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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Questionnaires as tools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Questionnaires_as_tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reliability_and_validity_of_self-report_measures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reliability_and_validity_of_self-report_measures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Reliability and validity of self-report measures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reliability_and_validity_of_self-report_measures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composing_a_questionnaire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composing_a_questionnaire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Composing a questionnaire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composing_a_questionnaire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guidelines_for_the_effective_wording_of_questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guidelines_for_the_effective_wording_of_questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Guidelines for the effective wording of questions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guidelines_for_the_effective_wording_of_questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Order_of_questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Order_of_questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Order of questions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Order_of_questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translating_a_questionnaire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translating_a_questionnaire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Translating a questionnaire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translating_a_questionnaire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nonresponse_reduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nonresponse_reduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Nonresponse reduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nonresponse_reduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interviewer_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interviewer_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Interviewer effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interviewer_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_role_of_big_data" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_role_of_big_data"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The role of big data</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_role_of_big_data-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A5%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="استقصاء إحصائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="استقصاء إحصائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encuesta" title="Encuesta – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Encuesta" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encuesta" title="Encuesta – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Encuesta" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enquesta" title="Enquesta – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Enquesta" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey-metodik" title="Survey-metodik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Survey-metodik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Befragung" title="Befragung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Befragung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%B8%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Μεθοδολογία έρευνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεθοδολογία έρευνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encuesta" title="Encuesta – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Encuesta" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkesta" title="Inkesta – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Inkesta" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="روش‌های آمارگیری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روش‌های آمارگیری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sondage_(statistique)" title="Sondage (statistique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sondage (statistique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enk%C3%AAte" title="Enkête – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Enkête" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enquisa" title="Enquisa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enquisa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%A4%EB%AC%B8" title="설문 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="설문" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="सांख्यिकीय सर्वेक्षण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सांख्यिकीय सर्वेक्षण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodologi_survei" title="Metodologi survei – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Metodologi survei" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sondaggio_(statistica)" title="Sondaggio (statistica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sondaggio (statistica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survei" title="Survei – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Survei" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apklausa" title="Apklausa – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Apklausa" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Анкета – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Анкета" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enqu%C3%AAte_(onderzoek)" title="Enquête (onderzoek) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Enquête (onderzoek)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%BB" title="調査 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="調査" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badania_ankietowe" title="Badania ankietowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Badania ankietowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodologia_de_pesquisa_estat%C3%ADstica" title="Metodologia de pesquisa estatística – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Metodologia de pesquisa estatística" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Методология социологического исследования – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Методология социологического исследования" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodologjia_e_anketave" title="Metodologjia e anketave – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Metodologjia e anketave" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_survey" title="Statistical survey – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Statistical survey" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodologija_ankete" title="Metodologija ankete – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Metodologija ankete" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyunders%C3%B6kning" title="Surveyundersökning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Surveyundersökning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Методологія опитування – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Методологія опитування" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%A5" title="社會統計調查 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="社會統計調查" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the publication, see <a href="/wiki/Survey_Methodology" title="Survey Methodology"><i>Survey Methodology</i></a>.</div> <p><b>Survey methodology</b> is "the study of <a href="/wiki/Survey_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Survey (disambiguation)">survey</a> methods".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a field of <a href="/wiki/Applied_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied statistics">applied statistics</a> concentrating on <a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">human-research surveys</a>, survey methodology studies the <a href="/wiki/Sample_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample (statistics)">sampling</a> of individual units from a <a href="/wiki/Population_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Population (statistics)">population</a> and associated techniques of <a href="/wiki/Survey_data_collection" title="Survey data collection">survey data collection</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Questionnaire_construction" title="Questionnaire construction">questionnaire construction</a> and methods for improving the number and accuracy of responses to surveys. Survey methodology targets instruments or procedures that ask one or more questions that may or may not be answered. </p><p>Researchers carry out <b>statistical surveys</b> with a view towards making <a href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">statistical inferences</a> about the population being studied; such inferences depend strongly on the survey questions used. <a href="/wiki/Opinion_poll" title="Opinion poll">Polls</a> about <a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">public opinion</a>, public-health surveys, <a href="/wiki/Market_research" title="Market research">market-research</a> surveys, government surveys and <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">censuses</a> all exemplify <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative research</a> that uses survey methodology to answer questions about a population. Although censuses do not include a "sample", they do include other aspects of survey methodology, like questionnaires, interviewers, and non-response follow-up techniques. Surveys provide important information for all kinds of <a href="/wiki/Public_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Public information">public-information</a> and research fields, such as <a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a> research, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_care_provider" title="Health care provider">health-care provision</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A single survey is made of at least a sample (or full population in the case of a census), a method of data collection (e.g., a questionnaire) and individual questions or items that become data that can be analyzed statistically. A single survey may focus on different types of topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate), opinions (e.g., should abortion be legal?), behavior (smoking and alcohol use), or factual information (e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since <a href="/wiki/Survey_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey research">survey research</a> is almost always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the sample with respect to a target population of interest to the researcher. That target population can range from the general population of a given country to specific groups of people within that country, to a membership list of a professional organization, or list of students enrolled in a school system (see also <a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">sampling (statistics)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Survey_sampling" title="Survey sampling">survey sampling</a>). The persons replying to a survey are called <a href="/wiki/Respondent" title="Respondent">respondents</a>, and depending on the questions asked their answers may represent themselves as individuals, their households, employers, or other organization they represent. </p><p>Survey methodology as a scientific field seeks to identify principles about the sample design, data collection instruments, statistical adjustment of data, and data processing, and final data analysis that can create systematic and random survey errors. Survey errors are sometimes analyzed in connection with survey cost. Cost constraints are sometimes framed as improving quality within cost constraints, or alternatively, reducing costs for a fixed level of quality. Survey methodology is both a scientific field and a profession, meaning that some professionals in the field focus on survey errors empirically and others design surveys to reduce them. For survey designers, the task involves making a large set of decisions about thousands of individual features of a survey in order to improve it.<sup id="cite_ref-Groves_2004_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Groves_2004-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most important methodological challenges of a survey methodologist include making decisions on how to:<sup id="cite_ref-Groves_2004_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Groves_2004-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Identify and select potential sample members.</li> <li>Contact sampled individuals and collect data from those who are hard to reach (or reluctant to respond)</li> <li>Evaluate and test questions.</li> <li>Select the mode for posing questions and collecting responses.</li> <li>Train and supervise interviewers (if they are involved).</li> <li>Check data files for accuracy and internal consistency.</li> <li>Adjust survey estimates to correct for identified errors.</li> <li>Complement survey data with new data sources (if appropriate)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selecting_samples">Selecting samples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Selecting samples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Survey_sampling" title="Survey sampling">Survey sampling</a></div> <p>The sample is chosen from the sampling frame, which consists of a list of all members of the population of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal of a survey is not to describe the sample, but the larger population. This generalizing ability is dependent on the representativeness of the sample, as stated above. Each member of the population is termed an element. There are frequent difficulties one encounters while choosing a representative sample. One common error that results is <a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">selection bias</a>. Selection bias results when the procedures used to select a sample result in over representation or under representation of some significant aspect of the population. For instance, if the population of interest consists of 75% females, and 25% males, and the sample consists of 40% females and 60% males, females are under represented while males are overrepresented. In order to minimize selection biases, <a href="/wiki/Stratified_random_sampling" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratified random sampling">stratified random sampling</a> is often used. This is when the population is divided into sub-populations called strata, and random samples are drawn from each of the strata, or elements are drawn for the sample on a proportional basis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modes_of_data_collection">Modes of data collection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modes of data collection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Survey_data_collection" title="Survey data collection">Survey data collection</a></div> <p>There are several ways of administering a survey. The choice between administration modes is influenced by several factors, including </p> <ol><li>costs,</li> <li>coverage of the target population,</li> <li>flexibility of asking questions,</li> <li>respondents' willingness to participate and</li> <li>response accuracy.</li></ol> <p>Different methods create <a href="/wiki/Mode_effect" title="Mode effect">mode effects</a> that change how respondents answer, and different methods have different advantages. The most common modes of administration can be summarized as:<sup id="cite_ref-Mellenbergh,_G.J._2008_pp._183–209_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mellenbergh,_G.J._2008_pp._183–209-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Telephone</li> <li>Mail (post)</li> <li>Online surveys</li> <li>Mobile surveys</li> <li>Personal in-home surveys</li> <li>Personal mall or street intercept survey</li> <li>Mixed modes</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_designs">Research designs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Research designs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several different designs, or overall structures, that can be used in survey research. The three general types are cross-sectional, successive independent samples, and longitudinal studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cross-sectional_studies">Cross-sectional studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cross-sectional studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In cross-sectional studies, a sample (or samples) is drawn from the relevant population and studied once.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A cross-sectional study describes characteristics of that population at one time, but cannot give any insight as to the causes of population characteristics because it is a predictive, correlational design. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Successive_independent_samples_studies">Successive independent samples studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Successive independent samples studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A successive independent samples design draws multiple random samples from a population at one or more times.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This design can study changes within a population, but not changes within individuals because the same individuals are not surveyed more than once. Such studies cannot, therefore, identify the causes of change over time necessarily. For successive independent samples designs to be effective, the samples must be drawn from the same population, and must be equally representative of it. If the samples are not comparable, the changes between samples may be due to demographic characteristics rather than time. In addition, the questions must be asked in the same way so that responses can be compared directly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Longitudinal_studies">Longitudinal studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Longitudinal studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Longitudinal studies take measure of the same random sample at multiple time points.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike with a successive independent samples design, this design measures the differences in individual participants' responses over time. This means that a researcher can potentially assess the reasons for response changes by assessing the differences in respondents' experiences. Longitudinal studies are the easiest way to assess the effect of a naturally occurring event, such as divorce that cannot be tested experimentally. </p><p>However, longitudinal studies are both expensive and difficult to do. It is harder to find a sample that will commit to a months- or years-long study than a 15-minute interview, and participants frequently leave the study before the final assessment. In addition, such studies sometimes require data collection to be confidential or anonymous, which creates additional difficulty in linking participants' responses over time. One potential solution is the use of a self-generated identification code (SGIC).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These codes usually are created from elements like 'month of birth' and 'first letter of the mother's middle name.' Some recent anonymous SGIC approaches have also attempted to minimize use of personalized data even further, instead using questions like 'name of your first pet.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the approach used, the ability to match some portion of the sample can be lost. </p><p>In addition, the overall attrition of participants is not random, so samples can become less representative with successive assessments. To account for this, a researcher can compare the respondents who left the survey to those that did not, to see if they are statistically different populations. Respondents may also try to be self-consistent in spite of changes to survey answers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Questionnaires">Questionnaires</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Questionnaires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Questionaire_in_Thai.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Questionaire_in_Thai.png/220px-Questionaire_in_Thai.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Questionaire_in_Thai.png/330px-Questionaire_in_Thai.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Questionaire_in_Thai.png/440px-Questionaire_in_Thai.png 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1866" /></a><figcaption>A basic <a href="/wiki/Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">questionnaire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai language</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Questionnaires are the most commonly used tool in survey research. However, the results of a particular survey are worthless if the questionnaire is written inadequately.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Questionnaires should produce valid and reliable demographic variable measures and should yield valid and reliable individual disparities that self-report scales generate.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Questionnaires_as_tools">Questionnaires as tools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Questionnaires as tools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A variable category that is often measured in survey research are demographic variables, which are used to depict the characteristics of the people surveyed in the sample.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Demographic variables include such measures as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, race, and age.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surveys often assess the preferences and attitudes of individuals, and many employ self-report scales to measure people's opinions and judgements about different items presented on a scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Self-report scales are also used to examine the disparities among people on scale items.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These self-report scales, which are usually presented in questionnaire form, are one of the most used instruments in psychology, and thus it is important that the measures be constructed carefully, while also being reliable and valid.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reliability_and_validity_of_self-report_measures">Reliability and validity of self-report measures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reliability and validity of self-report measures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reliable measures of self-report are defined by their consistency.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, a reliable self-report measure produces consistent results every time it is executed.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A test's reliability can be measured a few ways.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, one can calculate a test-retest reliability.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A test-retest reliability entails conducting the same questionnaire to a large sample at two different times.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the questionnaire to be considered reliable, people in the sample do not have to score identically on each test, but rather their position in the score distribution should be similar for both the test and the retest.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Self-report measures will generally be more reliable when they have many items measuring a construct.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, measurements will be more reliable when the factor being measured has greater variability among the individuals in the sample that are being tested.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, there will be greater reliability when instructions for the completion of the questionnaire are clear and when there are limited distractions in the testing environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrastingly, a questionnaire is valid if what it measures is what it had originally planned to measure.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Construct validity of a measure is the degree to which it measures the theoretical construct that it was originally supposed to measure.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composing_a_questionnaire">Composing a questionnaire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Composing a questionnaire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Six steps can be employed to construct a questionnaire that will produce reliable and valid results.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, one must decide what kind of information should be collected.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second, one must decide how to conduct the questionnaire.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thirdly, one must construct a first draft of the questionnaire.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fourth, the questionnaire should be revised.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Next, the questionnaire should be pretested.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, the questionnaire should be edited and the procedures for its use should be specified.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guidelines_for_the_effective_wording_of_questions">Guidelines for the effective wording of questions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Guidelines for the effective wording of questions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The way that a question is phrased can have a large impact on how a research participant will answer the question.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, survey researchers must be conscious of their wording when writing survey questions.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important for researchers to keep in mind that different individuals, cultures, and subcultures can interpret certain words and phrases differently from one another.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two different types of questions that survey researchers use when writing a questionnaire: free response questions and closed questions.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Free response questions are open-ended, whereas closed questions are usually multiple choice.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Free response questions are beneficial because they allow the responder greater flexibility, but they are also very difficult to record and score, requiring extensive coding.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrastingly, closed questions can be scored and coded more easily, but they diminish expressivity and spontaneity of the responder.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the vocabulary of the questions should be very simple and direct, and most should be less than twenty words.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each question should be edited for "readability" and should avoid leading or loaded questions.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, if multiple items are being used to measure one construct, the wording of some of the items should be worded in the opposite direction to evade response bias.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A respondent's answer to an open-ended question can be coded into a response scale afterwards,<sup id="cite_ref-Mellenbergh,_G.J._2008_pp._183–209_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mellenbergh,_G.J._2008_pp._183–209-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or analysed using more qualitative methods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Order_of_questions">Order of questions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Order of questions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Survey researchers should carefully construct the order of questions in a questionnaire.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For questionnaires that are self-administered, the most interesting questions should be at the beginning of the questionnaire to catch the respondent's attention, while demographic questions should be near the end.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrastingly, if a survey is being administered over the telephone or in person, demographic questions should be administered at the beginning of the interview to boost the respondent's confidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another reason to be mindful of question order may cause a <a href="/wiki/Survey_response_effects" title="Survey response effects">survey response effect</a> in which one question may affect how people respond to subsequent questions as a result of <a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">priming</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translating_a_questionnaire">Translating a questionnaire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Translating a questionnaire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Translation is crucial to collecting comparable survey data. Questionnaires are translated from a <a href="/wiki/Source_language_(translation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Source language (translation)">source language</a> into one or more target languages, such as translating from English into Spanish and German. A team approach is recommended in the translation process to include translators, subject-matter experts and persons helpful to the process.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Survey translation best practice includes parallel translation, team discussions, and pretesting with real-life people.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not a mechanical word placement process. The model TRAPD - Translation, Review, Adjudication, Pretest, and Documentation - originally developed for the <a href="/wiki/European_Social_Survey" title="European Social Survey">European Social Surveys</a>, is now "widely used in the global survey research community, although not always labeled as such or implemented in its complete form".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a> provides a theoretical framework for questionnaire translation and complements TRAPD. This approach states that for the questionnaire translation to achieve the equivalent communicative effect as the source language, the translation must be linguistically appropriate while incorporating the social practices and cultural norms of the target language.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nonresponse_reduction">Nonresponse reduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nonresponse reduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following ways have been recommended for reducing nonresponse<sup id="cite_ref-Lyn2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lyn2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in telephone and face-to-face surveys:<sup id="cite_ref-Dill_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dill-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Advance letter. A short letter is sent in advance to inform the sampled respondents about the upcoming survey. The style of the letter should be personalized but not overdone. First, it announces that a phone call will be made, or an interviewer wants to make an appointment to do the survey face-to-face. Second, the research topic will be described. Last, it allows both an expression of the surveyor's appreciation of cooperation and an opening to ask questions on the survey.</li> <li>Training. The interviewers are thoroughly trained in how to ask respondents questions, how to work with computers and making schedules for callbacks to respondents who were not reached.</li> <li>Short introduction. The interviewer should always start with a short introduction about him or herself. She/he should give her name, the institute she is working for, the length of the interview and goal of the interview. Also it can be useful to make clear that you are not selling anything: this has been shown to lead to a slightly higher responding rate.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Respondent-friendly survey questionnaire. The questions asked must be clear, non-offensive and easy to respond to for the subjects under study.</li></ul> <p>Brevity is also often cited as increasing response rate. A 1996 literature review found mixed evidence to support this claim for both written and verbal surveys, concluding that other factors may often be more important.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2010 study looking at 100,000 online surveys found response rate dropped by about 3% at 10 questions and about 6% at 20 questions, with drop-off slowing (for example, only 10% reduction at 40 questions).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other studies showed that quality of response degraded toward the end of long surveys.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some researchers have also discussed the recipient's role or profession as a potential factor affecting how nonresponse is managed. For example, faxes are not commonly used to distribute surveys, but in a recent study were sometimes preferred by pharmacists, since they frequently receive faxed prescriptions at work but may not always have access to a generally-addressed piece of mail.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interviewer_effects">Interviewer effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Interviewer effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Survey methodologists have devoted much effort to determining the extent to which interviewee responses are affected by physical characteristics of the interviewer. Main interviewer traits that have been demonstrated to influence survey responses are race,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gender,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and relative body weight (BMI).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These interviewer effects are particularly operant when questions are related to the interviewer trait. Hence, race of interviewer has been shown to affect responses to measures regarding racial attitudes,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> interviewer sex responses to questions involving gender issues,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and interviewer BMI answers to eating and dieting-related questions.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While interviewer effects have been investigated mainly for face-to-face surveys, they have also been shown to exist for interview modes with no visual contact, such as telephone surveys and in video-enhanced web surveys. The explanation typically provided for interviewer effects is <a href="/wiki/Social_desirability_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Social desirability bias">social desirability bias</a>: survey participants may attempt to project a positive self-image in an effort to conform to the norms they attribute to the interviewer asking questions. Interviewer effects are one example <a href="/wiki/Survey_response_effects" title="Survey response effects">survey response effects</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_role_of_big_data">The role of big data</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The role of big data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 2018, survey methodologists have started to examine how <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a> can complement survey methodology to allow researchers and practitioners to improve the production of survey statistics and its quality. Big data has low cost per data point, applies analysis techniques via <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">data mining</a>, and includes diverse and new data sources, e.g., registers, social media, apps, and other forms digital data. There have been three Big Data Meets Survey Science (BigSurv) conferences in 2018, 2020, 2023, and a conference forthcoming in 2025,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a special issue in the <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Science_Computer_Review" title="Social Science Computer Review">Social Science Computer Review</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a special issue in the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Statistical_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Statistical Society">Journal of the Royal Statistical Society</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a special issue in <a href="/wiki/European_Physical_Journal" title="European Physical Journal"><i>EP J Data Science</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a book called <i>Big Data Meets Social Sciences</i><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> edited by <a href="/wiki/Craig_A._Hill" title="Craig A. Hill">Craig A. Hill</a> and five other <a href="/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_American_Statistical_Association" title="List of fellows of the American Statistical Association">Fellows of the American Statistical Association</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mathematics" title="Portal:Mathematics">Mathematics portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Survey_data_collection" title="Survey data collection">Survey data collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Documentation_Initiative" title="Data Documentation Initiative">Data Documentation Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_feedback_management" title="Enterprise feedback management">Enterprise feedback management</a> (EFM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likert_scale" title="Likert scale">Likert scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_statistics" title="Official statistics">Official statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paid_survey" title="Paid survey">Paid survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_marketing_research" title="Quantitative marketing research">Quantitative marketing research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionnaire_construction" title="Questionnaire construction">Questionnaire construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratio_estimator" title="Ratio estimator">Ratio estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Social research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_survey_error" title="Total survey error">Total survey error</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGrovesFowlerCouperLepkowski2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Groves" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert M. Groves">Groves, Robert M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Floyd_J._Fowler_Jr." title="Floyd J. Fowler Jr.">Fowler, Floyd J.</a>; Couper, Mick P.; Lepkowski, James M.; <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Singer" title="Eleanor Singer">Singer, Eleanor</a>; Tourangeau, Roger (2004). "An introduction to survey methodology". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HXoSpXvo3s4C"><i>Survey Methodology</i></a>. Wiley Series in Survey Methodology. Vol. 561 (2 ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons (published 2009). p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470465462" title="Special:BookSources/9780470465462"><bdi>9780470465462</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2020</span>. <q>[...] survey methodology is the study of survey methods. It is the study of sources of error in surveys and how to make the numbers produced by the surveys as accurate as possible.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+introduction+to+survey+methodology&rft.btitle=Survey+Methodology&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+New+Jersey&rft.series=Wiley+Series+in+Survey+Methodology&rft.pages=3&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780470465462&rft.aulast=Groves&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft.au=Fowler%2C+Floyd+J.&rft.au=Couper%2C+Mick+P.&rft.au=Lepkowski%2C+James+M.&rft.au=Singer%2C+Eleanor&rft.au=Tourangeau%2C+Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHXoSpXvo3s4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurvey+methodology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Groves_2004-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Groves_2004_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Groves_2004_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrovesFowlerCouperLepkowski2009" class="citation book cs1">Groves, R.M.; Fowler, F. J.; Couper, M.P.; Lepkowski, J.M.; Singer, E.; Tourangeau, R. (2009). <i>Survey Methodology</i>. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-21134-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-21134-2"><bdi>978-1-118-21134-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Survey+Methodology&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-118-21134-2&rft.aulast=Groves&rft.aufirst=R.M.&rft.au=Fowler%2C+F.+J.&rft.au=Couper%2C+M.P.&rft.au=Lepkowski%2C+J.M.&rft.au=Singer%2C+E.&rft.au=Tourangeau%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurvey+methodology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaughnessy2011-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-38"><sup><i><b>am</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-39"><sup><i><b>an</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-40"><sup><i><b>ao</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-41"><sup><i><b>ap</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaughnessy2011_3-42"><sup><i><b>aq</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaughnessyZechmeisterJeanne2011" class="citation book cs1">Shaughnessy, J.; Zechmeister, E.; Jeanne, Z. (2011). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/researchmethodsp00shau"><i>Research methods in psychology</i></a></span> (9th ed.). New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/McGraw_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw Hill">McGraw Hill</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/researchmethodsp00shau/page/n179">161</a>–175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780078035180" title="Special:BookSources/9780078035180"><bdi>9780078035180</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Research+methods+in+psychology&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=161-175&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780078035180&rft.aulast=Shaughnessy&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Zechmeister%2C+E.&rft.au=Jeanne%2C+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fresearchmethodsp00shau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurvey+methodology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mellenbergh,_G.J._2008_pp._183–209-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mellenbergh,_G.J._2008_pp._183–209_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mellenbergh,_G.J._2008_pp._183–209_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gideon_J._Mellenbergh" title="Gideon J. 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(2021). <i>Big data meets survey science: a collection of innovative methods</i>. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97632-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97632-6"><bdi>978-1-118-97632-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Big+data+meets+survey+science%3A+a+collection+of+innovative+methods&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-118-97632-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurvey+methodology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Abramson, J. J. and Abramson, Z. H. (1999). <i>Survey Methods in Community Medicine: Epidemiological Research, Programme Evaluation, Clinical Trials</i> (5th edition). London: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier Health Sciences <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-06163-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-443-06163-7">0-443-06163-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A8r,_H._J." class="mw-redirect" title="Adèr, H. J.">Adèr, H. J.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gideon_J._Mellenbergh" title="Gideon J. Mellenbergh">Mellenbergh, G. J.</a>, and Hand, D. J. (2008). <i>Advising on research methods: A consultant's companion</i>. Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing.</li> <li>Dillman, D.A. (1978) <i>Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method</i>. New York: Wiley. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-21555-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-21555-4">0-471-21555-4</a></li> <li>Engel. U., Jann, B., Lynn, P., Scherpenzeel, A. and Sturgis, P. (2014). <i>Improving Survey Methods: Lessons from Recent Research</i>. New York: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-81762-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-81762-2">978-0-415-81762-2</a></li> <li>Groves, R.M. (1989). <i>Survey Errors and Survey Costs</i> Wiley. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-61171-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-61171-9">0-471-61171-9</a></li> <li>Griffith, James. (2014) "Survey Research in Military Settings." in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ENDpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT23">Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies</a> edited by Joseph Soeters, Patricia Shields and Sebastiaan Rietjens.pp. 179–193. New York: Routledge.</li> <li>Leung, Wai-Ching (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.student.bmj.com/back_issues/0601/education/187.html">"Conducting a Survey"</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Student_BMJ" title="Student BMJ">Student BMJ</a>, (<a href="/wiki/British_Medical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="British Medical Journal">British Medical Journal</a>, Student Edition), May 2001</li> <li>Ornstein, M.D. (1998). "Survey Research." <i>Current Sociology</i> 46(4): iii-136.</li> <li>Prince, S. a, Adamo, K. B., Hamel, M., Hardt, J., Connor Gorber, S., & Tremblay, M. (2008). A comparison of direct versus self-report measures for assessing physical activity in adults: a systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 5(1), 56. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-5-56">http://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-5-56</a></li> <li>Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2006). <i>Research Methods in Psychology (Seventh Edition ed.)</i>. McGraw–Hill Higher Education. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-111655-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-111655-9">0-07-111655-9</a> (pp. 143–192)</li> <li>Singh, S. (2003). Advanced Sampling Theory with Applications: How Michael Selected Amy. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.</li> <li>Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan.(2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ENDpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT23">Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies</a> New York: Routledge.</li> <li>Shackman, G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3060080">What is Program Evaluation? A Beginners Guide</a> 2018</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Survey_methodology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Social <a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">survey research</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Data_collection" title="Data collection">Data collection</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Survey_data_collection" title="Survey data collection">Collection methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">Questionnaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structured_interview" title="Structured interview">Structured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-structured_interview" title="Semi-structured interview">Semi-structured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstructured_interview" title="Unstructured interview">Unstructured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Couple_interview" title="Couple interview">Couple</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Methodology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">Census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_frame" title="Sampling frame">Sampling frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sample_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample (statistics)">Statistical sample</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_sampling" title="Survey sampling">Sampling for surveys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">Random sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_random_sample" title="Simple random sample">Simple random sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quota_sampling" title="Quota sampling">Quota sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratified_sampling" title="Stratified sampling">Stratified sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonprobability_sampling" title="Nonprobability sampling">Nonprobability sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sample_size_determination" title="Sample size determination">Sample size determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_design" title="Research design">Research design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_study" title="Longitudinal study">Panel study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sequential_study" title="Cross-sequential study">Cross-sequential study</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Total_survey_error" title="Total survey error">Survey errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_error" title="Sampling error">Sampling error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_error" title="Standard error">Standard error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_errors" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic errors">Systematic errors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-sampling_error" title="Non-sampling error">Non-sampling error</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_model_specification#Specification_error_and_bias" title="Statistical model specification">Specification error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_frame#Sampling_frames_problems" title="Sampling frame">Frame error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_error" title="Observational error">Measurement error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respondent_error" title="Respondent error">Response errors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Non-response bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coverage_error" title="Coverage error">Coverage error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-opinion" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-opinion">Pseudo-opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_collection#Data_integrity_issues" title="Data collection">Processing errors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Data_analysis" title="Data analysis">Data analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categorical_variable" title="Categorical variable">Categorical data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_measurement" title="Level of measurement">Level of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">Descriptive statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_data_analysis" title="Exploratory data analysis">Exploratory data analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Statistical inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">Statistical models</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graphical_model" title="Graphical model">Graphical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisson_regression" title="Poisson regression">Log-linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation modeling">Structural</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audience_measurement" title="Audience measurement">Audience measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_research" title="Market research">Market research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_poll" title="Opinion poll">Opinion poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">Public opinion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major surveys</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_comparative_social_surveys" title="List of comparative social surveys">List of comparative social surveys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrobarometer" title="Afrobarometer">Afrobarometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_National_Election_Studies" title="American National Election Studies">American National Election Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Barometer_Survey" title="Asian Barometer Survey">Asian Barometer Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_Study_of_Electoral_Systems" title="Comparative Study of Electoral Systems">Comparative Study of Electoral Systems</a></li> <li>Emerson College Polling</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurobarometer" title="Eurobarometer">Eurobarometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Social_Survey" title="European Social Survey">European Social Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallup_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup (company)">Gallup Poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Social_Survey" title="General Social Survey">General Social Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household,_Income_and_Labour_Dynamics_in_Australia_Survey" title="Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey">Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Social_Survey_Programme" title="International Social Survey Programme">International Social Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latinobar%C3%B3metro" title="Latinobarómetro">Latinobarómetro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_household_surveys_in_the_United_States" title="List of household surveys in the United States">List of household surveys in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Health_and_Nutrition_Examination_Survey" title="National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey">National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Attitudes_and_Values_Study" title="New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study">New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffolk_University_Political_Research_Center" title="Suffolk University Political Research Center">Suffolk University Political Research Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Phillips_Academy_Poll" class="mw-redirect" title="The Phillips Academy Poll">The Phillips Academy Poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinnipiac_University_Polling_Institute" title="Quinnipiac University Polling Institute">Quinnipiac University Polling Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Values_Survey" title="World Values Survey">World Values Survey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_Public_Opinion_Research" title="American Association for Public Opinion Research">American Association for Public Opinion Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ESOMAR" title="ESOMAR">European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Institute" title="International Statistical Institute">International Statistical Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Association_for_Public_Opinion_Research" title="World Association for Public Opinion Research">World Association for Public Opinion Research</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Research_methods" title="Category:Research methods">Category</a></li> <li>Projects <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Business" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Politics" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Psychology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Sociology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Statistics" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Statistics">Statistics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Statistics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Statistics" title="Template:Statistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Statistics" title="Template talk:Statistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Statistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Statistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Statistics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_statistics" title="Outline of statistics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistics_articles" title="List of statistics articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Descriptive_statistics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">Descriptive statistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Continuous_probability_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous probability distribution">Continuous data</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_tendency" title="Central tendency">Center</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean" title="Mean">Mean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_mean" title="Arithmetic mean">Arithmetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetic%E2%80%93geometric_mean" title="Arithmetic–geometric mean">Arithmetic-Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraharmonic_mean" title="Contraharmonic mean">Contraharmonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cubic_mean" title="Cubic mean">Cubic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_mean" title="Generalized mean">Generalized/power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_mean" title="Geometric mean">Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_mean" title="Harmonic mean">Harmonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heronian_mean" title="Heronian mean">Heronian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_mean" title="Heinz mean">Heinz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehmer_mean" title="Lehmer mean">Lehmer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median" title="Median">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_(statistics)" title="Mode (statistics)">Mode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_dispersion" title="Statistical dispersion">Dispersion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Average_absolute_deviation" title="Average absolute deviation">Average absolute deviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_variation" title="Coefficient of variation">Coefficient of variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interquartile_range" title="Interquartile range">Interquartile range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percentile" title="Percentile">Percentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Range_(statistics)" title="Range (statistics)">Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">Standard deviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variance#Sample_variance" title="Variance">Variance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Shape of the distribution">Shape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_limit_theorem" title="Central limit theorem">Central limit theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moment_(mathematics)" title="Moment (mathematics)">Moments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurtosis" title="Kurtosis">Kurtosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-moment" title="L-moment">L-moments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skewness" title="Skewness">Skewness</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Count_data" title="Count data">Count data</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_dispersion" title="Index of dispersion">Index of dispersion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Summary tables</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency distribution">Frequency distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grouped_data" title="Grouped data">Grouped data</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">Dependence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partial_correlation" title="Partial correlation">Partial correlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient" title="Pearson correlation coefficient">Pearson product-moment correlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_correlation" title="Rank correlation">Rank correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kendall_rank_correlation_coefficient" title="Kendall rank correlation coefficient">Kendall's τ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient" title="Spearman's rank correlation coefficient">Spearman's ρ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scatter_plot" title="Scatter plot">Scatter plot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bar_chart" title="Bar chart">Bar chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biplot" title="Biplot">Biplot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_plot" title="Box plot">Box plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_chart" title="Control chart">Control chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlogram" title="Correlogram">Correlogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_chart_(statistics)" title="Fan chart (statistics)">Fan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_plot" title="Forest plot">Forest plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histogram" title="Histogram">Histogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pie_chart" title="Pie chart">Pie chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%E2%80%93Q_plot" title="Q–Q plot">Q–Q plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar_chart" title="Radar chart">Radar chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run_chart" title="Run chart">Run chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scatter_plot" title="Scatter plot">Scatter plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem-and-leaf_display" title="Stem-and-leaf display">Stem-and-leaf display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violin_plot" title="Violin plot">Violin plot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Data_collection" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Data_collection" title="Data collection">Data collection</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">Study design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_size" title="Effect size">Effect size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_data" title="Missing data">Missing data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimal design">Optimal design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_population" title="Statistical population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replication_(statistics)" title="Replication (statistics)">Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sample_size_determination" title="Sample size determination">Sample size determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistic" title="Statistic">Statistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical power">Statistical power</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Survey methodology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">Sampling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_sampling" title="Cluster sampling">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratified_sampling" title="Stratified sampling">Stratified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_poll" title="Opinion poll">Opinion poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">Questionnaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_error" title="Standard error">Standard error</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Controlled experiments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blocking_(statistics)" title="Blocking (statistics)">Blocking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factorial_experiment" title="Factorial experiment">Factorial experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_(statistics)" title="Interaction (statistics)">Interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_assignment" title="Random assignment">Random assignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_experiment" title="Randomized experiment">Randomized experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">Scientific control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Adaptive designs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_approximation" title="Stochastic approximation">Stochastic approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up-and-Down_Designs" class="mw-redirect" title="Up-and-Down Designs">Up-and-down designs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_experiment" title="Natural experiment">Natural experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-experiment" title="Quasi-experiment">Quasi-experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Statistical_inference" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Statistical inference</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_theory" title="Statistical theory">Statistical theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Population (statistics)">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistic" title="Statistic">Statistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability_distribution" title="Probability distribution">Probability distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_distribution" title="Sampling distribution">Sampling distribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Order_statistic" title="Order statistic">Order statistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_distribution_function" title="Empirical distribution function">Empirical distribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Density_estimation" title="Density estimation">Density estimation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">Statistical model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_specification" class="mw-redirect" title="Model specification">Model specification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lp_space" title="Lp space">L<sup><i>p</i></sup> space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_parameter" title="Statistical parameter">Parameter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Location_parameter" title="Location parameter">location</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scale_parameter" title="Scale parameter">scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shape_parameter" title="Shape parameter">shape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric statistics">Parametric family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_function" title="Likelihood function">Likelihood</a> <a href="/wiki/Monotone_likelihood_ratio" title="Monotone likelihood ratio"><span style="font-size:85%;">(monotone)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location%E2%80%93scale_family" title="Location–scale family">Location–scale family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Completeness_(statistics)" title="Completeness (statistics)">Completeness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufficient_statistic" title="Sufficient statistic">Sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug-in principle">Statistical functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)" title="Bootstrapping (statistics)">Bootstrap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-statistic" title="U-statistic">U</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-statistic" title="V-statistic">V</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_decision" title="Optimal decision">Optimal decision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loss_function" title="Loss function">loss function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efficiency_(statistics)" title="Efficiency (statistics)">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_distance" title="Statistical distance">Statistical distance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divergence_(statistics)" title="Divergence (statistics)">divergence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_theory_(statistics)" title="Asymptotic theory (statistics)">Asymptotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robust_statistics" title="Robust statistics">Robustness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Frequentist_inference" title="Frequentist inference">Frequentist inference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Point_estimation" title="Point estimation">Point estimation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estimating_equations" title="Estimating equations">Estimating equations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_likelihood" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum likelihood">Maximum likelihood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_moments_(statistics)" title="Method of moments (statistics)">Method of moments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M-estimator" title="M-estimator">M-estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_distance_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimum distance estimation">Minimum distance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Unbiased estimators</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimum-variance_unbiased_estimator" title="Minimum-variance unbiased estimator">Mean-unbiased minimum-variance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rao%E2%80%93Blackwell_theorem" title="Rao–Blackwell theorem">Rao–Blackwellization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehmann%E2%80%93Scheff%C3%A9_theorem" title="Lehmann–Scheffé theorem">Lehmann–Scheffé theorem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median-unbiased_estimator" class="mw-redirect" title="Median-unbiased estimator">Median unbiased</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug-in principle">Plug-in</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Interval_estimation" title="Interval estimation">Interval estimation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">Confidence interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pivotal_quantity" title="Pivotal quantity">Pivot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_interval" class="mw-redirect" title="Likelihood interval">Likelihood interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prediction_interval" title="Prediction interval">Prediction interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolerance_interval" title="Tolerance interval">Tolerance interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)" title="Resampling (statistics)">Resampling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)" title="Bootstrapping (statistics)">Bootstrap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackknife_resampling" title="Jackknife resampling">Jackknife</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Testing hypotheses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-_and_two-tailed_tests" title="One- and two-tailed tests">1- & 2-tails</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(statistics)" title="Power (statistics)">Power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniformly_most_powerful_test" title="Uniformly most powerful test">Uniformly most powerful test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permutation_test" title="Permutation test">Permutation test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Randomization_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomization test">Randomization test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_comparisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple comparisons">Multiple comparisons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric statistics">Parametric tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio test">Likelihood-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Score_test" title="Score test">Score/Lagrange multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wald_test" title="Wald test">Wald</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_tests" title="List of statistical tests">Specific tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test <span style="font-size:85%;">(normal)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-test" title="F-test"><i>F</i>-test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Goodness_of_fit" title="Goodness of fit">Goodness of fit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chi-squared_test" title="Chi-squared test">Chi-squared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G-test" title="G-test"><i>G</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolmogorov%E2%80%93Smirnov_test" title="Kolmogorov–Smirnov test">Kolmogorov–Smirnov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anderson%E2%80%93Darling_test" title="Anderson–Darling test">Anderson–Darling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilliefors_test" title="Lilliefors test">Lilliefors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarque%E2%80%93Bera_test" title="Jarque–Bera test">Jarque–Bera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapiro%E2%80%93Wilk_test" title="Shapiro–Wilk test">Normality <span style="font-size:85%;">(Shapiro–Wilk)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio test">Likelihood-ratio test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_selection" title="Model selection">Model selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akaike_information_criterion" title="Akaike information criterion">AIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_information_criterion" title="Bayesian information criterion">BIC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rank_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Rank statistics">Rank statistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sign_test" title="Sign test">Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sample_median" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample median">Sample median</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilcoxon_signed-rank_test" title="Wilcoxon signed-rank test">Signed rank <span style="font-size:85%;">(Wilcoxon)</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hodges%E2%80%93Lehmann_estimator" title="Hodges–Lehmann estimator">Hodges–Lehmann estimator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mann%E2%80%93Whitney_U_test" title="Mann–Whitney U test">Rank sum <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mann–Whitney)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonparametric_statistics" title="Nonparametric statistics">Nonparametric</a> <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">anova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kruskal%E2%80%93Wallis_test" title="Kruskal–Wallis test">1-way <span style="font-size:85%;">(Kruskal–Wallis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedman_test" title="Friedman test">2-way <span style="font-size:85%;">(Friedman)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonckheere%27s_trend_test" title="Jonckheere's trend test">Ordered alternative <span style="font-size:85%;">(Jonckheere–Terpstra)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waerden_test" title="Van der Waerden test">Van der Waerden test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian probability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior_probability" title="Prior probability">prior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_probability" title="Posterior probability">posterior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credible_interval" title="Credible interval">Credible interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayes_factor" title="Bayes factor">Bayes factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayes_estimator" title="Bayes estimator">Bayesian estimator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_a_posteriori_estimation" title="Maximum a posteriori estimation">Maximum posterior estimator</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="CorrelationRegression_analysis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">Correlation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">Correlation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient">Pearson product-moment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_correlation" title="Partial correlation">Partial correlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confounding" title="Confounding">Confounding variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination" title="Coefficient of determination">Coefficient of determination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Errors_and_residuals" title="Errors and residuals">Errors and residuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_validation" title="Regression validation">Regression validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_model" title="Mixed model">Mixed effects models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_equations_model" title="Simultaneous equations model">Simultaneous equations models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_adaptive_regression_splines" class="mw-redirect" title="Multivariate adaptive regression splines">Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Linear_regression" title="Linear regression">Linear regression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_linear_regression" title="Simple linear regression">Simple linear regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_least_squares" title="Ordinary least squares">Ordinary least squares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_linear_model" title="General linear model">General linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_linear_regression" title="Bayesian linear regression">Bayesian regression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Non-standard predictors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_regression" title="Nonlinear regression">Nonlinear regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonparametric_regression" title="Nonparametric regression">Nonparametric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiparametric_regression" title="Semiparametric regression">Semiparametric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotonic_regression" title="Isotonic regression">Isotonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robust_regression" title="Robust regression">Robust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteroscedasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heteroscedasticity">Heteroscedasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoscedasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoscedasticity">Homoscedasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Generalized_linear_model" title="Generalized linear model">Generalized linear model</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential families</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_regression" title="Logistic regression">Logistic <span style="font-size:85%;">(Bernoulli)</span></a> / <a href="/wiki/Binomial_regression" title="Binomial regression">Binomial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Poisson_regression" title="Poisson regression">Poisson regressions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_sums_of_squares" title="Partition of sums of squares">Partition of variance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_covariance" title="Analysis of covariance">Analysis of covariance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_analysis_of_variance" title="Multivariate analysis of variance">Multivariate ANOVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(statistics)" title="Degrees of freedom (statistics)">Degrees of freedom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Categorical_/_Multivariate_/_Time-series_/_Survival_analysis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Categorical_variable" title="Categorical variable">Categorical</a> / <a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Time_series" title="Time series">Time-series</a> / <a href="/wiki/Survival_analysis" title="Survival analysis">Survival analysis</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Categorical_variable" title="Categorical variable">Categorical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohen%27s_kappa" title="Cohen's kappa">Cohen's kappa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphical_model" title="Graphical model">Graphical model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisson_regression" title="Poisson regression">Log-linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNemar%27s_test" title="McNemar's test">McNemar's test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochran%E2%80%93Mantel%E2%80%93Haenszel_statistics" title="Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics">Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_linear_model" title="General linear model">Regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_analysis_of_variance" title="Multivariate analysis of variance">Manova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principal_component_analysis" title="Principal component analysis">Principal components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canonical_correlation" title="Canonical correlation">Canonical correlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_discriminant_analysis" title="Linear discriminant analysis">Discriminant analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">Cluster analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_classification" title="Statistical classification">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation modeling">Structural equation model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor analysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Multivariate distribution">Multivariate distributions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elliptical_distribution" title="Elliptical distribution">Elliptical distributions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_normal_distribution" title="Multivariate normal distribution">Normal</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Time_series" title="Time series">Time-series</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition_of_time_series" title="Decomposition of time series">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trend_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trend estimation">Trend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stationary_process" title="Stationary process">Stationarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_adjustment" title="Seasonal adjustment">Seasonal adjustment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_smoothing" title="Exponential smoothing">Exponential smoothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cointegration" title="Cointegration">Cointegration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_break" title="Structural break">Structural break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granger_causality" title="Granger causality">Granger causality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Specific tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dickey%E2%80%93Fuller_test" title="Dickey–Fuller test">Dickey–Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johansen_test" title="Johansen test">Johansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ljung%E2%80%93Box_test" title="Ljung–Box test">Q-statistic <span style="font-size:85%;">(Ljung–Box)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durbin%E2%80%93Watson_statistic" title="Durbin–Watson statistic">Durbin–Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breusch%E2%80%93Godfrey_test" title="Breusch–Godfrey test">Breusch–Godfrey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Time_domain" title="Time domain">Time domain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autocorrelation" title="Autocorrelation">Autocorrelation (ACF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partial_autocorrelation_function" title="Partial autocorrelation function">partial (PACF)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-correlation" title="Cross-correlation">Cross-correlation (XCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoregressive%E2%80%93moving-average_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoregressive–moving-average model">ARMA model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box%E2%80%93Jenkins_method" title="Box–Jenkins method">ARIMA model <span style="font-size:85%;">(Box–Jenkins)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoregressive_conditional_heteroskedasticity" title="Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity">Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_autoregression" title="Vector autoregression">Vector autoregression (VAR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Frequency_domain" title="Frequency domain">Frequency domain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_density_estimation" title="Spectral density estimation">Spectral density estimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourier_analysis" title="Fourier analysis">Fourier analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least-squares_spectral_analysis" title="Least-squares spectral analysis">Least-squares spectral analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wavelet" title="Wavelet">Wavelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whittle_likelihood" title="Whittle likelihood">Whittle likelihood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Survival_analysis" title="Survival analysis">Survival</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Survival_function" title="Survival function">Survival function</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaplan%E2%80%93Meier_estimator" title="Kaplan–Meier estimator">Kaplan–Meier estimator (product limit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proportional_hazards_model" title="Proportional hazards model">Proportional hazards models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accelerated_failure_time_model" title="Accelerated failure time model">Accelerated failure time (AFT) model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-hitting-time_model" title="First-hitting-time model">First hitting time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Failure_rate" title="Failure rate">Hazard function</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nelson%E2%80%93Aalen_estimator" title="Nelson–Aalen estimator">Nelson–Aalen estimator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Test</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Log-rank_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Log-rank test">Log-rank test</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Applications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_fields_of_application_of_statistics" title="List of fields of application of statistics">Applications</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clinical_study_design" title="Clinical study design">studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_statistics" title="Medical statistics">Medical statistics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Engineering_statistics" title="Engineering statistics">Engineering statistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemometrics" title="Chemometrics">Chemometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methods_engineering" title="Methods engineering">Methods engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probabilistic_design" title="Probabilistic design">Probabilistic design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_process_control" title="Statistical process control">Process</a> / <a href="/wiki/Quality_control" title="Quality control">quality control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_identification" title="System 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