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id="toc-Hierarchy_of_courts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Federalism_and_parallel_state_and_federal_courts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federalism_and_parallel_state_and_federal_courts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Federalism and parallel state and federal courts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federalism_and_parallel_state_and_federal_courts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_precedent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_precedent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types of precedent</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_precedent-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of precedent subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_precedent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Binding_precedent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Binding_precedent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Binding precedent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Binding_precedent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persuasive_precedent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persuasive_precedent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Persuasive precedent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persuasive_precedent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Case_of_first_impression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_of_first_impression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Case of first impression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_of_first_impression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nonprecedential_decisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nonprecedential_decisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Nonprecedential decisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nonprecedential_decisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precedent_in_civil_law_and_mixed_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precedent_in_civil_law_and_mixed_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Precedent in civil law and mixed systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Precedent_in_civil_law_and_mixed_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Precedent in civil law and mixed systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Precedent_in_civil_law_and_mixed_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_law_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_law_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Civil law systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_law_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixed_or_bijuridical_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixed_or_bijuridical_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Mixed or bijuridical systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixed_or_bijuridical_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_academics_in_civil_law_jurisdictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_academics_in_civil_law_jurisdictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Role of academics in civil law jurisdictions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_academics_in_civil_law_jurisdictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critical_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critical_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Critical analysis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Critical_analysis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Critical analysis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Critical_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Court_formulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Court_formulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Court formulations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Court_formulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Academic study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Application</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Application-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Application subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_legal_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_legal_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>United States legal system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_legal_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English_legal_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_legal_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>English legal system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_legal_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Supreme_Court's_ability_to_override_its_own_precedent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Supreme_Court's_ability_to_override_its_own_precedent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>The Supreme Court's ability to override its own precedent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Supreme_Court's_ability_to_override_its_own_precedent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinguishing_precedent_on_legal_(rather_than_fact)_grounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinguishing_precedent_on_legal_(rather_than_fact)_grounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Distinguishing precedent on legal (rather than fact) grounds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinguishing_precedent_on_legal_(rather_than_fact)_grounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rules_of_statutory_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rules_of_statutory_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Rules of statutory interpretation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rules_of_statutory_interpretation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rules of statutory interpretation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rules_of_statutory_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Statutory_interpretation_in_the_UK" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statutory_interpretation_in_the_UK"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Statutory interpretation in the UK</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statutory_interpretation_in_the_UK-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statutory_interpretation_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statutory_interpretation_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Statutory interpretation in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statutory_interpretation_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practical_application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practical_application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Practical application</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practical_application-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Practical application subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Practical_application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Judicial_resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Judicial resistance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Structural considerations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Originalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Originalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Originalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Originalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_precedent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_precedent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Criticism of precedent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_precedent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agreement_with_precedent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agreement_with_precedent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Agreement with precedent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agreement_with_precedent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Precedent</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">39 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%82%D8%A9_%D9%82%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="سابقة قضائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سابقة قضائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedente" title="Precedente – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Precedente" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCquqi_presedent" title="Hüquqi presedent – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hüquqi presedent" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Прецедент – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Прецедент" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Precedent" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedens" title="Precedens – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Precedens" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynsail_barnwrol" title="Cynsail barnwrol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cynsail barnwrol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A6cedens" title="Præcedens – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Præcedens" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A4zedenzfall" title="Präzedenzfall – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Präzedenzfall" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretsedent" title="Pretsedent – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pretsedent" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Νομολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νομολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedente" title="Precedente – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Precedente" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antecedento" title="Antecedento – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Antecedento" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurrekari_(zuzenbidea)" title="Aurrekari (zuzenbidea) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aurrekari (zuzenbidea)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%B6%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="رویه قضایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رویه قضایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A8gle_du_pr%C3%A9c%C3%A9dent" title="Règle du précédent – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Règle du précédent" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%BA" title="Դատական նախադեպ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դատական նախադեպ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AF" title="पूर्वनिर्णय – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पूर्वनिर्णय" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedente" title="Precedente – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Precedente" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9D" title="תקדים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תקדים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Соттук прецедент – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Соттук прецедент" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedens" title="Precedens – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Precedens" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duluan_kehakiman" title="Duluan kehakiman – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Duluan kehakiman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Precedent" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%88%E4%BE%8B" title="先例 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="先例" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudikat" title="Prejudikat – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Prejudikat" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedens" title="Precedens – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Precedens" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedente_jur%C3%ADdico" title="Precedente jurídico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Precedente jurídico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Судебный прецедент – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Судебный прецедент" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_precedent" title="Legal precedent – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Legal precedent" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedens" title="Precedens – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Precedens" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Прецедент – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Прецедент" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Precedent" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennakkop%C3%A4%C3%A4t%C3%B6s" title="Ennakkopäätös – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ennakkopäätös" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudikat" title="Prejudikat – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Prejudikat" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0%C3%A7tihat" title="İçtihat – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Rule established in an earlier legal case</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Precedence_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Precedence (disambiguation)">Precedence</a> or <a href="/wiki/President_(disambiguation)" 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.ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Precedent" title="Special:EditPage/Precedent">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Precedent%22">"Precedent"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Precedent%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Precedent%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Precedent%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Precedent%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Precedent%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Precedent</b> is a court ruling that serves as an authoritative guide for resolving future cases with similar facts or legal issues.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a key aspect of <i>stare decisis</i> ("to stand by things decided")<i>,</i> courts are generally expected to follow precedent in their decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a prior court has ruled on the same or a closely related issue, subsequent courts are encouraged to align their decisions with the earlier ruling to maintain consistency and predictability in the law.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Precedent is important in <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> systems and helps sets them apart from civil law systems. In common law, precedent can either be something courts must follow (binding) or something they can consider but don’t have to follow (persuasive).<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a> systems, in contrast, are characterized by comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">codes</a> and detailed <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statutes</a>, with no emphasis on precedent, and where judges primarily focus on fact-finding and applying codified law.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Courts in <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> systems rely heavily on <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a>, which refers to the collection of precedents and legal principles established by previous judicial decisions on specific issues or topics.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of case law depends on the systematic publication and indexing of these decisions in <a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">law reports</a>, making them accessible to lawyers, courts, and the general public.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally speaking, a legal precedent may be: </p> <ul><li><b>applied</b> (if precedent is binding) / <b>adopted</b> (if precedent is persuasive), if the principles underpinning the previous decision are accordingly used to evaluate the issues of the subsequent case;</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Distinguishing" title="Distinguishing">distinguished</a></b>, if the principles underpinning the previous decision are found specific to, or premised upon, certain factual scenarios, and not applied to the subsequent case because of the absence or material difference in the latter's facts;</li> <li><b>modified</b>, if the same court on determination of the same case on order from a higher court modified one or more parts of the previous decision; or</li> <li><b>overruled</b>, if the same or higher courts on appeal or determination of subsequent cases found the principles underpinning the previous decision erroneous in law or overtaken by new legislation or developments.</li></ul> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principles">Principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stare_decisis"><i>Stare decisis</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Stare decisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Stare decisis</i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɛər/: 'are' in 'bare'">ɛər</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is a judicial doctrine under which courts follow the principles, rules, or standards established in their prior decisions (or those of higher courts) when deciding cases involving the same or closely related issues.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term originates from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> phrase <i>stare decisis et non quieta movere,</i> meaning to "stand by the thing decided and do not disturb the calm."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The doctrine operates both horizontally and vertically. Vertical <i>stare decisis</i> binds lower courts to strictly follow the decisions of higher courts within the same jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell-definition_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-definition-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Seventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit">Seventh Circuit</a> Court of Appeals applying a precedent set by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> is an example of vertical <i>stare decisis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell-definition_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-definition-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Horizontal <i>stare decisis</i> refers the principle that a court adheres to its own previous rulings.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell-definition_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-definition-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the modern era, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> adheres to its prior decisions unless there is a <q>special justification</q> to overrule precedent.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By taking this approach, the Court has rejected a strict view of <i>stare decisis</i> that would require it to uphold past rulings regardless of their merits or the practical consequences of maintaining or overturning them.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ratio_decidendi_and_obiter_dicta"><i>Ratio decidendi</i> and <i>obiter dicta</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ratio decidendi and obiter dicta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Ratio_decidendi" title="Ratio decidendi">Ratio decidendi</a></i> ("the reason for the decision") refers to the key factual element or line of reasoning in a case that forms the basis for the court's final judgment.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It forms the basis for a court decision and creates binding precedent.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This distinguishes it from other parts of a judicial opinion, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Obiter_dictum" title="Obiter dictum">obiter dicta</a></i> (non-binding observations or comments). </p><p>In contrast, <i><a href="/wiki/Obiter_dictum" title="Obiter dictum">obiter dicta</a></i> (“something said in passing”) refers to comments, suggestions, or observations made by a judge in an opinion that are not necessary to resolve the case at hand.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While not legally binding on other courts, such statements may be cited as persuasive authority in subsequent litigation.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hierarchy_of_courts">Hierarchy of courts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hierarchy of courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Federalism_and_parallel_state_and_federal_courts">Federalism and parallel state and federal courts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Federalism and parallel state and federal courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In federal systems the division between federal and state law may result in complex interactions. In the United States, state courts are not considered inferior to federal courts but rather constitute a parallel court system. </p> <ul><li>When a federal court rules on an issue of state law, the federal court must follow the precedent of the state courts, under the <a href="/wiki/Erie_doctrine" title="Erie doctrine">Erie doctrine</a>. If an issue of state law arises during a case in federal court, and there is no decision on point from the highest court of the state, the federal court must either attempt to predict how the state courts would resolve the issue by looking at decisions from state appellate courts, or, if allowed by the constitution of the relevant state, <a href="/wiki/Certified_question" title="Certified question">submit</a> the question to the state's courts.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>On the other hand, when a state court rules on an issue of federal law, the state court is bound only by rulings of the Supreme Court, but not by decisions of federal district or circuit courts of appeals.<sup id="cite_ref-40_Cal._4th_1370,_1416_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40_Cal._4th_1370,_1416-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However some states have adopted a practice of considering themselves bound by rulings of the court of appeals embracing their states, as a matter of comity rather than constitutional obligation.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In practice, however, judges in one system will almost always choose to follow relevant case law in the other system to prevent divergent results and to minimize <a href="/wiki/Forum_shopping" title="Forum shopping">forum shopping</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_precedent">Types of precedent</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Types of precedent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Binding_precedent">Binding precedent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Binding precedent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Binding precedent is a legal principle based on <i>stare decisis</i> that requires lower courts to follow the decisions of appellate courts in the same jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When an appellate court resolves a <a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">question of law</a>, its determination, known as the "holding," becomes binding precedent. Lower courts must apply this precedent when deciding cases with similar facts or legal issues.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, if the facts or issues of a case differ from those in a prior case, the prior case does not serve as precedent.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, in the United States, decisions of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a>, as the nation's highest court, are binding on all other courts nationwide.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, the decisions of New York's highest court are binding only on courts within New York and have no binding authority over courts in other states.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persuasive_precedent">Persuasive precedent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Persuasive precedent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Persuasive precedent refers to legal decisions that a court may consider but is not obligated to follow when deciding a case, as they are not binding.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include decisions from courts in neighboring jurisdictions and <i>dicta</i> from rulings by higher courts.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Australia, decisions of superior overseas courts, such as those from the United Kingdom, serve as persuasive precedent.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although not binding precedent, a court may choose to rely on persuasive precedent if the reasoning is compelling.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Courts often turn to decisions from other jurisdictions for guidance, particularly when addressing "cases of first impression" or interpreting unclear laws.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a court will not adopt persuasive authority if it conflicts with the public policy of the forum jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Case_of_first_impression">Case of first impression</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Case of first impression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A case of first impression (also known as an "issue of first impression," "matter of first impression," or <i>primae impressionis</i>) occurs when there is no prior binding authority, and the court must decide the applicable law for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such cases frequently emerge with newly enacted legislation or when the issue has been addressed in other jurisdictions but not within the jurisdiction of the court hearing the case.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To determine the most persuasive rule of law, courts draw guidance from various sources,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including: </p> <ul><li>legislative <a href="/wiki/Legislative_history" title="Legislative history">history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Legislative_intent" title="Legislative intent">intent</a>;</li> <li>policy;</li> <li>custom;</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Restatements_of_the_Law" title="Restatements of the Law">Restatement</a> view; and</li> <li>the law in other jurisdictions.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nonprecedential_decisions">Nonprecedential decisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nonprecedential decisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-publication_of_legal_opinions_in_the_United_States" title="Non-publication of legal opinions in the United States">Non-publication of legal opinions in the United States</a></div> <p>Nonpublication of opinions, or unpublished opinions, are those decisions of courts that are not available for citation as precedent because the judges making the opinion deem the cases as having less precedential value. Selective publication is the legal process which a judge or justices of a court decide whether a decision is to be or not published in <a href="/wiki/Law_reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Law reports">a reporter</a>. "Unpublished" federal appellate decisions are published in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Appendix" title="Federal Appendix">Federal Appendix</a>. Depublication is the power of a court to make a previously published order or opinion unpublished.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Litigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Litigation">Litigation</a> that is settled out of court generates no written decision, thus has no precedential effect. As one practical effect, the U.S. Department of Justice settles many cases against the federal government simply to avoid creating adverse precedent.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Precedent_in_civil_law_and_mixed_systems">Precedent in civil law and mixed systems <span class="anchor" id="Precedent_in_civil_law"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Precedent in civil law and mixed systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Disputed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-disputed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/45px-System-search.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/68px-System-search.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/90px-System-search.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section's <b>factual accuracy is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Precedent#Disputed" title="Talk:Precedent">talk page</a>. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliably sourced</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_law_systems">Civil law systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Civil law systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Stare decisis</i> is not usually a doctrine used in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> systems, because it violates the legislative positivist principle that only the legislature may make law. Instead, the civil law system relies on the doctrine of <i><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence_constante" title="Jurisprudence constante">jurisprudence constante</a></i>, according to which if a court has adjudicated a consistent line of cases that arrive at the same <a href="/wiki/Holding_(law)" title="Holding (law)">holdings</a> using sound reasoning, then the previous decisions are highly persuasive but not controlling on issues of law. This doctrine is similar to <i>stare decisis</i> insofar as it dictates that a court's decision must condone a cohesive and predictable result. In theory, lower courts are generally not bound by the precedents of higher courts. In practice, the need for predictability means that lower courts generally defer to the precedent of higher courts. As a result, the precedent of courts of last resort, such as the French <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Cassation_(France)" title="Court of Cassation (France)">Cassation Court</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of State (France)">Council of State</a>, is recognized as being <i>de facto</i> binding on lower courts. </p><p>The doctrine of <i>jurisprudence constante</i> also influences how court decisions are structured. In general, court decisions of <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions give a sufficient <i>ratio decidendi</i> as to guide future courts. The ratio is used to justify a court decision on the basis of previous case law as well as to make it easier to use the decision as a precedent for future cases. By contrast, court decisions in some civil law jurisdictions (most prominently <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>) tend to be extremely brief, mentioning only the relevant legislation and codal provisions and not going into the <i>ratio decidendi</i> in any great detail. This is the result of the legislative positivist view that the court is only interpreting the legislature's intent and therefore detailed exposition is unnecessary. Because of this, <i>ratio decidendi</i> is carried out by legal academics (doctrinal writers) who provide the explanations that in <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions would be provided by the judges themselves.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In other civil law jurisdictions, such as the German-speaking countries, <i>ratio decidendi</i> tend to be much more developed than in France, and courts will frequently cite previous cases and doctrinal writers. However, some courts (such as <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> courts) have less emphasis on the particular facts of the case than <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> courts, but have more emphasis on the discussion of various doctrinal arguments and on finding what the correct interpretation of the law is. </p><p>The mixed systems of the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a> are sometimes considered a branch of the civil law, but they are sometimes counted as separate from the civil law tradition. In <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, for instance, case law arguably plays a more important role than in some of the continental civil law systems. The two highest courts, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Sweden" title="Supreme Court of Sweden">Supreme Court</a> (<i>Högsta domstolen</i>) and the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Administrative_Court_of_Sweden" title="Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden">Supreme Administrative Court</a> (<i>Högsta förvaltningsdomstolen</i>), have the right to set precedent which has persuasive authority on all future application of the law. Appellate courts, be they judicial (<i>hovrätter</i>) or administrative (<i>kammarrätter</i>), may also issue decisions that act as guides for the application of the law, but these decisions are persuasive, not controlling, and may therefore be overturned by higher courts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mixed_or_bijuridical_systems">Mixed or bijuridical systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mixed or bijuridical systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some <a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">mixed</a> systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Scots law</a> in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law_of_South_Africa" title="Law of South Africa">South-African law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippine_legal_codes" title="Philippine legal codes">Laws of the Philippines</a>, and the law of <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Louisiana" title="Law of Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, do not fit into the civil vs. common law dichotomy because they mix portions of both. Such systems may have been heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> tradition; however, their private law is firmly rooted in the civil law tradition. Because of their position between the two main systems of law, these types of legal systems are sometimes referred to as "mixed" systems of law. Louisiana courts, for instance, operate under both <i>stare decisis</i> and <i>jurisprudence constante</i>. In South Africa, the precedent of higher courts is absolutely or fully binding on lower courts, whereas the precedent of lower courts only has persuasive authority on higher courts; horizontally, precedent is <i>prima facie</i> or presumptively binding between courts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_academics_in_civil_law_jurisdictions">Role of academics in civil law jurisdictions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Role of academics in civil law jurisdictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Law <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> traditions play a much smaller role in developing case law than professors in civil law traditions. Because court decisions in civil law traditions are brief and not amenable to establishing precedent, much of the exposition of the law in civil law traditions is done by academics rather than by judges; this is called <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a> and may be published in treatises or in journals such as <i><a href="/wiki/Recueil_Dalloz" class="mw-redirect" title="Recueil Dalloz">Recueil Dalloz</a></i> in France. Historically, <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> courts relied little on legal scholarship; thus, at the turn of the twentieth century, it was very rare to see an academic writer quoted in a legal decision (except perhaps for the academic writings of prominent judges such as <a href="/wiki/Edward_Coke" title="Edward Coke">Coke</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a>). Today academic writers are often cited in legal argument and decisions as <a href="/wiki/Persuasive_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Persuasive authority">persuasive authority</a>; often, they are cited when judges are attempting to implement reasoning that other courts have not yet adopted, or when the judge believes the academic's restatement of the law is more compelling than can be found in precedent. Thus <a href="/wiki/Common_law#Disambiguate_civil_law" title="Common law">common law</a> systems are adopting one of the approaches long common in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> jurisdictions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critical_analysis">Critical analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Critical analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Court_formulations">Court formulations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Court formulations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Justice Louis Brandeis, in a heavily footnoted dissent to <i>Burnet v. Coronado Oil & Gas Co.</i>, <span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.courtlistener.com/c/U.S./285/393/">285 U.S. 393</a></span>, 405–411 (1932), explained (citations and quotations omitted): </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Stare decisis</i> is not ... a universal, inexorable command. "The rule of <i>stare decisis</i>, though one tending to consistency and uniformity of decision, is not inflexible. Whether it shall be followed or departed from is a question entirely within the discretion of the court, which is again called upon to consider a question once decided." <i>Stare decisis</i> is usually the wise policy, because in most matters it is more important that the applicable rule of law be settled than that it be settled right. This is commonly true even where the error is a matter of serious concern, provided correction can be had by legislation. But in cases involving the Federal Constitution, where correction through legislative action is practically impossible, this Court has often overruled its earlier decisions. The Court bows to the lessons of experience and the force of better reasoning, recognizing that the process of trial and error, so fruitful in the physical sciences, is appropriate also in the judicial function. ... In cases involving the Federal Constitution the position of this Court is unlike that of the highest court of England, where the policy of <i>stare decisis</i> was formulated and is strictly applied to all classes of cases. Parliament is free to correct any judicial error; and the remedy may be promptly invoked. The reasons why this Court should refuse to follow an earlier constitutional decision which it deems erroneous are particularly strong where the question presented is one of applying, as distinguished from what may accurately be called interpreting, the Constitution. In the cases which now come before us there is seldom any dispute as to the interpretation of any provision. The controversy is usually over the application to existing conditions of some well-recognized constitutional limitation. This is strikingly true of cases under the due process clause when the question is whether a statute is unreasonable, arbitrary or capricious; of cases under the equal protection clause when the question is whether there is any reasonable basis for the classification made by a statute; and of cases under the commerce clause when the question is whether an admitted burden laid by a statute upon interstate commerce is so substantial as to be deemed direct. ...</p></blockquote> <p>In his "landmark dissent" in <i>Burnet</i>, Brandeis "catalogued the Court's actual overruling practices in such a powerful manner that his attendant stare decisis analysis immediately assumed canonical authority."<sup id="cite_ref-Starger_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Starger-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit</a> has stated: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A judicial precedent attaches a specific legal consequence to a detailed set of facts in an adjudged case or judicial decision, which is then considered as furnishing the rule for the determination of a subsequent case involving identical or similar material facts and arising in the same court or a lower court in the judicial hierarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit</a> has stated: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Stare decisis is the policy of the court to stand by precedent; the term is but an abbreviation of <i>stare decisis et non quieta movere</i>—"to stand by and adhere to decisions and not disturb what is settled". Consider the word "decisis". The word means, literally and legally, the decision. Under the doctrine of <i>stare decisis</i> a case is important only for what it decides—for the "what", not for the "why", and not for the "how". Insofar as precedent is concerned, <i>stare decisis</i> is important only for the decision, for the detailed legal consequence following a detailed set of facts.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Lord Hodge of the UK Supreme Court quoted<sup id="cite_ref-Mohr_Siebeck_2020_p=1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mohr_Siebeck_2020_p=1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lord Wright in 1938 saying: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[T]hat is the way of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law#Disambiguate_statute" title="Common law">common law</a>, the judges preferring to go from case to case, like the ancient Mediterranean mariners, hugging the coast from point to point, and avoiding the dangers of the open sea of system or science.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_study">Academic study</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Academic study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Precedent viewed against passing time can serve to establish trends, thus indicating the next logical step in evolving interpretations of the law. For instance, if immigration has become more and more restricted under the law, then the next legal decision on that subject may serve to restrict it further still. The existence of submerged precedent (reasoned opinions not made available through conventional legal research sources) has been identified as a potentially distorting force in the evolution of law.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars have recently attempted to apply <a href="/wiki/Network_theory" title="Network theory">network theory</a> to precedent in order to establish which precedent is most important or authoritative, and how the court's interpretations and priorities have changed over time.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application">Application</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early English <a href="/wiki/Common_law#Disambiguate_statute" title="Common law">common law</a> did not have or require the <i>stare decisis</i> doctrine for a range of legal and technological reasons: </p> <ul><li>During the formative period of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law#Disambiguate_statute" title="Common law">common law</a>, the royal courts constituted only one among many fora in which in the English could settle their disputes. The royal courts operated alongside and in competition with ecclesiastic, manorial, urban, mercantile, and local courts.</li> <li>Royal courts were not organised into a hierarchy; instead, different royal courts (exchequer, common pleas, king's bench, and chancery) were in competition with each other.</li> <li>Substantial law on almost all matters was neither legislated nor codified, eliminating the need for courts to interpret legislation.</li> <li>Common law's main distinctive features and focus were not substantial law, which was customary law, but procedural.</li> <li>The practice of citing previous cases was not to find binding legal rules but as evidence of custom.</li> <li>Customary law was not a rational and consistent body of rules and did not require a system of binding precedent.</li> <li>Before the printing press, the state of the written records of cases rendered the <i>stare decisis</i> doctrine utterly impracticable.</li></ul> <p>These features changed over time, opening the door to the doctrine of <i>stare decisis</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> By the end of the eighteenth century, the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> courts had absorbed most of the business of their nonroyal competitors, although there was still internal competition among the different <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> courts themselves. During the nineteenth century, legal reform movements in both England and the United States brought this to an end as well by merging the various <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> courts into a unified system of courts with a formal hierarchical structure. This and the advent of reliable private case reporters made adherence to the doctrine of <i>stare decisis</i> practical and the practice soon evolved of holding judges to be bound by the decisions of courts of superior or equal status in their jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_legal_system">United States legal system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: United States legal system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over time courts in the United States and especially its Supreme Court developed a large body of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_opinion" title="Judicial opinion">judicial decisions</a> which are called "precedents". These "[r]ules and principles established in prior cases inform the Court's future decisions."<sup id="cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adherence to rules and principles created in past cases as a foundation for future decisions by the courts is called <i>stare decisis</i>. The United States Supreme Court considers stare decisis not only as an important <a href="/wiki/Doctrine#Legal_usage" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a>, but also "the means by which we ensure that the law will not merely change erratically, but will develop in a principled and intelligible fashion."<sup id="cite_ref-VasquezvHillery_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VasquezvHillery-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Stare decisis</i> aims to bolster the legitimacy of the judicial process and foster the rule of law. It does so by strengthening stability, certainty, predictability, consistency and uniformity in the application of the law to cases and litigants.<sup id="cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By adhering to <i>stare decisis</i> the Supreme Court attempts to preserve its role "as a careful, unbiased, and predictable decisionmaker that decides cases according to the law rather than the Justices' individual policy preferences."<sup id="cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Vasquez_v._Hillery" title="Vasquez v. Hillery">Vasquez v. Hillery</a></i> (1986) the Supreme Court stated succinctly that stare decisis "contributes to the integrity of our constitutional system of government, both in appearance and in fact" by maintaining the notion "that bedrock principles are founded in the law, rather than in the proclivities of individuals."<sup id="cite_ref-VasquezvHillery_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VasquezvHillery-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Stare decisis</i> reduces the number and scope of legal questions that the court must resolve in litigation. It is therefore a time saver for judges and litigants. Once a court has settled a particular question of law it has established a precedent. Thanks to <i>stare decisis</i> lawsuits can be quickly and efficiently dismissed because legal battles can be resolved through recourse to rules and principles established prior decisions. <i>Stare decisis</i> can thus encourage parties to settle cases out of court and thereby enhance judicial efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several Supreme Court decisions were overruled by subsequent decisions since 1798.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In doing so the Supreme Court has time and time again made several statements regarding stare decisis.<sup id="cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following is a non-exhaustive list of examples of these statements:<sup id="cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedentFootnotes_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedentFootnotes-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</a></i>, 558 U.S. 310, at 378 (2010) (<a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">Roberts, J.</a>, concurring): "[Stare decisis'] greatest purpose is to serve a constitutional ideal—the rule of law. It follows that in the unusual circumstance when fidelity to any particular precedent does more damage to this constitutional ideal than to advance it, we must be more willing to depart from that precedent." (citations omitted)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood of Se. Pa. v. Casey</a></i>, 505 U.S. 833, at 854 (1992): "[T]he very concept of the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> underlying <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">our own Constitution</a> requires such continuity over time that a respect for precedent is, by definition, indispensable." (citations omitted)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alleyne_v._United_States" title="Alleyne v. United States">Alleyne v. United States</a></i>, 570 U.S. 99, 118 (2013) (<a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor, J.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concurring_opinion" title="Concurring opinion">concurring</a>): "We generally adhere to our prior decisions, even if we questions their soundness, because doing so 'promotes the evenhanded, predictable, and consistent development of legal principles, fosters reliance on judicial decisions, and contributes to the actual and perceived integrity of the judicial process'."</li> <li><i>Hilton v. South Carolina Public. Railway Commission</i>, 502 U.S. 197, at 202 (1991): "Adherence to precedent promotes stability, predictability, and respect for judicial authority."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Payne_v._Tennessee" title="Payne v. Tennessee">Payne v. Tennessee</a></i>, 501 U.S. 808, at 827 (1991): "Stare decisis is the preferred course because it promotes the evenhanded, predictable, and consistent development of legal principles, fosters reliance on judicial decisions, and contributes to the actual and perceived integrity of the judicial process."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vasquez_v._Hillery" title="Vasquez v. Hillery">Vasquez v. Hillery</a></i>, 474 U.S. 254, at 265-66 (1986): "[T]he important doctrine of stare decisis [is] the means by which we ensure that the law will not merely change erratically, but will develop in a principled and intelligible fashion. That doctrine permits society to presume that bedrock principles are founded in the law, rather than in the proclivities of individuals, and thereby contributes to the integrity of our constitutional system of government, both in appearance and in fact."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taylor_v._Sturgell" title="Taylor v. Sturgell">Taylor v. Sturgell</a></i>, 553 U.S. 880, at 903 (2008): "<i>[S]tare decisis</i> will allow courts swiftly to dispose of repetitive suits ..."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Payne_v._Tennessee" title="Payne v. Tennessee">Payne v. Tennessee</a></i>, 501 U.S. 808, at 834 (1991) (<a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia, J.</a>, concurring): "What would enshrine power as the governing principle of this Court is the notion that an important constitutional decision with plainly inadequate rational support must be left in place for the sole reason that it once attracted a [majority of the Court]."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1991#Background" title="Civil Rights Act of 1991">Patterson v. McLean Credit Union</a></i>, 491 U.S. 164, at 172 (1989): "Our precedents are not sacrosanct, for we have overruled prior decisions where the necessity and propriety of doing so has been established."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Allwright" title="Smith v. Allwright">Smith v. Allwright</a></i>, 321 U.S. 649, at 665 (1944): "[W]hen convinced of former error, this Court has never felt constrained to follow precedents. In constitutional questions, where correction depends upon amendment and not upon legislative action this Court throughout its history has freely exercised its power to reexamine the basis of its constitutional decisions."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Janus_v._AFSCME" title="Janus v. AFSCME">Janus v. Am. Fed. of State, County, & Mun. Employees</a></i>, 585 U.S. ___, No. 16-1466, <a href="/wiki/Slip_op." class="mw-redirect" title="Slip op.">slip op</a>. at 34 (2018): "We will not overturn a past decision unless there are strong grounds for doing so."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood of Se. Pa. v. Casey</a></i>, 505 U.S. 833, at 864 (1992) (plurality opinion): "[A] decision to overrule should rest on some special reason over and above the belief that a prior case was wrongly decided." The <a href="/wiki/Plurality_opinion" class="mw-redirect" title="Plurality opinion">plurality opinion</a> in <i>Casey</i> stated also that reexamining precedent requires more than "a present doctrinal disposition to come out differently".</li> <li><i> Arizona v. Rumsey</i>, 467 U.S. 203, at 212 (1984): "Although adherence to precedent is not rigidly required in constitutional cases, any departure from the doctrine of <i>stare decisis</i> demands special justification."</li></ul> <p><i>Stare decisis</i> applies to the <a href="/wiki/Holding_(law)" title="Holding (law)">holding</a> of a case, rather than to <a href="/wiki/Obiter_dicta" class="mw-redirect" title="Obiter dicta">obiter dicta</a> ("things said by the way"). As the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> has put it: "dicta may be followed if sufficiently persuasive but are not binding".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the U.S. Supreme Court, the principle of stare decisis is most flexible in constitutional cases, as observed by Justice Brandeis in his landmark dissent in <i>Burnet</i> (as quoted at length above).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the years 1946–1992, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed itself in about 130 cases.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. Supreme Court has further explained as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[W]hen convinced of former error, this Court has never felt constrained to follow precedent. In constitutional questions, where correction depends upon amendment, and not upon legislative action, this Court throughout its history has freely exercised its power to reexamine the basis of its constitutional decisions.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Allwright" title="Smith v. Allwright">Smith v. Allwright</a></i>, 321 U.S. 649, 665 (1944)(Reed, S.F.).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The Court has stated that where a court gives multiple reasons for a given result, each alternative reason that is "explicitly" labeled by the court as an "independent" ground for the decision is not treated as "simply a dictum".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Colin Starger has pointed out, the contemporary rule of stare decisis descended from Brandeis's landmark dissent in <i>Burnet</i> would later split into strong and weak conceptions as a result of the disagreement between Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> and Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Payne_v._Tennessee" title="Payne v. Tennessee">Payne v. Tennessee</a></i> (1991).<sup id="cite_ref-Starger_Page29_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Starger_Page29-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The strong conception requires a "special justification" to overrule challenged precedent beyond the fact the precedent was "wrongly decided", while the weak conception holds that a precedent can be overruled if it suffers from "bad reasoning".<sup id="cite_ref-Starger_Page29_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Starger_Page29-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The opinion of Chief Justice John Roberts in the case <i><a href="/wiki/June_Medical_Services,_LLC_v._Russo" title="June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo">June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo</a></i> provides a clear statement of the strong conception of <i>stare decisis</i>. In this case, the Court upheld, by a 5–4 margin, their 2016 decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Whole_Woman%27s_Health_v._Hellerstedt" title="Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt">Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt</a></i> that struck down a similar Texas law requiring doctors who perform abortions to have the right to admit patients at a nearby hospital. Roberts wrote, "The legal doctrine of <i>stare decisis</i> requires us, absent special circumstances, to treat like cases alike." Roberts provided the fifth vote to uphold the 2016 decision, even though he felt it was wrongly decided.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_legal_system">English legal system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: English legal system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The doctrine of binding precedent or <i>stare decisis</i> is basic to the English legal system. Special features of the English legal system include the following: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Supreme_Court's_ability_to_override_its_own_precedent"><span id="The_Supreme_Court.27s_ability_to_override_its_own_precedent"></span>The Supreme Court's ability to override its own precedent</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: The Supreme Court's ability to override its own precedent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British <a href="/wiki/Judicial_functions_of_the_House_of_Lords" title="Judicial functions of the House of Lords">House of Lords</a>, as the court of last appeal outside Scotland before it was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">UK Supreme Court</a>, was not strictly bound to always follow its own decisions until the case <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=London_Street_Tramways_v_London_County_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="London Street Tramways v London County Council (page does not exist)">London Street Tramways v London County Council</a></i> [1898] AC 375. After this case, once the Lords had given a ruling on a point of law, the matter was closed unless and until Parliament made a change by statute. This is the most strict form of the doctrine of <i>stare decisis</i> (one not applied, previously, in <a href="/wiki/Common_law#Disambiguate_civil_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions, where there was somewhat greater flexibility for a court of last resort to review its own precedent). </p><p>This situation changed, however, after the House of Lords issued the <a href="/wiki/Practice_Statement" title="Practice Statement">Practice Statement</a> of 1966. The House of Lords decided to allow itself to adapt English law to meet changing social conditions. In <i><a href="/wiki/R_v_G" title="R v G">R v G</a></i> [2003] UKHL 50, the House of Lords overruled its 1981 decision in <i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Caldwell" class="mw-redirect" title="R v Caldwell">R v Caldwell</a></i>, which had allowed the Lords to establish <a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a> ("guilty mind") by measuring a defendant's conduct against that of a "reasonable person", regardless of the defendant's actual state of mind.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the Practice Statement was seldom applied by the House of Lords, usually only as a last resort. Up to 2005,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (March 2020)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> the House of Lords rejected its past decisions no more than 20 times.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were reluctant to use it because they feared to introduce uncertainty into the law. In particular, the Practice Statement stated that the Lords would be especially reluctant to overrule themselves in criminal cases because of the importance of certainty of that law. The first case involving criminal law to be overruled with the Practice Statement was <i><a href="/wiki/Anderton_v_Ryan" title="Anderton v Ryan">Anderton v Ryan</a></i> (1985), which was overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Shivpuri" title="R v Shivpuri">R v Shivpuri</a></i> (1986), two decades after the Practice Statement. Remarkably, the precedent overruled had been made only a year before, but it had been criticised by several academic lawyers. As a result, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Bridge">Lord Bridge</a> stated he was "undeterred by the consideration that the decision in <i>Anderton v Ryan</i> was so recent. The Practice Statement is an effective abandonment of our pretension to infallibility. If a serious error embodied in a decision of this House has distorted the law, the sooner it is corrected the better."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, the House of Lords has remained reluctant to overrule itself in some cases; in <i>R v Kansal</i> (2002), the majority of House members adopted the opinion that <i>R v Lambert</i> had been wrongly decided and agreed to depart from their earlier decision. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Distinguishing_precedent_on_legal_(rather_than_fact)_grounds"><span id="Distinguishing_precedent_on_legal_.28rather_than_fact.29_grounds"></span>Distinguishing precedent on legal (rather than fact) grounds</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Distinguishing precedent on legal (rather than fact) grounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A precedent does not bind a court if it finds there was a lack of care in the original "Per Incuriam". For example, if a statutory provision or precedent had not been brought to the previous court's attention before its decision, the precedent would not be binding.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rules_of_statutory_interpretation">Rules of statutory interpretation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Rules of statutory interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Statutory_interpretation" title="Statutory interpretation">Statutory interpretation</a></div> <p>One of the most important roles of precedent is to resolve ambiguities in other legal texts, such as constitutions, statutes, and regulations. The process involves, first and foremost, consultation of the plain language of the text, as enlightened by the legislative history of enactment, subsequent precedent, and experience with various interpretations of similar texts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statutory_interpretation_in_the_UK">Statutory interpretation in the UK</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Statutory interpretation in the UK"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A judge's normal aids include access to all previous cases in which a precedent has been set, and a good English dictionary. </p><p>Judges and barristers in the UK use three primary rules for interpreting the law. </p><p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Literal_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Literal rule">literal rule</a>, the judge should do what the actual legislation states rather than trying to do what the judge thinks that it means. The judge should use the plain everyday ordinary meaning of the words, even if this produces an unjust or undesirable outcome. A good example of problems with this method is <i>R v Maginnis</i> (1987),<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which several judges in separate opinions found several different dictionary meanings of the word <i>supply</i>. Another example is <i><a href="/wiki/Fisher_v_Bell" title="Fisher v Bell">Fisher v Bell</a></i>, where it was held that a shopkeeper who placed an illegal item in a shop window with a price tag did not make an offer to sell it, because of the specific meaning of "offer for sale" in <a href="/wiki/Contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract law">contract law</a>, merely an invitation to treat. As a result of this case, Parliament amended the statute concerned to end this discrepancy. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Golden_rule_(law)" title="Golden rule (law)">golden rule</a> is used when use of the literal rule would obviously create an absurd result. There are two ways in which the golden rule can be applied: a narrow method, and a broad method. Under the narrow method, when there are apparently two contradictory meanings to the wording of a legislative provision, or the wording is ambiguous, the least absurd is to be preferred. Under the broad method, the court modifies the literal meaning in such a way as to avoid the absurd result.<sup id="cite_ref-Lawade_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawade-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of the latter approach is <i>Adler v George</i> (1964). Under the Official Secrets Act 1920 it was an offence to obstruct HM Forces "in the vicinity of" a prohibited place. Adler argued that he was not in the <i>vicinity</i> of such a place but was actually <i>in</i> it. The court chose not to read the statutory wording in a literal sense to avoid what would otherwise be an absurd result, and Adler was convicted.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Mischief_rule" title="Mischief rule">mischief rule</a> is the most flexible of the interpretation methods. Stemming from <i><a href="/wiki/Heydon%27s_Case" title="Heydon's Case">Heydon's Case</a></i> (1584), it allows the court to enforce what the statute is intended to remedy rather than what the words actually say. For example, in <i>Corkery v Carpenter</i> (1950), a man was found guilty of being drunk in charge of a carriage, although in fact he only had a bicycle. The final rule; although will no longer be used after the UK fully transitions out of the European Union. Known as the Purposive approach- this considers the intention of the European Court of Justice when the act was passed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statutory_interpretation_in_the_United_States">Statutory interpretation in the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Statutory interpretation in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States, the courts have stated consistently that the text of the statute is read as it is written, using the ordinary meaning of the words of the statute. </p> <ul><li>"[I]n interpreting a statute a court should always turn to one cardinal canon before all others. ... [C]ourts must presume that a legislature says in a statute what it means and means in a statute what it says there." <i>Connecticut Nat'l Bank v. Germain</i>, <a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">112 S. Ct. 1146, 1149</a> (1992). Indeed, "[w]hen the words of a statute are unambiguous, then, this first canon is also the last: 'judicial inquiry is complete.' "</li> <li>"A fundamental rule of statutory construction requires that every part of a statute be presumed to have some effect, and not be treated as meaningless unless absolutely necessary." <i>Raven Coal Corp. v. Absher</i>, <a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">153 Va. 332</a>, 149 S.E. 541 (1929).</li> <li>"In assessing statutory language, unless words have acquired a peculiar meaning, by virtue of statutory definition or judicial construction, they are to be construed in accordance with their common usage." <i>Muller v. BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc.</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leagle.com/decision/19961706923P2d783_11695.xml/MULLER%20v.%20BP%20EXPLORATION%20(ALASKA)%20INC.">923 P.2d 783</a>, 787–88 (Alaska 1996).</li></ul> <p>However, most legal texts have some lingering ambiguity—inevitably, situations arise in which the words chosen by the legislature do not address the precise facts in issue, or there is some tension among two or more statutes. In such cases, a court must analyze the various available sources, and reach a resolution of the ambiguity. The "Canons of statutory construction" are discussed in a <a href="/wiki/Statutory_interpretation" title="Statutory interpretation">separate article</a>. Once the ambiguity is resolved, that resolution has binding effect as described in the rest of this article. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practical_application">Practical application</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Practical application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although inferior courts are bound in theory by superior court precedent, in practice a judge may believe that justice requires an outcome at some variance with precedent, and may distinguish the facts of the individual case on reasoning that does not appear in the binding precedent. On appeal, the appellate court may either adopt the new reasoning, or reverse on the basis of precedent. On the other hand, if the losing party does not appeal (typically because of the cost of the appeal), the lower court decision may remain in effect, at least as to the individual parties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_resistance">Judicial resistance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Judicial resistance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Occasionally, lower court judges may explicitly state a personal disagreement with the rendered judgment, but are required to rule a particular way because of <a href="/wiki/Binding_precedent" class="mw-redirect" title="Binding precedent">binding precedent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inferior courts cannot evade binding precedent of superior courts, but a court can depart from its own prior decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_considerations">Structural considerations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Structural considerations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States, <i>stare decisis</i> can interact in counterintuitive ways with the federal and <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> court systems. On an issue of federal law, a state court is not bound by an interpretation of federal law at the district or circuit level, but is bound by an interpretation by the United States Supreme Court. On an interpretation of state law, whether <a href="/wiki/Common_law#Disambiguate_statute" title="Common law">common law</a> or <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">statutory law</a>, the federal courts are bound by the interpretation of a state court of last resort, and are required normally to defer to the precedent of intermediate state courts as well.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Courts may choose to obey precedent of international jurisdictions, but this is not an application of the doctrine of <i>stare decisis</i>, because foreign decisions are not binding. Rather, a foreign decision that is obeyed on the basis of the soundness of its reasoning will be called <i><a href="/wiki/Persuasive_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Persuasive authority">persuasive authority</a></i>—indicating that its effect is limited to the persuasiveness of the reasons it provides. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Originalism">Originalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Originalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a> is an approach to interpretation of a legal text in which controlling weight is given to the intent of the original authors (at least the intent as inferred by a modern judge). In contrast, a non-originalist looks at other cues to meaning, including the current meaning of the words, the pattern and trend of other judicial decisions, changing context and improved scientific understanding, observation of practical outcomes and "what works", contemporary standards of justice, and <i>stare decisis</i>. Both are directed at <i>interpreting</i> the text, not changing it—interpretation is the process of resolving ambiguity and choosing from among possible meanings, not changing the text. </p><p>The two approaches look at different sets of underlying facts that may or may not point in the same direction—<i>stare decisis</i> gives most weight to the newest understanding of a legal text, while originalism gives most weight to the oldest. While they do not necessarily reach different results in every case, the two approaches are in direct tension. Originalists such as Justice <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a> argue that "<i>Stare decisis</i> is not usually a doctrine used in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> systems, because it violates the principle that only the legislature may make law."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justice Scalia argues that America is a civil law nation, not a <a href="/wiki/Common_law#Disambiguate_civil_law" title="Common law">common law</a> nation. By principle, originalists are generally unwilling to defer to precedent when precedent seems to come into conflict with the originalist's own interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/US_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US Constitution">Constitutional</a> text or inferences of original intent (even in situations where there is no original source statement of that original intent). However, there is still room within an originalist paradigm for <i>stare decisis</i>; whenever the <a href="/wiki/Plain_meaning_rule" title="Plain meaning rule">plain meaning</a> of the text has alternative constructions, past precedent is generally considered a valid guide, with the qualifier being that it cannot change what the text actually says. </p><p>Originalists vary in the degree to which they defer to precedent. In his confirmation hearings, Justice <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> answered a question from Senator <a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Strom Thurmond</a>, qualifying his willingness to change precedent in this way: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I think overruling a case or reconsidering a case is a very serious matter. Certainly, you would have to be of the view that a case is incorrectly decided, but I think even that is not adequate. There are some cases that you may not agree with that should not be overruled. Stare decisis provides continuity to our system, it provides predictability, and in our process of case-by-case decision-making, I think it is a very important and critical concept. A judge that wants to reconsider a case and certainly one who wants to overrule a case has the burden of demonstrating that not only is the case incorrect, but that it would be appropriate, in view of stare decisis, to make that additional step of overruling that case.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Possibly he has changed his mind, or there are a very large body of cases which merit "the additional step" of ignoring the doctrine; according to Scalia, "<a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> doesn't believe in stare decisis, period. If a constitutional line of authority is wrong, he would say, let's get it right."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caleb Nelson, a former clerk for Justice Thomas and law professor at the University of Virginia, has elaborated on the role of <i>stare decisis</i> in originalist jurisprudence: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>American courts of last resort recognize a rebuttable presumption against overruling their own past decisions. In earlier eras, people often suggested that this presumption did not apply if the past decision, in the view of the court's current members, was demonstrably erroneous. But when the Supreme Court makes similar noises today, it is roundly criticized. At least within the academy, conventional wisdom now maintains that a purported demonstration of error is not enough to justify overruling a past decision. ... [T]he conventional wisdom is wrong to suggest that any coherent doctrine of stare decisis must include a presumption against overruling precedent that the current court deems demonstrably erroneous. The doctrine of stare decisis would indeed be no doctrine at all if courts were free to overrule a past decision simply because they would have reached a different decision as an original matter. But when a court says that a past decision is demonstrably erroneous, it is saying not only that it would have reached a different decision as an original matter, but also that the prior court went beyond the range of indeterminacy created by the relevant source of law. ... Americans from the Founding on believed that court decisions could help "liquidate" or settle the meaning of ambiguous provisions of written law. Later courts generally were supposed to abide by such "liquidations". ... To the extent that the underlying legal provision was determinate, however, courts were not thought to be similarly bound by precedent that misinterpreted it. ... Of the Court's current members, Justices Scalia and Thomas seem to have the most faith in the determinacy of the legal texts that come before the Court. It should come as no surprise that they also seem the most willing to overrule the Court's past decisions. ... Prominent journalists and other commentators suggest that there is some contradiction between these Justices' mantra of "judicial restraint" and any systematic re-examination of precedent. But if one believes in the determinacy of the underlying legal texts, one need not define "judicial restraint" solely in terms of fidelity to precedent; one can also speak of fidelity to the texts themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_of_precedent">Criticism of precedent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Criticism of precedent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most prominent critics of the development of legal precedent on a case-by-case basis as both overly reactive and unfairly retroactive was philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>. He famously attacked the common law as "dog law": </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When your dog does anything you want to break him of, you wait till he does it, and then beat him for it. This is the way you make laws for your dog: and this is the way the judges make law for you and me.<sup id="cite_ref-Juratowitch_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juratowitch-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wacks_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wacks-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In a 1997 book, attorney Michael Trotter blamed overreliance by American lawyers on precedent — especially persuasive authority of marginal relevance — rather than the merits of the case at hand, as a major factor behind the escalation of <a href="/wiki/Legal_costs" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal costs">legal costs</a> during the 20th century. He argued that courts should ban the citation of persuasive authority from outside their jurisdiction and force lawyers and parties to argue only from binding precedent, subject to two exceptions: </p> <ol><li>cases where the foreign jurisdiction's law is the subject of the case, or</li> <li>instances where a litigant intends to ask the highest court of the jurisdiction to overturn binding precedent, and therefore needs to cite persuasive precedent to demonstrate a countervailing trend in other jurisdictions.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The disadvantages of <i>stare decisis</i> include its rigidity, the complexity of learning law, the fact that differences between certain cases may be very small and thereby appear illogical and arbitrary, and the slow growth or incremental changes to the law that are in need of major overhaul.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>An argument often leveled against precedent is that it is <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">undemocratic</a> because it allows judges, who may or may not be elected, to make law.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agreement_with_precedent">Agreement with precedent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Agreement with precedent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A counter-argument (in favor of the advantages of <i>stare decisis</i>) is that if the <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislature</a> wishes to alter the case law (other than constitutional interpretations) by <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a>, the legislature is empowered to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2014)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> sometimes accuse particular judges of applying the doctrine selectively, invoking it to support precedent that the judge supported anyway, but ignoring it in order to change precedent with which the judge disagreed<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is much discussion about the virtue of using <i>stare decisis</i>. Supporters of the system, such as <a href="/wiki/Minimalism_(Judicial)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimalism (Judicial)">minimalists</a>, argue that obeying precedent makes decisions "predictable". For example, a business person can be reasonably assured of predicting a decision where the facts of his or her case are sufficiently similar to a case decided previously. This parallels the arguments against retroactive (ex post facto) laws banned by the U.S. Constitution . </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">Case citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_of_first_impression" class="mw-redirect" title="Case of first impression">Case of first impression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanding_precedent" title="Commanding precedent">Commanding precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Custom_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom (law)">Custom (law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinguish" class="mw-redirect" title="Distinguish">Distinguish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impression_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="First impression (law)">First impression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Citations" title="Law of Citations">Law of Citations</a> (Roman concept)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States" title="List of landmark court decisions in the United States">List of landmark court decisions in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_overruled_United_States_Supreme_Court_decisions" title="List of overruled United States Supreme Court decisions">List of overruled United States Supreme Court decisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorandum_opinion" title="Memorandum opinion">Memorandum opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasive_precedent" class="mw-redirect" title="Persuasive precedent">Persuasive precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precedent_book" title="Precedent book">Precedent book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_fact" class="mw-redirect" title="Question of fact">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratio_decidendi" title="Ratio decidendi">Ratio decidendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">Taqlid</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/precedent">"precedent"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2024</span>. <q>Precedent refers to a court decision that is considered an authority for deciding subsequent cases involving identical or similar facts, or similar legal issues. Precedent is incorporated into the doctrine of stare decisis and requires courts to apply the law in the same manner to cases with the same facts.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=precedent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fprecedent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/precedent">"PRECEDENT Definition & Meaning | Dictionary.com"</a>. <i>Dictionary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2024</span>. <q>Law. a legal decision or form of proceeding serving as an authoritative rule or pattern in future similar or analogous cases.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dictionary.com&rft.atitle=PRECEDENT+Definition+%26amp%3B+Meaning+%7C+Dictionary.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fprecedent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/stare_decisis">"stare decisis"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2024</span>. <q>Stare decisis is the doctrine that courts will adhere to precedent in making their decisions. Stare decisis means "to stand by things decided" in Latin. When a court faces a legal argument, if a previous court has ruled on the same or a closely related issue, then the court will make their decision in alignment with the previous court's decision.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=stare+decisis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fstare_decisis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanbar.org/groups/public_education/publications/preview_home/understand-stare-decisis/">"Understanding Stare Decisis"</a>. <i>www.americanbar.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2024</span>. <q>Stare Decisis—a Latin term that means 'let the decision stand' or 'to stand by things decided'—is a foundational concept in the American legal system. To put it simply, stare decisis holds that courts and judges should honor 'precedent'—or the decisions, rulings, and opinions from prior cases. Respect for precedents gives the law consistency and makes interpretations of the law more predictable—and less seemingly random.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.americanbar.org&rft.atitle=Understanding+Stare+Decisis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanbar.org%2Fgroups%2Fpublic_education%2Fpublications%2Fpreview_home%2Funderstand-stare-decisis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/binding_precedent">"binding precedent"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>Binding precedent is a legal rule or principle, articulated by an appellate court, that must be followed by lower courts within its jurisdiction. Essentially, once an appellate court reviews a case, it will deliver a written opinion. This written opinion will include the court's determination on a question of law. This determination, known as a holding, is binding on all lower courts within the jurisdiction, meaning that lower courts must apply this decision when presented with similar facts. The lower courts are thus bound, or required to follow the legal precedent set by the higher court.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=binding+precedent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fbinding_precedent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://content.next.westlaw.com/Glossary/PracticalLaw/Id4cf190ef3ad11e28578f7ccc38dcbee?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)">"Glossary | Practical Law - Legal Resources & Know-How for Professionals"</a>. <i>content.next.westlaw.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>Persuasive precedent. Precedent that a court may, but is not required to, rely on in deciding a case. Examples of persuasive precedent include: decisions from courts in neighboring jurisdictions; and dicta in a decision by a higher court.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=content.next.westlaw.com&rft.atitle=Glossary+%7C+Practical+Law+-+Legal+Resources+%26+Know-How+for+Professionals&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcontent.next.westlaw.com%2FGlossary%2FPracticalLaw%2FId4cf190ef3ad11e28578f7ccc38dcbee%3FtransitionType%3DDefault%26contextData%3D%28sc.Default%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/civil_law">"civil law"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 November</span> 2024</span>. <q>Civil law, as a legal system, refers to a popular way of structuring legal systems around broad codes and detailed statutes that determines the rights and obligations of individuals, without any emphasis on the role of precedent, courts, judges, and juries as in common law countries. Civil law countries typically are characterized by their emphasis on the codified law only with judges playing the main role of finding the facts and applying the law in courts. The civil law system has its roots in the rediscovery of Roman Law in the Middle Ages, with influences from many other legal systems. Today, civil law continues to be the most common legal system in the world.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=civil+law&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fcivil_law&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/case_law">"case law"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>Case law is law that is based on judicial decisions rather than law based on constitutions, statutes, or regulations. Case law concerns unique disputes resolved by courts using the concrete facts of a case. By contrast, statutes and regulations are written abstractly. Case law, also used interchangeably with common law, refers to the collection of precedents and authority set by previous judicial decisions on a particular issue or topic.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=case+law&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fcase_law&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/law-report">"Law report | Common Law Cases & Judgments | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240724164729/https://www.britannica.com/topic/law-report">Archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>Law report, in common law, published record of a judicial decision that is cited by lawyers and judges for their use as precedent in subsequent cases. The report of a decision ordinarily contains the title of the case, a statement of the facts giving rise to the litigation, and its history in the courts. It then reproduces the opinion of the court and concludes with the court's judgment—affirming or reversing the judgment of the court below. The report of a modern decision is usually preceded by an analytic summary of the opinion, called a headnote, that states the points decided.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Law+report+%7C+Common+Law+Cases+%26+Judgments+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Flaw-report&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artIII-S1-7-2-1/ALDE_00001187/">"Historical Background on Stare Decisis Doctrine | Constitution Annotated | Congress.gov | Library of Congress"</a>. <i>constitution.congress.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>Stare decisis, Latin for to stand by things decided, is a judicial doctrine under which a court follows the principles, rules, or standards of its prior decisions (or decisions of higher tribunals) when deciding a case with arguably similar facts.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=constitution.congress.gov&rft.atitle=Historical+Background+on+Stare+Decisis+Doctrine+%7C+Constitution+Annotated+%7C+Congress.gov+%7C+Library+of+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitution.congress.gov%2Fbrowse%2Fessay%2FartIII-S1-7-2-1%2FALDE_00001187%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artIII-S1-7-2-1/ALDE_00001187/#ALDF_00021136">"Historical Background on Stare Decisis Doctrine | Constitution Annotated | Congress.gov | Library of Congress"</a>. <i>constitution.congress.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>The full Latin phrase is stare decisis et non quieta movere—stand by the thing decided and do not disturb the calm. See James C. Rehnquist, Note, The Power That Shall Be Vested in a Precedent: Stare Decisis, The Constitution, and the Supreme Court, 66 B.U. L. Rev. 345, 347 (1986).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=constitution.congress.gov&rft.atitle=Historical+Background+on+Stare+Decisis+Doctrine+%7C+Constitution+Annotated+%7C+Congress.gov+%7C+Library+of+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitution.congress.gov%2Fbrowse%2Fessay%2FartIII-S1-7-2-1%2FALDE_00001187%2F%23ALDF_00021136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cornell-definition-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cornell-definition_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cornell-definition_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cornell-definition_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/stare_decisis">"stare decisis"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>The doctrine operates both horizontally and vertically. Horizontal stare decisis refers to a court adhering to its own precedent. For example, if the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals adhered to the ruling of a previous Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals case, that would be horizontal stare decisis. A court engages in vertical stare decisis when it applies precedent from a higher court. For example, if the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals adhered to a previous ruling from the U.S. Supreme Court, that would be vertical stare decisis. Or, additionally, if the Federal District Court for the Southern District of New York adhered to a previous ruling by the Second Circuit, that would be vertical stare decisis.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=stare+decisis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fstare_decisis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artIII-S1-7-2-2/ALDE_00013237/">"Stare Decisis Doctrine Generally | Constitution Annotated | Congress.gov | Library of Congress"</a>. <i>constitution.congress.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>In the modern era, the Supreme Court has applied the doctrine of stare decisis by following the rules of its prior decisions unless there is a special justification—or, at least, strong grounds—to overrule precedent. This justification must amount to more than a disagreement with a prior decision's reasoning. In adopting this approach, the Court has rejected a strict view of stare decisis that would require it to adhere to its prior decisions regardless of those decisions' merits or the practical implications of retaining or discarding precedent.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=constitution.congress.gov&rft.atitle=Stare+Decisis+Doctrine+Generally+%7C+Constitution+Annotated+%7C+Congress.gov+%7C+Library+of+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitution.congress.gov%2Fbrowse%2Fessay%2FartIII-S1-7-2-2%2FALDE_00013237%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/ratio_decidendi">"ratio decidendi"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>Ratio decidendi is Latin for 'rationale for the decision.' The term refers to a key factual point or chain of reasoning in a case that drives the final judgment... Ratio decidendi is the basis for a court decision and creates binding precedent. </q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=ratio+decidendi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fratio_decidendi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/obiter_dicta">"obiter dicta"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>Obiter dicta is the plural form of obiter dictum, which is Latin for "something said in passing." The term describes comments, suggestions, or observations made by a judge in an opinion that are not necessary to resolve the case, and as such, are not legally binding on other courts but may still be cited as persuasive authority in future litigation. Also referred to as dictum, dicta, and judicial dicta. A dissenting opinion is also generally considered obiter dictum.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=obiter+dicta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fobiter_dicta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/obiter-dictum">"Obiter dictum | Legal Definition, Use, & Examples | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>obiter dictum, Latin phrase meaning 'that which is said in passing,' an incidental statement. Specifically, in law, it refers to a passage in a judicial opinion which is not necessary for the decision of the case before the court. Such statements lack the force of precedent but may nevertheless be significant.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Obiter+dictum+%7C+Legal+Definition%2C+Use%2C+%26+Examples+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fobiter-dictum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121025142246/http://faculty.law.lsu.edu/toddbruno/mandatory_v__persuasive.htm">"Mandatory v. Persuasive"</a>. Faculty.law.lsu.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.law.lsu.edu/toddbruno/mandatory_v__persuasive.htm">the original</a> on 25 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mandatory+v.+Persuasive&rft.pub=Faculty.law.lsu.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.law.lsu.edu%2Ftoddbruno%2Fmandatory_v__persuasive.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40_Cal._4th_1370,_1416-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40_Cal._4th_1370,_1416_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>People v. Leonard</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://online.ceb.com/calcases/C4/40C4t1370.htm">40 Cal. 4th 1370, 1416</a> (2007) (Ninth Circuit decisions do not bind Supreme Court of California).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1972–1973" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, John H. (1972–1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/tlr51&div=41&id=&page=">"51 Texas Law Review 1972-1973 Binding Effect of Federal Declaratory Judgments on State Courts Comment"</a>. <i>Texas Law Review</i>. <b>51</b>: 743<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Texas+Law+Review&rft.atitle=51+Texas+Law+Review+1972-1973+Binding+Effect+of+Federal+Declaratory+Judgments+on+State+Courts+Comment&rft.volume=51&rft.pages=743&rft.date=1972%2F1973&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FLandingPage%3Fcollection%3Djournals%26handle%3Dhein.journals%2Ftlr51%26div%3D41%26id%3D%26page%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal courts">United States federal courts</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWrabley2006" class="citation web cs1">Wrabley, Colin E. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161017100213/https://m.reedsmith.com/files/Publication/f2d6419f-4ea8-4b31-a1f2-e2c5752ac77d/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/84ab3eeb-9a19-419c-9776-009a4e40288a/Wrabley.pdf">"Applying Federal Court of Appeals' Precedent: Contrasting Approaches to Applying Court of Appeals' Federal Law Holdings and Erie State Law Predictions, 3 Seton Hall Circuit Rev. 1"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>m.reedsmith.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://m.reedsmith.com/files/Publication/f2d6419f-4ea8-4b31-a1f2-e2c5752ac77d/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/84ab3eeb-9a19-419c-9776-009a4e40288a/Wrabley.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=m.reedsmith.com&rft.atitle=Applying+Federal+Court+of+Appeals%27+Precedent%3A+Contrasting+Approaches+to+Applying+Court+of+Appeals%27+Federal+Law+Holdings+and+Erie+State+Law+Predictions%2C+3+Seton+Hall+Circuit+Rev.+1&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Wrabley&rft.aufirst=Colin+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fm.reedsmith.com%2Ffiles%2FPublication%2Ff2d6419f-4ea8-4b31-a1f2-e2c5752ac77d%2FPresentation%2FPublicationAttachment%2F84ab3eeb-9a19-419c-9776-009a4e40288a%2FWrabley.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/find-legal-answers/books-online/hot-topics-courts-and-tribunals/precedent-and-evidence">"Precedent and evidence"</a>. <i>Hot Topics: Courts and Tribunals</i>. State Library of New South Wales<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>A precedent is 'binding' on a court if the precedent was made by a superior court that is higher in the hierarchy of courts. A binding precedent must be followed if the precedent is relevant and the circumstances of the cases are sufficiently similar. For example, decisions of the High Court are binding on all courts in Australia, but a decision of the Supreme Court is not binding on the High Court, and a decision of the District Court is not binding on the Supreme Court.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hot+Topics%3A+Courts+and+Tribunals&rft.atitle=Precedent+and+evidence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sl.nsw.gov.au%2Ffind-legal-answers%2Fbooks-online%2Fhot-topics-courts-and-tribunals%2Fprecedent-and-evidence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/precedent">"precedent"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>If the facts or issues of a case differ from those in a previous case, the previous case cannot be precedent.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=precedent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fprecedent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/find-legal-answers/books-online/hot-topics-courts-and-tribunals/precedent-and-evidence">"Precedent and evidence"</a>. <i>Hot Topics: Courts and Tribunals</i>. State Library of New South Wales<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>A precedent is 'persuasive' if it was established by a superior court that is not higher in the hierarchy of courts. This means that the precedent should be seriously considered, but is not required to be followed. For example, a precedent established by the Supreme Court of New South Wales is persuasive but not binding on the Supreme Court of Victoria, since these courts are not in the same hierarchy and are of equal authority. Decisions of superior overseas courts, particularly the superior courts of the United Kingdom, are persuasive precedents in Australia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hot+Topics%3A+Courts+and+Tribunals&rft.atitle=Precedent+and+evidence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sl.nsw.gov.au%2Ffind-legal-answers%2Fbooks-online%2Fhot-topics-courts-and-tribunals%2Fprecedent-and-evidence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/persuasive_authority">"persuasive authority"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2024</span>. <q>Although court decisions of persuasive authority are not binding precedent, a court may choose to rely on and follow the decisions. Cases such as this one from Michigan explain that a court may follow the decisions of another jurisdiction if the reasoning is persuasive. Courts may also look to decisions from other jurisdictions for guidance; for example, when deciding issues of first impression—like this one from Colorado—or matters in which the forum state law is unclear—like this one from Utah. A court, however, will not follow decisions of persuasive authority when the decision is against the forum jurisdiction's public policy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=persuasive+authority&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fpersuasive_authority&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/case_of_first_impression">"case of first impression"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2024</span>. <q>A case of first impression is a case that presents a legal issue that has never been decided by the governing jurisdiction. ... A case of first impression lacks controlling precedent. In other words, a court deciding a case of first impression cannot rely on prior decisions nor is the court bound by stare decisis. To adopt the most persuasive rule of law, courts will look to various sources for guidance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=case+of+first+impression&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fcase_of_first_impression&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/first_impression">"first impression"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2024</span>. <q>First impression is a new legal issue or interpretation that is brought before a court. In a case of first impression, the exact issue before the court has not been addressed by that court, or within that court's jurisdiction, thus there is no binding authority on that matter. ... Cases of first impression often occur in connection with recently passed legislation, or when that issue has been addressed by other jurisdictions, but not in the jurisdiction of the presented court. Courts may seek guidance from other jurisdictions, or by making analogies to related or similar issues.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=first+impression&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Ffirst_impression&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShafer" class="citation web cs1">Shafer, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legalresearch.usfca.edu/c.php?g=523805&p=3580747">"LibGuides: Depublication of California Cases: What is Depublication?"</a>. <i>legalresearch.usfca.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=legalresearch.usfca.edu&rft.atitle=LibGuides%3A+Depublication+of+California+Cases%3A+What+is+Depublication%3F&rft.aulast=Shafer&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flegalresearch.usfca.edu%2Fc.php%3Fg%3D523805%26p%3D3580747&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/12-307">"UNITED STATES v. WINDSOR"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=UNITED+STATES+v.+WINDSOR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fsupremecourt%2Ftext%2F12-307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Starger-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Starger_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarger2013" class="citation book cs1">Starger, Colin (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zAbFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21">"The Dialectic of Stare Decisis Doctrine"</a>. In Peters, Christopher J. (ed.). <i>Precedent in the United States Supreme Court</i>. Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 19–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7950-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7950-1"><bdi>978-94-007-7950-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Dialectic+of+Stare+Decisis+Doctrine&rft.btitle=Precedent+in+the+United+States+Supreme+Court&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=19-46&rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-007-7950-1&rft.aulast=Starger&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzAbFBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span> Available via SpringerLink.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Allegheny General Hospital v. NLRB</i>, 608 F.2d 965, 969-970 (3rd Cir. 1979) (footnote omitted), as quoted in <i>United States Internal Revenue Serv. v. Osborne (In re Osborne)</i>, 76 F.3d 306, 96-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,185 (9th Cir. 1996).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States Internal Revenue Serv. v. Osborne (In re Osborne)</i>, 76 F.3d 306, 96-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,185 (9th Cir. 1996).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mohr_Siebeck_2020_p=1-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mohr_Siebeck_2020_p=1_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">"Inhalt dieses Heftes". <i>Rabels Zeitschrift für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht</i> (in German). <b>84</b> (2). Mohr Siebeck: 211. 2020. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1628%2Frabelsz-2020-0028">10.1628/rabelsz-2020-0028</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-7250">0033-7250</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rabels+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+ausl%C3%A4ndisches+und+internationales+Privatrecht&rft.atitle=Inhalt+dieses+Heftes&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=211&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1628%2Frabelsz-2020-0028&rft.issn=0033-7250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodge2019" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Hodge,_Lord_Hodge" title="Patrick Hodge, Lord Hodge">Hodge, Patrick</a> (28 October 2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.uk/docs/speech-191028.pdf">"The scope of judicial law-making in the common law tradition"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Rabels Zeitschrift für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht</i>, Hamburg, Germany: Max-Planck-Institut für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2023</span>, <q>Judge-made law is an independent source of law in common law systems.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+scope+of+judicial+law-making+in+the+common+law+tradition&rft.btitle=Rabels+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+ausl%C3%A4ndisches+und+internationales+Privatrecht&rft.place=Hamburg%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Max-Planck-Institut+f%C3%BCr+ausl%C3%A4ndisches+und+internationales+Privatrecht&rft.date=2019-10-28&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.uk%2Fdocs%2Fspeech-191028.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2203392##">Elizabeth Y. McCuskey, Clarity and Clarification: Grable Federal Questions in the Eyes of Their Beholders, 91 NEB. L. REV. 387, 427-430 (2012)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_H._Fowler" title="James H. Fowler">James H. Fowler</a> and Sangick Jeon, "The Authority of Supreme Court Precedent", <i>Social Networks</i> (2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.socnet.2007.05.001">10.1016/j.socnet.2007.05.001</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasnas" class="citation book cs1">Hasnas, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150124010837/http://faculty.msb.edu/hasnasj/gtwebsite/NYUFinal.pdf"><i>Hayek, the Common Law, and Fluid Drive</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Vol. 1. NYU Journal of Law & Liberty. pp. 92–93. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hayek%2C+the+Common+Law%2C+and+Fluid+Drive&rft.pages=92-93&rft.pub=NYU+Journal+of+Law+%26+Liberty&rft.aulast=Hasnas&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.msb.edu%2Fhasnasj%2FGTWebSite%2FNYUFinal.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedent_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCongressional_Research_Service2018" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> (24 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201016205136/https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R45319.html">"The Supreme Court's Overruling of Constitutional Precedent"</a>. <i>EveryCRSReport.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R45319.html">the original</a> on 16 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EveryCRSReport.com&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court%27s+Overruling+of+Constitutional+Precedent&rft.date=2018-09-24&rft.au=Congressional+Research+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.everycrsreport.com%2Freports%2FR45319.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VasquezvHillery-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VasquezvHillery_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VasquezvHillery_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/474/254/">"Vasquez v. Hillery, 474 U.S. 254 (1986), at 266"</a>. Justia US Supreme Court Center. 14 January 1986<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vasquez+v.+Hillery%2C+474+U.S.+254+%281986%29%2C+at+266&rft.pub=Justia+US+Supreme+Court+Center&rft.date=1986-01-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffederal%2Fus%2F474%2F254%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201031062050/https://constitution.congress.gov/resources/decisions-overruled/">"Table of Supreme Court Decisions Overruled by Subsequent Decisions"</a>. <i>constitution.congress.gov</i>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitution.congress.gov/resources/decisions-overruled/">the original</a> on 31 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=constitution.congress.gov&rft.atitle=Table+of+Supreme+Court+Decisions+Overruled+by+Subsequent+Decisions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitution.congress.gov%2Fresources%2Fdecisions-overruled%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedentFootnotes-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20180924EveryCRSReport.comOverrulingConstitutionalPrecedentFootnotes_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCongressional_Research_Service2018" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> (24 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201016205136/https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R45319.html">"The Supreme Court's Overruling of Constitutional Precedent; see Footnotes 43-44, 47, 48 and 69"</a>. <i>EveryCRSReport.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R45319.htmlt">the original</a> on 16 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EveryCRSReport.com&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court%27s+Overruling+of+Constitutional+Precedent%3B+see+Footnotes+43-44%2C+47%2C+48+and+69&rft.date=2018-09-24&rft.au=Congressional+Research+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.everycrsreport.com%2Freports%2FR45319.htmlt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laws.findlaw.com/us/000/99-859.html">Central <i>Green Co. v. United States</i></a>, 531 U.S. 425 (2001), quoting <i>Humphrey's Executor v. United States</i>, 295 U. S. 602, 627 (1935).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Burnet v. Coronado Oil & Gas Co.</i>, 285 U.S. 393, 406–407, 410 (1932) (Brandeis, J., dissenting).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Congressional Research Service,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gpoaccess.gov/constitution/html/scourt.html">Supreme Court Decisions Overruled by Subsequent Decision</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120113032452/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/constitution/html/scourt.html">Archived</a> 13 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1992).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=search&court=US&case=/us/321/649.html">"FindLaw | Cases and Codes"</a>. Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FindLaw+%26%23124%3B+Cases+and+Codes&rft.pub=Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.lp.findlaw.com%2Fscripts%2Fgetcase.pl%3Fnavby%3Dsearch%26court%3DUS%26case%3D%2Fus%2F321%2F649.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i>O'Gilvie v. United States</i>, 519 U.S. 79, 84 (1996).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Starger_Page29-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Starger_Page29_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Starger_Page29_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarger2013" class="citation book cs1">Starger, Colin (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zAbFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">"The Dialectic of Stare Decisis Doctrine"</a>. In Peters, Christopher J. (ed.). <i>Precedent in the United States Supreme Court</i>. Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 19–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7950-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7950-1"><bdi>978-94-007-7950-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Dialectic+of+Stare+Decisis+Doctrine&rft.btitle=Precedent+in+the+United+States+Supreme+Court&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=19-46&rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-007-7950-1&rft.aulast=Starger&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzAbFBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span> Available via SpringerLink.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://casetext.com/case/june-medical-services-l-l-c-v-russo">"June Medical Services L.L.C. v. Russo"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=June+Medical+Services+L.L.C.+v.+Russo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcasetext.com%2Fcase%2Fjune-medical-services-l-l-c-v-russo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lawteacher.net/cases/r-v-g-recklessness.php">"R v G (2003) – recklessness in criminal law"</a>. <i>www.lawteacher.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lawteacher.net&rft.atitle=R+v+G+%282003%29+%E2%80%93+recklessness+in+criminal+law&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawteacher.net%2Fcases%2Fr-v-g-recklessness.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaha2010" class="citation book cs1">Saha, Tushar Kanti (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cOUpZcAfZWoC&q=However,+the+Practice+Statement+has+been+seldom+applied+by+the+House+of+Lords,+usually+only+as+a+last+resort.+As+of+2005,+the+House+of+Lords+has+rejected+its+past+decisions+no+more+than+20+times&pg=PA112"><i>Textbook on Legal Methods, Legal Systems and Research</i></a>. Universal Law Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788175348936" title="Special:BookSources/9788175348936"><bdi>9788175348936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+on+Legal+Methods%2C+Legal+Systems+and+Research&rft.pub=Universal+Law+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9788175348936&rft.aulast=Saha&rft.aufirst=Tushar+Kanti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcOUpZcAfZWoC%26q%3DHowever%2C%2Bthe%2BPractice%2BStatement%2Bhas%2Bbeen%2Bseldom%2Bapplied%2Bby%2Bthe%2BHouse%2Bof%2BLords%2C%2Busually%2Bonly%2Bas%2Ba%2Blast%2Bresort.%2BAs%2Bof%2B2005%2C%2Bthe%2BHouse%2Bof%2BLords%2Bhas%2Brejected%2Bits%2Bpast%2Bdecisions%2Bno%2Bmore%2Bthan%2B20%2Btimes%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin, Jacqueline (2005). <i>The English Legal System</i> (4th ed.), p. 25. London: Hodder Arnold. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-89991-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-89991-3">0-340-89991-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1987/4.html">"R v Maginnis [1987] UKHL 4 (05 March 1987)"</a>. Bailii.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=R+v+Maginnis+%5B1987%26%2393%3B+UKHL+4+%2805+March+1987%29&rft.pub=Bailii.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bailii.org%2Fuk%2Fcases%2FUKHL%2F1987%2F4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lawade-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lawade_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180329220909/http://www.lawade.com/the-english-legal-system/statutory-interpretation/the-golden-rule/">"The Golden Rule"</a>. <i>Lawade.com</i>. 22 March 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lawade.com/the-english-legal-system/statutory-interpretation/the-golden-rule/">the original</a> on 29 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lawade.com&rft.atitle=The+Golden+Rule&rft.date=2015-03-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawade.com%2Fthe-english-legal-system%2Fstatutory-interpretation%2Fthe-golden-rule%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://labspace.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=415851">"Part E - The rules of statutory interpretation - The golden rule"</a>. Labspace<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Part+E+-+The+rules+of+statutory+interpretation+-+The+golden+rule&rft.pub=Labspace&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabspace.open.ac.uk%2Fmod%2Fresource%2Fview.php%3Fid%3D415851&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=1195909351234664885"><i>State Oil Co. v. Khan</i></a>, 93 F.3d 1358 (7th Cir. 1996), in which Judge Richard Posner followed the applicable Supreme Court precedent, while harshly criticizing it, which led the Supreme Court to overrule that precedent in <i><a href="/wiki/State_Oil_Co._v._Khan" title="State Oil Co. v. Khan">State Oil Co. v. Khan</a></i>, 522 U.S. 3 (1997); see also the concurring opinion of Chief Judge Walker in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=1895782534423575000"><i>National Abortion Federation v. Gonzalez</i></a>, 437 F. 3d 278 (2d Cir. 2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=502&invol=197"><i>Hilton vs. Carolina Pub. Rys. Comm'n.</i></a>, 502 U.S. 197, 202, 112 S. Ct. 560, 565 (1991)("we will not depart from the doctrine of stare decisis without some compelling justification").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amacad.org/publication/supreme-court-21st-century">"The Supreme Court in the 21st Century"</a>. <i>American Academy of Arts & Sciences</i>. March 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Academy+of+Arts+%26+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court+in+the+21st+Century&rft.date=2013-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fpublication%2Fsupreme-court-21st-century&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Matter of Interpretation</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (May 2020)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas, Clarence</a> (1991). <i>[U.S.] Senate Confirmation Hearings.</i> qtd. by Jan Crawford Greenburg on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/june03/scotus_forum2.html">PBS</a> (June 2003) Accessed 8 January 2007 UTC.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRingel,_Jonathan2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jonathan_Ringel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jonathan Ringel (page does not exist)">Ringel, Jonathan</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1090180289132">"The Bombshell in the Clarence Thomas Biography"</a>. Fulton County Daily Report.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Bombshell+in+the+Clarence+Thomas+Biography&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Ringel%2C+Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.com%2Fjsp%2Farticle.jsp%3Fid%3D1090180289132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Caleb_Nelson" title="Caleb Nelson">Nelson, Caleb</a> (2001). "Stare Decisis and Demonstrably Erroneous Precedent". <i>Virginia Law Review</i>. <b>87</b> (1): 1–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1073894">10.2307/1073894</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073894">1073894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Stare+Decisis+and+Demonstrably+Erroneous+Precedent&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-84&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1073894&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1073894%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Caleb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Juratowitch-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Juratowitch_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuratowitch2008" class="citation book cs1">Juratowitch, Ben (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2u3bBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41"><i>Retroactivity and the Common Law</i></a>. Oxford: Hart Publishing. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781847314109" title="Special:BookSources/9781847314109"><bdi>9781847314109</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Retroactivity+and+the+Common+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781847314109&rft.aulast=Juratowitch&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2u3bBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wacks-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wacks_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWacks2015" class="citation book cs1">Wacks, Raymond (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EiDZBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74"><i>Understanding Jurisprudence: An Introduction to Legal Theory</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198723868" title="Special:BookSources/9780198723868"><bdi>9780198723868</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Jurisprudence%3A+An+Introduction+to+Legal+Theory&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=74&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780198723868&rft.aulast=Wacks&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEiDZBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrotter1997" class="citation book cs1">Trotter, Michael H. (1997). <i>Profit and the Practice of Law: What's Happened to the Legal Profession</i>. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. pp. 161–163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8203-1875-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8203-1875-2"><bdi>0-8203-1875-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Profit+and+the+Practice+of+Law%3A+What%27s+Happened+to+the+Legal+Profession&rft.place=Athens%2C+GA&rft.pages=161-163&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8203-1875-2&rft.aulast=Trotter&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClellan1969" class="citation journal cs1">McClellan, James (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170301092855/https://isistatic.org/journal-archive/ma/14_01/mcclellan.pdf">"The Doctrine of Judicial Democracy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Modern Age</i>. <b>14</b> (1). Chicago: 19–35. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isistatic.org/journal-archive/ma/14_01/mcclellan.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 1 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Age&rft.atitle=The+Doctrine+of+Judicial+Democracy&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-35&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=McClellan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fisistatic.org%2Fjournal-archive%2Fma%2F14_01%2Fmcclellan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerland2011" class="citation journal cs1">Berland, David (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://illinoislawreview.org/wp-content/ilr-content/articles/2011/2/Berland.pdf">"Stopping the Pendulum: Why Stare Decisis Should Constrain the Court from Further Modification of the Search Incident to Arrest Exception"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>University of Illinois Law Review</i>. <b>2011</b>: 695–740.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Illinois+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Stopping+the+Pendulum%3A+Why+Stare+Decisis+Should+Constrain+the+Court+from+Further+Modification+of+the+Search+Incident+to+Arrest+Exception&rft.volume=2011&rft.pages=695-740&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Berland&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fillinoislawreview.org%2Fwp-content%2Filr-content%2Farticles%2F2011%2F2%2FBerland.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.open.edu/openlearn/society-politics-law/law/legal-skills-and-debates-scotland/content-section-overview">"Legal skills and debates in Scotland"</a>. <i>OpenLearn</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OpenLearn&rft.atitle=Legal+skills+and+debates+in+Scotland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.open.edu%2Fopenlearn%2Fsociety-politics-law%2Flaw%2Flegal-skills-and-debates-scotland%2Fcontent-section-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrecedent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Precedent&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/precedent" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/precedent">precedent</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Precedent</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Precedent">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Precedent" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Precedent">Precedent</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/precedent" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/precedent"><i>precedent</i></a> at Wiktionary</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/42px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/21px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/32px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/42px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Kenya" title="Portal:Kenya">Kenya</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/19px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/29px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/38px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="407" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Internet" title="Portal:Internet">Internet</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/21px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/32px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/42px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lebanon" title="Portal:Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg/21px-Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg/32px-Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg/42px-Sample_09-F9_protest_art%2C_Free_Speech_Flag_by_John_Marcotte.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="288" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Freedom_of_speech" title="Portal:Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/20px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/31px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/40px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="115" 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ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Politics_and_government" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_and_government" title="Template:Politics and government"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_and_government" title="Template talk:Politics and government"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_and_government" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics and government"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Politics_and_government" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_government" title="Central government">Central government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal government">Federal government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_unity_government" title="National unity government">National unity government</a></li> <li><i>Levels:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">Local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_government" class="mw-redirect" title="County government">County government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_division" title="Administrative division">Administrative division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipality" title="Municipality">Municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Township" title="Township">Township</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Lists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forms_of_government" title="List of forms of government">Govt systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government" title="List of countries by system of government">Countries by system</a></li> <li><i>Systems:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electocracy" title="Electocracy">Electocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergatocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergatocracy">Ergatocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geniocracy" title="Geniocracy">Geniocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptocracy" title="Kleptocracy">Kleptocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">Military dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_democracy" title="Cellular democracy">Cellular </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_e-democracy" title="Collaborative e-democracy">Collaborative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_democracy" title="Consensus democracy">Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_democracy" title="Conservative democracy">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitan_democracy" title="Cosmopolitan democracy">Cosmopolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">Representative democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">Extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanaticism" title="Fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><i>Theoreticians:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Functions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_insurance" title="Social insurance">Social insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">Unemployment benefits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="National healthcare">National healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Public education">Public education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">Espionage</a></li> <li><i>Regulation:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental regulation">Environmental regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Banking regulation">Banking regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_inspection" class="mw-redirect" title="Food inspection">Food inspection</a></li> <li><i>Municipal:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_lights" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic lights">Traffic lights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_cleaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Street cleaning">Street cleaning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Documents</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncodified_constitution" title="Uncodified constitution">Uncodified constitution</a></li> <li><i>Roles:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">Head of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">Head of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">Monarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_(government_title)" title="President (government title)">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">Prime minister</a></li> <li><i>Bodies:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_(government)" title="Cabinet (government)">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_(government_department)" title="Ministry (government department)">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><i>Legislative bodies</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress" title="Congress">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council" title="Council">Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Assembly" title="House of Assembly">Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_council" title="Legislative council">Legislative council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance <br /> processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Process:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">Hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee" title="Committee">Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li> <li><i>Outcomes:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a>:</i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Precedent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Elections" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections">Elections</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">Voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">Campaigns</a></li> <li><i>Groups:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advocacy_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Advocacy groups">Advocacy groups</a></li> <li><i>Issues:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">Civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Fields of study</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Overviews:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><i>Reforms</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">Suffrage</a></li> <li><i>Documents:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embassy" class="mw-redirect" title="Embassy">Embassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><i>World:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="World Government">World government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="World Court">World Court</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">Civilization</a></li> <li><i>Templates:</i></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_ideologies" title="Template:Political ideologies">Political ideologies</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_culture" title="Template:Political culture">Political culture</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_spectrum" title="Template:Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_and_political_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Social and political philosophy">Social and political philosophy</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism" title="Template:Liberalism">liberalism</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_navbox" title="Template:Conservatism navbox">Conservatism navbox</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Aspects of capitalism">aspects of capitalism</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Western culture">Western culture</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Autonomous_types_of_first-tier_administration" title="Template:Autonomous types of first-tier administration">Autonomous types of first-tier administration</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:World_government" title="Template:World government">World government</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Forms_of_government" title="Category:Forms of government">Forms of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Types_of_democracy" title="Category:Types of democracy">Types of democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_parties" title="Category:Political parties">Political parties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Common_types_of_government_ministers_and_ministries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Types_of_government_ministers_and_ministries" title="Template:Types of government ministers and ministries"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Types_of_government_ministers_and_ministries" title="Template talk:Types of government ministers and ministries"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Types_of_government_ministers_and_ministries" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Types of government ministers and ministries"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Common_types_of_government_ministers_and_ministries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Common types of government <a href="/wiki/Minister_(government)" title="Minister (government)">ministers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ministry_(government_department)" title="Ministry (government department)">ministries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leadership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_(government_title)" title="President (government title)">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_president" title="Vice president">Vice president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">Prime minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_prime_minister" title="Deputy prime minister">Deputy prime minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_minister" title="First minister">First minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_First_Minister_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Deputy First Minister (disambiguation)">Deputy First Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premier" title="Premier">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_President_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Office of the President (disambiguation)">Office of the president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_department" title="Cabinet department">Cabinet department / Office of the prime minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_(politics)" title="Speaker (politics)">Speaker / President of the assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minister_(government)" title="Minister (government)">Minister</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Titles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state" title="Secretary of state">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of state">Minister of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_minister" title="Deputy minister">Deputy minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undersecretary" title="Undersecretary">Undersecretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_secretary" title="Parliamentary secretary">Assistant minister/Parliamentary secretary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defence / <br /> foreign affairs /<br />public safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_defence" title="Ministry of defence">Ministry of defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_foreign_affairs" title="Ministry of foreign affairs">Ministry of foreign affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_minister" title="Immigration minister">Immigration minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interior_minister" title="Interior minister">Interior minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interior_ministry" title="Interior ministry">Interior ministry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_development_minister" title="International development minister">International development minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minister_for_European_Affairs_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Minister for European Affairs (disambiguation)">Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics/<br />infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_minister" title="Commerce minister">Commerce minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_economy" title="Ministry of the economy">Ministry of the economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_finance" title="Ministry of finance">Ministry of finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Industry minister">Industry minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of infrastructure">Ministry of infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_trade_and_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of trade and industry">Ministry of trade and industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of transport">Ministry of transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environment / <br />natural resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_minister" title="Energy minister">Energy minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_energy" title="Ministry of energy">Ministry of energy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_minister" title="Environment minister">Environment minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_electricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of electricity">Ministry of electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_petroleum" title="Ministry of petroleum">Ministry of petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_water_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of water resources">Ministry of water resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_minister" title="Culture minister">Culture minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of culture">Ministry of culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_minister" title="Education minister">Education minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_education_and_culture" title="Ministry of education and culture">Ministry of education and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Health minister">Health minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_department" title="Health department">Ministry of health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_minister" title="Information minister">Information minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_minister" title="Housing minister">Housing minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_authority" title="Housing authority">Ministry of housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_justice" title="Ministry of justice">Ministry of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_labour" title="Minister of labour">Minister of labour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of labour">Ministry of labour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_minister" title="Regional minister">Regional minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_sports" title="Ministry of sports">Ministry of sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_minister" title="Tourism minister">Tourism minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_home_affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of home affairs">Ministry of home affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_religious_affairs" title="Ministry of religious affairs">Ministry of religious affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_science" title="Ministry of science">Ministry of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_social_affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of social affairs">Ministry of social affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of social security">Ministry of social security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minister_for_Veterans_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Minister for Veterans (disambiguation)">Minister for Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of women">Ministry of women</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_for_Women_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Minister for Women (disambiguation)">Minister for women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio" title="Minister without portfolio">Minister without portfolio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_heads_of_state_and_government" title="List of current heads of state and government">Presidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_vice_presidents_and_designated_acting_presidents" title="List of current vice presidents and designated acting presidents">Vice presidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_heads_of_state_and_government" title="List of current heads of state and government">Prime ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_deputy_prime_ministers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current deputy prime ministers">Deputy prime ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_presidents_of_legislatures" title="List of current presidents of legislatures">Presidents of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agriculture_ministries" title="List of agriculture ministries">Agriculture ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ministers_of_climate_change" title="List of ministers of climate change">Climate change ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ministries_of_communications" title="List of ministries of communications">Communications ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_defence_ministers" title="List of current defence ministers">Defence ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_education_ministries" title="List of education ministries">Education ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ministers_of_the_environment" title="List of ministers of the environment">Environment ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_ministries" title="List of environmental ministries">Environment ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_finance_ministers" title="List of current finance ministers">Finance ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_foreign_ministers" title="List of current foreign ministers">Foreign ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_ministries" title="List of forestry ministries">Forest ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_health_departments_and_ministries" title="List of health departments and ministries">Health ministries</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">mental health</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_interior_ministers" title="List of current interior ministers">Interior ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_public_works_ministries" title="List of public works ministries">Public works ministries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Government_ministers_by_portfolio" title="Category:Government ministers by portfolio">Government ministers by portfolio</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ministries_by_portfolio" title="Category:Ministries by portfolio">Ministries by portfolio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_services" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_services" title="Template:Public services"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_services" title="Template talk:Public services"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_services" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public services"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_services" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public services</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Municipalization" title="Municipalization">Municipalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">Progressive tax</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_newspaper" title="Free newspaper">Free newspaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_sample" title="Product sample">Product sample</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_bad" title="Public bad">Public bad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">Public good (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_interest" title="Public interest">Public interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_land" title="Public land">Public land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">Public ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_rights" title="Public rights">Public rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_procurement" title="Government procurement">Public procurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_trust" title="Public trust">Public trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_value" title="Public value">Public value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_access_to_education" title="Universal access to education">Universal access to education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_services" title="Universal basic services">Universal basic services</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_department" title="Fire department">Fire department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mail" title="Mail">Postal service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postal_savings_system" title="Postal savings system">Savings system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_broadcasting" title="Public broadcasting">Public broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">Public transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_services" title="Universal basic services">Universal basic services</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">Public utility</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_utility" title="Electric utility">Electric utility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_oil_company" title="National oil company">Oil & gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal,_telegraph_and_telephone_service" title="Postal, telegraph and telephone service">Telecommunication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_broadband" title="Municipal broadband">Municipal broadband</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Public infrastructure">Public infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_water_system" title="Public water system">Public water system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">Public works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_fountain" title="Drinking fountain">Drinking fountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_clinic" title="Free clinic">Free clinic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_education" title="Free education">Free education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_and_syringe_programmes" title="Needle and syringe programmes">Needle and syringe programmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_art" title="Public art">Public art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_bank" title="Public bank">Public bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_bookcase" title="Public bookcase">Public bookcase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_computer" title="Public computer">Public computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_hospital" title="Public hospital">Public hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_library" title="Public library">Public library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_open_space" title="Public open space">Public open space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">Public school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_space" title="Public space">Public space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_toilet" title="Public toilet">Public toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_university" title="Public university">Public university</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_park" title="Urban park">Urban park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Publicly_funded_health_care" title="Publicly funded health care">Publicly funded health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_creation" class="mw-redirect" title="Job creation">Job creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">Job guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-payer_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-payer health care">Single-payer health care</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_health_insurance" title="National health insurance">National health insurance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_insurance" title="Social insurance">Social insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_pension" title="Social pension">Social pension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Social security">Social security</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_services" title="Youth services">Youth services</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_auction" title="Government auction">Government auction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_float" title="Public float">Public float</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holiday" title="Public holiday">Public holiday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_offering" title="Public offering">Public offering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_security" title="Public security">Public security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_use" title="Public use">Public use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_viewing_area" title="Public viewing area">Public viewing area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_services" title="Category:Public services">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_services" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Public services">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law" title="Template:Law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law" title="Template talk:Law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Core subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" 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