordinary people, held that the word of the Veda was no longer perceived as meaningful "normal" speech but as a fixed sequence of sounds, whose meaning was obscure beyond recovery."<br /><br />The tenth through twelfth volumes of the first Prapathaka of the <a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya Upanishad</a> (800-600 BCE) describe a legend about priests and it criticizes how they go about reciting verses and singing hymns without any idea what they mean or the divine principle they signify.<sup id="cite_ref-pauldeussen112_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pauldeussen112-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Holdrege, <i>srotriyas</i> (a group of male Brahmin reciters who are masters of <i>sruti</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345_74-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) "frequently do not understand what they recite" when reciting the <i>Samhitas</i>, merely preserving the sound of the text.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346_98-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Klostermaier: "<i>Brahman</i>, derived from the root <i>bŗh</i> = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified <a href="/wiki/Speech-act" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech-act">speech-act</a>" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." <a href="#CITEREFKlostermaier2007">Klostermaier 2007</a>, p. 55 quotes <a href="#CITEREFDeshpande1990">Deshpande 1990</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coward2008_mimamsa-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Coward2008_mimamsa_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoward2008">Coward 2008</a>, p. 114: "For the <a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a> the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The early Buddhist texts are also generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first Pali Canon written many centuries after the death of the Buddha.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Literally, "the meaning of the Vedas made manifest."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sayana repeats Yaska; see <a href="/wiki/Nirukta#Ancient" title="Nirukta">interpretation of the Vedas</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i>Upanishads</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1983409_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1983409-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mookerji also refers to the Uśanā smriti (81-2), which "states that mastery of mere text of Veda is to be followed up by its meaning" by discussing the Vedanta.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji2011196_146-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji2011196-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where-after they were able to engage in doscourses on the Vedas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrazier201134_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrazier201134-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example,<br /><i>Hymn 1.164.34</i>, "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?"<br /><i>Hymn 1.164.34</i>, "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?"<br /><i>Hymn 1.164.5</i>, "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?"<br /><i>Hymn 1.164.6</i>, "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?";<br /><i>Hymn 1.164.20</i> (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on.";<br />Sources: (a) Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-26925-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-26925-9">978-0-595-26925-9</a>, pp. 64–69;<br /><a href="/wiki/Jan_Gonda" title="Jan Gonda">Jan Gonda</a>, A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads, Volume 1, Part 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2">978-3-447-01603-2</a>, pp. 134–135;<br /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164" class="extiw" title="s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 164">Rigveda Book 1, Hymn 164</a> Wikisource</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are not <a href="/wiki/Deontic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontic">deontic</a> authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontological <a href="/wiki/Epistemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemic">epistemic</a> authority by a Hindu orthodox school."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreschi201262_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreschi201262-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lipner quotes Brockington (1981), <i>The sacred tread</i>, p.5.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Flood_2003_69-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Flood_2003_69_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Flood_2003_69_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Flood_2003_69_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Flood_2003_69_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Flood_2003_69_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210717035126/https://sites.google.com/a/vedicgranth.org/www/what_are_vedic_granth/the-four-veda/interpretation-and-more/construction-of-the-vedas?mobile=true">"Construction of the Vedas"</a>. <i>VedicGranth.Org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/a/vedicgranth.org/www/what_are_vedic_granth/the-four-veda/interpretation-and-more/construction-of-the-vedas?mobile=true">the original</a> on 17 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=VedicGranth.Org&rft.atitle=Construction+of+the+Vedas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.google.com%2Fa%2Fvedicgranth.org%2Fwww%2Fwhat_are_vedic_granth%2Fthe-four-veda%2Finterpretation-and-more%2Fconstruction-of-the-vedas%3Fmobile%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/veda">"Veda"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> Online (accessed 8 April 2023)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see e.g. <a href="#CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957">Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957</a>, p. 3; <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, p. 68; <a href="#CITEREFMacDonell2004">MacDonell 2004</a>, pp. 29–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Sanskrit literature</i> (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sanujit Ghose (2011). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldhistory.org/article/230/">Religious Developments in Ancient India</a>" in <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gflood-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gflood_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gflood_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gflood_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gavin Flood (1996), <i>An Introduction to Hinduism</i>, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43878-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43878-0">978-0-521-43878-0</a>, pp. 35–39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. <i>A history of Indian literature</i>: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_Bhattacharya_2006_pp._8–14-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-A_Bhattacharya_2006_pp._8–14_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-A_Bhattacharya_2006_pp._8–14_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">A Bhattacharya (2006), <i>Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-38455-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-38455-6">978-0-595-38455-6</a>, pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533261-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533261-2">978-0-19-533261-2</a>, p. 285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jan_Gonda_1975-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jan_Gonda_1975_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jan_Gonda_1975_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2">978-3-447-01603-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20068–14-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20068–14_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20068–14_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBhattacharya2006">Bhattacharya 2006</a>, pp. 8–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995351–357-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995351–357_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995351–357_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995351–357_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege1995">Holdrege 1995</a>, pp. 351–357.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199682-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199682_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEApte1965887-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965887_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965887_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFApte1965">Apte 1965</a>, p. 887.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEApte1965"apauruSeya"-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965"apauruSeya"_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965"apauruSeya"_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFApte1965">Apte 1965</a>, "apauruSeya".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma2011196–197-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma2011196–197_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma2011196–197_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma2011">Sharma 2011</a>, pp. 196–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWesterhoff2009290-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWesterhoff2009290_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWesterhoff2009290_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWesterhoff2009">Westerhoff 2009</a>, p. 290.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodd2013128-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd2013128_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodd2013128_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTodd2013">Todd 2013</a>, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollock201141–58-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollock201141–58_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollock201141–58_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPollock2011">Pollock 2011</a>, pp. 41–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharfe200213–14-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharfe200213–14_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharfe200213–14_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharfe200213–14_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScharfe2002">Scharfe 2002</a>, pp. 13–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2007-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2007_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWood2007">Wood 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHexam2011chapter_8_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHexam2011">Hexam 2011</a>, p. chapter 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDwyer2013">Dwyer 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996347_27-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege1996">Holdrege 1996</a>, p. 347.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB_astika-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB_astika_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB_astika_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/topic/astika">"astika"</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/topic/nastika">"nastika"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Online">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a></i>, 20 April 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1048html_p._1015]-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1048html_p._1015]_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1048html_p._1015]_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonier-Williams1899">Monier-Williams 1899</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1048.html">p. 1015</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEApte1965856-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965856_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFApte1965">Apte 1965</a>, p. 856.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see e.g. Pokorny's 1959 <i><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a></i> s.v. <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">u̯(e)id-</span></span></i>²; Rix' <i><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Verben" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben">Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben</a></i>, <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">u̯ei̯d-</span></span></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1050html_p._1017_(2nd_Column)]-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1050html_p._1017_(2nd_Column)]_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonier-Williams1899">Monier-Williams 1899</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1050.html">p. 1017 (2nd Column)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1050html_p._1017_(3rd_Column)]-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw1000mw_1050html_p._1017_(3rd_Column)]_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonier-Williams1899">Monier-Williams 1899</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1050.html">p. 1017 (3rd Column)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">according to <a href="/wiki/ISKCON" class="mw-redirect" title="ISKCON">ISKCON</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hinduism.iskcon.com/tradition/1105.htm">Hindu Sacred Texts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326083505/http://hinduism.iskcon.com/tradition/1105.htm">Archived</a> 26 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, "Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic culture)."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020150-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020150_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrasad2020">Prasad 2020</a>, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">37,575 are Rigvedic. Of the remaining, 34,857 appear in the other three Samhitas, and 16,405 are known only from Brahmanas, Upanishads or Sutras</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467–69-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467–69_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467–69_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467–69_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlostermaier1994">Klostermaier 1994</a>, pp. 67–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebri-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ebri_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ebri_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana">Brahmana</a> Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mw-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mw_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mw_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a>, "Tracing the Vedic dialects" in <i>Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes</i> ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bcp-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bcp_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bcp_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34354-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34354-1">978-0-521-34354-1</a>, pp. 42–43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jago-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jago_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jago_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jago_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Gonda" title="Jan Gonda">Jan Gonda</a> (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2">978-3-447-01603-2</a>, pp. 424–426</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Michaels_2004_51-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Michaels_2004_51_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Michaels_2004_51_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Michaels_2004_51_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mahony1998p271-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mahony1998p271_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_K._Mahony1998" class="citation book cs1">William K. Mahony (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC"><i>The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination</i></a>. State University of New York Press. p. 271. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3579-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3579-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-3579-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Artful+Universe%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Vedic+Religious+Imagination&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3&rft.au=William+K.+Mahony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB1KR_kE5ZYoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wendydoniger-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wendydoniger_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wendydoniger_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wendydoniger_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wendydoniger_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-61847-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-61847-0">978-0-226-61847-0</a>, pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1080-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1080-6">978-0-7914-1080-6</a>, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";<br />Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59257-846-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59257-846-7">978-1-59257-846-7</a>, pp. 208–210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Olivelle" title="Patrick Olivelle">Patrick Olivelle</a> (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535242-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535242-9">978-0-19-535242-9</a>, p. 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2003100–101-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2003100–101_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, pp. 100–101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartley2001490-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartley2001490_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartley2001">Bartley 2001</a>, p. 490.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege199630-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege199630_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege199630_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege1996">Holdrege 1996</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1983409-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1983409_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1983409_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1983409_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNakamura1983">Nakamura 1983</a>, p. 409.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20069-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20069_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhattacharya20069_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBhattacharya2006">Bhattacharya 2006</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnapp200510–11-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnapp200510–11_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnapp200510–11_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnapp2005">Knapp 2005</a>, pp. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8XO3Im3OMi8C&dq=brahma+created+vedas&pg=PA86">Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata</a> Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 85–86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_5/Hymn_2">"The Rig Veda"</a>. <i>Wikisource</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wikisource&rft.atitle=The+Rig+Veda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FThe_Rig_Veda%2FMandala_5%2FHymn_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony200749-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony200749_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200868-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200868_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2008">Witzel 2008</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrazier2011344-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrazier2011344_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrazier2011">Frazier 2011</a>, p. 344.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2012249,_250-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2012249,_250_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege2012">Holdrege 2012</a>, pp. 249, 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalal2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUCEoAwAAQBAJpgPT16_16]-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalal2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUCEoAwAAQBAJpgPT16_16]_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDalal2014">Dalal 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16">16</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDutt200636-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDutt200636_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDutt2006">Dutt 2006</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007454_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 454.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998158_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOberlies1998">Oberlies 1998</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2014179-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumar2014179_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKumar2014">Kumar 2014</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200368-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200368_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel2003-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2003_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2003_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2003_72-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2003_72-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2003_72-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, p. 69; For oral composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: <a href="#CITEREFAvari2007">Avari 2007</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995344-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995344_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1995344_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege1995">Holdrege 1995</a>, p. 344.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345_74-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996345_74-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege1996">Holdrege 1996</a>, p. 345.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroo201692-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroo201692_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroo201692_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroo201692_75-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroo2016">Broo 2016</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPruthi2004286-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPruthi2004286_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPruthi2004">Pruthi 2004</a>, p. 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2012165-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege2012165_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege2012">Holdrege 2012</a>, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2007125-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad2007125_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrasad2007">Prasad 2007</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011344–345-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011344–345_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>, pp. 344–345.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011345-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011345_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>, p. 345.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanerji1989323–324-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanerji1989323–324_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBanerji1989">Banerji 1989</a>, pp. 323–324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011477–495-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011477–495_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>, pp. 477–495.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERath201222-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERath201222_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRath2012">Rath 2012</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1999122-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1999122_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1999122_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1999122_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGriffiths1999">Griffiths 1999</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERath201219-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERath201219_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERath201219_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERath201219_87-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRath2012">Rath 2012</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger2010106-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger2010106_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDoniger2010">Doniger 2010</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011479-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011479_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011479_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>, p. 479.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2012171-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffman2012171_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchiffman2012">Schiffman 2012</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-front-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-front_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1825/18250150.htm">An event in Kolkata</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120510134321/http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1825/18250150.htm">Archived</a> May 10, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frontline_(magazine)" title="Frontline (magazine)">Frontline</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKadvany,_John2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kadvany, John (2007). "Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion". <i>Journal of Indian Philosophy</i>. <b>35</b> (5–6): 487–520. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.565.2083">10.1.1.565.2083</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10781-007-9025-5">10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52885600">52885600</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Indian+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Positional+Value+and+Linguistic+Recursion&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=487-520&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.565.2083%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52885600%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10781-007-9025-5&rft.au=Kadvany%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz2004328-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz2004328_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalewicz2004">Galewicz 2004</a>, p. 328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135_96-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji2011">Mookerji 2011</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346_98-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346_98-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege1996">Holdrege 1996</a>, p. 346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier200755_99-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlostermaier2007">Klostermaier 2007</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pauldeussen112-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pauldeussen112_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1468-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1468-4">978-81-208-1468-4</a>, pages 80-84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2016"Sayana,_Vidyaranya’s_brother"-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2016"Sayana,_Vidyaranya’s_brother"_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2016">Jackson 2016</a>, p. "Sayana, Vidyaranya’s brother".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346–347-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346–347_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege1996">Holdrege 1996</a>, pp. 346–347.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346,_347-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996346,_347_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege1996">Holdrege 1996</a>, pp. 346, 347.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrazier201134-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrazier201134_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrazier201134_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrazier2011">Frazier 2011</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_S._Lopez_Jr.1995" class="citation journal cs1">Donald S. Lopez Jr. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43799/1/11076_1995_Article_1568527952598800.pdf">"Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Numen</i>. <b>42</b> (1): 21–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568527952598800">10.1163/1568527952598800</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F43799">2027.42/43799</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3270278">3270278</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Numen&rft.atitle=Authority+and+Orality+in+the+Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=21-47&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027.42%2F43799&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3270278%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1568527952598800&rft.au=Donald+S.+Lopez+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeepblue.lib.umich.edu%2Fbitstream%2F2027.42%2F43799%2F1%2F11076_1995_Article_1568527952598800.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011192-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011192_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1987-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1987_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoody1987">Goody 1987</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELopez201635–36-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELopez201635–36_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLopez2016">Lopez 2016</a>, pp. 35–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonCole201315-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsonCole201315_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlsonCole2013">Olson & Cole 2013</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAvari2007">Avari 2007</a>, pp. 69–70, 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrodd2003" class="citation cs2">Brodd, Jeffrey (2003), <i>World Religions</i>, Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-725-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-725-5"><bdi>978-0-88489-725-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Religions&rft.place=Winona%2C+MN&rft.pub=Saint+Mary%27s+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-88489-725-5&rft.aulast=Brodd&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamisonBrereton2014" class="citation book cs1">Jamison, Stephanie W.; Brereton, Joel P. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18"><i>The Rigveda – The Earliest Religious Poetry of India, Volume 1</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972078-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972078-1"><bdi>978-0-19-972078-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rigveda+%E2%80%93+The+Earliest+Religious+Poetry+of+India%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-972078-1&rft.aulast=Jamison&rft.aufirst=Stephanie+W.&rft.au=Brereton%2C+Joel+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfgzVAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140918022828/http://www.uni-hamburg.de/ngmcp/about_ngmpp_e.html">"Cultural Heritage of Nepal"</a>. <i>Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hamburg" title="University of Hamburg">University of Hamburg</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-hamburg.de/ngmcp/about_ngmpp_e.html">the original</a> on 18 September 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nepal-German+Manuscript+Preservation+Project&rft.atitle=Cultural+Heritage+of+Nepal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-hamburg.de%2Fngmcp%2Fabout_ngmpp_e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2013-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellLopez2013_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuswellLopez2013">Buswell & Lopez 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrazier2011[httpsarchiveorgdetailscontinuumcompani00frazpagen48_34]-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrazier2011[httpsarchiveorgdetailscontinuumcompani00frazpagen48_34]_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrazier2011">Frazier 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/n48">34</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalton2015" class="citation book cs1">Walton, Linda (2015). <i>"Educational institutions" in The Cambridge World History Vol. 5</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19074-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19074-9"><bdi>978-0-521-19074-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Educational+institutions%22+in+The+Cambridge+World+History+Vol.+5&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-521-19074-9&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sukumar Dutt (1988) [1962]. <i>Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture.</i> George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0498-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0498-8">81-208-0498-8</a>. pp. 332–333</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeshpande199033-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeshpande199033_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeshpande1990">Deshpande 1990</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisra200049-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisra200049_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMisra2000">Misra 2000</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996354-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996354_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996354_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege1996">Holdrege 1996</a>, p. 354.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2016ch.3-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2016ch.3_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2016">Jackson 2016</a>, ch.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter1990106-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter1990106_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowardRajaPotter1990">Coward, Raja & Potter 1990</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji2011">Mookerji 2011</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201130-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201130_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji2011">Mookerji 2011</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996355,_356–357-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoldrege1996355,_356–357_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoldrege1996">Holdrege 1996</a>, pp. 355, 356–357.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200440-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200440_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200440_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalewicz2004">Galewicz 2004</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz2011338-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz2011338_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalewicz2011">Galewicz 2011</a>, p. 338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2009"237_Sayana"-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins2009"237_Sayana"_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollins2009">Collins 2009</a>, "237 Sayana".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalewicz2004">Galewicz 2004</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441–42-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalewicz200441–42_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalewicz2004">Galewicz 2004</a>, pp. 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels2016237–238-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels2016237–238_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichaels2016">Michaels 2016</a>, pp. 237–238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129–31-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129–31_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji2011">Mookerji 2011</a>, pp. 29–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129,_34-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129,_34_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji2011">Mookerji 2011</a>, pp. 29, 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <br /> •  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=artha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0">Sanskrit English Dictionary</a> University of Kloen, Germany (2009) <br /> •  Karl Potter (1998), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0310-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0310-8">81-208-0310-8</a>, Motilal Banarsidass, pp 610 (note 17)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134–35-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201134–35_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji2011">Mookerji 2011</a>, pp. 34–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135–36-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201135–36_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji2011">Mookerji 2011</a>, pp. 35–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201136-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201136_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji2011">Mookerji 2011</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji2011196-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji2011196_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji2011196_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji2011196_146-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji2011">Mookerji 2011</a>, p. 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMookerji201129_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMookerji2011">Mookerji 2011</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flood_1996_39-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Flood_1996_39_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Flood_1996_39_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-witzelthreefour-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-witzelthreefour_150-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witzelthreefour_150-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witzelthreefour_150-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witzelthreefour_150-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witzelthreefour_150-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Witzel, M., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu</a>", Harvard University, in <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, pp. 261–264</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jamisonwitzelvedic-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jamisonwitzelvedic_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jamisonwitzelvedic_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jamison and Witzel (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf">Vedic Hinduism</a>, Harvard University, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:102-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:102_152-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:102_152-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevenson2000" class="citation book cs1">Stevenson, Jay (2000). <i>The Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy</i>. Indianapolis: <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Books" title="Alpha Books">Alpha Books</a>. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780028638201" title="Special:BookSources/9780028638201"><bdi>9780028638201</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Idiot%27s+Guide+to+Eastern+Philosophy&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Alpha+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780028638201&rft.aulast=Stevenson&rft.aufirst=Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Muir (1872), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HRYAAAAAYAAJ">Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, their religion and institutions, Vol. 1</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, 2nd Edition, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert Friedrich Weber, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bi8JAAAAQAAJ">Indische Studien, herausg. von</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, Vol. 10, pp. 1–9 with footnotes (in German); For a translation, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HRYAAAAAYAAJ">Original Sanskrit Texts</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an example, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.library.upenn.edu/1017/d/medren/3178027">Sarvānukramaṇī Vivaraṇa</a> Univ of Pennsylvania rare texts collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R̥gveda-sarvānukramaṇī Śaunakakr̥tāʼnuvākānukramaṇī ca, Maharṣi-Kātyayāna-viracitā, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11549595">11549595</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStaal1986">Staal 1986</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-filliozat-p139-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-filliozat-p139_158-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-filliozat-p139_158-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFilliozat2004">Filliozat 2004</a>, p. 139</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, p. 69, "... almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957">Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957</a>, p. 3; <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, p. 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Witzel, M., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu</a>" in <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, pp. 257–348</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDonell200429–39-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacDonell200429–39_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacDonell2004">MacDonell 2004</a>, pp. 29–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jamison and Witzel (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf">Vedic Hinduism</a>, Harvard University, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Witzel, M., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu</a>" in <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nasadiyasukta-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nasadiyasukta_165-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nasadiyasukta_165-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> Original Sanskrit: <a class="external text" href="https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२९">Rigveda 10.129</a> Wikisource; <br /> • Translation 1: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMax_Müller1859" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/564/mode/2up"><i>A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature</i></a>. Williams and Norgate, London. pp. 559–565.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Sanskrit+Literature&rft.pages=559-565&rft.pub=Williams+and+Norgate%2C+London&rft.date=1859&rft.au=Max+M%C3%BCller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fhistoryofancient00mluoft%23page%2F564%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span> <br /> • Translation 2: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_Kramer1986" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth Kramer (1986). <i>World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions</i>. Paulist Press. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-2781-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-2781-8"><bdi>978-0-8091-2781-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Scriptures%3A+An+Introduction+to+Comparative+Religions&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8&rft.au=Kenneth+Kramer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span> <br /> • Translation 3: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Christian2011" class="citation book cs1">David Christian (2011). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515"><i>Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History</i></a></span>. University of California Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515/page/n45">17</a>–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95067-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95067-2"><bdi>978-0-520-95067-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maps+of+Time%3A+An+Introduction+to+Big+History&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-520-95067-2&rft.au=David+Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmapstimeintroduc00chri_515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see e.g. <a href="#CITEREFAvari2007">Avari 2007</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses and division into ten mandalas, see: <a href="#CITEREFAvari2007">Avari 2007</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For characterization of content and mentions of deities including Agni, Indra, Varuna, Soma, Surya, etc. see: <a href="#CITEREFAvari2007">Avari 2007</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997261-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1997261_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, p. 261.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020150–151-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020150–151_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrasad2020">Prasad 2020</a>, pp. 150–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020151-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad2020151_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrasad2020">Prasad 2020</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Original text translated in English: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_117" class="extiw" title="s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 117">The Rig Veda</a>, Mandala 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator);<br />C Chatterjee (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20150415005506/http://jhv.sagepub.com/content/1/1/3.short">Values in the Indian Ethos: An Overview</a>, Journal of Human Values, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 3–12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Witzel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~rnoyer/courses/51/Witzel2002.pdf">The Rigvedic religious system and its central Asian and Hindukush antecedents</a>, in The Vedas – Texts, Language and Ritual, Editors: Griffiths and Houben (2004), Brill Academic, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6980-149-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6980-149-0">978-90-6980-149-0</a>, pp. 581–627</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">sāman</i></span>, the term for a melody applied to a metrical hymn or a song of praise, <a href="#CITEREFApte1965">Apte 1965</a>, p. 981.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-witzelsamaveda-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-witzelsamaveda_176-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witzelsamaveda_176-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witzelsamaveda_176-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witzelsamaveda_176-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Witzel, M., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu</a>" in <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, pp. 269–270</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M Bloomfield, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DigYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA402">Rig-veda Repetitions</a></i>, p. 402, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, pp. 402–464</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For 1875 total verses, see the numbering given in Ralph T. H. Griffith. Griffith's introduction mentions the recension history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491–499.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011381-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011381_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>, p. 381.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200376–77-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200376–77_180-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200376–77_180-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel2003">Witzel 2003</a>, pp. 76–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools</a>, Michael Witzel, Harvard University</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ewitzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf">Autochthonous Aryans?</a> Michael Witzel, Harvard University</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf">Early Sanskritization</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120220153727/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf">Archived</a> 20 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Michael Witzel, Harvard University</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-26925-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-26925-9">978-0-595-26925-9</a>, pp. 273–274</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Witzel, M., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu</a>" in <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, pp. 270–271</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Witzel, M., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu</a>" in <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, pp. 272–274</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pauldeussen217-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pauldeussen217_187-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Deussen" title="Paul Deussen">Paul Deussen</a>, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1468-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1468-4">978-81-208-1468-4</a>, pp. 217–219</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200452_Table_3-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200452_Table_3_188-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 52 Table 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-prabhakar-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-prabhakar_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">CL Prabhakar (1972), The Recensions of the Sukla Yajurveda, Archiv Orientální, Volume 40, Issue 1, pp. 347–353</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Philosophy_of_the_Upanishads-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Philosophy_of_the_Upanishads_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Deussen" title="Paul Deussen">Paul Deussen</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/philosophyofupan00deus#page/22/mode/2up">The Philosophy of the Upanishads</a>, Motilal Banarsidass (2011 Edition), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1620-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1620-6">978-81-208-1620-6</a>, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Patrick_Olivelle_1998_pp._1–17-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Patrick_Olivelle_1998_pp._1–17_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Olivelle (1998), Upaniṣhads, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-282292-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-282292-6">0-19-282292-6</a>, pp. 1–17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456_192-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456_192-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456_192-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200456_192-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fritsstaal136-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fritsstaal136_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4">978-0-14-309986-4</a>, pp. 136–137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frits_Staal" title="Frits Staal">Frits Staal</a> (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4">978-0-14-309986-4</a>, p. 135</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alex Wayman (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1321-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1321-2">978-81-208-1321-2</a>, pp. 52–53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zaehnerlastav-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zaehnerlastav_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, – hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prāna, the 'Breath of Life', to Vāc, the 'Word', and so on." <a href="#CITEREFZaehner1966">Zaehner 1966</a>, p. vii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lauriepatton38-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lauriepatton38_197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, in <i>The Hindu World</i> (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21527-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-21527-7">0-415-21527-7</a>, p. 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jangonda277-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jangonda277_198-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jangonda277_198-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Gonda" title="Jan Gonda">Jan Gonda</a> (1975), Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, Vol 1, Fasc. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2">978-3-447-01603-2</a>, pp. 277–280, Quote: "It would be incorrect to describe the Atharvaveda Samhita as a collection of magical formulas".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth Zysk (2012), Understanding Mantras (Editor: Harvey Alper), Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0746-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0746-4">978-81-208-0746-4</a>, pp. 123–129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On magic spells and charms, such as those to gain better health: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe42/av064.htm">Atharva Veda 2.32 Bhaishagykni, Charm to secure perfect health</a> Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; see also chapters 3.11, 3.31, 4.10, 5.30, 19.26;<br /> On finding a good husband: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe42/av102.htm">Atharva Veda 4.2.36 Strijaratani</a> Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; Atharvaveda dedicates over 30 chapters to love relationships, sexuality and for conceiving a child, see e.g. chapters 1.14, 2.30, 3.25, 6.60, 6.78, 6.82, 6.130–6.132; On peaceful social and family relationships: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe42/av153.htm">Atharva Veda 6.3.30</a> Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press;</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth Zysk (1993), Religious Medicine: The History and Evolution of Indian Medicine, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-076-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-076-1">978-1-56000-076-1</a>, pp. x–xii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Witzel, M., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu</a>" in <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1997">Witzel 1997</a>, pp. 275–276</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-winter-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-winter_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moriz Winternitz (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0264-3">978-81-208-0264-3</a>, pp. 175–176</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlostermaier199467_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlostermaier1994">Klostermaier 1994</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-maxmullercb-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-maxmullercb_205-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maxmullercb_205-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maxmullercb_205-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maxmullercb_205-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Max Müller, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up">Chandogya Upanishad</a>, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, p. lxxxvii with footnote 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pauldeussencb-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pauldeussencb_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1468-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1468-4">978-81-208-1468-4</a>, p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sqqgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA27">The Development of the Female Mind in India</a></i>, p. 27, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, The Calcutta Review, Volume 60, p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2">978-3-447-01603-2</a>, pp. 319–322, 368–383 with footnotes</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">AB Keith (2007), The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0644-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0644-3">978-81-208-0644-3</a>, pp. 489–490</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Max Müller, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up">The Upanishads</a>, Part 1, Oxford University Press, p. lxxxvi footnote 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998liii-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998liii_211-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlivelle1998">Olivelle 1998</a>, p. liii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998lv-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998lv_212-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1998lv_212-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlivelle1998">Olivelle 1998</a>, p. lv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahadevan195259-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahadevan195259_213-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahadevan1952">Mahadevan 1952</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ptraju-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ptraju_214-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ptraju_214-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-139-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-139-4">978-0-88706-139-4</a>, pp. 35–36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1080-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1080-6">978-0-7914-1080-6</a>, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";<br />Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59257-846-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59257-846-7">978-1-59257-846-7</a>, pp. 208–210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535242-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535242-9">978-0-19-535242-9</a>, p. 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mid-day.com/news/opinion/article/sound-and-meaning-of-veda-23245229">"Sound and meaning of Veda"</a>. 11 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sound+and+meaning+of+Veda&rft.date=2022-09-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mid-day.com%2Fnews%2Fopinion%2Farticle%2Fsound-and-meaning-of-veda-23245229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1999xxiii-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1999xxiii_218-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1999xxiii_218-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivelle1999xxiii_218-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlivelle1999">Olivelle 1999</a>, p. xxiii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jameslochtefeldvedanga-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jameslochtefeldvedanga_219-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vedanga" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8239-2287-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8239-2287-1">0-8239-2287-1</a>, pp. 744–745</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011391–394_with_footnotes,_416–419-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011391–394_with_footnotes,_416–419_220-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>, pp. 391–394 with footnotes, 416–419.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter1990105–110-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter1990105–110_221-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowardRajaPotter1990">Coward, Raja & Potter 1990</a>, pp. 105–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEggeling1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Eggeling, Hans Julius (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hinduism"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Hinduism">"Hinduism" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 501–513, see page 505.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hinduism&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=501-513%2C+see+page+505&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Eggeling&rft.aufirst=Hans+Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011472–532-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011472–532_223-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>, pp. 472–532.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter199018-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowardRajaPotter199018_224-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowardRajaPotter1990">Coward, Raja & Potter 1990</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRajendra_Prasad2009" class="citation book cs1">Rajendra Prasad (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1gtxVmUr1ygC"><i>A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals</i></a>. Concept. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8069-595-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8069-595-7"><bdi>978-81-8069-595-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical-developmental+Study+of+Classical+Indian+Philosophy+of+Morals&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Concept&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-81-8069-595-7&rft.au=Rajendra+Prasad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1gtxVmUr1ygC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">BR Modak, The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-Veda, New Delhi, Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-215-0607-7" title="Special:BookSources/81-215-0607-7">81-215-0607-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw0200mw_0240html_207]-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams1899[httpwwwibiblioorgsripediaebooksmw0200mw_0240html_207]_227-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonier-Williams1899">Monier-Williams 1899</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0200/mw__0240.html">207</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEApte1965293-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965293_228-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFApte1965">Apte 1965</a>, p. 293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803114818711">"Upaveda"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3336651">"Origin and Development of Ayurveda: A Brief History"</a>. <i>Ancient Science of Life</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 1–7. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3336651">3336651</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22556454">22556454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Science+of+Life&rft.atitle=Origin+and+Development+of+Ayurveda%3A+A+Brief+History&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-7&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3336651%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22556454&rft.aulast=Narayanaswamy&rft.aufirst=V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3336651&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrawleyRanade2001" class="citation book cs1">Frawley, David; Ranade, Subhash (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aTIVnugZofsC"><i>Ayurveda, Nature's Medicine</i></a>. Lotus Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-914955-95-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-914955-95-5"><bdi>978-0-914955-95-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ayurveda%2C+Nature%27s+Medicine&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Lotus+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-914955-95-5&rft.aulast=Frawley&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Ranade%2C+Subhash&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaTIVnugZofsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Kuritz (1988), The Making of Theatre History, Prentice Hall, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-547861-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-547861-5">978-0-13-547861-5</a>, p. 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan1994385-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESullivan1994385_233-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSullivan1994">Sullivan 1994</a>, p. 385.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sanskrit original: <a class="external text" href="https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_४">Chandogya Upanishad</a>, Wikisource;<br /> • English translation: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n383/mode/2up">Chandogya Upanishad 7.1.2</a>, G Jha (Translator), Oriental Book Agency, p. 368</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_pdf/natya01.pdf">"Natyashastra"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Sanskrit Documents.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Natyashastra&rft.pub=Sanskrit+Documents&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsanskritdocuments.org%2Fall_pdf%2Fnatya01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoormaraswamy_and_Duggirala1917" class="citation book cs1">Coormaraswamy and Duggirala (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924012568535#page/n5/mode/2up"><i>The Mirror of Gesture</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 2–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mirror+of+Gesture&rft.pages=2-4&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1917&rft.au=Coormaraswamy+and+Duggirala&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fcu31924012568535%23page%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Carman_1989_pp._259–261-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-John_Carman_1989_pp._259–261_237-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_Carman_1989_pp._259–261_237-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John Carman (1989), The Tamil Veda: Pillan's Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli, University of Chicago Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-09305-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-09305-5">978-0-226-09305-5</a>, pp. 259–261</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vasudha_Narayanan_1994_pp._43,_117-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vasudha_Narayanan_1994_pp._43,_117_238-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87249-965-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87249-965-2">978-0-87249-965-2</a>, pp. 43, 117–119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoswami1976" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Satsvarupa_dasa_Goswami" title="Satsvarupa dasa Goswami">Goswami, Satsvarupa</a> (1976), <i>Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself</i>, S.l.: Assoc Publishing Group, p. 240, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-912776-88-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-912776-88-0"><bdi>978-0-912776-88-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+Vedic+Literature%3A+The+Tradition+Speaks+for+Itself&rft.place=S.l.&rft.pages=240&rft.pub=Assoc+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-912776-88-0&rft.aulast=Goswami&rft.aufirst=Satsvarupa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oliverleaman437-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oliverleaman437_240-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oliverleaman437_240-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17281-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17281-3">978-0-415-17281-3</a>, pp. 437–439</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ludorocher-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ludorocher_241-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02522-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02522-5">978-3-447-02522-5</a>, pp. 1–5, 12–21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nair_2008_266-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nair_2008_266_242-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNair2008" class="citation book cs1">Nair, Shantha N. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ekehXVP3W8wC&pg=PA266"><i>Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice</i></a>. Hindology Books. p. 266. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-223-1020-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-223-1020-7"><bdi>978-81-223-1020-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Echoes+of+Ancient+Indian+Wisdom%3A+The+Universal+Hindu+Vision+and+Its+Edifice&rft.pages=266&rft.pub=Hindology+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-223-1020-7&rft.aulast=Nair&rft.aufirst=Shantha+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DekehXVP3W8wC%26pg%3DPA266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02522-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02522-5">978-3-447-02522-5</a>, pp. 12–13, 134–156, 203–210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gregbailey442-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gregbailey442_244-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17281-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17281-3">978-0-415-17281-3</a>, pp. 442–443</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20778-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20778-3">978-0-520-20778-3</a>, p. xxxix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-richardthompson-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-richardthompson_246-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2007" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Richard L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC&pg=PA10"><i>The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1919-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1919-1"><bdi>978-81-208-1919-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cosmology+of+the+Bhagavata+Purana+%27Mysteries+of+the+Sacred+Universe&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1919-1&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3TZmDSr-1msC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20778-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20778-3">978-0-520-20778-3</a>, p. xli</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">BN Krishnamurti Sharma (2008), A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1575-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1575-9">978-81-208-1575-9</a>, pp. 128–131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChakravarty2016" class="citation web cs1">Chakravarty, Pradeep (18 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Vedic-route-to-the-past/article14397101.ece">"Vedic route to the past"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Vedic+route+to+the+past&rft.date=2016-10-18&rft.aulast=Chakravarty&rft.aufirst=Pradeep&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Ffeatures%2Ffriday-review%2Fhistory-and-culture%2FVedic-route-to-the-past%2Farticle14397101.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kz49-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kz49_250-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1974" class="citation book cs1">Kamil Zvelebil (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&pg=PA48"><i>Tamil Literature</i></a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01582-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01582-0"><bdi>978-3-447-01582-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Literature&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-3-447-01582-0&rft.au=Kamil+Zvelebil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOQ33i496MsIC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-purananuru-201-400/">"Ettuthokai – Puranānūru 201-400"</a>. 14 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ettuthokai+%E2%80%93+Puran%C4%81n%C5%ABru+201-400&rft.date=2014-12-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com%2Fettuthokai-purananuru-201-400%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194641-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194641_252-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJV_Chelliah1946">JV Chelliah 1946</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194698–99-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194698–99_253-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJV_Chelliah1946">JV Chelliah 1946</a>, pp. 98–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194698–100-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJV_Chelliah194698–100_254-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJV_Chelliah1946">JV Chelliah 1946</a>, pp. 98–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadami" class="citation web cs1">Badami, Zahira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q">"Pattupattu Ten Tamil Idylls Chelliah J. V."</a> <i>Internet Archive</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Pattupattu+Ten+Tamil+Idylls+Chelliah+J.+V.&rft.aulast=Badami&rft.aufirst=Zahira&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87249-965-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87249-965-2">978-0-87249-965-2</a>, p. 194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreschi201262-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreschi201262_257-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFreschi2012">Freschi 2012</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Young, Mary (2014). <i>The Baul Tradition: Sahaj Vision East and West,</i> pp. 27-36. SCB Distributors.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dyczkowski, Mark S. G. (1988). <i>The Canon of the Saivagama and the Kubjika: Tantras of the Western Kaula Tradition,</i> p. 9. SUNY Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipner201216-261"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipner201216_261-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipner2012">Lipner 2012</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Axel Michaels (2004), Hinduism: <i>Past and Present</i>, Princeton University Press, p.18; see also Julius Lipner (2012), <i>Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices</i>, Routledge, p.77; and Brian K. Smith (2008), <i>Hinduism</i>, p.101, in Jacob Neusner (ed.), Sacred Texts and Authority, Wipf and Stock Publishers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipner201215–17-264"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipner201215–17_264-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipner2012">Lipner 2012</a>, pp. 15–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuhammad_Khalid_Masud2000" class="citation book cs1">Muhammad Khalid Masud (2000). <i>Travellers in Faith: Studies of the Tablīghī Jamāʻat as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith Renewal</i>. BRILL. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11622-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11622-1"><bdi>978-90-04-11622-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travellers+in+Faith%3A+Studies+of+the+Tabl%C4%ABgh%C4%AB+Jam%C4%81%CA%BBat+as+a+Transnational+Islamic+Movement+for+Faith+Renewal&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11622-1&rft.au=Muhammad+Khalid+Masud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERambachan1994272-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambachan1994272_266-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRambachan1994">Rambachan 1994</a>, p. 272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENagappa2011283_("It_is_said_that_the_Varna_system_[...]_Sanatan_Hindu")-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENagappa2011283_("It_is_said_that_the_Varna_system_[...]_Sanatan_Hindu")_267-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNagappa2011">Nagappa 2011</a>, p. 283 ("It is said that the Varna system [...] Sanatan Hindu").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Müller, Friedrich Max (author) & Stone, Jon R. (author, editor) (2002). <i>The essential Max Müller: on language, mythology, and religion</i>. Illustrated edition. Palgrave Macmillan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-29309-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-29309-3">978-0-312-29309-3</a>. Source: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q96EsUCVlLsC&q=Max+M%C3%BCller">[1]</a> (accessed: Friday May 7, 2010), p. 44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927045638/http://hinduism.about.com/od/scripturesepics/a/rigveda.htm">"Rig Veda in UNESCO Memory of the World Register"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hinduism.about.com/od/scripturesepics/a/rigveda.htm">the original</a> on 27 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rig+Veda+in+UNESCO+Memory+of+the+World+Register&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhinduism.about.com%2Fod%2Fscripturesepics%2Fa%2Frigveda.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüller1892-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüller1892_270-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüller1892">Müller 1892</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155_271-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOberlies1998">Oberlies 1998</a>, p. 155.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2007" class="citation cs2">Anthony, David W. (2007), <i>The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World</i>, Princeton University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Horse+The+Wheel+And+Language.+How+Bronze-Age+Riders+From+the+Eurasian+Steppes+Shaped+The+Modern+World&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApte1965" class="citation cs2">Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1965), <i>The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary</i> (4th revised & enlarged ed.), Delhi: <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass" title="Motilal Banarsidass">Motilal Banarsidass</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0567-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0567-5"><bdi>978-81-208-0567-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Practical+Sanskrit-English+Dictionary&rft.place=Delhi&rft.edition=4th+revised+%26+enlarged&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0567-5&rft.aulast=Apte&rft.aufirst=Vaman+Shivaram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~tjun/sktdic/">Search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvari2007" class="citation cs2">Avari, Burjor (2007), <i>India: The Ancient Past</i>, London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35616-9" 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Sanskrit+Literature&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0063-2&rft.aulast=Banerji&rft.aufirst=Sures+Chandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJkOAEdIsdUsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartley2001" class="citation cs2">Bartley, Christ (2001), "Shankara", in Leaman, Oliver (ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy</i>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4151-7281-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4151-7281-3"><bdi>978-0-4151-7281-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shankara&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Asian+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-4151-7281-3&rft.aulast=Bartley&rft.aufirst=Christ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhattacharya2006" class="citation cs2">Bhattacharya, Ashim (2006), <i>Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology</i>, iUniverse, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-38455-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-38455-6"><bdi>978-0-595-38455-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hindu+Dharma%3A+Introduction+to+Scriptures+and+Theology&rft.pub=iUniverse&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-595-38455-6&rft.aulast=Bhattacharya&rft.aufirst=Ashim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroo2016" class="citation cs2">Broo, Mans (2016), "Rites of Burial and Immersion: Hindu Ritual practices on Disposing of Sacred Texts in Vrindavan", in Myrvold, Kristina (ed.), <i>The Death of Sacred Texts: Ritual Disposal and Renovation of Texts in World Religions</i>, Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rites+of+Burial+and+Immersion%3A+Hindu+Ritual+practices+on+Disposing+of+Sacred+Texts+in+Vrindavan&rft.btitle=The+Death+of+Sacred+Texts%3A+Ritual+Disposal+and+Renovation+of+Texts+in+World+Religions&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Broo&rft.aufirst=Mans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuswellLopez2013" class="citation cs2">Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Donald S. 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Tamil University (1985 print).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pattupattu+%E2%80%93+Ten+Tamil+Idylls+%28Tamil+Verses+with+Englilsh+Translation%29&rft.pub=Tamil+University+%281985+print%29&rft.date=1946&rft.au=JV+Chelliah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FPattupattuTenTamilIdylls_20180715%2Fpage%2Fn1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2009" class="citation cs2">Collins, Randall (2009), <i>The Sociology of Philosophies</i>, Harvard University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sociology+of+Philosophies&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Randall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowardRajaPotter1990" class="citation book cs1">Coward, Harold G.; Raja, K. 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(1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801162442/https://www.scribd.com/document/378011865/Madhav-Deshpande-Changing-Conceptions-of-the-Veda-From-Speech-Acts-to-Magical-Sounds">"Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds"</a>, <i>The Adyar Library Bulleting</i>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/378011865/Madhav-Deshpande-Changing-Conceptions-of-the-Veda-From-Speech-Acts-to-Magical-Sounds">the original</a> on 1 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Adyar+Library+Bulleting&rft.atitle=Changing+Conceptions+of+the+Veda%3A+From+Speech-Acts+to+Magical+Sounds&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Deshpande&rft.aufirst=Madhav+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F378011865%2FMadhav-Deshpande-Changing-Conceptions-of-the-Veda-From-Speech-Acts-to-Magical-Sounds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoniger2010" class="citation cs2">Doniger, Wendy (2010), <i>The Hindus: An Alternative History</i>, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindus%3A+An+Alternative+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Doniger&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDutt2006" class="citation cs2">Dutt, Sagarika (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I4zaCQAAQBAJ"><i>India in a Globalized World</i></a>, Manchester University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84779-607-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84779-607-3"><bdi>978-1-84779-607-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+in+a+Globalized+World&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84779-607-3&rft.aulast=Dutt&rft.aufirst=Sagarika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI4zaCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2013" class="citation cs2">Dwyer, Rachel (2013), <i>What Do Hindus Believe?</i>, Granta Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84708-940-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84708-940-3"><bdi>978-1-84708-940-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Do+Hindus+Believe%3F&rft.pub=Granta+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-84708-940-3&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFilliozat2004" class="citation cs2">Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004), "Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature", in <a href="/wiki/Karine_Chemla" title="Karine Chemla">Chemla, Karine</a>; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. (eds.), <i>History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science)</i>, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 137–157, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7">10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2320-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2320-0"><bdi>978-1-4020-2320-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Sanskrit+Mathematics%3A+An+Oral+Tradition+and+a+Written+Literature&rft.btitle=History+of+Science%2C+History+of+Text+%28Boston+Series+in+the+Philosophy+of+Science%29&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=137-157&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-2320-0&rft.aulast=Filliozat&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Sylvain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Flood, Gavin</a> (1996), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo"><i>An Introduction to Hinduism</i></a></span>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43878-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43878-0"><bdi>978-0-521-43878-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Hinduism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43878-0&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Gavin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontohi0000floo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood2003" class="citation cs2">Flood, Gavin, ed. 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(2011), <i>Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader</i>, Columbia University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Indian+Philosophy%3A+A+Reader&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaal1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Frits_Staal" title="Frits Staal">Staal, Frits</a> (1986), <i>The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science</i>, Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Academie voor Wetenschappen, North Holland Publishing Company</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fidelity+of+Oral+Tradition+and+the+Origins+of+Science&rft.pub=Mededelingen+der+Koninklijke+Nederlandse+Academie+voor+Wetenschappen%2C+North+Holland+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Staal&rft.aufirst=Frits&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan1994" class="citation cs2">Sullivan, B. M. (Summer 1994), "The Religious Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Academy_of_Religion" title="Journal of the American Academy of Religion">Journal of the American Academy of Religion</a></i>, <b>62</b> (1): 377–401, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2FLXII.2.377">10.1093/jaarel/LXII.2.377</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=The+Religious+Authority+of+the+Mahabharata%3A+Vyasa+and+Brahma+in+the+Hindu+Scriptural+Tradition&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=377-401&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjaarel%2FLXII.2.377&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=B.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodd2013" class="citation cs2">Todd, Warren Lee (2013), <i>The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World</i>, Ashgate, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-6681-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-6681-9"><bdi>978-1-4094-6681-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ethics+of+%C5%9Aa%E1%B9%85kara+and+%C5%9A%C4%81ntideva%3A+A+Selfless+Response+to+an+Illusory+World&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-6681-9&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Warren+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesterhoff2009" class="citation cs2">Westerhoff, Jan (2009), <i>Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538496-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538496-3"><bdi>978-0-19-538496-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nagarjuna%27s+Madhyamaka%3A+A+Philosophical+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-538496-3&rft.aulast=Westerhoff&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011" class="citation cs2">Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC"><i>Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism</i></a>, Walter de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018159-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018159-3"><bdi>978-3-11-018159-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sound+and+Communication%3A+An+Aesthetic+Cultural+History+of+Sanskrit+Hinduism&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-018159-3&rft.aulast=Wilke&rft.aufirst=Annette&rft.au=Moebus%2C+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKZCMe67IGPkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel1995" class="citation cs2">Witzel, Michael (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120220153727/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf">"Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>EJVS</i>, <b>1</b> (4), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 20 February 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EJVS&rft.atitle=Early+Sanskritization%3A+Origin+and+Development+of+the+Kuru+state&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com%2Fejvs0104%2Fejvs0104article.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf">"The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools: The Social and Political Milieu"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, in Witzel, Michael (ed.), <i>Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas</i>, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora; vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+the+Vedic+Canon+and+its+Schools%3A+The+Social+and+Political+Milieu&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Texts%2C+Beyond+the+Texts%3A+New+Approaches+to+the+Study+of+the+Vedas&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Harvard+Oriental+Series%2C+Opera+Minora%3B+vol.+2&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2Fcanon.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFWitzel2003" class="citation">Witzel, Michael. "Vedas and <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Upaniṣads</i></span>". In <a href="#CITEREFFlood2003">Flood (2003)</a>.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFWitzel2008" class="citation">Witzel, Michael. "Vedas and <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Upaniṣads</i></span>". In <a href="#CITEREFFlood2008">Flood (2008)</a>.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2007" class="citation cs2">Wood, Michael (2007), <i>The Story of India Hardcover</i>, BBC Worldwide, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-563-53915-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-563-53915-5"><bdi>978-0-563-53915-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+India+Hardcover&rft.pub=BBC+Worldwide&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-563-53915-5&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaehner1966" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_Zaehner" title="Robert Charles Zaehner">Zaehner, R. C.</a> (1966), <i>Hindu Scriptures</i>, Everyman's Library, London: J. M. Dent</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hindu+Scriptures&rft.place=London&rft.series=Everyman%27s+Library&rft.pub=J.+M.+Dent&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Zaehner&rft.aufirst=R.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <dl><dt>Overviews</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonda1975" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Gonda" title="Jan Gonda">Gonda, J.</a> (1975), <i>Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas</i>, vol. 1, Veda and Upanishads, Wiesnaden: Harrassowitz: A History of Indian literature, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01603-2"><bdi>978-3-447-01603-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vedic+Literature%3A+Sa%E1%B9%83hit%C4%81s+and+Br%C4%81hma%E1%B9%87as&rft.place=Wiesnaden%3A+Harrassowitz&rft.pub=A+History+of+Indian+literature&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-3-447-01603-2&rft.aulast=Gonda&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantucci1976" class="citation cs2">Santucci, J.A. (1976), "An Outline of Vedic Literature", <i>Scholars Press for the American Academy of Religion</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scholars+Press+for+the+American+Academy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=An+Outline+of+Vedic+Literature&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Santucci&rft.aufirst=J.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShrava1977" class="citation cs2">Shrava, S. (1977), <i>A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature – Brahmana and Aranyaka Works</i>, Pranava Prakashan</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+History+of+Vedic+Literature+%E2%80%93+Brahmana+and+Aranyaka+Works&rft.pub=Pranava+Prakashan&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Shrava&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>A Vedic Concordance</i></a>, (an alphabetic index to every line, every stanza of the Vedas published before 1906), <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>: Maurice Bloomfield, 1906</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Vedic+Concordance&rft.place=Harvard+University&rft.pub=Maurice+Bloomfield&rft.date=1906&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fvedicconcordance00bloouoft%23page%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm#vedas"><i>The Vedas at sacred-texts.com</i></a>, Sacred Texts</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vedas+at+sacred-texts.com&rft.pub=Sacred+Texts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Fhin%2Findex.htm%23vedas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Concordances</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomfield1907" class="citation cs2">Bloomfield, M. (1907), <i>A Vedic Concordance</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Vedic+Concordance&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Bloomfield&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBandhuDev1963" class="citation cs2">Bandhu, Vishva; Dev, Bhim (1963), Bhaskaran Nair, S. (ed.), <i>Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa: A Vedic Word-Concordance</i>, Hoshiarpur: Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vaidika-Pad%C4%81nukrama-Ko%E1%B9%A3a%3A+A+Vedic+Word-Concordance&rft.place=Hoshiarpur&rft.pub=Vishveshvaranand+Vedic+Research+Institute&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Bandhu&rft.aufirst=Vishva&rft.au=Dev%2C+Bhim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/VedicConcordance/ReadmeEng.html"><i>An Enlarged Electronic Version of Bloomfield's A Vedic Concordance</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Enlarged+Electronic+Version+of+Bloomfield%27s+A+Vedic+Concordance&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2FVedicConcordance%2FReadmeEng.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Conference proceedings</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffiths2004" class="citation cs2">Griffiths, Arlo (2004), Houben, Jan E.M. (ed.), <i>The Vedas : texts, language & ritual: proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002</i>, Groningen : Forsten: Groningen Oriental Studies 20, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-6980-149-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-6980-149-3"><bdi>90-6980-149-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vedas+%3A+texts%2C+language+%26+ritual%3A+proceedings+of+the+Third+International+Vedic+Workshop%2C+Leiden+2002&rft.place=Groningen+%3A+Forsten&rft.pub=Groningen+Oriental+Studies+20&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=90-6980-149-3&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=Arlo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael" class="citation cs2">Michael, Witzel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/Veda.in.Nepal.pdf"><i>On the History and the Present State of Vedic Tradition in Nepal</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+History+and+the+Present+State+of+Vedic+Tradition+in+Nepal&rft.aulast=Michael&rft.aufirst=Witzel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2FVeda.in.Nepal.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Journals</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1897" class="citation cs2">Arnold, Edward Vernon (1897), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/592303">"Sketch of the Historical Grammar of the Rig and Atharva Vedas"</a>, <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>, <b>18</b>: 203–353, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F592303">10.2307/592303</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0279">0003-0279</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/592303">592303</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Sketch+of+the+Historical+Grammar+of+the+Rig+and+Atharva+Vedas&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=203-353&rft.date=1897&rft.issn=0003-0279&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F592303%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F592303&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Edward+Vernon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F592303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedas" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output 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navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha" title="Puruṣārtha">Puruṣārthas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion#Hindu_ethics" title="Ethics in religion">Niti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Asteya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparigraha">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Damah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion#Hinduism" title="Compassion">Dayā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Āstika</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nāstika</a>: <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu "Om" symbol"><img alt="Hindu "Om" symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/100px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/150px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/200px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="507" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smṛti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vedas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitrayaniya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Upaveda">Upavedas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Dhanurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natyaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Sthapatyaveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">Other</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)">Agamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads#Classification" title="Upanishads">Minor Upanishads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitisara" title="Nitisara">Nitisara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81radasm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Nāradasmṛti">Nāradasmṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81j%C3%B1avalkya_Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Yājñavalkya Smṛti">Yājñavalkya Smṛti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subhashita" title="Subhashita">Subhashita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Tantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandham" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandham">Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugal">Thiruppugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirukkural">Thirukkural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_Ramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamba Ramayanam">Kamba Ramayanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athichudi" title="Athichudi">Athichudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhirami_Antati" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhirami Antati">Abhirami Antati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedarthasamgraha" title="Vedarthasamgraha">Vedarthasamgraha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Gods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dattatreya" title="Dattatreya">Dattatreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_gods" title="Category:Hindu gods"><i>more</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Goddesses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tridevi" title="Tridevi">Tridevi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhumi_(goddess)" title="Bhumi (goddess)">Bhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavidya" title="Mahavidya">Mahavidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrika">Matrika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukmini" title="Rukmini">Rukmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Hindu_goddess)" title="Sati (Hindu goddess)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shashthi" title="Shashthi">Shashthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_goddesses" title="Category:Hindu goddesses"><i>more</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Worship_in_Hinduism" title="Worship in Hinduism">Worship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhajan" title="Bhajan">Bhajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naivedhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Naivedhya">Naivedhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Hinduism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">Tirthatana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sanskara_(rite_of_passage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskara (rite of passage)">Sanskaras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhana" title="Garbhadhana">Garbhadhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana" title="Pumsavana">Pumsavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana_Simantonayana" title="Pumsavana Simantonayana">Simantonayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatakarma" title="Jatakarma">Jatakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81makara%E1%B9%87a" title="Nāmakaraṇa">Namakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishkramana" title="Nishkramana">Nishkramana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annaprashana" title="Annaprashana">Annaprashana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chudakarana" title="Chudakarana">Chudakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnavedha" title="Karnavedha">Karnavedha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidy%C4%81ra%E1%B9%83bha%E1%B9%83" title="Vidyāraṃbhaṃ">Vidyarambha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keshanta" title="Keshanta">Keshanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritu_Kala_Samskaram" title="Ritu Kala Samskaram">Ritushuddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samavartanam" title="Samavartanam">Samavartanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivaah" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivaah">Vivaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antyesti" title="Antyesti">Antyeshti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Varnashrama</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashrama_(stage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashrama (stage)">Ashrama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grihastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Grihastha">Grihastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanaprastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanaprastha">Vanaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_festivals" title="List of Hindu festivals">Festivals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holi" title="Holi">Holi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Shivaratri" title="Maha Shivaratri">Shivaratri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raksha_Bandhan" title="Raksha Bandhan">Raksha Bandhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navaratri" title="Navaratri">Navaratri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durga_Puja" title="Durga Puja">Durga Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramlila" title="Ramlila">Ramlila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayadashami" title="Vijayadashami">Vijayadashami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh_Chaturthi" title="Ganesh Chaturthi">Ganesh Chaturthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Navami" title="Rama Navami">Rama Navami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Janmashtami" title="Krishna Janmashtami">Janmashtami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pongal_(festival)" title="Pongal (festival)">Pongal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makar_Sankranti" title="Makar Sankranti">Makar Sankranti</a></li> <li>New Year <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bihu" title="Bihu">Bihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_Padwa" title="Gudi Padwa">Gudi Padwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahela_Baishakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahela Baishakh">Pahela Baishakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puthandu" title="Puthandu">Puthandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakhi" title="Vaisakhi">Vaisakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugadi" title="Ugadi">Ugadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbh_Mela" title="Kumbh Mela">Kumbh Mela</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haridwar_Kumbh_Mela" title="Haridwar Kumbh Mela">Haridwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashik-Trimbakeshwar_Simhastha" title="Nashik-Trimbakeshwar Simhastha">Nashik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayag_Kumbh_Mela" title="Prayag Kumbh Mela">Prayag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ujjain_Simhastha" title="Ujjain Simhastha">Ujjain</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ratha_Yatra_(Puri)" title="Ratha Yatra (Puri)">Ratha Yatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teej" title="Teej">Teej</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasant_Panchami" title="Vasant Panchami">Vasant Panchami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_festivals" title="Template:Hindu festivals">Others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81dhy%C4%81ya" title="Svādhyāya">Svādhyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namaste" title="Namaste">Namaste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bindi_(decoration)" title="Bindi (decoration)">Bindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilaka" title="Tilaka">Tilaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus#Etymology" title="Hindus">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Hindus" title="Lists of Hindus">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Denominations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Anti-Hindu sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Hinduism" title="Criticism of Hinduism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_gurus_and_sants" title="List of Hindu gurus and sants">Hindu gurus and sants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_studies" title="Hindu studies">Hindu studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_iconography" title="Hindu iconography">Iconography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_other_religions" title="Hinduism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Hinduism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Hinduism">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jainism and Hinduism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Sikhism" title="Hinduism and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Theosophy" title="Hinduism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">Hinduism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu temples">Hindu temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_temples" title="List of Hindu temples">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Architecture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:bold;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" 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href="/wiki/Bengali_poetry" title="Bengali poetry">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_poetry" title="Biblical poetry">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_poetry" title="British poetry">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosniak_epic_poetry" title="Bosniak epic poetry">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulgarian poetry">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine poetry">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_poetry" title="Canadian poetry">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_poetry" title="Cantonese poetry">Cantonese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornish poetry">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_poetry" title="English poetry">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_poetry" title="Estonian poetry">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_poetry" title="Finnish poetry">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_poetry" title="French poetry">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek poetry">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Gujarati poetry">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi poetry">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_poetry" title="Modern Hebrew poetry">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_poetry" title="Indian poetry">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Indian epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_poetry" title="Irish poetry">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_poetry" title="Italian poetry">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_poetry" title="Japanese poetry">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_poetry" title="Javanese poetry">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jèrriais poetry">Jèrriais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_poetry" title="Kannada poetry">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmiri poetry">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_poetry" title="Korean poetry">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_poetry" title="Latin poetry">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_poetry" title="Latin American poetry">Latin American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latino_poetry" title="Latino poetry">Latino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Manx poetry">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_poetry" title="Marathi poetry">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_poetry" title="Malayalam poetry">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepali poetry">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand poetry">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English poetry">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_poetry" title="Old Norse poetry">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_poetry" title="Ottoman poetry">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_poetry" title="Pakistani poetry">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto poetry">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian poetry">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_poetry" title="Polish poetry">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_poetry" title="Portuguese poetry">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjabi poetry">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajasthani poetry">Rajasthani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian poetry">Russian</a></li> <li>Sanskrit <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_classical_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit classical poetry">Classical</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry_of_Scotland" title="Poetry of Scotland">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_poetry" title="Serbian poetry">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_epic_poetry" title="Serbian epic poetry">Serbian epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sindhi poetry">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovak poetry">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_poetry" title="Spanish poetry">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil poetry">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Telugu poetry">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_poetry" title="Thai poetry">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish poetry">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_poetry" title="Urdu poetry">Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_poetry" title="Vietnamese poetry">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_poetry" title="Welsh poetry">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Quill_and_ink.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quill_and_ink.svg/16px-Quill_and_ink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quill_and_ink.svg/24px-Quill_and_ink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quill_and_ink.svg/32px-Quill_and_ink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="152" 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a> (Hinduism) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puya_(Meitei_texts)" title="Puya (Meitei texts)">Puya</a> (Sanamahism)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> (Islam)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kojiki" title="Kojiki">Kojiki</a> (Shinto)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrosian_hymns" title="Ambrosian hymns">Ambrosian Hymnal</a> (Roman Catholicism)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a> (Islam)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a> (Roman Catholicism)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guru_Granth_Sahib" title="Guru 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href="/wiki/Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Catechism of the Catholic Church">Catechism</a> (Roman Catholicism)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39950#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39950#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39950#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/178615580">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vedas"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85142464">United States</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Veda"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80009843">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13319318c">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13319318c">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00560570">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="védy"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116670&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000185845&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007286505805171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981060868948806706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028293797">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/vedalar">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.codfw.main‐f69cdc8f6‐w24zn Cached time: 20241124053328 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 3.143 seconds Real time usage: 3.538 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 33764/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 431509/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 38542/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 19/100 Expensive parser function count: 30/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 640681/5000000 bytes Lua time usage: 1.858/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 19199083/52428800 bytes Lua Profile: MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction 440 ms 24.2% ? 180 ms 9.9% dataWrapper <mw.lua:672> 140 ms 7.7% MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument 140 ms 7.7% recursiveClone <mwInit.lua:45> 120 ms 6.6% 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Rendering was triggered because: page-view --> </div><!--esi <esi:include src="/esitest-fa8a495983347898/content" /> --><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vedas&oldid=1258764782">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vedas&oldid=1258764782</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vedas" title="Category:Vedas">Vedas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_texts" title="Category:Hindu texts">Hindu texts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sanskrit_texts" title="Category:Sanskrit texts">Sanskrit texts</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1911_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_with_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_pages_semi-protected_against_vandalism" title="Category:Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism">Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:EngvarB_from_March_2015" title="Category:EngvarB from March 2015">EngvarB from March 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_March_2015" title="Category:Use dmy dates from March 2015">Use dmy dates from March 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Sanskrit-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Sanskrit-language text">Articles containing Sanskrit-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">CS1 maint: others</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_prone_to_spam_from_July_2013" title="Category:Articles prone to spam from July 2013">Articles prone to spam from July 2013</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 14:20<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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