Philosophy | Definition, Systems, Fields, Schools, & Biographies

<!doctype html> <html lang="en" class="topic-desktop ui-ie7 ui-ie"> <head prefix="og: https://ogp.me/ns# fb: https://ogp.me/ns/fb#"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130"> <link rel="preload" as="script" href="https://www.googletagservices.com/tag/js/gpt.js" /> <link rel="icon" href="/favicon.png" /> <meta name="description" content="Philosophy is the rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality as a whole or of basic dimensions of human existence and experience. " /> <meta name="keywords" content="philosophy, encyclopedia, encyclopeadia, britannica, article" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy" /> <title>Philosophy | Definition, Systems, Fields, Schools, & Biographies | Britannica</title> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel"> window.$UI = {}; window.Constants = {"LICENSE_URL": "/bps/license","DEFAULT_TEST_VERSION": "A","DEFAULT_STATE": "XX","QUIZ_URL": "/quiz","SPOTLIGHT_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/spotlight","CONTENT_TYPE_TEXT": "text/plain;charset=UTF-8","TOPIC_FACTS_DATA_URL": "/facts","QUIZ_BROWSE_IMAGE_QUIZZES": "images","TOPIC_MEDIA_PATH": "/images-videos","USER_PROFILE_URL": "/user","DEBUG_URL": "/debug","ONE_GOOD_FACT_URL": "/one-good-fact","ERROR_404_URL": "/error404","PROCON_CITED_IN_THE_NEWS_URL": "/procon/ProCon-in-the-News","PROCON_URL": "/procon","TOPIC_PAGE_CONTENT_AJAX_URL": "/topic-content/page","INFINITE_SCROLL_PREFIX_URL": "/scroll","TOPIC_TOP_QUESTION_BROWSE_URL": "/questions","CC_USD": "USD","domain": "britannica.com","SURVEY_URL": "/survey","CATEGORY_BROWSE_URL": "/browse","STORY_BROWSE_URL": "/stories","COUNTRY_US": "US","OPEN_MEDIA_OVERLAY_PARAMETER": "/media","NEWSLETTER_SUBSCRIPTION_URL": "/newsletter-subscription","MAINTENANCE_ERROR_URL": "https://maintenance.eb.com","IMARS_EDITOR_ID": "12365882","PROFILE_EB_EDITOR_URL": "/editor","WEB_INF_RESOURCES_PATH": "WEB-INF/resources","AI_ABOUT_PAGE_URL": "/about-britannica-ai","TOPIC_ADDITIONAL_INFO_PATH": "/additional-info","SUDOKU_GAME_URL": "/games/sudoku","CC_INR": "INR","ARTICLE_PRINT_URL": "/print/article","FIRST_EDITION_URL": "/subscriber/firstedition","WW1_PORTAL_URL": "/discover/World-War-I","MENDEL_COOKIE": "__mendel","DEMYSTIFIED_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/demystified","LIST_BROWSE_URL": "/list/browse","PROFILE_EXPERT_URL": "/contributor","ASSEMBLY_IMAGE_URL": "/image/assembly","DAY_IN_HISTORY_URL": "/on-this-day","DEFAULT_CURRENCY": "USD","CONTENT_TYPE_XML": "text/xml;charset=UTF-8","PORTAL_FINANCE_BROWSE_URL_PREFIX": "/money/browse","MONEY_IMARS_CATEGORY": "13000","AJAX_PREFIX_URL": "/ajax","TOPIC_BROWSE_URL": "/topic-browse","MARKETING_CONTENT": "/marketing-content","ENV_RUNTIME": "runtime","GALLERY_URL": "/gallery","topicUrlClassesList": "topic|animal|art|biography|event|place|plant|science|sports|technology|procon","CONTENT_TYPE_HTML": "text/html;charset=UTF-8","ENV_LOCAL": "override","MEDIA_OVERLAY_URL": "/media-overlay","CHATBOT_PAGE_URL": "/chatbot","NEWSLETTER_PAGE_URL": "/newsletters","ENV_DEV": "development","MEDIA_URL": "/media","TOPIC_TOP_QUESTION_URL": "/question","PORTAL_FINANCE_URL_PREFIX": "/money","PODCASTS_URL": "/podcasts","STAND_ALONE_VIDEO_URL": "/video","MORE_ON_THIS_DAY_URL": "/more-on-this-day","TOPIC_QUOTES_URL": "/quotes","SEARCH_PAGE_URL": "/search","PROCON_CLASS": "PROCON","KUSTOM_MENDEL_APPLICATION_ID": "1","TOPIC_CONTENT_AJAX_URL": "/topic-content/topic","ENV_BRANCH": "branch","ERROR_URL": "/error","MAIN_VERSION": "mainVersion","DEFAULT_S3_REGION": "US_EAST_1","TOPIC_COLLECTION_URL": "/summary","LOGINBOX_URL": "/auth/loginbox","ONE_GOOD_FACT_BROWSE_URL": "/one-good-fact/all-good-facts","QUIZ_BROWSE_URL": "/quiz/browse","BIO_BROWSE_URL": "/browse/biographies","LIST_URL": "/list","TIGHTROPE_QUIZ_URL": "/quiz/tightrope","ALPHA_BROWSE_URL": "/sitemap","CONTENT_TYPE_JSON": "application/json","DICTIONARY_URL": "/dictionary","COBRAND_IMAGE_URL": "/image/cobrand","PROCON_IN_THE_NEWS_URL": "/procon/pro-and-con-issues-in-the-news","PROCON_BROWSE_URL": "/procon","QUIZ_BROWSE_VOCAB_QUIZZES": "vocabulary-quizzes","SUBMISSION_URL": "/submission","EB_LOG_OUT": "/auth2/logout","ENV_PRODUCTION": "production","EXPLORE_PORTAL_URL": "/explore","TOPIC_AJAX_URL": "/ajax/topic","TOPIC_SUMMARY_BROWSE_URL": "/summaries","WTFACT_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/wtfact","VIDEO_CHANNEL_URL": "/videos","GALLERY_BROWSE_URL": "/gallery/browse","CACHE_URL": "/cache","PROCON_ABOUT_URL": "/procon/About-ProCon","COMPANION_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/companion","MEDIA_FOLDER": "/eb-media","SHOW_ALL_CONTRIBUTORS": "/additional-info#contributors","BRITANNICA_EDITORS_ID": "4419","ENV_CACHE_DISABLED": "mendelCache","CALCULATORS_BROWSE_URL": "/calculators","STORY_URL": "/story","DEFAULT_COUNTRY": "US","NAVBAR_URL": "/ajax/navbar","EB_LOGIN_URL": "/auth/eb-login","NEW_ARTICLES_URL": "/new-articles",}; window.CDN = "https://cdn.britannica.com"; window.CAM_LOGIN_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com"; window.CAM_SIGN_UP_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com/registration" window.Mendel = { "config" : { "domain": "britannica.com", "page": "Topic", "videoPlayerId": "UyMCoK2v", "sharedUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy", "amuselabsUrl": "https://cdn3.amuselabs.com", "resourcesPrefixUrl": "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/[url]?v=3.130.14", "date": 20241124, "userInfo": { "type": "ANONYMOUS" ,"currency": "AUUS" ,"country": "SG" ,"state": "XX" ,"timezone": "Asia/Singapore" ,"bcomId": "-8478046978615330857" ,"hasAds": true ,"testVersion": "C" ,"adsTestVersion": "C" ,"consumerId": "" ,"instId": "" ,"consumerUserName": "" ,"instUserName": "" ,"cognito": null }, "tvs":{ "r":[25,25,25,25], "a": [25,25,25,25]}, "isLoggedInAsUser": false, "isPhone": false, "isDesktop": true, "logoutUrl": "/auth2/logout", "selfServiceUrl": "https://myaccount.britannica.com", "cdnUrl": "https://cdn.britannica.com", "chatbotApi": "https://www.britannica.com/chat-api", "fetchOffset": 800, "mendelCookieName": "__mendel", "mendelCookie": {"surveyShown":false,"visitedTopicId":456811,"currentDate":20241124}, "autocompleteToSearchPage": false,"topicUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy" ,"freeTopicReason": "NO_REFERRER" ,"topicId": 456811 ,"template": "DESKTOP" ,"type": "CORE" ,"hasToc": false ,"chatbotApi": "https://www.britannica.com/chat-api" ,"showPreview": false ,"infiniteScrollList": [{"p":1,"t":456811},{"p":22,"t":194023},{"p":13,"t":190219},{"p":4,"t":377923},{"p":3,"t":346177},{"p":11,"t":467661},{"p":14,"t":7484},{"p":5,"t":267522},{"p":17,"t":383556},{"p":17,"t":528804}] ,"sequence": 1 ,"topics": {} }, "GA": {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","articleTemplateType":"MEDIUM","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} }; </script> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="1887621861548296"/ <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@britannica" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/44/22944-050-20DB2F82/Plato-Aristotle-philosophers-detail-Raphael-School-of.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Philosophy is the rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality as a whole or of basic dimensions of human existence and experience. "/> <meta property="og:type" content="ARTICLE"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Philosophy | Definition, Systems, Fields, Schools, & Biographies | Britannica"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Philosophy is the rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality as a whole or of basic dimensions of human existence and experience. "/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopedia Britannica" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/44/22944-050-20DB2F82/Plato-Aristotle-philosophers-detail-Raphael-School-of.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg" /> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="init opengraph"> Mendel.openGraph = {"type":"ARTICLE","title":"Philosophy | Definition, Systems, Fields, Schools, & Biographies","description":"Philosophy is the rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality as a whole or of basic dimensions of human existence and experience. ","imageUrl":"https://cdn.britannica.com/44/22944-050-20DB2F82/Plato-Aristotle-philosophers-detail-Raphael-School-of.jpg","imageType":"image/jpeg","pageUrl":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy"}</script> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/" > <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons"> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/vendor-bundle.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/mendel-css.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <script type="text/javascript"> if (self !== top) { top.location = self.location; } // if ('scrollRestoration' in history) { history.scrollRestoration = 'manual'; } </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/at.js?v=3.130.14" async ></script> <script> dataLayer = []; </script> <script type="text/javascript">(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= '//www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-5W6NC8'); </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"headline":"Philosophy | Definition, Systems, Fields, Schools, & Biographies","image":{"url":"https://cdn.britannica.com/44/22944-050-20DB2F82/Plato-Aristotle-philosophers-detail-Raphael-School-of.jpg","@type":"ImageObject"},"author":[{"name":"The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica","url":"https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419","@type":"Person"}],"keywords":"philosophy","wordcount":320,"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy","datePublished":"1998-07-20T00:00:00Z","description":"Philosophy is the rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality as a whole or of basic dimensions of human existence and experience. ","publisher":{"name":"Encyclopedia Britannica","@type":"Organization","logo":{"url":"https://corporate.britannica.com/wp-content/themes/eb-corporate/_img/logo.png","@type":"ImageObject"}},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"article"} </script></head> <body data-leg="C" class="new-topic topic-desktop first-page-true user-ANONYMOUS user-ads md-desktop leg-cb-ie">  <script>Mendel.config.adProvider='ay';</script> <script async src="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net/tag/js/gpt.js"></script> <script> window.googletag = window.googletag || {cmd: []}; googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.defineSlot('/15510053/CMP_1x1', [1, 1], 'div-gpt-ad-1709766812090-0').addService(googletag.pubads()); googletag.pubads().enableSingleRequest(); googletag.enableServices(); }); </script> <script async defer src="https://launchpad-wrapper.privacymanager.io/0ccc6fe8-1870-4ad8-b47b-6d029ac116fc/launchpad-liveramp.js"></script> <script async src="https://JRyhoywLYXNLYMAhs.ay.delivery/manager/JRyhoywLYXNLYMAhs" type="text/javascript" referrerpolicy="no-referrer-when-downgrade" ></script><div class="ie-warning d-flex align-items-center align-self-center justify-content-center site-alert bg-orange"> <div> You are using an <strong>outdated</strong> browser. Please <a class="text-white text-underscore" href="https://browsehappy.com/">upgrade your browser</a> to improve your experience and security. </div> </div> <script id="json-navbar-info" type="application/json"> {"topSectionLinks":[{"title":"Ask the Chatbot","url":"/chatbot","navbarId":"CHATBOT"},{"title":"Games & Quizzes","url":"/quiz/browse","navbarId":"QUIZZES"},{"title":"ProCon","url":"/procon","navbarId":"PROCON"},{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society","selected":true,"navbarId":"HISTORY"},{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech","navbarId":"SCIENCE"},{"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies","navbarId":"BIOS"},{"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature","navbarId":"ANIMALS"},{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel","navbarId":"GEOGRAPHY"},{"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture","navbarId":"ART"},{"title":"Money","url":"/money","navbarId":"MONEY"},{"title":"Videos","url":"/videos","navbarId":"VIDEOS"}],"selectedSuperCategory":{"id":5,"title":"History & Society","url":"History-Society","description":"Explore history and society; accidents and disasters; the age of revolutions; the ancient world; historic dynasties; global exploration; the middle ages; the modern world; prehistory; US history; world history; wars and battles; sociology; religion and philosophy; humanities; ethics; anthropology; festivals and holidays; human rights; human migration; international relations; politics, law, and government","keywords":"accidents and disasters; the age of revolutions; the ancient world; historic dynasties; global exploration; the middle ages; the modern world; prehistory; US history; world history; wars and battles; sociology; religion and philosophy; humanities; ethics; anthropology; festivals and holidays; human rights; human migration; international relations; politics, law, and government","classId":"HISTORY","sortOrder":1},"selectedNavbarLink":{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society","selected":true,"navbarId":"HISTORY"}} </script> <script id="json-hamburger-menu" type="application/json"> {"britannicaMenu1":[{"title":"Home","url":"/"},{"title":"ProCon","url":"/procon"},{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society"},{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech"},{"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies"},{"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature"},{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel"},{"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture"},{"title":"Money","url":"/money"}],"britannicaMenu2":[{"title":"Games & Quizzes","url":"/quiz/browse"},{"title":"Videos","url":"/videos"},{"title":"On This Day","url":"/on-this-day"},{"title":"One Good Fact","url":"/one-good-fact"},{"title":"Dictionary","url":"/dictionary"},{"title":"New Articles","url":"/new-articles"}],"browseByCategory":[{"title":{"id":5,"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society"},"links":[{"title":"Lifestyles & Social Issues","url":"/browse/Lifestyles-Social-Issues"},{"title":"Philosophy & Religion","url":"/browse/Philosophy-Religion"},{"title":"Politics, Law & Government","url":"/browse/Politics-Law-Government"},{"title":"World History","url":"/browse/World-History"}]},{"title":{"id":6,"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech"},"links":[{"title":"Health & Medicine","url":"/browse/Health-Medicine"},{"title":"Science","url":"/browse/Science"},{"title":"Technology","url":"/browse/Technology"}]},{"title":{"id":3,"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies"},"links":[{"title":"Browse Biographies","url":"/browse/biographies"}]},{"title":{"id":1,"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature"},"links":[{"title":"Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates","url":"/browse/Birds-Reptiles-Vertebrates"},{"title":"Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates","url":"/browse/Bugs-Mollusks-Invertebrates"},{"title":"Environment","url":"/browse/Environment"},{"title":"Fossils & Geologic Time","url":"/browse/Fossil-Geologic-Time"},{"title":"Mammals","url":"/browse/Mammals"},{"title":"Plants","url":"/browse/Plants"}]},{"title":{"id":4,"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel"},"links":[{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/browse/Geography-Travel"}]},{"title":{"id":2,"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture"},"links":[{"title":"Entertainment & Pop Culture","url":"/browse/Entertainment-Pop-Culture"},{"title":"Literature","url":"/browse/Literature"},{"title":"Sports & Recreation","url":"/browse/Sports-Recreation"},{"title":"Visual Arts","url":"/browse/Visual-Arts"}]}],"browseByFeature":[{"title":"Companions","url":"/stories/companion"},{"title":"Demystified","url":"/stories/demystified"},{"title":"Image Galleries","url":"/gallery/browse"},{"title":"Lists","url":"/list/browse"},{"title":"Podcasts","url":"/podcasts"},{"title":"Spotlight","url":"/stories/spotlight"},{"title":"Summaries","url":"/summary"},{"title":"The Forum","url":"/stories/the-forum"},{"title":"Top Questions","url":"/question"},{"title":"#WTFact","url":"/stories/wtfact"}],"moreFromBritannica":[{"title":"Britannica Kids","url":"https://kids.britannica.com/","newTab":true}],"menuType":"DEFAULT"} </script> <header id="header" class="bg-navy-dark"> <div class="global-nav-top-bar"> <div class="grid gx-0 h-100 justify-content-between align-items-center container-lg mx-auto p-0 position-relative"> <div class="d-flex align-items-center"> <button class="d-flex align-items-center justify-self-start js-toggle js-toggle-hamburger btn btn-link link-white btn-sm rounded-0 p-10"> <div class="hamburger-tooltip"> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block font-24" id="nav-toggle" data-icon="menu"></em> </div> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block font-24 global-nav-search-icon" id="nav-search-icon" data-icon="search" ></em> </button> <a href="/" class="d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center ml-10"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png" alt="Encyclopedia Britannica" class="global-nav-logo global-nav-logo-left" /> </a> <div class="global-nav-top-search-bar global-nav-top-search-container global-nav-search-container" id="global-nav-top-search-bar"> <form method="get" action="/search" id="global-nav-search" class="md-search-form m-0 global-nav-search-bar-small"> <div class="search-box position-relative col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="global-nav-search-query">Search Britannica</label> <input name="query" id="global-nav-search-query" placeholder="Search Britannica..." class="form-control form-control-lg rounded-lg font-16 search-query pl-20 pr-70 shadow-sm" maxlength="200" autocomplete="off" aria-label="Search Britannica" /> <button class="search-reset-btn btn btn-link px-10 position-absolute top-0 h-100 d-none" type="reset"> <em class="material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </button> <button class="search-submit btn btn-link text-blue px-10 position-absolute top-0 right-0 h-100" type="submit" disabled> <span class="sr-only">Click here to search</span> <em class="material-icons search-icon" data-icon="search"></em> </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <a href="/" class="d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png" alt="Encyclopedia Britannica" class="global-nav-center global-nav-logo non-homepage-logo" /> </a> <form method="get" action="/search" id="global-nav-search" class="md-search-form m-0 global-nav-search-bar-small global-nav-center search global-nav-center-search-container"> <div class="search-box position-relative col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="global-nav-search-query">Search Britannica</label> <input name="query" id="global-nav-search-query" placeholder="Search Britannica..." class="form-control form-control-lg rounded-lg font-16 search-query pl-20 pr-70 shadow-sm" maxlength="200" autocomplete="off" aria-label="Search Britannica" /> <button class="search-reset-btn btn btn-link px-10 position-absolute top-0 h-100 d-none" type="reset"> <em class="material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </button> <button class="search-submit btn btn-link text-blue px-10 position-absolute top-0 right-0 h-100" type="submit" disabled> <span class="sr-only">Click here to search</span> <em class="material-icons search-icon" data-icon="search"></em> </button> </div> </form> <div class="col-35 col-sm-auto text-right order-3 mr-lg-15 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-end"> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block"> <SPAN class="marketing-HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_DESKTOP2 marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_DESKTOP2"><a href="https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS" class="subscribe-link btn btn-sm btn-outline-white-orange py-5 mr-10" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Subscribe </a></SPAN></div> <div class="d-inline-block d-md-none mr-5 mr-sm-10"> <SPAN class="marketing-HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_MOBILE marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_MOBILE"><a href="https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS" class="subscribe-link btn btn-xs btn-orange-dark p-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Subscribe </a></SPAN></div> <button class="js-toggle-user-dropdown js-toggle btn btn-sm btn-link link-white rounded-0 px-md-15 pl-5 pr-5"> <span class="d-none d-md-inline-block mr-5">Login</span> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block d-md-none font-16 font-sm-20" data-icon="account_circle"></em> <div class="d-none dropdown-menu-subscription-link">https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS</div> <em class="material-icons inactive-icon d-inline-block font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_down"></em> <em class="material-icons active-icon d-inline-block font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_up"></em> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-none hamburger-menu-subscription-link"><DIV class="marketing-HAMBURGER_MENU_CTA marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HAMBURGER_MENU_CTA"><a href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=hamburger-menu&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024" class="subscribe-link btn btn-sm btn-orange py-5" target="_blank"> Subscribe <span class="d-none d-md-inline"> Now</span> </a></DIV></div> <div id="global-nav-react"> <div class="d-none"> <ul> <li><a href="/">Home</a></li> <li><a href="/procon">ProCon</a></li> <li><a href="/History-Society">History & Society</a></li> <li><a href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a></li> <li><a href="/Biographies">Biographies</a></li> <li><a href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/money">Money</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/quiz/browse">Games & Quizzes</a></li> <li><a href="/videos">Videos</a></li> <li><a href="/on-this-day">On This Day</a></li> <li><a href="/one-good-fact">One Good Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/dictionary">Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/new-articles">New Articles</a></li> </ul> <a href="/History-Society">History & Society</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Lifestyles-Social-Issues">Lifestyles & Social Issues</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Philosophy-Religion">Philosophy & Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Politics-Law-Government">Politics, Law & Government</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/World-History">World History</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Health-Medicine">Health & Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Technology">Technology</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Biographies">Biographies</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/biographies">Browse Biographies</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Birds-Reptiles-Vertebrates">Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Bugs-Mollusks-Invertebrates">Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Environment">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Fossil-Geologic-Time">Fossils & Geologic Time</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Mammals">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Plants">Plants</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Entertainment-Pop-Culture">Entertainment & Pop Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Sports-Recreation">Sports & Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Visual-Arts">Visual Arts</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/stories/companion">Companions</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/demystified">Demystified</a></li> <li><a href="/gallery/browse">Image Galleries</a></li> <li><a href="/list/browse">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/podcasts">Podcasts</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/spotlight">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/summary">Summaries</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/the-forum">The Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/question">Top Questions</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/wtfact">#WTFact</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="https://kids.britannica.com/">Britannica Kids</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </header> <div class="bg-navy-dark"> <div class="container-lg p-0 d-flex justify-content-center global-nav-categories-bar overflow-hidden"> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 global-nav-slider category-snap-slider"> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex font-14 overflow-hidden text-nowrap mx-5"> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-CHATBOT " href="/chatbot">Ask the Chatbot</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-QUIZZES " href="/quiz/browse">Games & Quizzes</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-PROCON " href="/procon">ProCon</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-HISTORY selected selected" href="/History-Society">History & Society</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-SCIENCE " href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-BIOS " href="/Biographies">Biographies</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-ANIMALS " href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-GEOGRAPHY " href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-ART " href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-MONEY " href="/money">Money</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-VIDEOS " href="/videos">Videos</a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content " data-topic-id="456811"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy">philosophy</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <span class="toc-extra-link selected link-gray-900 mt-15"> Introduction </span> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/philosophy">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/44/22944-050-20DB2F82/Plato-Aristotle-philosophers-detail-Raphael-School-of.jpg" data-href="/media/1/456811/27853" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/44/22944-004-3DD66070/Plato-Aristotle-philosophers-detail-Raphael-School-of.jpg" alt="Raphael: School of Athens" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/94/115894-004-71E97C61/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Joseph-von-Schelling.jpg" data-href="/media/1/456811/130120" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/94/115894-004-71E97C61/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Joseph-von-Schelling.jpg" alt="Friedrich Schelling." height="50" /> </a> <a href="/video/Mortimer-J-Adler-Philosopher-production-man-philosopher-1962/199747" data-href="/media/1/456811/199747" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <div class="position-relative --aspect-ratio: 16/9"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/125298-138-16470530/Mortimer-J-Adler-Philosopher-production-man-philosopher-1962.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Examine what is known about the ancient Athenian philosopher Socrates from Plato's dialogues and other sources" class="col-100" /> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; left:50%; transform: translate(-50%, -50%)"> <em class="material-icons font-14" data-icon="play_arrow" > </em> </div> </div> </a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-related-quizzes"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Quizzes </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/philosophy-101"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/42/163042-131-6AC5D943/greeting-guests-Agathon-canvas-oil-Platos-Symposium-1869.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Agathon (centre) greeting guests in Plato's Symposium, oil on canvas by Anselm Feuerbach, 1869; in the Staatliche Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe, Germany." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/philosophy-101" >Philosophy 101</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-related-questions"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 pb-0 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-15"> Related Questions </div> <ul> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/What-is-ethics">What is ethics?</a> </li> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/How-is-ethics-different-from-morality">How is ethics different from morality?</a> </li> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/Why-does-ethics-matter">Why does ethics matter?</a> </li> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/Is-ethics-a-social-science">Is ethics a social science?</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-read-next"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Read Next </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/philosophers-to-know-part-ii"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/74/102174-131-CFC2DE8A/Immanuel-Kant-print-London-1812.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), German philosopher. Print published in London, 1812. Profile portrait surrounded by Ouroboros ancient Egyptian-Greek symbolic serpent with tail in mouth devouring itself representing unity of material and spiritual in eternal..." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/philosophers-to-know-part-ii" >Philosophers to Know, Part II</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/philosophers-to-know-part-i"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/96/142296-131-425C3B45/Aristotle-types-reasoning.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Aristotle (384-322 BC), Ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. One of the most influential philosophers in the history of Western thought, Aristotle established the foundations for the modern scientific method of enquiry. Statue" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/philosophers-to-know-part-i" >Philosophers to Know, Part I</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/whats-the-difference-between-morality-and-ethics"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/80/191980-131-AC0F1C4B/stones-boulder-top.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Well-balanced of stones on the top of boulder" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/whats-the-difference-between-morality-and-ethics" >What’s the Difference Between Morality and Ethics?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/plato-and-aristotle-how-do-they-differ"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/75/177675-131-B7B445EB/detail-Aristotle-School-of-Athens-Plato-Raphael.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Plato (left) and Aristotle, detail from School of Athens, fresco by Raphael, 1508-11; in the Stanza della Segnatura, the Vatican. Plato points to the heavens and the realm of Forms, Aristotle to the earth and the realm of things." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/plato-and-aristotle-how-do-they-differ" >Plato and Aristotle: How Do They Differ?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/9-britannica-articles-that-explain-the-meaning-of-life"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/43/111343-131-24A2567C/Sombrero-Galaxy-galaxy-Sa-image-Hubble-Space.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Spiral Galaxy type Sa-Sb or Sa/Sb in the constellation Virgo. The majestic Sombrero Galaxy Messier 104 (M104) or NGC 4594. The team took six pictures of the galaxy, stitched them together to create the final composite image. Photo from May-June 2003" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/9-britannica-articles-that-explain-the-meaning-of-life" >9 Britannica Articles That Explain the Meaning of Life</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-discover"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Discover </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/11-egyptian-gods-and-goddesses"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/52/196952-131-0665E4EE/Egyptians-hieroglyphics-carvings.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="An ancient egyptian hieroglyphic painted carving showing the falcon headed god Horus seated on a throne and holding a golden fly whisk. Before him are the Pharoah Seti and the goddess Isis. Interior wall of the temple to Osiris at Abydos, Egypt." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/11-egyptian-gods-and-goddesses" >11 Egyptian Gods and Goddesses</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/plato-and-aristotle-how-do-they-differ"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/75/177675-131-B7B445EB/detail-Aristotle-School-of-Athens-Plato-Raphael.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Plato (left) and Aristotle, detail from School of Athens, fresco by Raphael, 1508-11; in the Stanza della Segnatura, the Vatican. Plato points to the heavens and the realm of Forms, Aristotle to the earth and the realm of things." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/plato-and-aristotle-how-do-they-differ" >Plato and Aristotle: How Do They Differ?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/10-greatest-baseball-players-of-all-time"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/35/146135-131-BC5E7D00/Baseball-grass-arts-Homepage-blog-entertainment-sports-2010.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Baseball laying in the grass. Homepage blog 2010, arts and entertainment, history and society, sports and games athletics" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/10-greatest-baseball-players-of-all-time" >10 Greatest Baseball Players of All Time</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/why-is-ireland-two-countries"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/43/148643-131-2B2237A6/example-landscape-Irish-Ireland-Sligo.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Rural Irish landscape, Sligo, Ireland." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/why-is-ireland-two-countries" >Why Is Ireland Two Countries?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/where-do-anti-semitic-conspiracy-theories-about-the-rothschild-family-come-from"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/200267-131-4F79E2AC/Mayer-Amschel-Rothschild.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744-1855), founder of the house of Rothschild; lithograph by Friedrich Lieder, c. 1830." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/where-do-anti-semitic-conspiracy-theories-about-the-rothschild-family-come-from" >Where Do Anti-Semitic Conspiracy Theories About the Rothschild Family Come From?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/why-do-we-eat-turkey-on-thanksgiving"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/72/201772-131-C576ED87/Turkey-sides.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Thanksgiving Turkey with all the sides" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/why-do-we-eat-turkey-on-thanksgiving" >Why Do We Eat Turkey on Thanksgiving?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/why-is-thanksgiving-in-the-us-celebrated-on-a-thursday"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/212906-131-C791368A/Thanksgiving-celebration-food-table-spread.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Thanksgiving Celebration Traditional Dinner Setting Food Concept" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/why-is-thanksgiving-in-the-us-celebrated-on-a-thursday" >Why Is Thanksgiving in the U.S. Celebrated on a Thursday?</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="drawerToggle btn position-sticky border btn-xs btn-white btn-circle rounded-sm d-none d-lg-flex " type="button" aria-label="Toggle Drawer"> <em class="material-icons font-18 text-blue" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="h-100 ml-0 pr-lg-0 "> <div class="h-100 grid gx-0 gx-lg-20"> <div class="h-100 col-sm"> <div class="h-100 infinite-pagination-container d-flex flex-column position-relative"> <div class="position-absolute top-0 h-100 w-100"> <div class="toc-sticky-header d-none d-lg-none bg-gray-50 px-10 px-sm-30 position-sticky w-100 "> <div class="toc-sticky-header-inner-container align-items-center d-flex mx-auto h-100 w-100"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-sm btn-white text-blue border-2 border-gray-100 gtm-mobile-toc-header-button js-sections-button d-lg-none p-10"> <em class="material-icons my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Contents </button> <div class="header-ai-ask-button-placeholder"></div> <div class="header-ai-summarize-button-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="grey-box w-100 grey-box-top grey-box-bottom"> <div class="grey-box-content mx-auto w-100"> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context" : "https://schema.org", "@type" : "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement" : [ { "@type" : "ListItem", "position" : 1, "item" : { "@id" : "https://www.britannica.com/browse/Philosophy-Religion", "name": "Philosophy & Religion" } } , { "@type" : "ListItem", "position" : 2, "item" : { "@id" : "https://www.britannica.com/browse/Philosophical-Issues", "name": "Philosophical Issues" } } ] } </script> <nav class="breadcrumb mt-20"> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Philosophy-Religion">Philosophy & Religion</a> </span> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Philosophical-Issues">Philosophical Issues</a> </span> </nav> <div class="page2ref-true topic-content topic-type-REGULAR" data-student-article="true"> <script class="page-description-json" type="application/json"> { "url": "/topic/philosophy", "shareUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy", "browserTitle": "Philosophy | Definition, Systems, Fields, Schools, & Biographies", "firstTopicPage": true, "topicId":456811 } </script> <div class="reading-channel"> <div class="desktop-header-image module-spacing"> <figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-20 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="13684" data-asm-type="image"> <div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"> <a style="min-height: 160px;" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/44/22944-050-20DB2F82/Plato-Aristotle-philosophers-detail-Raphael-School-of.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/456811/27853"> <picture> <source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/44/22944-050-20DB2F82/Plato-Aristotle-philosophers-detail-Raphael-School-of.jpg?w=300"> <img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/44/22944-050-20DB2F82/Plato-Aristotle-philosophers-detail-Raphael-School-of.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop" alt="Raphael: School of Athens" loading="eager" /> </picture> <button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"> <em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em> </button> </a> </div> <figcaption class="card-body"> <div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"> <span> <a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/44/22944-050-20DB2F82/Plato-Aristotle-philosophers-detail-Raphael-School-of.jpg" data-href="/media/1/456811/27853">Raphael: <em>School of Athens</em></a> <span><span>Plato (centre left) and Aristotle surrounded by philosophers, detail from <em>School of Athens</em>, fresco by Raphael, 1508–11; in the Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican.</span></span> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <span class="link-blue">(more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </div><div class="topic-header"> <div class="d-flex align-items-top justify-content-between"> <div class="d-flex flex-column"> <div> <div> <h1>philosophy</h1></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-none d-sm-flex flex-row"> <div class="mr-10 mb-15"> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="d-none d-sm-block md-topic-tools qa-action-buttons mb-15" data-topic-id="456811"> <button class="js-tooltip btn btn-sm btn-outline-blue border pr-10 border-2" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="more_vert"></em> More Actions </button> <div class="md-more-popover popover popover-sm p-0 font-14 z-1"> <div> <a class="js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" href="/print/article/456811" target="_blank" > <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="print"></em> Print </a> </div> <div> <button class="js-modal qa-cite-modal-button btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=456811] .md-cite-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="verified"></em> Cite </button> <div class="md-cite-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom mb-15"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10">verified</em>Cite </div> <div class="font-serif"> While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. </div> <div class="label mt-20 mb-10">Select Citation Style</div> <select class="js-citation-format-select form-select"> <option selected value="mla">MLA</option> <option value="apa">APA</option> <option value="chicago">Chicago Manual of Style</option> </select> <div class="citation font-serif border rounded p-15 mt-20" data-authors="The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica" data-title="philosophy" data-published-date="15 Sep. 2024" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy" > <div class="citation-text"></div> </div> <button class="js-copy-citation-button mt-20 btn btn-xs btn-outline-blue border shadow-sm pr-10" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="file_copy"></em> <span class="js-citation-status-text">Copy Citation</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-share-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=456811] .md-share-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="share"></em> Share </button> <div class="md-share-modal size-lg d-none qa-share-modal"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10" data-icon="share"></em> Share </div> <div class="label my-20">Share to social media</div> <div class="md-social-toolbar-circle d-flex align-items-start inverted" data-value="share" title="philosophy" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy" > <a class="social-icon facebook justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>Facebook</span></a> <a class="social-icon x justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="x" href="https://x.com/britannica" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>X</span></a> </div> <div class="label pt-20 mt-20 mb-5 border-top">URL</div> <a class="font-serif text-truncate d-inline-block" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy">https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy</a> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-feedback-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal=".md-feedback-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="message"></em> Feedback </button> </div> <div> <button class="qa-external-website-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=456811] .md-websites-modal"> <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 mr-5" data-icon="link"></em> External Websites </button> </div> </div> <div class="md-feedback-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom"> Feedback </div> <form method="post" action="/submission/feedback/456811"> <div class="my-20"> Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/philosophy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill - The Writing Center - Philosophy</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/philosophy" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Psychology Today - Philosophy</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.philosophybasics.com/general_whatis.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">The Basics of Philosophy - What is Philosophy?</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/philosophy" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">The Canadian Encyclopedia - Philosophy</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692709/pdf/10670025.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Center for Biotechnology Information - The future of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Philosophy/Introduction_to_Philosophy_(OpenStax)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Philosophy" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Humanities LibreTexts - Introduction to Philosophy</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.utep.edu/liberalarts/philosophy/resources/student-resources/a-brief-guide.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">The University of Texas at El Paso - Philosophy, A Brief Guide</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.academia.edu/191015/What_is_Philosophy" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Academia - What is Philosophy?</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/philosophy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">World History Encyclopedia - Philosophy</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/philosophy/399564" target="_blank" rel="noopener">philosophy - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/philosophy/276400" target="_blank" rel="noopener">philosophy - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written and fact-checked by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Socrates" topicid="551948">Socrates</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Aristotle" topicid="34560">Aristotle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Plato" topicid="464109">Plato</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Francis-Bacon-Viscount-Saint-Alban" topicid="48126">Francis Bacon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/John-Locke" topicid="345753">John Locke</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/ethics-philosophy" topicid="194023">ethics</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Western-philosophy" topicid="1350843">Western philosophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/metaphysics" topicid="377923">metaphysics</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Indian-philosophy" topicid="285905">Indian philosophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/epistemology" topicid="190219">epistemology</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/philosophy"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref74041"></span>philosophy</strong>, (from Greek, by way of Latin, <em>philosophia</em>, “love of wisdom”) the rational, abstract, and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="methodical" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/methodical" data-type="EB">methodical</a> consideration of reality as a whole or of fundamental dimensions of human <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/existence" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">existence</a> and experience. Philosophical inquiry is a central element in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/intellectual-history" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">intellectual history</a> of many civilizations.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The subject of philosophy is treated in a number of articles. For discussion of major systems of Eastern philosophy, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Buddhism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Chinese philosophy</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Confucianism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Daoism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Daoism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hinduism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indian philosophy</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jainism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Japanese-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Japanese philosophy</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shinto" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Shintō</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sikhism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sikhism</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">For biographies of major Eastern philosophers, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Buddha-founder-of-Buddhism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Buddha</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Confucius" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Confucius</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dai-Zhen" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dai Zhen</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Han-Feizi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Han Feizi</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Laozi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Laozi</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mencius-Chinese-text" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mencius</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mozi-Chinese-philosopher" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mozi</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nichiren" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nichiren</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nishida-Kitaro" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nishida Kitarō</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wang-Yangming" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Wang Yangming</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Xunzi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Xunzi</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zhu-Xi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Zhu Xi</a>.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/philosophy-101" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/42/163042-131-6AC5D943/greeting-guests-Agathon-canvas-oil-Platos-Symposium-1869.jpg" alt="Agathon (centre) greeting guests in Plato's Symposium, oil on canvas by Anselm Feuerbach, 1869; in the Staatliche Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe, Germany." class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">Philosophy 101</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">For historical coverage of Western philosophy, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Western philosophy</a>. For discussion of philosophies associated with the major religious traditions of the West, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion#ref67529" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Christianity: Christian philosophy</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam/Islamic-philosophy#ref69177" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Islam: Islamic philosophy</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35284" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Judaism: Jewish philosophy</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">For discussion of major Western schools, movements, and systems, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/atomism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">atomism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/analytic-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">analytic philosophy</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/continental-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Continental philosophy</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/deconstruction" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">deconstruction</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eleaticism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Eleaticism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/empiricism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">empiricism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/existentialism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">existentialism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/idealism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">idealism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/materialism-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">materialism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/phenomenology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">phenomenology</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/positivism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">positivism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/postmodernism-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">postmodernism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/pragmatism-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">pragmatism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/rationalism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">rationalism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/realism-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">realism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Scholasticism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Scholasticism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/skepticism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">skepticism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stoicism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Stoicism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/utilitarianism-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">utilitarianism</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">For biographies of major Western philosophers and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="treatment" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/treatment" data-type="EB">treatment</a> of their associated movements, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristotle" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Aristotle</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aristotelianism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Aristotelianism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rene-Descartes" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">René Descartes</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cartesianism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cartesianism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Epicurus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Epicurus</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Epicureanism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Epicureanism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georg-Wilhelm-Friedrich-Hegel" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hegelianism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hegelianism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Immanuel-Kant" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Immanuel Kant</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kantianism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kantianism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karl-Marx" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Marxism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Plato" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Plato</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Platonism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Platonism</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pythagoras" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pythagoras</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Pythagoreanism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pythagoreanism</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">For discussion of other major Western philosophers, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Peter-Abelard" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Peter Abelard</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Anselm-of-Canterbury" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">St. Anselm</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">St. Thomas Aquinas</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Augustine" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">St. Augustine</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Noam-Chomsky" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Noam Chomsky</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jacques-Derrida" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jacques Derrida</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Blessed-John-Duns-Scotus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Duns Scotus</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Michel-Foucault" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Michel Foucault</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jurgen-Habermas" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jürgen Habermas</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Martin-Heidegger-German-philosopher" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Martin Heidegger</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Hume" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">David Hume</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-James" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">William James</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saul-Kripke" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Saul Kripke</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Locke" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">John Locke</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Stuart-Mill" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">John Stuart Mill</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Friedrich-Nietzsche" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hilary-Putnam" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hilary Putnam</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bertrand-Russell" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bertrand Russell</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Paul-Sartre" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Socrates" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Socrates</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benedict-de-Spinoza" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Benedict de Spinoza</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bernard-Williams" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bernard Williams</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ludwig-Wittgenstein" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">For coverage of the particular branches of Western philosophy, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/aesthetics" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">aesthetics</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">epistemology</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ethics</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ideology-society" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ideology</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">logic</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/metaphysics" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">metaphysics</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophical-anthropology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophical anthropology</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-biology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of biology</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-education" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of education</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-history" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of history</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-language" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of language</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-law" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of law</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of logic</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/philosophy-of-mathematics" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of mathematics</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-mind" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of mind </a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-physics" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of physics</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-religion" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of religion</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-science" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophy of science</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></span> <span class="md-signature">This article was most recently revised and updated by <a href="/editor/Brian-Duignan/6469">Brian Duignan</a>.</span><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":1,"pageId":456811,"pageLength":320,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"MEDIUM","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Philosophy | Definition, Systems, Fields, Schools, & Biographies | Britannica