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data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Old+Mandarin" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)</a>, the Mandarin koine of the Ming and Qing dynasties.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>Old Mandarin or Early Mandarin was the speech of northern China during the Jurchen-ruled <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> and the Mongol-led <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> (12th to 14th centuries). New genres of vernacular literature were based on this language, including verse, drama and story forms, such as the <a href="/wiki/Qu_(poetry)" title="Qu (poetry)">qu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanqu" title="Sanqu">sanqu</a>. <table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Old Mandarin</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Early Mandarin</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">12th to 14th centuries</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Old Mandarin</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>, <a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa script</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">None</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: salmon;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">古官話</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">古官话</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Gǔ Guānhuà</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: salmon;">Early Mandarin</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">早期官話</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">早期官话</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Zǎoqí Guānhuà</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> The phonology of Old Mandarin has been inferred from the <a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa script</a>, an alphabet created in 1269 for several languages of the Mongol empire, including Chinese, and from two <a href="/wiki/Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">rime dictionaries</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Menggu_Ziyun" title="Menggu Ziyun">Menggu Ziyun</a> (1308) and the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan_Yinyun" title="Zhongyuan Yinyun">Zhongyuan Yinyun</a> (1324). The rhyme books differ in some details but show many of the features characteristic of modern <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin dialects">Mandarin dialects</a>, such as the reduction and disappearance of final stops and the reorganization of the <a href="/wiki/Four_tones_(Middle_Chinese)" title="Four tones (Middle Chinese)">four tones of Middle Chinese</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Name">1 Name</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Sources">2 Sources</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Phonology">3 Phonology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Initials">3.1 Initials</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Finals">3.2 Finals</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Tones">3.3 Tones</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Vocabulary">4 Vocabulary</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Notes">5 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#References">6 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Further_reading">7 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#External_links">8 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> The name "Mandarin", as a direct translation of the Chinese Guānhuà (官話, 'language of the officials'), was initially applied to the <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">lingua franca of the Ming and Qing dynasties</a>, which was based on various northern dialects. It has since been extended to both <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> and related northern dialects from the 12th century to the present.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198823,_136-1">[1]</a> The language was called Hàn'ér yányǔ (漢兒言語, 'Hàn'ér language') or Hànyǔ in the Korean Chinese-language textbook <a href="/wiki/Nogeoldae" title="Nogeoldae">Nogeoldae</a>, after the name Hàn'ér or Hànrén used by the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> for their subjects in the northern area formerly ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a>, in contrast to Nánrén for those formerly under the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song dynasty">Southern Song dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaske200846-2">[2]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%97%E9%9F%BB24b_(cleaned).png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%97%E9%9F%BB24b_%28cleaned%29.png/220px-%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%97%E9%9F%BB24b_%28cleaned%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="979"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 280px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%97%E9%9F%BB24b_%28cleaned%29.png/220px-%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%97%E9%9F%BB24b_%28cleaned%29.png" data-width="220" data-height="280" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%97%E9%9F%BB24b_%28cleaned%29.png/330px-%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%97%E9%9F%BB24b_%28cleaned%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%97%E9%9F%BB24b_%28cleaned%29.png/440px-%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%97%E9%9F%BB24b_%28cleaned%29.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A page of the <a href="/wiki/Menggu_Ziyun" title="Menggu Ziyun">Menggu Ziyun</a> covering the syllables tsim to lim (written in 'Phags-pa script at the top)</figcaption></figure> China had a strong and conservative tradition of phonological description in the <a href="/wiki/Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">rime dictionaries</a> and their elaboration in <a href="/wiki/Rime_table" title="Rime table">rime tables</a>. For example, the phonological system of the 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Guangyun" title="Guangyun">Guangyun</a> was almost identical to that of the <a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a> of more than four centuries earlier, disguising changes in speech over the period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198825,_49-3">[3]</a> A rare exception was <a href="/wiki/Shao_Yong" title="Shao Yong">Shao Yong</a>'s adaptation of the rime tables, without reference to the Qieyun tradition, to describe the phonology of 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1999125-4">[4]</a> A side-effect of foreign rule of northern China between the 12th and 14th centuries was a weakening of many of the old traditions. New genres of vernacular literature included <a href="/wiki/Qu_(poetry)" title="Qu (poetry)">qu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanqu" title="Sanqu">sanqu</a> poetry, which were rhymed according to contemporary vernacular pronunciation instead of the codified rules of formal poetry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198848%E2%80%9349-5">[5]</a> Descriptive works less bound by the Qieyun tradition revealed how much the language had changed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198849%E2%80%9350-6">[6]</a> The first alphabetic writing system for Chinese was created by the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhist monk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sakya" title="Sakya">Sakya</a> school leader <a href="/wiki/Drog%C3%B6n_Ch%C3%B6gyal_Phagpa" title="Drogön Chögyal Phagpa">Drogön Chögyal Phagpa</a> on the orders of the Mongol emperor <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a>. His ʼPhags-pa script, promulgated in 1269, was a vertical adaptation of the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan alphabet">Tibetan alphabet</a> initially aimed at Mongolian but later adapted to other languages of the empire, including Chinese. It saw limited use until the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin20061%E2%80%933-7">[7]</a> The alphabet shows some influence of traditional phonology, in particular including voiced stops and fricatives that most scholars believe had disappeared from Mandarin dialects by that time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198851%E2%80%9352-8">[8]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Checked_tone" title="Checked tone">checked tone</a> syllables (ending in the stops /p/, /t/ or /k/ in Middle Chinese) were all written with a glottal stop ending. (Other tones are not marked by the script.) <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhongyuan_Yinyun_%E4%BE%B5%E5%B0%8B_rhyme_group.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Zhongyuan_Yinyun_%E4%BE%B5%E5%B0%8B_rhyme_group.png/330px-Zhongyuan_Yinyun_%E4%BE%B5%E5%B0%8B_rhyme_group.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="231" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="2586"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 231px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Zhongyuan_Yinyun_%E4%BE%B5%E5%B0%8B_rhyme_group.png/330px-Zhongyuan_Yinyun_%E4%BE%B5%E5%B0%8B_rhyme_group.png" data-width="330" data-height="231" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Zhongyuan_Yinyun_%E4%BE%B5%E5%B0%8B_rhyme_group.png/495px-Zhongyuan_Yinyun_%E4%BE%B5%E5%B0%8B_rhyme_group.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Zhongyuan_Yinyun_%E4%BE%B5%E5%B0%8B_rhyme_group.png/660px-Zhongyuan_Yinyun_%E4%BE%B5%E5%B0%8B_rhyme_group.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Zhongyuan Yinyun rhyme group 侵尋 (-im, -əm), divided into four tones</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Menggu_Ziyun" title="Menggu Ziyun">Menggu Ziyun</a> was a rime dictionary based on ʼPhags-pa script. The prefaces of the only extant manuscript are dated 1308, but the work is believed to be derived from earlier ʼPhags-pa texts. The dictionary is believed to be based on <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> rime dictionaries, particularly the Lǐbù yùnlüè ([禮部韻略] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |3= (<a href="/wiki/Category:Lang_and_lang-xx_template_errors" title="Category:Lang and lang-xx template errors">help</a>)) issued by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Rites" title="Ministry of Rites">Ministry of Rites</a> in 1037. The front matter includes a list of 'Phags-pa letters mapped to the 36 initials of the Song dynasty rime table tradition, with further letters for vowels. The entries are grouped into 15 rime classes corresponding closely to the 16 broad rime classes of the tables. Within each rime class, entries are grouped by the 'Phags-pa spelling of the final and then by the four tones of Middle Chinese, the last of which is not indicated by the ʼPhags-pa spelling.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin20066,_9%E2%80%9315-9">[9]</a> A more radical departure from the rhyme table tradition was the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan_Yinyun" title="Zhongyuan Yinyun">Zhongyuan Yinyun</a>, created by Zhōu Déqīng (周德清) in 1324 as a guide to the rhyming conventions of qu, a new vernacular verse form. The entries are grouped into 19 rhyme classes each identified by a pair of exemplary characters. The rhyme classes are subdivided by tone and then into groups of homophones, with no other indication of pronunciation. The even tone (平 píng) is divided in upper and lower tones called 陰平 yīnpíng and 陽平 yángpíng, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198849-10">[10]</a> Syllables in the checked tone are distributed between the other tones, but placed after the other syllables with labels such as 入聲作去聲 (rùshēng zuò qùshēng 'entering tone makes departing tone'). </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phonology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> The phonology of Old Mandarin is most clearly defined in the Zhongyuan Yinyun. The 'Phags-pa script and the Menggu Ziyun tend to retain more traditional elements, but are useful in filling in the spartan description of the Zhongyuan Yinyun. The language shows many of the features characteristic of modern <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin dialects">Mandarin dialects</a>, such as the reduction and disappearance of final stop consonants and the reorganization of the Middle Chinese tones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198851%E2%80%9352-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initials">Initials</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Initials" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In Middle Chinese, initial <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricates</a> showed a three-way contrast between voiceless unaspirated, voiceless aspirated and voiced consonants. The voicing distinction disappeared in most Chinese varieties, with different effects on the initials and tones in each of the major groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834%E2%80%9336,_52%E2%80%9354-11">[11]</a> In Old Mandarin, Middle Chinese voiced stops and affricates became voiceless aspirates in the "even" tone and voiceless non-aspirates in others, a typical feature of modern Mandarin varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198849-10">[10]</a> This distribution is also found in Shao Yong's 11th-century rhyme tables.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1999126-12">[12]</a> With the exception of the retroflex nasal, which merged with the dental nasal, the Late Middle Chinese retroflex stops and retroflex sibilants merged into a single series.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198465,_69-13">[13]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <caption>Initials of the Zhongyuan Yinyun<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19917%E2%80%938-15">[15]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">Sibilant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Stop</a> or <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricate</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> </th> <td>p-</td> <td>t-</td> <td>ts-</td> <td>tʂ-</td> <td>k- </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirate</a> </th> <td>pʰ-</td> <td>tʰ-</td> <td>tsʰ-</td> <td>tʂʰ-</td> <td>kʰ- </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td>m-</td> <td>n-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>ŋ- </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td>f-</td> <td></td> <td>s-</td> <td>ʂ-</td> <td>x- </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td>ʋ-</td> <td>l-</td> <td></td> <td>ɻ-</td> <td>∅- </td></tr></tbody></table> The initial /∅/ denotes a voiced laryngeal onset functioning as a zero initial. It was almost in complementary distribution with the initial /ŋ/, and the two have merged in most modern dialects as a zero initial, [ŋ], [ɣ] or [n].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198442,_238-16">[16]</a> The initial /ʋ/ has also merged with the zero initial and the /w/ medial in the standard language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsueh197538-17">[17]</a> The distinction between the dental and retroflex sibilants has persisted in northern Mandarin dialects, including that of Beijing, but the two series have merged in southwestern and southeastern dialects. A more recent development in some dialects (including Beijing) is the merger of palatal allophones of dental sibilants and velars, yielding a palatal series (rendered j-, q- and x- in pinyin).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988193-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finals">Finals</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Finals" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Late Middle Chinese rime tables divide finals between 16 rhyme classes (shè 攝), each described as either "inner" (nèi 內) or "outer" (wài 外), thought to indicate a close or open vowel respectively. Each rhyme group was divided into four "divisions" (děng 等), crosscut with a two-way division between "open mouth" (kāikǒu 開口) or "closed mouth" (hékǒu 合口), with the latter indicating <a href="/wiki/Labialisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Labialisation">labialisation</a> of the syllable onset.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198831%E2%80%9332-19">[19]</a> Although these categories are coarser than the finals of the Early Middle Chinese of the <a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a>, they are sufficient to account for the development to Old Mandarin. The LMC divisions are reflected in Old Mandarin by variation in the vowel, as well as the presence or absence of palatalization. Palatalization and lip rounding are represented by a medial <a href="/wiki/Glide_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Glide (linguistics)">glide</a>, as in modern varieties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198447-20">[20]</a> Divisions III and IV are not distinguished by any of the varieties, and are marked with a palatal glide, except after retroflex initials. Palatal glides also occur in open division II syllables with velar or laryngeal initials. For example, the rhyme classes with nasal codas yield the following Old Mandarin finals: <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <caption>Old Mandarin reflexes of Late Middle Chinese rhymes with nasal codas </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Rhyme class </th> <th colspan="5">Open </th> <th colspan="4">Closed </th></tr> <tr> <th>Div. I </th> <th colspan="2">Div. II </th> <th>Div. III</th> <th>Div. IV </th> <th>Div. I</th> <th>Div. II</th> <th>Div. III</th> <th>Div. IV </th></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td>深 shēn<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984127%E2%80%93128-21">[21]</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#ddd; border-right: 0px;"> </td> <td>-əm, -im<a href="#cite_note-23">[a]</a> </td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td colspan="4" style="background-color:#ddd"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>咸 xián<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984127-24">[23]</a> </td> <td colspan="2">-am </td> <td>-jam<a href="#cite_note-25">[b]</a> </td> <td colspan="2">-jɛm </td> <td colspan="4" style="background-color:#ddd"> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td>臻 zhēn<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984126%E2%80%93127-26">[24]</a> </td> <td>-ən </td> <td style="background-color:#ddd; border-right: 0px;"> </td> <td style="background-color:#ddd; border-left: 0px;"> </td> <td>-in</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-un</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-yn</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>山 shān<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984125%E2%80%93126-27">[25]</a> </td> <td colspan="2">-an </td> <td>-jan<a href="#cite_note-29">[c]</a> </td> <td colspan="2">-jɛn </td> <td>-wɔn</td> <td>-wan</td> <td colspan="2">-ɥɛn </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td>通 tōng<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984122%E2%80%93125-30">[27]</a> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-uŋ</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-juŋ</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>曾 zēng<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984117%E2%80%93118-31">[28]</a> </td> <td>-əŋ</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-iŋ</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-wəŋ</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-yŋ</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>梗 gěng<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984118%E2%80%93120-32">[29]</a> </td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td colspan="2">-əŋ </td> <td colspan="2">-iŋ </td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-wəŋ </td> <td colspan="2">-yŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td>宕 dàng<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984113%E2%80%93116-33">[30]</a> </td> <td>-aŋ</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-jaŋ</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-waŋ</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-waŋ</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>江 jiāng<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984121%E2%80%93122-34">[31]</a> </td> <td style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td>-aŋ </td> <td>-jaŋ<a href="#cite_note-35">[d]</a></td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#ddd"> </td> <td colspan="4" style="background-color:#ddd"> </td></tr></tbody></table> The merger of the zēng and gěng rhyme classes is a characteristic feature of Mandarin dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1999198,_201%E2%80%93202-36">[32]</a> That merger, and that of the dàng and jiāng classes, was already reflected in <a href="/wiki/Shao_Yong" title="Shao Yong">Shao Yong</a>'s 11th-century rhyme tables.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1999127-37">[33]</a> The two sources yield very similar sets of finals, though they sometimes differ in which finals were considered to rhyme: <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <caption>Finals of the Zhongyuan Yinyun and Menggu Ziyun<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198850-38">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1971143%E2%80%93144-39">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19918%E2%80%939-40">[36]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">Zhongyuan Yinyun rhyme class </th> <th scope="col" colspan="4">Finals by <a href="/wiki/Four_hu" title="Four hu">medial class</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">Menggu Ziyun rhyme class </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>開口 </th> <th scope="col"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">齊齒 </th> <th scope="col"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">合口 </th> <th scope="col"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">撮口 </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">-</th> <th scope="col">-j-</th> <th scope="col">-w-</th> <th scope="col">-ɥ- </th></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">5 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">魚模 yú-mú </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>-u</td> <td>-y </td> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">5 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">魚 yú </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">12 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">哥戈 gē-hū </td> <td>-ɔ</td> <td>-jɔ<a href="#cite_note-ZYYY-41">[e]</a></td> <td>-wɔ</td> <td> </td> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">14 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">哥 gē </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">14 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">車遮 chē-zhē </td> <td></td> <td>-jɛ<a href="#cite_note-j%C9%9B-43">[f]</a></td> <td></td> <td>-ɥɛ<a href="#cite_note-j%C9%9B-43">[f]</a> </td> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">15 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">痲 má </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">13 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">家痲 jiā-má </td> <td>-a</td> <td>-ja</td> <td>-wa</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">3 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">支思 zhī-sī </td> <td>-z̩, -r̩<a href="#cite_note-45">[g]</a></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">4 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">支 zhī </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">4 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">齊微 qí-wēi </td> <td></td> <td>-i</td> <td>-uj</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>-əj</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">6 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">佳 jiā </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">6 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">皆來 jiē-lái </td> <td>-aj</td> <td>-jaj</td> <td>-waj</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">16 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">尤侯 yóu-hóu </td> <td>-əw</td> <td>-iw</td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">11 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">尤 yóu </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">11 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">蕭豪 xiāo-háo<a href="#cite_note-48">[h]</a> </td> <td></td> <td>-jɛw</td> <td>-wɔw<a href="#cite_note-ZYYY-41">[e]</a></td> <td> </td> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">10 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">蕭 xiāo </td></tr> <tr> <td>-aw</td> <td>-jaw</td> <td>-waw</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">17 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">侵尋 qīn-xún </td> <td>-əm</td> <td>-im</td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">13 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">侵 qīn </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">19 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">廉纖 lián-xiān </td> <td></td> <td>-jɛm</td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">12 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">覃 tán </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">18 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">監咸 yán-xián </td> <td>-am</td> <td>-jam</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">7 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">真文 zhēn-wén </td> <td>-ən</td> <td>-in</td> <td>-un</td> <td>-yn </td> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">7 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">真 zhēn </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">10 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">先天 xiān-tiān </td> <td></td> <td>-jɛn</td> <td></td> <td>-ɥɛn </td> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">9 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">先 xiān </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">9 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">桓歡 huán-huān </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>-wɔn</td> <td> </td> <td align="right" rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">8 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">寒 hán </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">8 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">寒山 hán-shān </td> <td>-an</td> <td>-jan</td> <td>-wan</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">1 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">東鐘 dōng-zhōng </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>-uŋ</td> <td>-juŋ </td> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">1 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">東 dōng </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">15 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">庚青 gēng-qīng </td> <td>-əŋ</td> <td>-iŋ</td> <td>-wəŋ</td> <td>-yŋ </td> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">2 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">庚 gēng </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">2 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">江陽 jiāng-yáng </td> <td>-aŋ</td> <td>-jaŋ</td> <td>-waŋ</td> <td> </td> <td align="right" style="background-color: #f5deb3;">3 </td> <td style="background-color: #f5deb3;">陽 yáng </td></tr></tbody></table> In syllables with labial initials, Middle Chinese -m codas had already <a href="/wiki/Dissimilation" title="Dissimilation">dissimilated</a> to -n before the Old Mandarin period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984127%E2%80%93128-21">[21]</a> The remaining -m codas merged with -n before the early 17th century, when the <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">late Ming standard</a> was described by European missionaries <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Trigault" title="Nicolas Trigault">Nicolas Trigault</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000a539-49">[41]</a> The pairs -uŋ/-wəŋ and -juŋ/-yŋ had also merged by this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000b306%E2%80%93308-50">[42]</a> However, the language still distinguished mid and open vowels in the pairs -jɛw/-jaw, -jɛn/-jan and -wɔn/-wan. For example, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%98#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:官">官</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%97%9C#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:關">關</a>, both guān in the modern language, were distinguished as [kwɔn] and [kwan]. These pairs had also merged by the time of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henri_Marie_de_Pr%C3%A9mare" title="Joseph Henri Marie de Prémare">Joseph Prémare</a>'s 1730 grammar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000a538%E2%80%93540-51">[43]</a> They are still distinguished in <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a> and some nearby <a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Lower Yangtze Mandarin</a> dialects such as the <a href="/wiki/Yangzhou" title="Yangzhou">Yangzhou</a> dialect, where they are pronounced [kuõ] and [kuɛ̃] respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1999195%E2%80%93197-52">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tones" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In Middle Chinese, syllables with vocalic or nasal codas could have one of three pitch contours, traditionally called "even", "rising" and "departing". Syllables ending in a <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonant</a> /p/, /t/ or /k/ (<a href="/wiki/Checked_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Checked syllable">checked syllables</a>) had no tonal contrasts but were traditionally treated as a separate "entering" tone category, parallel to syllables ending in nasals /m/, /n/, or /ŋ/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834%E2%80%9336-53">[45]</a> Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials. When voicing was lost in all dialect groups except <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old Xiang</a>, this distinction became phonemic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852%E2%80%9354-54">[46]</a> The Zhongyuan Yinyun shows the typical Mandarin rearrangement of the first three tone classes into four tones:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1978192-55">[47]</a> <ol><li>the upper even tone, conditioned by Middle Chinese voiceless initials</li> <li>the lower even tone, conditioned by Middle Chinese voiced or nasal initials</li> <li>the rising tone (except for syllables with Middle Chinese voiced initials)</li> <li>the departing tone, including rising tone syllables with Middle Chinese voiced initials</li></ol> Checked syllables are distributed across syllables with vocalic codas in other tones determined by the Middle Chinese initial:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1978193-56">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199110-57">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[i]</a> <ul><li>tone 2 in syllables with voiced obstruent initials</li> <li>tone 3 in syllables with voiceless initials except the glottal stop</li> <li>tone 4 in syllables with sonorant or glottal stop initials</li></ul> Such syllables are placed after others of the same tone in the dictionary, perhaps to accommodate Old Mandarin dialects in which former checked syllables retained a final glottal stop as in modern northwestern and southeastern dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStimson1977943-59">[50]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vocabulary" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> The flourishing vernacular literature of the period also shows distinctively Mandarin vocabulary and syntax, though some, such as the third-person pronoun tā (他), can be traced back to the Tang dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988111%E2%80%93132-60">[51]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> -əm occurs only after retroflex initials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984253-22">[22]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> -jam occurs only in syllables with Middle Chinese velar and laryngeal initials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984127-24">[23]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> -jan occurs only in syllables with Middle Chinese velar and laryngeal initials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984125-28">[26]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> -jaŋ occurs only in syllables with Middle Chinese velar and laryngeal initials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984121%E2%80%93122-34">[31]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ZYYY-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ZYYY_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ZYYY_41-1">b</a> This final occurs in the Zhongyuan Yinyun but not in 'Phags-pa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1971143%E2%80%93144-39">[35]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-jɛ-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-j%C9%9B_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-j%C9%9B_43-1">b</a> Palatalization was lost after retroflex initials, so -jɛ and -ɥɛ become -ɛ and -wɛ after retroflex initials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19919-42">[37]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> z̩ following dental sibilants, r̩ following retroflex sibilants<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984237n._7-44">[38]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> The additional vowels in this rhyme group may reflect contrasts in Zhou Deqing's speech that were no longer distinguished in rhyming practice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsueh197565-46">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStimson1977942-47">[40]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> This differs somewhat from the standard language, in which syllables with Middle Chinese voiceless initials are distributed across tones 1, 3 and 4 without pattern. </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198823,_136-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198823,_136_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 23, 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaske200846-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaske200846_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaske2008">Kaske (2008)</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198825,_49-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198825,_49_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 25, 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1999125-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1999125_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1999">Pulleyblank (1999)</a>, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198848–49-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198848%E2%80%9349_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 48–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198849–50-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198849%E2%80%9350_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 49–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin20061–3-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin20061%E2%80%933_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2006">Coblin (2006)</a>, pp. 1–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198851–52-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198851%E2%80%9352_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198851%E2%80%9352_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 51–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin20066,_9–15-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin20066,_9%E2%80%9315_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2006">Coblin (2006)</a>, pp. 6, 9–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198849-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198849_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198849_10-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834–36,_52–54-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198834%E2%80%9336,_52%E2%80%9354_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 34–36, 52–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1999126-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1999126_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1999">Pulleyblank (1999)</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198465,_69-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198465,_69_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 65, 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 50, based on Dong (1954). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19917–8-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19917%E2%80%938_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1991">Pulleyblank (1991)</a>, pp. 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198442,_238-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198442,_238_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 42, 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsueh197538-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsueh197538_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHsueh1975">Hsueh (1975)</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988193-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988193_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198831–32-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198831%E2%80%9332_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 31–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198447-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank198447_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984127–128-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984127%E2%80%93128_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984127%E2%80%93128_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 127–128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984253-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984253_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 253. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984127-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984127_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984127_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984126–127-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984126%E2%80%93127_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 126–127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984125–126-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984125%E2%80%93126_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 125–126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984125-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984125_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984122–125-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984122%E2%80%93125_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 122–125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984117–118-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984117%E2%80%93118_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 117–118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984118–120-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984118%E2%80%93120_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 118–120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984113–116-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984113%E2%80%93116_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 113–116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984121–122-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984121%E2%80%93122_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984121%E2%80%93122_34-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, pp. 121–122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1999198,_201–202-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1999198,_201%E2%80%93202_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1999">Norman (1999)</a>, pp. 198, 201–202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1999127-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1999127_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1999">Pulleyblank (1999)</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198850-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198850_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1971143–144-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1971143%E2%80%93144_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1971143%E2%80%93144_39-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1971">Pulleyblank (1971)</a>, pp. 143–144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19918–9-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19918%E2%80%939_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1991">Pulleyblank (1991)</a>, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19919-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19919_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1991">Pulleyblank (1991)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984237n._7-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1984237n._7_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1984">Pulleyblank (1984)</a>, p. 237, n. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsueh197565-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsueh197565_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHsueh1975">Hsueh (1975)</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStimson1977942-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStimson1977942_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStimson1977">Stimson (1977)</a>, p. 942. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000a539-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin2000a539_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2000a">Coblin (2000a)</a>, p. 539. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000b306–308-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin2000b306%E2%80%93308_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2000b">Coblin (2000b)</a>, pp. 306–308. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000a538–540-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin2000a538%E2%80%93540_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2000a">Coblin (2000a)</a>, pp. 538–540. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1999195–197-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1999195%E2%80%93197_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1999">Norman (1999)</a>, pp. 195–197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198834–36-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198834%E2%80%9336_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 34–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852–54-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198852%E2%80%9354_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 52–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1978192-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1978192_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1978">Pulleyblank (1978)</a>, p. 192. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1978193-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1978193_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1978">Pulleyblank (1978)</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199110-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199110_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1991">Pulleyblank (1991)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStimson1977943-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStimson1977943_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStimson1977">Stimson (1977)</a>, p. 943. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988111–132-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988111%E2%80%93132_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 111–132. </li> </ol></div> Works cited <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" 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.cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCoblin2000a" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Weldon_South_Coblin" class="mw-redirect" title="Weldon South Coblin">Coblin, W. South</a> (2000a), "A brief history of Mandarin", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 120 (4): 537–552, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F606615">10.2307/606615</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/606615">606615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+Mandarin&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=537-552&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F606615&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F606615%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Coblin&rft.aufirst=W.+South&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoblin2000b" class="citation cs2">——— (2000b), "A diachronic study of Míng Guānhuá phonology", Monumenta Serica, 48: 267–335, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.2000.11731346">10.1080/02549948.2000.11731346</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40727264">40727264</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:192485681">192485681</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=A+diachronic+study+of+M%C3%ADng+Gu%C4%81nhu%C3%A1+phonology&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=267-335&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A192485681%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40727264%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02549948.2000.11731346&rft.aulast=Coblin&rft.aufirst=W.+South&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoblin2006" class="citation cs2">——— (2006), A Handbook of 'Phags-pa Chinese, ABC Dictionary Series, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3000-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3000-7"><bdi>978-0-8248-3000-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+%27Phags-pa+Chinese&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.series=ABC+Dictionary+Series&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%27i+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-3000-7&rft.aulast=Coblin&rft.aufirst=W.+South&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsueh1975" class="citation cs2">Hsueh, F.S. (1975), Phonology of Old Mandarin, Mouton De Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-3391-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-279-3391-1"><bdi>978-90-279-3391-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonology+of+Old+Mandarin&rft.pub=Mouton+De+Gruyter&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-90-279-3391-1&rft.aulast=Hsueh&rft.aufirst=F.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaske2008" class="citation cs2">Kaske, Elisabeth (2008), The Politics of Language in Chinese Education, 1895–1919, BRILL, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16367-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16367-6"><bdi>978-90-04-16367-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Language+in+Chinese+Education%2C+1895%E2%80%931919&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16367-6&rft.aulast=Kaske&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1988), Chinese, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29653-3&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1999" class="citation book cs1">——— (1999). "Vocalism in Chinese dialect classification". In Simmons, Richard VanNess (ed.). Issues in Chinese Dialect Description and Classification. Journal of Chinese Linguistics monograph series. pp. 193–203. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23825680">23825680</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vocalism+in+Chinese+dialect+classification&rft.btitle=Issues+in+Chinese+Dialect+Description+and+Classification&rft.series=%27%27Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics%27%27+monograph+series&rft.pages=193-203&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23825680%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1971" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Pulleyblank, Edwin G.</a> (1971), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1756PYbzTVX.pdf">"Late Middle Chinese, Part II"</a> (PDF), Asia Major, 16: 121–166.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Major&rft.atitle=Late+Middle+Chinese%2C+Part+II&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=121-166&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw%2Ffile%2F1756PYbzTVX.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1978" class="citation cs2">——— (1978), "The nature of the Middle Chinese tones and their development to Early Mandarin", Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 6 (2): 173–203, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23752830">23752830</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+nature+of+the+Middle+Chinese+tones+and+their+development+to+Early+Mandarin&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=173-203&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23752830%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1984" class="citation cs2">——— (1984), Middle Chinese: a study in historical phonology, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0192-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0192-8"><bdi>978-0-7748-0192-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Chinese%3A+a+study+in+historical+phonology&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0192-8&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1991" class="citation cs2">——— (1991), A lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese and Early Mandarin, Vancouver: UBC Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0366-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0366-3"><bdi>978-0-7748-0366-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+lexicon+of+reconstructed+pronunciation+in+Early+Middle+Chinese%2C+Late+Middle+Chinese+and+Early+Mandarin&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0366-3&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1999" class="citation cs2">——— (1999), "Chinese traditional phonology", Asia Major, 12 (2): 101–137, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41645549">41645549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Major&rft.atitle=Chinese+traditional+phonology&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=101-137&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41645549%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStimson1977" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_McBirney_Stimson" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh McBirney Stimson">Stimson, Hugh M.</a> (1977), "Phonology of Old Mandarin by F.S. Hsueh", Language, 53 (4): 940–944, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F412925">10.2307/412925</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/412925">412925</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Phonology+of+Old+Mandarin+by+F.S.+Hsueh&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=940-944&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F412925&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F412925%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stimson&rft.aufirst=Hugh+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script"><a href="/wiki/Dong_Tonghe" title="Dong Tonghe">Dong, Tonghe</a> (1954), Zhōngguó yǔyīn shǐ <bdi lang="zh">中國語音史</bdi> [Historical Chinese Phonology], Taipei.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zh%C5%8Dnggu%C3%B3+y%C7%94y%C4%ABn+sh%C7%90+%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E%E9%9F%B3%E5%8F%B2&rft.place=Taipei&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Dong&rft.aufirst=Tonghe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Li, Wen-Chao (1999), A Diachronically-motivated Segmental Phonology of Mandarin Chinese, Peter Lang, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-4293-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-4293-8"><bdi>978-0-8204-4293-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Diachronically-motivated+Segmental+Phonology+of+Mandarin+Chinese&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-4293-8&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Wen-Chao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Shen, Zhongwei (2015), "Early Mandarin seen from ancient Altaic scripts", in S-Y. Wang, William; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 91–103, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-985633-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-985633-6"><bdi>978-0-19-985633-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Mandarin+seen+from+ancient+Altaic+scripts&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=91-103&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-985633-6&rft.aulast=Shen&rft.aufirst=Zhongwei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Stimson, Hugh M. (1966), The Jongyuan In Yunn: a guide to Old Mandarin pronunciation, Far Eastern Publications, Yale University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jongyuan+In+Yunn%3A+a+guide+to+Old+Mandarin+pronunciation&rft.pub=Far+Eastern+Publications%2C+Yale+University&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Stimson&rft.aufirst=Hugh+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Mandarin" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Mandarin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.babelstone.co.uk/Phags-pa/index.html">BabelStone: Phags-pa Script</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_West_(linguist)" title="Andrew West (linguist)">Andrew West</a>.</li> <li>Zhongyuan Yinyun at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/06070429.cn">part 1</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/06070430.cn">part 2</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&res=6908">Zhongyuan Yinyun</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Text_Project" title="Chinese Text Project">Chinese Text Project</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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