Judaism | Definition, Origin, History, Beliefs, & Facts

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border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism">Judaism</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/topic/Judaism">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref35164"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism#ref35164">The history of Judaism</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35165"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism#ref35165">General observations</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35166"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism#ref35166">Nature and characteristics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35167"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism#ref35167">Periodization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35168"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Biblical-Judaism-20th-4th-century-bce">Biblical Judaism (20th–4th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35169"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Biblical-Judaism-20th-4th-century-bce#ref35169">The ancient Middle Eastern setting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35170"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Biblical-Judaism-20th-4th-century-bce#ref35170">The pre-Mosaic period: the religion of the patriarchs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35171" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Biblical-Judaism-20th-4th-century-bce#ref35171">The Mosaic period: foundations of the Israelite religion</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35172"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Biblical-Judaism-20th-4th-century-bce#ref35172">The Egyptian sojourn</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35173"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Mosaic-religion">Mosaic religion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35174"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Mosaic-religion#ref35174">The period of the conquest and settlement of Canaan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35175" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Mosaic-religion#ref35175">The period of the united monarchy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35176"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Mosaic-religion#ref35176">The religious and political problem</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35177"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Davidic-monarchy">The Davidic monarchy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35178"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Davidic-monarchy#ref35178">The period of the divided kingdom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35179" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-period-of-classical-prophecy-and-cult-reform">The period of classical prophecy and cult reform</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35180"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-period-of-classical-prophecy-and-cult-reform#ref35180">The emergence of the literary prophets</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35181"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-period-of-classical-prophecy-and-cult-reform#ref35181">Prophecy in the southern kingdom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35182"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-period-of-classical-prophecy-and-cult-reform#ref35182">Reforms in the southern kingdom</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35183"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Babylonian-Exile">The Babylonian Exile</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35184"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Babylonian-Exile#ref35184">The period of the restoration</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35185"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Hellenistic-Judaism-4th-century-bce-2nd-century-ce">Hellenistic Judaism (4th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>–2nd century <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35186" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Hellenistic-Judaism-4th-century-bce-2nd-century-ce#ref35186">The Greek period (332–63 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35187"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Hellenistic-Judaism-4th-century-bce-2nd-century-ce#ref35187">Hellenism and Judaism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35188"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Hellenistic-Judaism-4th-century-bce-2nd-century-ce#ref35188">Social, political, and religious divisions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35189"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Religious-rites-and-customs-in-Palestine-the-Temple-and-the-synagogues">Religious rites and customs in Palestine: the Temple and the synagogues</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35190"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Religious-rites-and-customs-in-Palestine-the-Temple-and-the-synagogues#ref35190">Religious and cultural life in the Diaspora</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35191"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Religious-rites-and-customs-in-Palestine-the-Temple-and-the-synagogues#ref35191">Egyptian Jewish literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35192"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Religious-rites-and-customs-in-Palestine-the-Temple-and-the-synagogues#ref35192">Palestinian literature</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35193" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Roman-period-63-bce-135-ce">The Roman period (63 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>–135 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35194"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Roman-period-63-bce-135-ce#ref35194">New parties and sects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35195"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Roman-period-63-bce-135-ce#ref35195">Origin of Christianity: the early Christians and the Jewish community</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35196"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Roman-period-63-bce-135-ce#ref35196">Judaism under Roman rule</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35197"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Rabbinic-Judaism-2nd-18th-century">Rabbinic Judaism (2nd–18th century)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35198" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Rabbinic-Judaism-2nd-18th-century#ref35198">The age of the <em>tannaim</em> (135–c. 200)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35199"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Rabbinic-Judaism-2nd-18th-century#ref35199">The role of the rabbis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35200"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Rabbinic-Judaism-2nd-18th-century#ref35200">The making of the Mishna</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35201" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Rabbinic-Judaism-2nd-18th-century#ref35201">The age of the <em>amoraim</em>: the making of the Talmuds (3rd–6th century)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35202"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Rabbinic-Judaism-2nd-18th-century#ref35202">Palestine (c. 220–c. 400)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35203"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Babylonia-200-650">Babylonia (200–650)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35204" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Babylonia-200-650#ref35204">The age of the <em>geonim</em> (c. 640–1038)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35205"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Babylonia-200-650#ref35205">Triumph of the Babylonian rabbinate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35206"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Babylonia-200-650#ref35206">Anti-rabbinic reactions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35207"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Babylonia-200-650#ref35207">The gaonate of Saʿadia ben Joseph</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35208" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Medieval-European-Judaism-950-1750">Medieval European Judaism (950–1750)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35209"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Medieval-European-Judaism-950-1750#ref35209">The two major branches</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35210"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Medieval-European-Judaism-950-1750#ref35210">Sephardic developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35211"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Medieval-European-Judaism-950-1750#ref35211">Ashkenazic developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260811"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Marginalization-and-expulsion">Marginalization and expulsion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35212"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Marginalization-and-expulsion#ref35212">Conflicts and new movements</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35213"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Modern-Judaism-c-1750-to-the-present">Modern Judaism (c. 1750 to the present)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35214"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Modern-Judaism-c-1750-to-the-present#ref35214">The new situation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35215" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Modern-Judaism-c-1750-to-the-present#ref35215">The Haskala, or Enlightenment</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35216"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Modern-Judaism-c-1750-to-the-present#ref35216">In central Europe</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35217"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Modern-Judaism-c-1750-to-the-present#ref35217">In eastern Europe</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35218"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Religious-reform-movements">Religious reform movements</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35219" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Religious-reform-movements#ref35219">Orthodox developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35220"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Religious-reform-movements#ref35220">In western and central Europe</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35221"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Religious-reform-movements#ref35221">In eastern Europe</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35222"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Religious-reform-movements#ref35222">Developments in scholarship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35223"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-Christian-relations">Jewish-Christian relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35224"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-Christian-relations#ref35224">Zionism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35225"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-Christian-relations#ref35225">American Judaism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35226"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-Christian-relations#ref35226">Judaism in other lands</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35227"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-Christian-relations#ref35227">Contemporary Judaism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref35228"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition">The Judaic tradition</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35229"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition#ref35229">The literature of Judaism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35230"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition#ref35230">General considerations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35231" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition#ref35231">Sources and scope of the Torah</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35232"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition#ref35232">Prophecy and religious experience</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35233"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition#ref35233">Modern views of Torah</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35234"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-beliefs-and-doctrines">Basic beliefs and doctrines</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35235" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-beliefs-and-doctrines#ref35235">God</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35236"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-beliefs-and-doctrines#ref35236">Unity and uniqueness</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35237"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-beliefs-and-doctrines#ref35237">Creativity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35238"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-beliefs-and-doctrines#ref35238">Activity in the world</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35239"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-beliefs-and-doctrines#ref35239">Otherness and nearness</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35240"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-beliefs-and-doctrines#ref35240">Modern views of God</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35241" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Israel-the-Jewish-people">Israel (the Jewish people)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35242"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Israel-the-Jewish-people#ref35242">Choice and covenant</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35243"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Israel-the-Jewish-people#ref35243">Israel and the nations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35244"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Israel-the-Jewish-people#ref35244">The people and the land</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35245"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Israel-the-Jewish-people#ref35245">Modern views of the people Israel</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35246" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanity">Humanity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35247"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanity#ref35247">The image of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35248"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanity#ref35248">The earthly-spiritual creature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35249"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanity#ref35249">The ethically bound creature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35250"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanity#ref35250">Medieval and modern views of man</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35251" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ethics-and-society">Ethics and society</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35252"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ethics-and-society#ref35252">The ethical emphasis of Judaism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35253"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ethics-and-society#ref35253">Interpenetration of communal and individual ethics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35254"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ethics-and-society#ref35254">The key moral virtues</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35255"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ethics-and-society#ref35255">The relation to non-Jewish communities and cultures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35256"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ethics-and-society#ref35256">The formulation of Jewish ethical doctrines</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35257" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ethics-and-society#ref35257">The universe</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35258"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ethics-and-society#ref35258">Creation and Providence: God’s world</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35259"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanitys-place-in-the-universe">Humanity’s place in the universe</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35260"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanitys-place-in-the-universe#ref35260">Intermediary beings: angels and demons</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35261" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanitys-place-in-the-universe#ref35261">Eschatology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35262"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanitys-place-in-the-universe#ref35262">The future age of humankind and the world</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35263"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanitys-place-in-the-universe#ref35263">The king-messiah and his reign</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35264"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Humanitys-place-in-the-universe#ref35264">Secularization of messianism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35265"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-practices-and-institutions">Basic practices and institutions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35266"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-practices-and-institutions#ref35266">The hallowing of everyday existence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35267"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-practices-and-institutions#ref35267">The traditional pattern of individual and familial practices</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35268"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-practices-and-institutions#ref35268">The traditional pattern of synagogue practices</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35269"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Basic-practices-and-institutions#ref35269">Ceremonies marking the individual life cycles</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35270"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Holy-places-the-land-of-Israel-and-Jerusalem">Holy places: the land of Israel and Jerusalem</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35271"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Holy-places-the-land-of-Israel-and-Jerusalem#ref35271">The sacred language: Hebrew and the vernacular tongues</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35272" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Holy-places-the-land-of-Israel-and-Jerusalem#ref35272">The rabbinate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35273"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Holy-places-the-land-of-Israel-and-Jerusalem#ref35273">Legal, judicial, and congregational roles</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35274"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Holy-places-the-land-of-Israel-and-Jerusalem#ref35274">Chief rabbinates</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35275"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Holy-places-the-land-of-Israel-and-Jerusalem#ref35275">General councils or conferences</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35276"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Holy-places-the-land-of-Israel-and-Jerusalem#ref35276">Modern variations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260812"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Jewish-religious-year">The Jewish religious year</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260813"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Jewish-religious-year#ref260813">The cycle of the religious year</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260814" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Jewish-religious-year#ref260814">The Jewish calendar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260815"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Jewish-religious-year#ref260815">Lunisolar structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260816"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Jewish-religious-year#ref260816">Months and notable days</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260817"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Jewish-religious-year#ref260817">Origin and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260818" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Sabbath">The Sabbath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260819"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Sabbath#ref260819">Importance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260820"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Sabbath#ref260820">Observances</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260821" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Sabbath#ref260821">The Jewish holidays</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260822"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Sabbath#ref260822">Pilgrim Festivals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260823"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ten-Days-of-Penitence">Ten Days of Penitence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260824"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ten-Days-of-Penitence#ref260824">Minor festivals: Hanukkah and Purim</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260825"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ten-Days-of-Penitence#ref260825">The five fasts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260826"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ten-Days-of-Penitence#ref260826">The lesser holidays</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260827"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Ten-Days-of-Penitence#ref260827">The situation today</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35277"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Art-and-iconography">Art and iconography</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35278"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Art-and-iconography#ref35278">The anti-iconic principle and its modifications</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35279"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Art-and-iconography#ref35279">Ceremonial objects and symbols</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35280"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Art-and-iconography#ref35280">Architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35281"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Art-and-iconography#ref35281">Paintings and illustrations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35282"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Art-and-iconography#ref35282">Music</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35283"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Art-and-iconography#ref35283">Literature</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35284"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35285" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35285">Pre-Hellenistic and Hellenistic thought</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35286"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35286">Bible and Apocrypha</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35287"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35287">Philo Judaeus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35288"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35288">Other ancient sources</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35289" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35289">Medieval philosophy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35290"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35290">Jewish <em>kalām</em></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35291"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35291">Saʿadia ben Joseph</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35292"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35292">The Karaites</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35293"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35293">Jewish Neoplatonism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35294"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-philosophy#ref35294">Isaac Israeli</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35295"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Solomon-ibn-Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35296"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Solomon-ibn-Gabirol#ref35296">Judah ha-Levi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35297"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Solomon-ibn-Gabirol#ref35297">Other Jewish thinkers, c. 1050–c. 1150</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35298"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Solomon-ibn-Gabirol#ref35298">Jewish Aristotelianism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35299"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Solomon-ibn-Gabirol#ref35299">Abraham ibn Daud</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35300"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35301"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Maimonides#ref35301">Averroists</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35302"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Maimonides#ref35302">Gersonides</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35303"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Hasdai-Crescas">Ḥasdai Crescas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35304"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Hasdai-Crescas#ref35304">Joseph Albo</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35305" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Hasdai-Crescas#ref35305">Modern philosophy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35306"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Hasdai-Crescas#ref35306">The Iberian-Dutch philosophers</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35307"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Hasdai-Crescas#ref35307">Uriel Acosta</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35308"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Benedict-de-Spinoza">Benedict de Spinoza</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35309"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Benedict-de-Spinoza#ref35309">German philosophers</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35310"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Benedict-de-Spinoza#ref35310">Moses Mendelssohn</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35311"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Benedict-de-Spinoza#ref35311">Solomon Formstecher</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35312"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Samuel-Hirsch">Samuel Hirsch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35313"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Samuel-Hirsch#ref35313">Nachman Krochmal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35314"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Samuel-Hirsch#ref35314">Solomon Steinheim</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35315"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Samuel-Hirsch#ref35315">Hermann Cohen</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35316"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Samuel-Hirsch#ref35316">Franz Rosenzweig</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35317"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Samuel-Hirsch#ref35317">Martin Buber</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref260828"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Samuel-Hirsch#ref260828">Emmanuel Lévinas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35318"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-mysticism">Jewish mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35319" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-mysticism#ref35319">Nature and characteristics</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35320"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-mysticism#ref35320">The Judaic context</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35321"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-mysticism#ref35321">Three types of Jewish mysticism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35322" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-mysticism#ref35322">Main lines of development</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35323"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Jewish-mysticism#ref35323">Early stages to the 6th century <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35324"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Sefer-yetzira"><em>Sefer yetzira</em></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35325"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Sefer-yetzira#ref35325">The Arabic-Islamic influence (7th–13th century)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35326"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Sefer-yetzira#ref35326">The making of Kabbala (c. 1150–1250)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35327"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Sefer-yetzira#ref35327"><em>Sefer ha-bahir</em></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35328"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Sefer-yetzira#ref35328">School of Isaac the Blind</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35329"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Sefer-yetzira#ref35329">The 10 <em>sefirot</em></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35330"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/School-of-Gerona-Catalonia">School of Gerona (Catalonia)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35331"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/School-of-Gerona-Catalonia#ref35331"><em>Sefer ha-temuna</em></a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35332"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/School-of-Gerona-Catalonia#ref35332">Medieval German (Ashkenazic) Hasidism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35333"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/School-of-Gerona-Catalonia#ref35333">The making of the <em>Zohar</em> (c. 1260–1492)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35334"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Lurianic-Kabbala">The Lurianic Kabbala</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35335"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Lurianic-Kabbala#ref35335">Shabbetaianism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35336"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-Lurianic-Kabbala#ref35336">Modern Hasidism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35337"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Modern-Jewish-mysticism">Modern Jewish mysticism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35338"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Modern-Jewish-mysticism#ref35338">Jewish myth and legend</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35339"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Modern-Jewish-mysticism#ref35339">Significance and characteristics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35340" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Modern-Jewish-mysticism#ref35340">Sources and development</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35341"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Modern-Jewish-mysticism#ref35341">Myth and legend in the Bible</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35342"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myths">Myths</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35343"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myths#ref35343">Legends and other tales</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35344"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myths#ref35344">Contemporary interpretations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35345"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myths#ref35345">Myth and legend in the Persian period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35346"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-Hellenistic-period">Myth and legend in the Hellenistic period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35347"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-Hellenistic-period#ref35347">Historiated Bibles and legendary histories</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35348"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-Hellenistic-period#ref35348">Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35349"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-Hellenistic-period#ref35349">Myth and legend in the Talmud and Midrash</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35350"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-Hellenistic-period#ref35350">Midrash and Haggada</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35351"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-Hellenistic-period#ref35351">Fables and animal stories</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35352"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-Hellenistic-period#ref35352">Contribution of Haggada to Christian and Islamic legends</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35353"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-medieval-period">Myth and legend in the medieval period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35354"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-medieval-period#ref35354">Jewish contributions to diffusion of folktales</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35355"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-medieval-period#ref35355">Hebrew versions of medieval romances</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35356"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-medieval-period#ref35356">Jewish contributions to Christian and Islamic tales</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35357"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-medieval-period#ref35357">Major medieval Hebrew collections</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35358"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-medieval-period#ref35358">Medieval legendary histories and Haggadic compendiums</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35360"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-modern-period">Myth and legend in the modern period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35361"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-modern-period#ref35361">Kabbalistic tales</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35362"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-modern-period#ref35362">Judeo-German (Yiddish) tales</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35363"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-modern-period#ref35363">Judeo-Persian and Judeo-Spanish (Ladino) tales</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35364"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-modern-period#ref35364">Hasidic tales</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35365"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-modern-period#ref35365">Droll stories</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref35366"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Myth-and-legend-in-the-modern-period#ref35366">Modern Israeli folktales</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35367"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Judaism-in-world-perspective">Judaism in world perspective</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35368" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Judaism-in-world-perspective#ref35368">Relation with non-Judaic religions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35369"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Judaism-in-world-perspective#ref35369">Exclusivist and universalist emphases</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35370"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Judaism-in-world-perspective#ref35370">Relation to Christianity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35371"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Judaism-in-world-perspective#ref35371">Relation to Islam</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35372"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/Judaism-in-world-perspective#ref35372">Relations with other religions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35373" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-role-of-Judaism-in-Western-culture-and-civilization">The role of Judaism in Western culture and civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35374"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-role-of-Judaism-in-Western-culture-and-civilization#ref35374">Its historic role</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35375"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-role-of-Judaism-in-Western-culture-and-civilization#ref35375">Its present role</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35376"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Judaism/The-role-of-Judaism-in-Western-culture-and-civilization#ref35376">Future prospects</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Judaism">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a 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Gaster</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Religion, Barnard College, Columbia University, 1966–72. Author of <i>Myth, Legend, and Custom in the Old Testament; Thespis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Ancient Near East.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Theodor H. Gaster</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Lou-Hackett-Silberman/2728" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Lou Hackett Silberman</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Hillel Professor Emeritus of Jewish Literature and Thought, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. Adjunct Professor of Judaic Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson. Author of <i>Listening to the...</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Lou Hackett Silberman</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-22T00:00:00CST" >Nov 22, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle" topicid="447019">St. Paul the Apostle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Martin-Buber-German-religious-philosopher" topicid="82688">Martin Buber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Philo-Judaeus" topicid="456612">Philo Judaeus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Jeremiah-Hebrew-prophet" topicid="302676">Jeremiah</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Ezra-Hebrew-religious-leader" topicid="199520">Ezra</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/Jewish-religious-year" topicid="303554">Jewish religious year</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Zionism" topicid="657475">Zionism</a></dd> <dd><a href="/art/klezmer-music" topicid="1379883">klezmer music</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Reform-Judaism" topicid="495370">Reform Judaism</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Haskala" topicid="256614">Haskala</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/Judaism"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/307197/52b74577982b34ce2607b693bd51cae7" rel="nofollow">Texas education board approves optional Bible-infused curriculum for elementary schools</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 5:39 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref88018"></span>Judaism</strong>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/monotheism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">monotheistic</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">religion</a> developed among the ancient <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hebrew" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hebrews</a>. Judaism is characterized by a belief in one <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="transcendent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/transcendent" data-type="MW">transcendent</a> God who revealed himself to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Abraham</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Moses-Hebrew-prophet" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Moses</a>, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hebrew" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hebrew</a> prophets and by a religious life in accordance with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hebrew-Bible" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Scriptures</a> and rabbinic traditions. Judaism is the complex phenomenon of a total way of life for the Jewish people, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="comprising" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/comprising" data-type="MW">comprising</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/theology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">theology</a>, law, and innumerable cultural traditions.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The first section of this article treats the history of Judaism in the broadest and most complete sense, from the early ancestral beginnings of the Jewish people to contemporary times. In the second section the beliefs, practices, and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a> of Judaism are discussed.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref35164"> <h2 class="h1">The history of Judaism</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">It is history that provides the key to an understanding of Judaism, for its primal affirmations appear in early historical narratives. Thus, the <span id="ref88020"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bible" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bible</a> reports contemporary events and activities for essentially religious reasons. The biblical authors believed that the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/sacred" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">divine</a> presence is encountered primarily within history. God’s presence is also experienced within the natural realm, but the more immediate or <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="intimate" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intimate" data-type="MW">intimate</a> disclosure occurs in human actions. Although other ancient <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="communities" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communities" data-type="MW">communities</a> also perceived a divine presence in history, the understanding of the ancient <span id="ref88025"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Israelite" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Israelites</a> proved to be the most lasting and influential. It is this particular claim—to have experienced God’s presence in human events—and its subsequent development that is the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="differentiating" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/differentiating" data-type="MW">differentiating</a> factor in Jewish thought.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Moreover, the ancient Israelites’ entire mode of existence was affected by their belief that throughout history they stood in a unique relationship with the divine. The people of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Israel-Old-Testament-kingdom" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Israel</a> believed that their response to the divine presence in history was central not only for themselves but for all humankind. Furthermore, God—as person—had revealed in a particular encounter the pattern and structure of communal and individual life to this people. Claiming <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="sovereignty" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sovereignty" data-type="MW">sovereignty</a> over the people because of his continuing action in history on their behalf, he had established a <span id="ref88022"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/covenant-religion" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">covenant</a> (<em>berit</em>) with them and required from them obedience to his teaching, or law (<span id="ref88030"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Torah" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Torah</a>). This obedience was a further means by which the divine presence was made manifest—expressed in concrete human existence. The corporate life of the <span id="ref88021"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/chosen-people" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">chosen</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="community" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community" data-type="MW">community</a> was thus a summons to the rest of humankind to recognize God’s presence, sovereignty, and purpose—the establishment of peace and well-being in the universe and in humankind.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">History, moreover, disclosed not only God’s purpose but also humankind’s inability to live in accord with it. Even the chosen community failed in its obligation and had to be summoned back, time and again, to its responsibility by the <span id="ref88023"></span>prophets—the divinely called spokespersons who warned of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="retribution" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/retribution" data-type="MW">retribution</a> within history and argued and reargued the case for <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="affirmative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/affirmative" data-type="MW">affirmative</a> human response. Israel’s role in the divine economy and thus Israel’s particular culpability were dominant themes sounded against the motif of fulfillment, the ultimate triumph of the divine purpose, and the establishment of divine sovereignty over all humankind.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="2" id="ref35165"> <h2 class="h2">General observations</h2> <section data-level="3" id="ref35166"> <h2 class="h3">Nature and characteristics</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In nearly 4,000 years of historical development, the Jewish people and their religion have displayed a remarkable adaptability and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="continuity" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/continuity" data-type="MW">continuity</a>. In their encounter with the great civilizations, from ancient <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Babylonia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Babylonia</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Egypt</a> to Western Christendom and modern <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="secular" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/secular" data-type="MW">secular</a> culture, they have <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="assimilated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/assimilated" data-type="MW">assimilated</a> foreign elements and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="integrated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integrated" data-type="MW">integrated</a> them into their own social and religious systems, thus maintaining an unbroken religious and cultural tradition. Furthermore, each period of Jewish history has left behind it a specific element of a Judaic heritage that continued to influence subsequent developments, so that the total Jewish heritage at any given time is a combination of all these successive elements along with whatever adjustments and accretions have occurred in each new age.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The various teachings of Judaism have often been regarded as specifications of the central idea of <span id="ref88024"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/monotheism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">monotheism</a>. One God, the creator of the world, has freely elected the Jewish people for a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="unique" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/unique" data-type="EB">unique</a> covenantal relationship with himself. This one and only God has been affirmed by virtually all professing Jews in a variety of ways throughout the ages.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Jewish monotheism has had both universalistic and particularistic features. Along universal lines, it has affirmed a God who created and rules the entire world and who at the end of history will redeem all Israel (the classical name for the Jewish people), all humankind, and indeed the whole world. The ultimate goal of all nature and history is an unending reign of cosmic intimacy with God, entailing universal <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="justice" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/justice" data-type="MW">justice</a> and peace. Between creation and redemption lies the particularistic <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="designation" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/designation" data-type="MW">designation</a> of the Jewish people as the locus of God’s activity in the world, as the people chosen by God to be “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (<a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Exodus-Old-Testament" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Exodus</a> 19:6). This arrangement is designated a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="covenant" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/covenant" data-type="MW">covenant</a> and is structured by an elaborate and intricate law. Thus, the Jewish people are both entitled to special privileges and burdened with special responsibilities from God. As the prophet <span id="ref88028"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Amos" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Amos</a> (8th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>) expressed it: “You alone have I intimately known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities” (Amos 3:2). The universal goal of the Jewish people has frequently expressed itself in <span id="ref88029"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/messiah-religion" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">messianism</a>—the idea of a universal, political realm of justice and peace. In one form or another, messianism has permeated Jewish thinking and action throughout the ages, and it has strongly influenced the outlook of many secular-minded Jews (<em>see also</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/eschatology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">eschatology</a>).</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Law embraces practically all domains of Jewish life, and it became the principle means by which Judaism was to bring about the reign of God on earth. It is a total guide to religious and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ethical" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethical" data-type="MW">ethical</a> conduct, involving ritualistic observance as well as individual and social <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">ethics</a>. It is a liturgical and ethical way constantly expatiated on by the prophets and priests, by rabbinic sages, and by philosophers. Such conduct was to be performed in the service of God, the transcendent and immanent ruler of the universe, the Creator and the propelling force of nature, and the one giving guidance and purpose to history. According to Judaic belief, this divine guidance is <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="manifested" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/manifested" data-type="MW">manifested</a> through the history of the Jewish people, which will culminate in the messianic age. Judaism, whether in its “normative” form or in its sectarian deviations, never completely departed from this basic ethical and historical monotheism.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Salo-Wittmayer-Baron/182">Salo Wittmayer Baron</a></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Lou-Hackett-Silberman/2728">Lou Hackett Silberman</a></span> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref35167"> <h2 class="h3">Periodization</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The division of the millennia of Jewish history into periods is a procedure frequently dependent on <span id="ref88019"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-history" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">philosophical</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="predilections" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/predilections" data-type="MW">predilections</a>. The Christian world long believed that until the rise of <span id="ref88033"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Christianity</a> the history of Judaism was but a “preparation for the Gospel” (<em>preparatio evangelica</em>) that was followed by the “manifestation of the Gospel” (<em>demonstratio evangelica</em>) as revealed by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Christ</a> and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Apostle" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Apostles</a>. This formulation could be theologically <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="reconciled" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/reconciled" data-type="MW">reconciled</a> with the assumption that Christianity had been preordained even before the creation of the world.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the 19th century, biblical scholars moved the decisive division back to the period of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Babylonian-Captivity" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Babylonian Exile</a> and the restoration of the Jews to the kingdom of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judah-Hebrew-tribe" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Judah</a> (6th–5th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>). They asserted that after the first fall of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jerusalem" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Jerusalem</a> (586 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>) the ancient “Israelitic” religion gave way to a new form of the “Jewish” <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/faith" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">faith</a>, or Judaism, as formulated by the reformer <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ezra-Hebrew-religious-leader" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ezra</a> (5th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>) and his school. In <em>Die Entstehung des Judentums</em> (1896; “The Origin of Judaism”) the German historian <span id="ref88034"></span>Eduard Meyer argued that Judaism originated in the Persian period, or the days of <span id="ref88035"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ezra-Hebrew-religious-leader" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ezra</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nehemiah" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nehemiah</a> (5th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>); indeed, he attributed an important role in shaping the emergent religion to Persian imperialism.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">These theories, however, have been discarded by most scholars in the light of a more <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="comprehensive" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/comprehensive" data-type="MW">comprehensive</a> knowledge of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Middle-East" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">ancient Middle East</a> and the abandonment of a theory of gradual evolutionary development that was dominant at the beginning of the 20th century. Most Jews share a long-accepted notion that there never was a real break in continuity and that Mosaic-prophetic-priestly Judaism was continued, with only a few modifications, in the work of the Pharisaic and rabbinic sages well into the modern period. Even today the various Jewish groups—whether <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Orthodox-Judaism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Orthodox</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Conservative-Judaism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Conservative</a>, or <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Reform-Judaism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Reform</a>—all claim direct spiritual descent from the Pharisees and the rabbinic sages. In fact, however, many developments have occurred within so-called <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="normative" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/normative" data-type="EB">normative</a> or <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rabbinic-Judaism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Rabbinic Judaism</a>.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In any event, the history of Judaism can be divided into the following major periods: biblical Judaism (c. 20th–4th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>), Hellenistic Judaism (4th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>–2nd century <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>), Rabbinic Judaism (2nd–18th century <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>), and modern Judaism (c. 1750 to the present).</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Salo-Wittmayer-Baron/182">Salo Wittmayer Baron</a></span> </section> </section> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":45,"pageId":307197,"pageLength":1420,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Judaism | Definition, Origin, History, Beliefs, & Facts | Britannica